MBEYA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ELECTRICAL AND POWER ENGINEERING DEPARTIMENT

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

UQF LEVEL 8

SENIOR PROJECT I

PROJECT TITLE: DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF SMART

SHOPPING CART WITH INSTANT AUTOMATIC
BILLING SYSTEM.

PROJECT TYPE: DESIGN / PROBLEM SOLVING

NAME OF STUDENT: JAMES DANIEL

EXAMINATION NO: UE/BEE/19/0638

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2019/2020

SUPERVISOR: Miss. SUZANI MISHOLI

February, 2020
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................ i

LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................iii

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................... iv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................... v

LIST OF SYMBOLS ................................................................................................................ vi

CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1

1.1: Background Information ................................................................................................. 1

1.2: Problem Statement .......................................................................................................... 1

1.3: Project Objectives ........................................................................................................... 1

1.3.1: Main Objective......................................................................................................... 1

1.3.2: Specific Objectives .................................................................................................. 2
1.4: Significances of the Project ............................................................................................ 2

1.5: Scope and Limitation of the Project................................................................................ 2

1.6: Methodology ................................................................................................................... 2

1.6.1: Literature Review from Various Sources. ............................................................... 2

1.6.2: Data Collection. ....................................................................................................... 2
1.6.3: Preliminary Circuit Design and Analysis of the Proposed System.......................... 3
1.6.4: Simulations of the Circuit Design ................................................................................ 3

1.6.5: Implementation of the Circuit Design and Testing the Built Prototype .................. 3
1.6.6: Report Writing ......................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................... 5

LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................... 5

2.1: Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 5

2.2: Theories Related to the Study ......................................................................................... 5

2.2.1: Barcode Technology ................................................................................................ 5

2.2.2: Related Works .......................................................................................................... 7
2.3: Existing System .............................................................................................................. 8

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 2.3.1: Principle Operation of the Existing System ............................................................. 8
2.3.2: Disadvantages of the Existing System ..................................................................... 8
2.4: Proposed System ............................................................................................................. 8

2.4.1: Principle Operation of the Proposed System ............................................................... 9

2.4.2: Advantages of the Proposed System ............................................................................ 9

2.5: Descriptions of the Proposed System Components ........................................................ 9

2.5.1: Power Supply ......................................................................................................... 10

2.5.2: Microcontroller ...................................................................................................... 19
2.5.3: Crystal Oscillator Circuit ....................................................................................... 27
2.5.4: Barcode Reader ...................................................................................................... 30
2.5.5: Control Switch Unit ............................................................................................... 31
2.5.6: Weighing Sensor Module ...................................................................................... 31
2.5.7: Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) ............................................................................... 32
2.5.8: Buzzer Alarm ......................................................................................................... 33
2.5.9: Wi-Fi Module......................................................................................................... 34
2.5.10: Database ............................................................................................................... 35
2.6: Chapter Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 35

REFERENCES......................................................................................................................... 36

Appendix A .............................................................................................................................. 38

A.1 Cost Estimation ............................................................................................................. 38

Appendix B .............................................................................................................................. 39

B.1 Project Schedule ............................................................................................................ 39

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: A UPC- A Barcode Symbol (Layman, 2002).......................................................... 5
Figure 2.2: Block Diagram of the Existing System. (Agrawal, 2016) ....................................... 8
Figure 2.3: Block Diagram of the Proposed System.................................................................. 9
Figure 2.4: Power Supply Block Diagram (Billings and Morey, 2011) .................................. 10
Figure 2.5: Circuit Diagram of Power Supply (Billings and Morey, 2011) ............................ 10
Figure 2.6: Transformer Construction ..................................................................................... 11
Figure 2.7: Block Diagram of Full-Wave Rectifier (Ezhilarasi, 2018) ................................... 12
Figure 2.8: Bridge Rectifier ..................................................................................................... 13
Figure 2.9: Capacitor ............................................................................................................... 14
Figure 2.10: Shunt Capacitor Filter ......................................................................................... 15
Figure 2.11: Series Inductor Filter ........................................................................................... 15
Figure 2.12: Choke Input Filter ............................................................................................... 15
Figure 2.13: R-C Filter ............................................................................................................. 16
Figure 2.14: Circuit Configuration of π- Filter ........................................................................ 16
Figure 2.15: 78xx Regulator (Wheelers, 2012) ....................................................................... 18
Figure 2.16: 79xx Regulator (Wheelers, 2012) ....................................................................... 19
Figure 2.17: General Architecture of Microcontroller ............................................................. 22
Figure 2.18: Arduino UNO (Barrett, 2013). ............................................................................ 25
Figure 2.19: (a) (b) Physical Appearance of PIC16F877A (Rafiquzzaman, 2011) ................. 26
Figure 2.20: Structure of PIC 16F877A Microcontroller (Rafiquzzaman, 2011).................... 27
Figure 2.21: Crystal Oscillator ................................................................................................. 28
Figure 2.22: PIC16F877A Basic Interface and Configuration ................................................ 29
Figure 2.23: Barcode Scanner (Soudharya, 2015). .................................................................. 30
Figure 2.24: Push Button Switch (Monk, 1999) ...................................................................... 31
Figure 2.25: Weighing Sensor (Soudharya, 2015)................................................................... 31
Figure 2.26: Liquid Crystal Display (Robocraze, 2019).......................................................... 32
Figure 2.27: A Buzzer (Sims, 1980) ........................................................................................ 34
Figure 2.28: Zigbee Module (Kalaivani et al, 2019) ............................................................... 35

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: The Design Requirements for Control Unit............................................................ 20

Table 2.2: LCD Display Pins Functions .................................................................................. 33

Table A1: Cost Estimation ....................................................................................................... 38

Table B1: Senior Project I........................................................................................................ 39

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

MUST Mbeya University of Science and Technology

AC Alternating Current
DC Direct Current
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
IC Integrated Circuit
PIC Programmable Interface Controller
ADC Analog Digital Converter
DAC Digital Analog Converter
RAM Random Access Memory
ROM Read Only Memory
AVR Advanced Virtual RISC
RISC Reduced Instruction Set Computer
CISC Complex Instruction Set Computer
LCD Liquid Crystal Display
PC Personal Computer
Kg Kilogram
POS Point of Sale
Vout Output Voltage
Vin Input Voltage
USB Universal Serial Bus
EEPROM Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
SPI Serial Peripheral Interface
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
RS-232 Recommended Standard - 232
LED Light Emitting Diode
LR-WPANs Low Rate Wireless Personal Area Networks
CCD Charge – Couple Device

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 LIST OF SYMBOLS

COMPONENT SYMBOL

TRANSFORMER

CAPACITOR

RESISTOR

PUSH BUTTON
S1

DIODE

BUZZER

GROUND

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1: Background Information
Shopping supermarket is a place where most people from all walks of life will get their daily
necessities ranging from food product, apparels, toiletries, gardening tools electrical appliances,
and others. The numbers of little and enormous looking supermarkets keep it up increasing over
the years throughout the world because of the demand of the general public. Thus, the amount
of advancement of shopping center system and infrastructure conjointly varies. In Tanzania,
there are still a plenty of spaces for improvement in terms of providing quality shopping
experience to the consumers as compared to some foreign countries’ shopping supermarket
system. Consumers often face many challenges and inconvenience when shopping at
supermarkets. These challenges include worrying that the amount of money brought is not
enough for paying all selected items and also overspending budget at a point of selecting items
as nothing alert the customer on costs of the selected items so far. As the existing billing system
is facilitated at the cashier desk, it is not possible to know prior whether the customer is overspent
or not before reaching at the desk to pay the net bill for all selected items.

1.2: Problem Statement

Knowing at the billing point the amount that customer is supposed to pay make some people to
spend more than expected budget. The problem that could possibly be avoided by system that
bills products instantly at the Shopping Cart. With the current famous barcode scanning system,
nothing alerts the cost of collected items at instantly time.
The aim this project is design a shopping Cart with Barcode Scanner that can calculate the cost
of all items in the Cart hence alert the customer instant cost and simplify tasks of the cashier.

1.3: Project Objectives

This part consists the main objective and specific objectives;
1.3.1: Main Objective
To design of Smart Shopping Cart with Instant Automatic Billing System that allows users to
scan products and add to the cart while seeing the total cost of selected items.

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1.3.2: Specific Objectives
i. To study the existing system of Shopping and Billing Systems Management.
ii. To identify various techniques used globally in Automatic Shopping and Billing System
Management.
iii. To design Billing System Management by using barcode techniques
iv. To design system to countercheck legit of items cost through weighing scale
v. To simulate the designed circuit and testing the built prototype.

1.4: Significances of the Project

i. Less chaos, more comfort.
ii. No more queues.
iii. Time Saving for both client and cashier at the billing counter.
iv. Budget handling
v. User friendly.

1.5: Scope and Limitation of the Project

This project is aimed at designing and implementing of Smart Shopping Cart with Instant
Automatic Billing System by using barcode techniques. All barcodes are found on almost every
product in supermarkets and there are no privacy issues involved with its use. A system requires
a direct line of sight to each product contain barcode sticker in order to be able to read. Since the
system requires to be quite close around no more than 15 feet for detection. However; if a
barcode sticker is ripped or damage there is no further way to scan the product.

1.6: Methodology
Methodology means the different approaches that are to be taken in order to fulfill the objectives
of the project. The following methods are adopted;
1.6.1: Literature Review From Various Sources.
This is done through studying different sources include books, articles and all other related
documents, as well as studying different existing systems basing on shopping trolleys and billing
systems applied in various malls worldwide.
1.6.2: Data Collection.
This facilitates with the data that will be used to accomplish this project. Since it describes the
data collected from various case study areas, with respect to the problem statement. The data
collection is divided into two parts namely Primary data and Secondary data.

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 a) Primary Data Collection
Primary data are the data obtained by the researcher directly by using interview, questionnaire
or observation and experimentation. In this project, primary data will be collected basing on
billing systems in various shopping supermarkets.
b) Secondary Data Collection
Secondary data are the data obtained by taking already made data by other researchers from
different sources such as internet surfing, magazines or books. In this project, the secondary data
will be collected through different sources include internet, magazines or reading books. The
information obtained in this section will depends on a data collected in primary sources. In this
method the following checklist may help the researcher to determine the reliability of secondary
source of information.
i. Does the source provide current information?
ii. Is the source reliable?
iii. Is the author having an authority on the subject?
iv. Does the author identify his/her opinion?

1.6.3: Preliminary Circuit Design and Analysis of the Proposed System

a) Data Analysis
Data analysis is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming and modeling data with the goal
of discovering useful information suggesting conclusion and supporting decision making. In this
project, the circuit will be designed based on the information or data collected and analyzed in
order to meet the objectives of the project.
b) Circuit Design
This method involves the designing of the required circuit of the proposed system for different
parts of the system.
1.6.4: Simulations of the Circuit Design
Simulation is imitation of a situation or process. Therefore, this method will be used to observe
the result of each part of designing before implementing the complete circuit prototype. Proteus
software will be used for project simulation.
1.6.5: Implementation of the Circuit Design and Testing the Built Prototype
This method has more than 50% of this project work, where the preliminary information obtained
from other methods will be put in test to obtained the required result and achieve the main
objective.

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1.6.6: Report Writing
Through the time line for the project, documentation of all the necessary and important
information about the design will be written for reference.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1: Introduction
This chapter provides general information which describes features, operations and limitations
of the existing systems. It also explains the relevant works that are useful to this project’s design,
conception and any other information that are likely to be important in improvements of the
project. It also explains about the proposed system, its operation and advantages of the proposed
system over the existing system.

2.2: Theories Related to the Study

2.2.1: Barcode Technology
A barcode is a method of representing data in a visual, machine-readable form. Initially, barcodes
represented data by varying the widths and spacings of parallel lines. These barcodes, now
commonly referred to as linear or one-dimensional (1D), can be scanned by special optical
scanners, called barcode readers. Later, two-dimensional (2D) variants were developed, using
rectangles, dots, hexagons and other geometric patterns, called matrix codes or 2D barcodes,
although they do not use bars as such. 2D barcodes can be read or deconstructed using
application software on mobile devices with inbuilt cameras, such as smartphones. (Layman,
2002)

Figure 2.1: A UPC- A Barcode Symbol (Layman, 2002)

The barcode was invented by Norman Joseph Woodland and Bernard Silver and patented in the
US in 1951. The invention was based on Morse code that was extended to thin and thick bars.
However, it took over twenty years before this invention became commercially successful.
Barcodes became commercially successful when they were used to automate
supermarket checkout systems, a task for which they have become almost universal. The
Uniform Grocery Product Code Council had chosen, in 1973, the barcode design developed
by George Laurer. Laurer's barcode, with vertical bars, printed better than the circular barcode
developed by Woodland and Silver. (Roberts, 2019) Their use has spread to many other tasks
that are generically referred to as automatic identification and data capture (AIDC).

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 a) Types of Barcode
i. Linear barcode (1D): A first generation, “One dimensional” barcode that is made up of
lines and spaces of various width that create specific patterns. Examples Code bar, code
11, Code 39, code 49 etc.
ii. Matrix barcode (2D): A matrix code, also termed as a 2D barcode or simply a 2D code,
is a two – dimensional way to represent information. It is similar to a linear (1-
dimension) barcode, but can represent more data per area. Example AR Code, Aztec
Code, BEE tag, Code 16K etc.
b) Barcode Quality Control and Verification
Barcode verification examines scanability and the quality of the barcode in comparison to
industry standards and specifications. (Layman, 2002) Barcode verifiers are primarily used by
businesses that print and use barcodes. Any trading partner in the supply chain can test barcode
quality. It is important to verify a barcode to ensure that any reader in the supply chain can
successfully interpret a barcode with a low error rate. Retailers levy large penalties for non-
compliant barcodes. These chargebacks can reduce a manufacturer's revenue by 2% to 10%.
(Zieger, 2003)
Barcode verifier standards
i. Barcode verifiers should comply with the ISO/IEC 15426-1 (linear) or ISO/IEC 15426-
2 (2D). This standard defines the measuring accuracy of a barcode verifier
ii. The current international barcode quality specification is ISO/IEC 15416 (linear) and
ISO/IEC 15415 (2D). The European Standard EN 1635 has been withdrawn and replaced
by ISO/IEC 15416. The original U.S. barcode quality specification was ANSI X3.182.
(UPCs used in the US – ANSI/UCC5). This standard defines the quality requirements for
barcodes and matrix codes (also called optical codes).
iii. As of 2011 the ISO workgroup JTC1 SC31 was developing a Direct Part Marking (DPM)
quality standard: ISO/IEC TR 29158. (ISO Web site, retrieved on 03 Feb, 2020)
International standards are available from the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO). These standards are also available from local/national standardization organizations, such
as ANSI, BSI, DIN, NEN and others.

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 c) Benefits of Barcode

In point-of-sale management, barcode systems can provide detailed up-to-date information on

the business, accelerating decisions and with more confidence. For example
i. Fast-selling items can be identified quickly and automatically reordered.
ii. Slow-selling items can be identified, preventing inventory build-up
iii. The effects of merchandising changes can be monitored, allowing fast-moving, more
profitable items to occupy the best space.
iv. Historical data can be used to predict seasonal fluctuations very accurately.
v. Items may be repriced on the shelf to reflect both sale prices and price increases.
vi. This technology also enables the profiling of individual consumers, typically through a
voluntary registration of discount cards. While pitched as a benefit to the consumer, this
practice is considered to be potentially dangerous by privacy advocates.

2.2.2: Related Works

a) Traditional Billing System using Hand-held Barcode Scanner
Traditionally, the billing process is facilitated at the counter where each product has to be
scanned and billed. Since it is not possible for customers to be aware with the total costs of
selected items that wishes to buy at instant billing time. Hence, this becomes a problem as the
customer can either worrying that the amount of money brought is not enough for paying all
selected items or overspending the expected budget. (Advirkar, 2015).

b) RFID Based Smart Shopping Trolley

(Sandiya, 2019) proposes RFID Based Smart Shopping Trolley aimed to implement RFID
scanner on a trolley for future and replace completely the presence hand- held barcode scanner
at the central billing. This idea might take a long time to be deployed as it is expensive both in
terms of money and energy. Since it requires RFID tags to be equipped to each product in a
shopping mall. The idea might be difficulty to archive especially for huge malls and supermarket
where it requires high capital to implement the system.

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2.3: Existing System
The system mainly consists of three sections include trolley section, product section and billing
counter section. Consider the figure 2.3 below which illustrates existing system.

Figure 2.2: Block Diagram of the Existing System. (Agrawal, 2016)

2.3.1: Principle Operation of the Existing System

Once customers in supermarket wish to purchase products have to carry them in the shopping
trolleys. After finishing choosing the products, one proceeds to go to billing counter. At billing
counter bill is generated by scanning each selected product manually using a hand assisted
barcode scanner.
2.3.2: Disadvantages of the Existing System
i. It is manually operated system.
ii. It is a time-consuming process and results in long queues.
iii. It requires man-power to support staffs at the shopping mall.
iv. It is not user friendly, since the buyer tends to worry about amount of money brought is
not enough for paying the net bill at the cashier.
2.4: Proposed System
The proposed system will basically involve in self-billing upon the shopping cart itself in order
to overcome the drawbacks of the existing systems. Since it will be a great improvement on the
existing system if the technology of Barcode is implemented at the shopping cart. The system
will allow users to scan products and add to the cart while seeing the total cost of selected items
at instantly billing time. Figure 2.3 shows the block diagram of the proposed system.

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 Figure 2.3: Block Diagram of the Proposed System
2.4.1: Principle Operation of the Proposed System
A programmed control Unit is attached to barcode reader, control switch, weighing sensor, LCD
display and buzzer. When the customer picks a product and drop it into the trolley, the barcode
scanner scans the product’s barcode label and its price and sends a signal to the control unit. The
control unit then store it in the memory and compares it the lookup table. If it matches then it
shows the name and weight of product on the LCD screen and also the total amount of product
purchased. So, after customer has finished with shopping then the net bill that generated at the
trolley will be send to the central billing section via wi-fi module for updating customer
information and printing the receipt. Otherwise, a system will produce a sound notification at
instant billing time to indicate the invalid access when the user drops the item in the trolley
without to scan it. This will overcome the problem of existing system which was earlier stated.
2.4.2: Advantages of the Proposed System
i. It is automatically operated System or bill calculation at trolley itself.
ii. It reduces time spent at billing counter and Increases customer satisfaction.
iii. It Reduces manpower required in billing section. This can reduce the expenses incurred
by the management.
iv. It is user friendly system, since buyers can be aware of the total bill amount during the
time of purchase.

2.5: Descriptions of the Proposed System Components

In this section various components are given a brief description. These components will be used
to accomplish the main objective of this project in conjunction with building the prototype and

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simulation of the project. The block diagram of the proposed system consists of the following
components;
2.5.1: Power Supply
A power supply is an electronic circuit device that supplies electric energy to an electrical load.
The primary function of a power supply is to convert one form of energy to another and as a
result, power supply is sometimes referred as electrical power converters (McKenna, Richardson
et al.2012). Some power supply are discrete, stand-alone devices, whereas others are built into
larger devices along with their load (Pressman, 1997). Most of electronic circuit uses direct
current power supply for biasing purpose.
Power supply system consists of four components which are transformer, rectifier, filter and
regulator.

INPUT TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER FILTER REGULATOR OUTPUT

Figure 2.4: Power Supply Block Diagram (Billings and Morey, 2011)

Figure 2.5: Circuit Diagram of Power Supply (Billings and Morey, 2011)
a) Transformer
Transformer is a static device which transforms electrical energy from one circuit to another
circuit under mutual induction but without changing its frequency. The electric circuit which
receives energy from the supply mains is called primary winding and the other circuit which
delivers electric energy to the load is called secondary winding. The Transformer is an
electromagnetic energy conversion device. The energy received by the primary winding is first
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converted to magnetic energy and it is then reconverted to useful electrical energy in the other
circuit (secondary winding circuit). Thus, primary and secondary windings of a Transformer are
not connected electrically, but are coupled magnetically. This coupling magnetic field allows the
transfer of energy in either direction from high-voltage to low-voltage circuits or from low-
voltage to high-voltage circuits.
Transformers are classified as follows;
i. Step Up Transformer & Step-Down Transformer- Generally used for stepping up and
down the voltage level of power in transmission and distribution power network.
ii. Three Phase Transformer & Single-Phase Transformer – Transformer made up of three
cores are employed as three phase transformers and those made up of a single core is
named single transformers
iii. Electrical Power Transformer, Distribution Transformer - Transformer is generally used
in transmission network which is normally known as power transformer, distribution
transformer is used in distribution network and this is lower rating transformer
iv. Instrument Transformers, Current Transformer & Potential Transformer we use for
measuring current and voltage at substations and in different instruments in industries are
called instrument transformer.
v. Outdoor Transformer & Indoor Transformer - Transformers that are designed for
installing at outdoor are outdoor transformers and transformers designed for installing at
indoor are indoor transformers.

Figure 2.6: Transformer Construction

For transformer, the following formula will be used in designing the supply to the system;
Transformer Ratio equation is given as;
VOLTAGE RATIO =TURNS RATIO =CURRENT RATIO
𝐕𝐩 𝐍𝐩 𝐈𝐬
= = …………………………………………….. (Equation 2.1)
𝐕𝐬 𝐍𝐬 𝐈𝐩

Where,
Vp = Is the primary voltage of the transformer
Vs = Is the secondary voltage of the transformer
Np =Is the primary number of turns of the transformer

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 Ns =Is the secondary number of turns of the transformer
Ip =Is the primary current of the transformer
Is = Is the secondary current of the transformer
In this project; Step down transformer will be used to step down AC voltage from main supply
into 12V voltage, the value that is suitable to be fed to the rectifier for the further process.
b) Rectifier
It is a circuit which employs one or more diodes to convert ac voltage into pulsating dc voltage.
The simple process of rectification produces a type of DC characterized by pulsating voltages
and currents (although still unidirectional). Depending upon the type of end-use, this type of DC
current may then be further modified into the type of relatively constant voltage DC
characteristically produced by such sources as batteries and cells. In general, there are two types
of rectifier, thus are half wave and full wave rectifiers.
Both half and full wave rectifiers use transformer at their inputs. The transformer should be step-
down transformer in order to reduce the voltage into the required value, depending on the dc
output voltage level needed.(Martinez and Enjenti, 1996)
i. Half-wave rectification.
In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed, while
the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output, it is
very inefficient if used for power transfer. Half-wave rectification can be achieved with a single
diode in a one-phase supply, or with three diodes in a three-phase supply. Half wave rectifiers
yield a unidirectional but pulsating direct current.
ii. Full-wave rectification.
A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity
(positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input
waveform to DC (direct current), and is more efficient. However, the full wave rectifier can be
grouped into full wave rectifier center tap or full wave bridge rectifier circuit. In case of bridge
rectifier four diode are employed. The figure below shows the full wave rectifier bridge circuit
with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.

Figure 2.7: Block Diagram of Full-Wave Rectifier (Ezhilarasi, 2018)

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In Full-Wave Rectification, there are centre tapped full-wave rectifier and bridge full-wave
rectifier where in centre tapped two diodes are used. During the half positive cycle one diode
conducts current and during the negative half cycle the second diode conducts currents. In bridge
full-wave rectifier, four diodes are used where during a positive half cycle two diodes are
forward biased and allows the current through the load, the other two diodes are reverse biased.
During the negative half cycle the two diodes which are reverse biased during the positive cycle
are now forward biased and conducts current through the load.

Figure 2.8: Bridge Rectifier

Disadvantages of Centre Tap Full-Wave Rectifier

i. The DC output is small as each diode utilies only one half of the transformer secondary
voltage.
ii. The diodes must have high peak inverse voltage(PIV).
iii. It is difficult to locate the centre tap on the secondary windings.

Advantages of Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier

i. It has less PIV rating per diode.
ii. It is suitable for high voltage application.
iii. No Centre-tap is required on the transformer secondary winding.
iv. Much small transformer is required.

In this project, a bridge full-wave rectifier will be used.

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For Further Calculation in this rectifier, the following formula will be used in designing the
supply to the system;
Consider the input supply voltage from the secondary transformer as Vrms (Root-mean square
voltage). The corresponding peak voltage of secondary transformer (Vp) will be obtained from
the following formula;
Vp = √𝟐𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 …………………………………………………. (Equation 2.2)
For the peak value of the rectified voltage, Vpr;
Vpr = Vp – 2Vd, Where Vd is the diode Voltage drop given as 0.7V …………. (Equation 2.3)
For the average output voltage;
Vav = 2Vpr∕ 𝝅 ……………………………………………………………………. (Equation 2.4)
For Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV);
PIV = Vp + 0.7 ….…………………………………………………………………... (Equation
2.5)

c) Filter
The function of this circuit element is to remove the fluctuations or pulsations (called ripples)
present in the output voltage supplied by the rectifier. Of course, no filter can in practice gives
an output voltage as ripple-free as that of a dc battery but it approaches it so closely that the
power supply performs as well.
The output of the rectifier circuit contains an AC component called ripples, which should be
filtered before the voltage goes to the regulator.

Figure 2.9: Capacitor

Types Filter Circuits
i. Shunt Capacitor Filter; in this circuit a suitable single capacitor is connected across the
rectifier and parallel with the load to achieve filtering action. This type of filter is known
as capacitor input filter. This filter circuit depends for its operation on the property of a
capacitor to charge up (store energy) during conducting half-cycle and to discharge
(deliver energy) during the non-conducting half-cycle. In simple words, a capacitor

14
 opposes any change in voltage. When connected across a pulsating dc voltage, it tends to
smoothen out or filter out the voltage pulsations (or ripples) (A. K. Theraja).

Figure 2.10: Shunt Capacitor Filter

ii. Series Inductor Filter; the filter consists of a choke in series with the load. The operation
of such a filter depends on the fundamental property of an inductor to oppose any sudden
changes in the current flowing through it. Since this inductor presents high impedance to
ac components in the filter output, it reduces their amplitude with respect to the dc
component (A. K. Theraja).

Figure 2.11: Series Inductor Filter

iii. The Choke Input or L-C Filter; it is a combination of two filters (series inductor and shunt
capacitor) and provides a lower ripple than is possible with either L or C alone. As is
known, in an inductor filter, ripple increases with load but decreases in capacitor filter.
The combination of L and C (i.e. L-section) filter makes the ripple independent of load
(A. K. Theraja).

Figure 2.12: Choke Input Filter

15
iv. The R-C Filter; this filter consists of resistor in series with load and capacitor in parallel
with load. The resistor is connected before the capacitor (A. K. Theraja).

Figure 2.13: R-C Filter

v. The C-L-C or Pi Filter; it consists of one inductor and two capacitors connected across
its each end. The three components are arranged in the shape of the pi. It is also called
capacitor input pi-filter. The input capacitor C1 is selected to offer very low reactance to
the ripple frequency. Hence major part of filtering is done by C1. Most of the remaining
ripple is removed by the combined action of L and C2. The circuit gives much better
filtering than L-C filter circuit (A. K. Theraja).

Figure 2.14: Circuit Configuration of π- Filter

16
In this project the shunt capacitor filter will be used due to the ICs voltage regulators needs only
The simplest formulas that will be used for further calculations using shunt capacitors;
DC load Voltage;
Vo = Vp – Vrp ………………………………………………… (Equation 2.6)
Where; Vo – The output voltage
Vp – Peak Voltage
Vrp – Ripple Voltage
But Vrp = 0.1Vp …………………………………………………………………... (Equation 2.7)
In RMS Value, Vrp (rms) = Vrp /√𝟐 ……………………………………………. (Equation 2.8)
𝑰𝒅𝒄
Also, Vrp (rms) = ……………………………………………………… (Equation
𝟒√𝟑𝒇𝑪

2.9)
Where; f = frequency
C = Capacitor
Idc = Output DC / Full Load Current.
For Ripple factor;
The ripple factor of unfiltered waves is given as;
𝟎.𝟑𝟎𝟖𝐕𝐩𝐫
r= 𝟐𝐕𝐩𝐫 ×100…….……………………………………………………. (Equation 3.0)
𝚷

The ripple factor of filtered waves;

𝟏
r= ………………………………………………………………… (Equation 3.1)
𝟐√𝟑𝒇𝑹𝑪

𝟏
Therefore, the value of filtering capacitor c = …………………………… (Equation 3.2)
𝟐√𝟑𝒇𝑹𝒓

d) Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator is a voltage stabilizer that is designed to automatically stabilize a constant

voltage level. A voltage regulator circuit is also used to change or stabilize the voltage level
according to the necessity of the circuit. Thus, a voltage regulator is used for two reasons: -
i. To regulate or vary the output voltage of the circuit.
ii. To keep the output voltage constant at the desired value in-spite of variations in the
supply voltage or in the load current.

17
 2) The Need for the Voltage Regulator
The purpose of Voltage regulators is to provide a steady supply voltage to the designing circuit.
This is due to the sources of primary power are usually not stable enough to supply to the
proposed circuit with its specifications. Internal designing of circuit components requires stable
voltage for proper operation. Most Microcontroller run from a 3 V or 5 V supply, which should
be regulated to within a fraction of a Volt. For instance, many chips designed to operate from a
5 V nominal require the voltage to remain between 4.5 and 5.5 Volts.
3) Types of Regulator
a) 78xx Regulator
The 78xx is a family of self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The
78xx family is commonly used in electronic circuits requiring a regulated power supply due
to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the family, the xx is replaced with two digits,
indicating the output voltage (for example, the 7805 has a 5-volt output, while the 7812
produces 12 volts). The 78xx line is positive voltage regulators: they produce a voltage that
is positive relative to a common ground. 78xxICs can be used to provide positive supply
voltages.(Wheelers, 2012)

Figure 2.15: 78xx Regulator (Wheelers, 2012)

b) 79xx Regulator
The 79xx is a family of self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The
79xx family is commonly used in electronic circuits requiring a regulated power supply due
to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the family, the xx is replaced with two digits,
indicating the output voltage (for example, the 7905 has a 5-volt output, while the 7912
produces 12 volts). The 79xx line is negative voltage regulators: they produce a voltage that
is negative relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices which are
complementary negative voltage regulators. 79xxICs can be used to provide negative supply
voltages. (Wheelers, 2012)

18
 Figure 2.16: 79xx Regulator (Wheelers, 2012)
In this project, 78xx regulator will be used due to the reason that 79xx regulator produces a
negative output voltage. Hence in this designing system, 78xx regulator will provide +5v DC
output voltages to supply the control unit, barcode reader unit and display unit as well as +9v to
supply the weighing sensor module.
For Regulator;
Resistors will be used to limit the current entering Light Emitting Diode (LED).

From Ohm’s Law;

V = IR……………………………………………... (Equation 3.3)
𝑽
Then R= ………………….……………………………. (Equation 3.4)
𝑰

Where; R = Resistor
V = Voltage
I = Current
2.5.2: Microcontroller
Control unit is the part of a system that manages all of the actions performed by the system. It is
responsible for all major operations including accepting data from the barcode reader, weighing
sensor and take action on the switch to control the data received from the barcode reader. In this
system microcontroller will be used as a control unit.
Microcontrollers (also known as embedded controller) are microcomputer. Unlike personal
computers, microcontrollers are computers that designed to carry out a specific function.
However, microcontrollers are not used on their own, they are embedded with another computer
or machine. They carry out their function by taking inputs from device they are incorporated into
it. For example, in this project microcontroller will be programmed in such a way that it will be
used for reading various digital input signals from barcode scanner and weighing sensor, sending
this data to display screen so that the person operating this project should understand the status
and giving the respective signal to the various output devices (Peradath, 2017).

19
Factors that have driven the development of microcontroller are low cost, versatility, easy to
program and small in size, in contrast to the general-purpose microcontroller. Microcontroller
are very attractive in design because they are small in size and broad functionality allow them to
be physically embedded in the system to perform all of the necessary functions. It is a small
computer on a single integrated circuit consist of a relatively simple central processing unit
(CPU) combined with support functions such as crystal oscillator, timer, serial and analog input
and output. Program memory also included on a chip as well as a typically small amount of
random-access memory (RAM) (Peatman, 1997). Consider the table 2.1 given below which
illustrates the necessary requirements of microcontroller to be used in this project.

Table 2.1: The Design Requirements for Control Unit

PARAMETER REQUIREMENTS
I/O Pins Min. 16 pins
Power Consumption Low (app. 2V to 5V)
Memory Specifications Up to 128 KB for Program Memory
4KB Data Memory
Clock Speed At least 8MHz
Cost Affordable (Less Expensive)
Availability Easily Available
Control Interface Analog/ digital
Additional Features
Support programming for scanning items
detection either removing or adding the
items and weighing scale detection.

Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile
engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office machines,
appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the size and cost
compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices,
microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes. Mixed
signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control non-
digital electronic systems.

20
Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at clock rate frequencies as low as 4
kHz, for low power consumption (single-digit mill watts or microwatts). They will generally
have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other
interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just
Nano watts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. Other
microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a
digital signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption.
a) Categories of Microcontrollers
Microcontrollers are divided into categories according to their memory, architecture, bits and
instruction sets(Hintz and Tabak, 1992). These include: -
i. Bits: 8-bit microcontroller executes logic & arithmetic operations. Examples of 8 bits’
micro controller is Intel 8031/8051. 16-bits microcontroller executes with greater
accuracy and performance in contrast to 8-bit. Example of 16-bit microcontroller is Intel
8096. 32-bit microcontroller is employed mainly in automatically controlled appliances
such as office machines, implantable medical appliances, etc. It requires 32-bit
instructions to carry out any logical or arithmetic function.
ii. Memory: External Memory Microcontroller – When an embedded structure is built with
a microcontroller which does not comprise of all the functioning blocks existing on a
chip it is named as external memory microcontroller. For illustration- 8031
microcontroller does not have program memory on the chip. In addition, Embedded
Memory Microcontroller – When an embedded structure is built with a microcontroller
which comprise of all the functioning blocks existing on a chip it is named as embedded
memory microcontroller. For illustration- 8051 microcontroller has all program & data
memory, counters & timers, interrupts, I/O ports and therefore its embedded memory
microcontroller.
iii. Instruction Set: CISC- CISC means complex instruction set computer, it allows the user
to apply 1 instruction as an alternative to many simple instructions. In addition, RISC-
RISC means Reduced Instruction Set Computers. RISC reduces the operation time by
shortening the clock cycle per instruction.
iv. Memory Architecture
• Harvard Memory Architecture Microcontroller
• Princeton Memory Architecture Microcontroller

21
 b) Structure of Microcontroller

Figure 2.17: General Architecture of Microcontroller

The general Structure of microcontroller consists of the followings;
i. CPU
CPU is the brain of a microcontroller. CPU is responsible for fetching the instruction, decodes
it, then finally executed. CPU connects every part of a microcontroller into a single system. The
primary function of CPU is fetching and decoding instructions. Instruction fetched from program
memory must be decoded by the CPU(Hintz and Tabak, 1992).
ii. Memory
The function of memory in a microcontroller is same as microprocessor. It is used to store data
and program. A microcontroller usually has a certain amount of RAM and ROM (EEPROM,
EPROM, etc.) or flash memories for storing program source codes.
iii. Parallel input/output ports
Parallel input/output ports are mainly used to drive/interface various devices such as LCD’S,
LED’S, printers, memories, etc. to a microcontroller.
iv. Serial ports
Serial ports provide various serial interfaces between microcontroller and other peripherals like
parallel ports.
v. Timers/counters
This is the one of the useful functions of a microcontroller. A microcontroller may have more
than one timer and counters. The timers and counters provide all timing and counting functions
inside the microcontroller. The major operations of this section are performed clock functions,
modulations, pulse generations, frequency measuring, making oscillations, etc. This also can be
used for counting external pulses.
vi. Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)

22
ADC converters are used for converting the analog signal to digital form. The input signal in this
converter should be in analog form (e.g. sensor output) and the output from this unit is in digital
form. The digital output can be used for various digital applications (e.g. measurement devices).
vii. Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)
DAC perform reversal operation of ADC conversion. DAC converts the digital signal into analog
format. It usually used for controlling analog devices like DC motors, various drives, etc.
viii. Interrupt Control
The interrupt control used for providing interrupt (delay) for a working program, The interrupt
may be external (activated by using interrupt pin) or internal (by using interrupt instruction
during programming).
ix. Special Functioning Block
Some microcontrollers used only for some special applications (e.g. space systems and robotics)
these controllers containing additional ports to perform such special operations. This considered
as special functioning block.
c) Types of Microcontroller
There are various types of microcontroller which are AVR microcontroller, Arduino
microcontroller, 8051 microcontroller, ARM microcontroller and PIC microcontroller.

i. 8051 Microcontroller
The most universally employed set of microcontrollers come from the 8051 family. 8051
Microcontrollers persist to be an ideal choice for a huge group of hobbyists and experts. In the
course of 8051, the humankind became eyewitness to the most ground-breaking set of
microcontrollers. The original 8051 microcontrollers were initially invented by Intel. The one
other members of this 8051 family is:
8052 – This microcontroller has 3 timers & 256 bytes of RAM. Additionally, it has all the
features of the traditional 8051 microcontrollers.
8051 Microcontroller Architecture:
The universally employed set of microcontrollers comes from the 8051 family. 8051
microcontrollers persist to be an ideal choice for a hobbyists and experts. In the course of 8051
microcontrollers the humankind become eyewitness to the most ground-breaking set of
microcontrollers. The original 8051 microcontrollers were initially invented by intel. The two
other members of this 8051 family includes 805-this microcontroller has 3 timers and 256 bytes
of RAM. Additionally, it has all the features of the traditional 8051 microcontrollers.
8051microcontroller is a subset of 8052 microcontrollers.

23
 ii. AVR Microcontroller
AVR also known as advanced virtual RISC is an 8-bits RISC architecture microcontroller. This
is available from 1996 onwards only. There are 16-bits and 32-bit microcontrollers also available
in the same family. RISC means reduced instruction set computer. AVR has 40 instructions
which have all 1 cycles-based instructions. By default, AVR microcontroller operates with the
1MHZ clock cycles. AVR family microcontroller easily without any external programmer. AVR
has number of input and output ports, timer/counter, A/D converter, 12c interfaces, PWM
channels, on-chip analog computer (Tasdelen and Kutulu, 2016).
iii. ARM Microcontroller
ARM is the name of a company that designs micro-processors architecture. ARM is a short for
advanced RISC machines and their processor contain higher in speed because they perform small
number of instructions. It is also engaged in licensing them to the producers who fabricate
genuine chips (Garnsey et al., 2008). In actuality ARM is a 32-bit genuine RISC architecture. It
was initially developed in the year 1980 by Acorn Computers Ltd. This ARM base
microprocessor does not have on-board flash memory. ARM is particularly designed for micro-
controller devices, it is simple to be trained and make use of, however powerful enough for the
most challenging embedded device.
iv. Arduino Microcontroller
Arduino is an open-source platform used for building electronics projects. Arduino consists of
both a physical programmable circuit board (often referred to as a microcontroller) and a piece
of software, or IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that runs on your computer, used to
write and upload computer code to the physical board. The Arduino platform has become quite
popular with people just starting out with electronics, and for good reason (Buechley et al., 2008).
Unlike most previous programmable circuit boards, the Arduino does not need a separate piece
of hardware (called a programmer) in order to load new code onto the board – you can simply
use a USB cable. Additionally, the Arduino IDE uses a simplified version of C++, making it
easier to learn to program. Finally, Arduino provides a standard form factor that breaks out the
functions of the micro-controller into a more accessible package.

24
 Figure 2.18: Arduino UNO (Barrett, 2013).
v. PIC Microcontroller

Peripheral Interface Controller (PIC) was developed by micro-chip technology. The micro-chip
technology is a manufacturer of microcontroller, memory and analog semiconductor. The PIC
family devices are larger and more capable than the AVR. PIC series range from a really simple
8pin 4MHZ microcontroller up to 40pin 25MHZ devices. The PIC microcontrollers are available
in 3 different architecture (Amondi, 2015). Those are 8-bits, 16-bits, 32-bits microcontroller.
PIC microcontroller has nearly 40 instructions which all are taken 4 clocks cycles to execute.
The speed of the PIC controller is 3-million instructions per seconds.
In this project, PIC Microcontroller will be used due to the following advantages compared to
the other types.
a) Reasons for why to use PIC Microcontroller and Not others
i. They are reliable and malfunctioning of PIC percentage is very less and performance of
the PIC is very fast because of using RISC architecture.
ii. Power consumption is also very less when compared to other micro controllers. When we
see in the programmer point of view interfacing is very easy, also we can connect analog
devices directly without any extra circuitry and use them. Programming is also very easy
when compared to other microcontrollers.
b) About PIC Microcontroller
Peripheral Interface Controller (PIC) provided by Micro-chip Technology to categorize its
solitary chip microcontrollers. These appliances have been extremely successful in 8-bit micro-
controllers. The foremost cause behind it is that Micro-chip Technology has been constantly
upgrading the appliance architecture and included much required peripherals to the micro-
controller to go well with clientele necessities. PIC microcontrollers are very popular amid
hobbyists and industrialists; this is only cause of wide availability, low cost, large user base &
serial programming capability.

25
 Figure 2.19: (a) (b) Physical Appearance of PIC16F877A (Rafiquzzaman, 2011)
c) PIC Microcontroller Architecture
The architecture of the 8-bit PIC microcontrollers can be categorized as below;
i. Base Line Architecture – In the base-line architecture PIC microcontrollers of PIC10F
family is included, other than that a fraction of PIC12 & PIC16 families are also included.
These gadgets make use of 12-bit program word architecture with six to twenty-eight pin
package alternatives. Briefly defined attribute set of baseline architecture allows the most
lucrative product solutions. This architecture is perfect for battery enabled gadgets. The
PIC10F200 series is another reasonably priced 8-bit flash micro-controller with a 6-pin
package.
ii. Mid-Range Architecture – In this midline member of PIC12 & PIC16 families are added
that attribute 14-bit program word architecture. The midrange PIC16 gadgets proffer a
broad variety of package alternatives (from 8 to 64 package), with low to high levels of
peripheral incorporation. This PIC16 appliance attributes a variety of analog, digital &
serial peripherals, like- SPI, USART, I2C, USB, LCD & A/D converters. The mid-range
PIC16 micro-controllers have suspended controlling ability with an eight-level hardware
load.
iii. High Performance Architecture – The high-performance architecture included the PIC18
family of appliances. These micro-controllers make use of 16-bit program word
architecture along with 18 to 100 pin package alternatives. The PIC18 appliances are high
performance micro-controllers with incorporated Analog to Digital converters. All PIC18
micro-controllers integrate a highly developed RISC architecture that supports flash
appliances. The PIC18 has improved foundation attributes, 32 level deep load and several
inner and exterior interrupts.
Since the type of PIC that will be used in this proposed project is from 16F PIC family which is
16F877A. The reason to use this type is due to its many number of pins which is 40 pins, High
performance RISC CPU, High Operating speed, High memory Up to 368×8bit of RAM (data
memory), 256×8 of EEPROM (data memory), 8k×14 of flash memory, Wide operating voltage

26
range (2.0 – 5.56) volts, Commercial, industrial and extended temperature ranges, Low power
consumption.

Figure 2.20: Structure of PIC 16F877A Microcontroller (Rafiquzzaman, 2011)

2.5.3: Crystal Oscillator Circuit

A Crystal Oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a
vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a precise frequency.
This frequency is often used to keep track of time, as in quartz wristwatches, to provide a
stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio
transmitters and receivers. A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses a
piezoelectric resonator, a crystal, as its frequency-determining element. Crystal is the common
term used in electronics for the frequency-determining component, a wafer of quartz crystal or
ceramic with electrodes connected to it. A more accurate term for it is piezoelectric resonator.
Crystals are also used in other types of electronic circuits, such as crystal filters.
Characteristics of Oscillators
Oscillators are often characterized by the frequency of their output signal:
i. A low-frequency oscillator (LFO) is an electronic oscillator that generates a frequency
below ≈20 Hz. This term is typically used in the field of audio synthesizers, to distinguish
it from an audio frequency oscillator.
ii. An audio oscillator produces frequencies in the audio range, about 16 Hz to 20 kHz.
iii. An RF oscillator produces signals in the radio frequency (RF) range of about 100 kHz to
100 GHz.

27
Advantages of Crystal Oscillator
i. The Crystal Oscillators have very high frequency stability.
ii. The Crystal Oscillator is possible to obtain very high precise and stable frequency of
oscillators.
iii. It has High frequency of operation.
iv. It has very low frequency drift due to change in temperature and other parameters.
v. The Quartz clock is very high.
vi. It has Automatic amplitude control.
Disadvantages of Crystal Oscillator
i. These are suitable for high frequency application.
ii. Crystals of low fundamental frequencies are not easily available.
Application of Crystal Oscillator
i. The Crystal Oscillators are used in the frequency synthesizers.
ii. It is used in special types of receivers.
iii. It is used in radio and TV transmitters.
iv. It is used as a crystal clock in microprocessors.

Figure 2.21: Crystal Oscillator

a) PIC16F877A Basic Interface
In order for microcontroller to function, it requires an external oscillator to control the process,
stability and speed of the control unit. (McGraw Hill, 2001)
Figure 2.22 below demonstrates basic interfacing of microcontroller with crystal oscillator.

28
 Figure 2.22: PIC16F877A Basic Interface and Configuration
As shown in Figure 2.22, there is RESET switch connected to power supply in parallel to resistor
for limiting current and C1 and C2 connected to either side of the crystal are parasitic capacitor
which assist the crystal oscillator to maintain and optimize electric condition.

Selection of Parasitic Capacitors

The formula in Equation 6.1 may be used to calculate a parallel resonant capacitor
From;

…………………………... (Equation 3.5)

Where;
𝐶𝐿 is load capacitance
𝐶𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦 is shunt capacitance of the oscillator
Now;
Assuming 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶 then:

………………………………. (Equation 3.6)

…………………...………. (Equation 3.7)

b) Justification for Oscillator to Drive Microcontroller

After obtaining value for the external capacitors, it is then important to justify if the selected
oscillator drives the microcontroller.
The formula and condition in Equation 3.8 is used to justify scenario.

29
 …….……. (Equation 3.8)

……………. (Equation 3.9)

2.5.4: Barcode Reader
The barcode reader converts the light energy into electrical energy, which is then converted into
data by the decoder and forwarded to a computer. There are five kinds of barcode readers such
as Pen wards, Slot Scanners, Charge – Couple Device (CCD) Scanner, Image Scanners and Laser
Scanners. (Soudharya, 2015). The barcode reader will be required to identify a product so that
its price will be determined from the data base which stores all the relevant information about
the products. A barcode is an optical device which shows data on certain products like unique
ID. Purpose of using barcode scanner is to automatically identify the product from its unique
barcode label printed on it. This barcode reader is combination of hand-held unit (LED array
type source & Charge – Couple Device capture) and decoder circuit which receives raw data of
Barcode and outputs serial data at 9600 bps with RS 232 level output suitable for interfacing
with PIC microcontroller or host PC serial port.
A barcode reader also called a price scanner or point -of- sale (POS) Scanner is a hand-held or
stationary input device used to capture and read information contained in a barcode. A barcode
reader consists of a scanner, a decoder (either built-in or external), and a cable used to connect
the reader with a computer. Because a barcode reader merely captures and translates the barcode
into numbers or letters, the data must be sent to a complete so that a software application can
make sense of the data. Barcode scanners can be connected to a computer through a serial port,
keyboard port, or an interface device called a wedge. A barcode reader works by directing a
beam of light across the barcode and measuring the amount of light that is reflected back, (The
dark bars on a barcode reflect less light than the white spaces between them).

Figure 2.23: Barcode Scanner (Soudharya, 2015).

30
2.5.5: Control Switch Unit
Control switches will be provided on the trolley for the user to check the total cost of the item
has to purchase, what products has taken, per unit cost of the item, etc. after completing the
shopping, the user need to press the finish button. Also, as the users put the items the costs will
get added to total. Thus, the billing will be done at the trolley itself. Item name and its cost will
be displayed. (Soudharya, 2015).

Figure 2.24: Push Button Switch (Monk, 1999)

2.5.6: Weighing Sensor Module

The Weight sensor is used to detect the weights correctly, there will be the problem if the barcode
scanner unable to read the barcode on the product because of either damage of the barcode or
dropping of the product without scanning it. To avoid these kinds of errors we are using weight
sensor. While checkout, the weight sensor will give the total weight of the products in the trolley.
Which will compare with the weight of the individual products from the database of the products.
(Ismail, 2017). In this project, load- cell will be used as weighing sensor. A load-cell is a
transducer, which will be used to convert a force into electrical signal, an analog output voltage.
CZL601-3Kg denotes the Rated capacity of the load-cell. It can be chosen based on what
precision in weight is required which in turn depends on what kinds of products are available in
the shopping store. The cost of the load-cell depends on its precision, higher the price. One end
of the load-cell has to be fixed and force has to be applied on the other end so that the deformation
in the strain gauge of the load-cell is indirectly converted to an output voltage. It is supplied with
a DC voltage of 9 volts with the help of a Transistor battery.

Figure 2.25: Weighing Sensor (Soudharya, 2015)

31
2.5.7: Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
A liquid crystal display is a flat display or other electronic visual display that uses the light
modulating properties of liquid crystals. It displays the information according to the instruction
sent to it from the controller. LCD displays utilize two sheets of polarizing material with a liquid
crystal solution between them. An electric current passed through the liquid causes the crystal
to align so that light cannot pass through them. Each crystal, therefore, is like a shutter, either
allowing light to pass through or blocking the light. LCD’s consume much less power than LED
and gas-display because they work on the principle of blocking light rather than emitting it.
LCD’s are used in flat screen TV’s, Smartphone, computer monitors, digital watches,
etc.(Lagerwall, 2008).The LCD can be made in different size such as 8x1, 8x2, 10x2, 16x1,
16x2, 16x4, 20x2, 20x4, 24x2, 30x2, 32x2, 40x2 etc. For example, in an mxn LCD. M denotes
number of coulombs and n represents number of rows. Like if the LCD is denoted by 16x4 it
means it has 16 coulombs and 4 rows. All these LCD’s performs the same functions such as
display characters, numbers, special characters ASCII characters etc. Hence their programming
is also the same since they all comes with the 14 pins (0 to 13) or 16 pins (0 to 15).

Figure 2.26: Liquid Crystal Display (Robocraze, 2019)

Advantages of Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
i. The LCD can be made in large sizes of over 60 inch or 150 cm diagonal.
ii. It has no geometric distortion.
iii. It is very compact, thin, and light CRT displays.
iv. It does not affect by the magnetic fields.
v. Due to low power consumption, small heat emitted during operation.
vi. It is much thinner than a CRT (cathode ray tube) monitor.

Disadvantages of Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

i. In high temperature environments there is loss of contrast.
ii. It is relatively bright but not suitable for very brightly environments.
iii. It consumed a lot of electricity which produce a lot of heat.
iv. It has individual liquid crystals which cannot complete all block of the backlight.
From the viewing angle, the color and contrast not consistent.

32
In this project, LCD will be used to display the product details like price, weight, discount etc.
A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In this LCD
each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers, namely, Command
and Data. The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command
is an instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its screen,
setting the cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register stores the data to be
displayed on the LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD.
(Kokawa and Nishihara et al,1995).

Table 2.2: LCD Display Pins Functions

Pin No Function Name

1 Ground (0v) Ground

2 Supply voltage; 5v (4.7 -5.3) VCC

3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor VEE

4 Select command when low; and data register when high Register select

5 Low to write to register; high to read from register Read/write

6 Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given Enable

7-14 8-bit data pins DBO-DB7

15 Backlight vcc (5v) Led+

16 Backlight ground (0v) Led -

2.5.8: Buzzer Alarm

A buzzer or a beeper is an audio signaling device which may be a mechanical, electrical,
magnetic, electromagnetic or piezoelectric audio signaling device. A piezoelectric buzzer can be
driven by an oscillating electric circuit or other audio signal source, driven with a piezoelectric
audio amplifier. There are several different kinds of buzzer. Many of the most common types
categorized by type of sound level, frequency, rated voltage, dimension and packaging type.
Types of Buzzer

33
 i. Electromechanical
Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical to an electric bell without the
metal gong. Similarly, a relay may be connected to interrupt its own actuating current, causing
the contacts to buzz. Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling to use it as a sounding
board. The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that electromechanical buzzers made.

ii. Mechanical
A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer and they require drivers. Other
examples of them are doorbells.
Piezoelectric
A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic circuit or other audio
signal source, driven with a piezoelectric audio amplifier. Sounds commonly used to indicate
that a button has been pressed are a click, a ring or a beep.
Interior of a readymade loudspeaker, showing a piezoelectric-disk-beeper (With 3 electrodes ...
including 1 feedback-electrode (the central, small electrode joined with red wire in this photo)
and an oscillator to self-drive the buzzer. A piezoelectric buzzer/beeper also depends on acoustic
cavity resonance or Helmholtz resonance to produce an audible beep.
In this project, the buzzer alarm will be used to indicate the invalid access. This will be connected
to the output of control unit. It most commonly consists of a number of switches or sensors
connected to a control unit that determines if and which button was pushed or a preset time has
lapsed, and usually illuminates a light on the appropriate button or control panel, and sounds a
warning in the form of a continuous or intermittent buzzing or beeping sound. In this project,
when a customer forgets to read a product or indulge in malicious activities the buzzer will alert
by a ringing or buzzing sound (Dische et al, 1983).

Figure 2.27: A Buzzer (Sims, 1980)

2.5.9: Wi-Fi Module
A facility allowing computers, smartphones, or other devices to connect to the internet or
communicate with one another wirelessly within a particular area. Wi-Fi is simply a trademarked

34
term meaning IEEE 802.11x. Examples of Wi-Fi module include Zigbee, Bluetooth etc.
(Kalaivani et al, 2019)
In this project Zigbee module will be used. ZigBee is a specification for a suite of high-level
communication protocols using small, low-power digital radios based on the IEEE 802.15.4-
2003 standard for Low Rate Wireless Personal Area Networks (LR-WPANs). The technology
defined by the ZigBee specification is intended to be simpler and less expensive than other
WPANs, such as Bluetooth. Zigbee devices can transmit data over long distances by passing
data through a mesh network. Zigbee is typically used in low data rate applications that require
long battery life and secure networking. The distances that can be achieved transmitting from
one station to the next extend up to about 70 meters. It shows name of every item, its
corresponding cost and the total bill of all products.

Figure 2.28: Zigbee Module (Kalaivani et al, 2019)

2.5.10: Database
A database is a tool for collecting and organizing information (Connolly, 2015). The data base
in this design will be stored in the base station, which is located at the payment counter. Some
of the information per product that will be stored in the database includes its barcode, its name,
price and weight.
2.6: Chapter Conclusion
This chapter has given the details of what contains in the existing system and the proposed
system. It also explains how systems work by analyzing the functions of each block in the block
diagrams. The chapter is essential since it helps the researcher to know what data to be collected
based on parameters required in each block of the proposed system.

35
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 Appendix A
A.1 Cost Estimation
Table A1: Cost Estimation

ITEM TOTAL COST

Air time 10,000/-

Printing Services 20,000/-

Internet Services 15,000/-

OVERALL TOTAL COST 45,000/-

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 Appendix B
B.1 Project Schedule
Table B1: Senior Project I

PROJECT DURATION IN WEEKS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

KEY:

A. Selection of Project Title

B. Title Defending
C. Consultation with Supervisor
D. Literature Review
E. Writing Report
F. Report Submission and Assessment

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