Seawater Systems Petrofac

SECTION 12

SEAWATER SYSTEMS

1 Introduction

2 Seawater Service System

2.1 Seawater Supply Caissons
2.2 Service Water Pumps
2.3 Pressure Control
2.4 Seawater Strainers

3 General Service Supply

3.1 Distribution Headers

4 Deaeration
4.1 Vacuum Deaeration
4.2 Deaeration Towers
4.3 Transfer Pumps
4.4 Vacuum Pumps
4.5 Air Augmentor
4.6 Control and Instrumentator

5 Injection Water Filtration

5.1 Removal of Suspended Solids
5.2 Cartridge Filters
5.3 Granular and Multimedia Filters
5.4 Precoat Filters

6 Pumping Facilities

7 Injection Wells

8 Injection Water Quality Control and Chemical Treatment

8.1 Antifoam
8.2 Filter Aid
8.3 Hypochlorite
8.4 Oxygen Scavenger
8.5 Scale Inhibitor
8.6 Biocide

9 Injection Water Quality Monitoring Devices

9.1 Membrane Filtration
9.2 Oxygen Analysers
9.3 Biological Analysis
9.4 Corrosion Rate Analysis

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Figures

12.1 Seawater/Water Injection System Overview

12.2 Typical Seawater Service System
12.3 Seawater Lift Pump
12.4 Seawater Strainers and Pressure Control
12.5 Deaeration System
12.6 Cartridge Filter
12.7 Sand Filter
12.8 Dual/Multimedia Filter
12.9 Dual Multimedia Filter Package
12.10 Precoat Filter
12.11 Precoat Filtration Plant
12.12 Injection Water Pumps
12.13 Water Injection Wellhead

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1 INTRODUCTION

To maximise the recoverable reserve from an oilfield reservoir it may be

necessary to enhance the water drive effects from its underlying water
bearing zones (aquifers). Most North Sea oil reservoirs are subjected to a
water injection programme. Water injection aids the initial production rates
by maintaining the reservoir pressure. It also ensures that the crude oil
around the producing well is kept above its bubble point pressure and
improves the water “sweep” characteristics of the invading aquifer.
In addition to the requirements for water injection, service water is also
required for storage, cooling and utilities systems. A typical seawater/water
injection system is shown in Figure 12.1.

2 SEAWATER SERVICE SYSTEM

Refer to Figures 12.2 and 12.3

Seawater is generally supplied by three or four 50% duty seawater lift

pumps and an auxiliary lift pump. The seawater is pumped via back
flushable coarse filters to a supply header which distributes the water to
the various systems. Part of the supply is returned via the return header
after cooling duty and is fed to the water injection systems. Flow in excess
of this requirement is discharged overboard.

2.1 Seawater Supply Caissons

Refer to Figure 12.3

The main seawater lift pumps are each located inside a designated caisson
which has an open end at approximately 50m below LAT. Retaining bars at
the caisson inlet prevent the entry of large objects. Sodium hypochlorite is
injected at the caisson inlet whilst the pumps are running to ensure the
whole system is dosed at source. Pump suction is at about 35m below LAT.

2.2 Service Water Pumps

Refer to Figure 12.3

Seawater pumps and service water distribution systems do not vary much
from platform to platform. The following is a description of the Cormorant
North system.
There are three 860m3/hr three-stage submersible pumps which enable the
design flowrate of 1720m3/hr to be met with spare capacity. Each pump is
fed with treated fresh water from a sealed system consisting of a water
head tank and armoured flexible hoses. The treated water lubricates, cools
and seals the pump bearings.

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Not all systems have the facility of freshwater cooling.

NB

An expansion joint is provided at each pump tubing head to prevent damage

by caisson movement in heavy seas. The expansion joint is connected to a
sacrificial Ni-resist spoolpiece to minimise galvanic corrosion between the
carbon steel pump discharge and the cupro-nickel pipework.

Each pump has a 10" flow test line incorporated in its discharge pipework to
allow testing at full flow after maintenance. This line is equipped with air
bleed and vacuum breaker valves and a restriction orifice.

The pump discharge lines are equipped with control valves each of which
are controlled by a logic system to ensure safe startup in accordance with
the following:
(1) A pump cannot be started unless the discharge valve is closed.
(2) The “pump running” signal initiates a time delay of 120 seconds
before the discharge valve can be opened. (This allows sufficient time
for the discharge pipework to be primed.)
(3) The “pump running” signal indicates a second time delay of 180 to 240
seconds and within this time the valve limit switch (HEI) must signal
that the discharge valve is opened or the pump will be stopped. The
valve stroke time is set to 1 minute provided that the hand control
(HEIC) is preset for full opening prior to startup.

2.3 Pressure Control

Refer to Figures 12.2 and 12.4

The three service water pump discharge lines join a common header which
during normal operation is maintained at 9.1barg by an overhead dump
valve controlled by a pressure indicating controller (PIC). (9.1barg header
pressure corresponds to a nominal flowrate of 760m3/hr from one pump.)
High and low level alarms annunciate if the pressure rises to 10.0barg or
falls to 8.0barg. Additional relief valves set at 10.5barg (spare set at
10.7barg) protect the line, and especially the strainers, against
overpressure. A line pressure of 10.5barg corresponds to a flowrate greater
than the minimum flow of the service water pumps.

2.4 Seawater Strainers

Refer to Figure 12.4

All of the service water is filtered through three, 50% rated 80µn (micron)
strainers. The package is rated for a flowrate of 1720m3/hr, a predicted
differential pressure of 0.3bar when clean and 0.42bar when fouled.

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The strainers are backflushed by an internal collector arm which is rotated

by an air motor. Backflushing is carried out during normal operation with a
minimal interruption of flow. Only 5% of the total flow is used for the
backflush for a period of 3 minutes. The operation is activated by a timer
with an automatic differential pressure (∆P) override. A manual initiation
facility is also incorporated.

3 GENERAL SERVICE SUPPLY

Refer to Figure 12.2

A single lift pump, powered from the emergency switchboard, provides

seawater supply to the life support section of the distribution network. This
pump cannot supply water facilities downstream of the header non-return
valve. The pump is similar to the main seawater lift pumps but is rated at
only 200m3/hr (minimum flow is 95m3/hr). The caisson and expansion joint
arrangement is also similar to that of the main lift pumps.

The discharge pipework incorporates a pressure indicating controller (PIC)

acting on an overboard dump valve, and a pressure relief valve set at
10.5barg. The pump discharge non-return valve has a ¼" hole drilled in the
flapper to allow a leakage of freshly hypochlorinated water to keep the
pump and caisson free of biological activity. A test line, vacuum breaker
and air bleed facilities similar to the main service lift pumps are also
incorporated in the discharge pipework.

The general service pump will start automatically on a low pressure signal
from the discharge supply header.

A backpressure of 5.0bar is held in the return header. When the pressure in

the return header rises, a split-range function on the pressure indicator
control alarm (PICA) opens one valve and if the pressure still rises, the
second valve is opened. When the return header pressure falls, the bypass
valve is opened to admit cold water directly to the return header thus
maintaining the pressure and supply to the water injection system.

3.1 Distribution Headers

Refer to Figure 12.2

The seawater service network is segregated into general service supply and
main supply. It is possible to run the hypochlorinator feed from the general
service pump via the turbogenerator cooling circuits during startup.

Water supply to the water injection system is normally from the discharge
of the coolers. This gives a warm water supply which assists the deaeration
process.

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4 DEAERATION

Raw seawater is normally oxygen-saturated and is extremely corrosive;

however, removal down to less than 5ppb (parts per billion) of dissolved
oxygen has been shown to be effective and economically attractive in
controlling corrosion.
Once the dissolved oxygen is removed, the corrosivity of the seawater is
minimised and is then suitable for injection purposes. Corrosion products,
especially those of iron, are highly undesirable in injection water due to
their inherent plugging ability when deposited on the porous surface of the
injection wellbore It is impractical to effectively coat the water injection
system to prevent corrosion, especially the injection well tubing, and the
removal of the dissolved oxygen from the seawater is the most efficient
method. In addition the service life of the equipment is enhanced,
especially the subsurface equipment, which is expensive to replace or
overhaul.

There are three standard processes for removing dissolved oxygen:

• Gas stripping
• Vacuum deaeration
• Chemical removal

Vacuum deaeration is the main method used on the North Sea installations;
gas stripping facilities are fitted to the deaeration towers but are not in
current use.

4.1 Vacuum Deaeration

Deaeration is performed by a vacuum stripping process using the following

equipment:
• Deaeration towers
• Vacuum pumping system
• Deaeration transfer pumps

4.2 Deaeration Towers

Refer to Figure 12.5

The deaeration towers are vertical cylindrical vessels designed to operate

under vacuum. They contain two packed compartments (first and second
stages). Each packing section contains approximately 17m3 of 50mm
polypropylene pall rings.
Cathodic protection is provided by sacrificial zinc anodes located on the
vessel wall below the normal operating water level.
Two vapour take-off branches are fitted between the two packing stages;
these are fitted with grill sections to retain packing rings should they fall
away.

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Raw seawater from the service water return header enters the diffusers at
the top of the tower at a pressure of 0.5barg and is sprayed into the first-
stage compartment and onto the upper packing section. The water is
dissipated by the polypropylene pall rings releasing the dissolved gases.

The gases in the first stage plus a certain amount of “flushed” water
vapour, are extracted by the vacuum system through two branches located
at the top of the tower.

A perforated tray assembly, supporting the 1st stage packing, allows the
process water droplets to fall to the second stage.

The second-stage assembly is similar to the first stage and allows further
gases to be released. These are drawn into the two vapour branches
connected to the vacuum system from directly above the packing to
increase the pumping effect. Dissolved oxygen not removed by the process
is sprayed with a chemical oxygen scavenger solution from a nozzle at the
base of the second-stage packing. This reduces the oxygen content to the
desired level.

4.3 Transfer Pumps

The deaerated water collects in the base of the tower and provides a
suction head for the transfer pumps which discharge the oxygen-free water
through the seawater filters to the water injection pumps.
The pumps are designed to run in parallel.
Level switches fitted to the deaerator will trip the pumps when the water
level in the base of the tower reaches a predetermined low level.

4.4 Vacuum Pumps

Each deaeration tower is maintained under vacuum conditions by two liquid

ring pumps (LRPs). The vacuum pumping system comprises two pairs of
pumps each fitted with an air augmentor. Each pump pair shares a common
water circulating tank incorporating twin swirl separators.
During normal operation both pumps will be running with their air
augmentors to maintain vacuum according to the temperature entering the
deaerator tower. Seawater from the inlet line is injected into the pump
casing and forms, by centrifugal action, a liquid ring seal at the periphery of
each impeller.
Air drawn into the impeller vane pockets through the suction port at each
stage is subsequently compressed by the water forced into the pockets
when the impeller blade tips come closest to the casing wall. The air/water
mixture is then ejected at the discharge port.
Operating experience has shown that these pumps require considerable
attention during the setting up and maintaining of a correct flow balance to
the swirl separator and the pump casing. It has also been found that main
shaft bending can occur, possibly as a result of an overfilled pump casing
prior to starting.

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4.5 Air Augmentor

Operating air for the augmentor is drawn in from a small branch on the vent
section of each swirl separator by the vacuum pump. A special nozzle in the
vapour head increases the velocity at the point of entry, providing greater
suction than from the pump alone. This draws the air/vapour mixture from
the deaerator tower, creating the desired vacuum.

4.6 Control and Instrumentation

The deaerator tower water level is maintained by a level control valve (LCV)
fitted to the inlet line from the service water return header. A level
indicating controller (LIC) located on the side of the column controls this
valve.
It is important that the required level is maintained under all water
injection load conditions to supply the deaerator transfer pumps and
injection pumps. It is also important that the maximum deaeration tower
water level is not exceeded, or the first and second-stage packing will
become flooded and excess water will be carried over to the vacuum
pumps.
High and low level alarms and trips are provided on the deaerator tower to
protect the vacuum and transfer pumps from maloperation.

5 INJECTION WATER FILTRATION

Compared to many injection water sources, North Sea water is relatively

low in suspended solids content. However, since removal of the majority of
the suspended solids from the seawater greatly improves its injectivity, a
filtration process is incorporated to obtain the required water quality for
injection and to prevent solids building up in the wellbore.
The majority of suspended solids in the North Sea water are thought to be
composed of biological matter, which is generally detrimental to the
maintenance of high injectivity. If formation water is ultimately injected, it
too may require filtration using a separately designated section of the
filtration system to avoid problems of chemical incompatibility.
If unfiltered water is allowed to enter a formation, solid particles are likely
to bridge the formation pores fairly quickly, eventually plugging them and
preventing the flow of oil. The quality of filtration required to avoid
plugging obviously depends on the pore size of the formation and on the
diameter and population density of the particles suspended in the water.

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5.1 Removal of Suspended Solids

Early platform designs provided only small space and weight allowance for
filtration plant which influenced the selection of the filter.

Three main types of filter have been extensively used on North Sea
installations:

• Cartridge
• Granular and multimedia
• Precoat

A fourth type, Diatomaceous Earth (DE) Filters, were tried in the early days
of the North Sea oil industry, but were found to be impractical for a variety
of reasons.

All types of filter have a backwash programme which is activated either by a

backwash interval timer, a high differential pressure (DP) across the filter or
manually as required.

5.2 Cartridge Filters

Refer to Figure 12.6

Cartridge filters are used when the seawater has a low suspended solids
content and the porosity of the formation is high. Pleated paper,
polypropylene, glass fibre, metal mesh and woven fibre materials have been
used.

Self-cleaning units incorporating steel mesh cartridges have been used to

successfully filter out solid particles between 10 and 20µ.

Four filter units are usually provided to handle injection flowrate demands
and are designed for continuous operation.

Two inlets and two outlets can be incorporated as it is possible to filter

deaerated seawater and produced water in parallel. Care must be taken to
ensure that no filter vessel is ever simultaneously connected to both inlets
and outlets.

Flow should be equally shared between filter vessels as far as possible. Flow
through any one filter vessel should not normally exceed 485m3/hr.

Backflushing is carried out on one filter at a time and lasts about 5 seconds
per cartridge.

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5.3 Granular and Multimedia Filters

Refer to Figures 12.7, 12.8 and 12.9

In its simplest form this type of filter consists of a vessel packed with fine
homogeneous sand on top of a gravel base. Backwashing is carried out using
a combination of air and water.
Dual media and multimedia filters are successful in filtration of seawater
and can achieve filtration specification of removing 95% of particles
between 2 and 5 microns and all particles greater than 5µ.
The filter medium generally consists of two or three layers of differing
density and particle size. A fine and dense material is used on the bottom
with a coarse light material on top, which increases the filtration
capabilities, particularly when removing impurities such as micro-organisms
and plankton.
Multimedia filters will store more suspended solids than a sand filter and
therefore have a longer cycle length between backwashes. A combination of
anthracite and garnet has been used with great success.
Backwashing is normally a cycle of air scour to break up and scour the bed,
followed by a slow backwash which loosens filtered particulate from the
media and then a fast backwash which washes them out of the filter. The
whole cycle takes approximately 60 minutes per vessel.
The multimedia filters are now being widely used throughout the North Sea
on the newer installations as the weight problem is not such a factor on the
bigger platforms now being commissioned.
A polyelectrolyte filter aid is injected into the water supply into these types
of filter. This creates a coagulation and binds the particulate together
thereby increasing filter efficiency.

5.4 Precoat Filters

Refer to Figures 12.10 and 12.11

This technique, which is widely used in food industries for the purification
of juices or wines, is the main method of injection water filtration on the
Northern North Sea installations.
A characteristic feature of precoat filters is the combined use of a number
of supports in the form of discs, plates or candles. These supports are
meshed, perforated or made of some porous material and a powdery
filtering medium is applied to them in layers formed by a slurry mix.
The filter medium layer may act as a filter only (cellulose), as a filter and
adsorbent (diatomites, activated carbon) or may even enter into a chemical
reaction (ion exchange). In normal operation, the liquid to be treated is
brought into contact with the outside surface of the precoating medium
which is kept in place by the pressure difference between the two faces of
the filter element.

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The layer is usually only a few millimetres thick and the impurities are
retained over a small area. If the impurities have a high clogging capacity
such as an oil film, it is wise to add a small amount of the precoat material
to the raw water (body feeding) to maintain a measure of porosity in the
filtered solids. This prevents a rapid buildup of differential pressure across
the elements and permits a longer operating time.

Periodically, the used precoat is removed by reversing the flow through the
vessel. A recoating sequence is then started and another layer of precoat is
applied to the filter. The filter is isolated from the main flow for this
operation.

Precoat and additional media are generally the same, although in some
cases they can be different but complementary, or provide a different
degree of fineness.

The range of different precoat media is quite extensive; the following

summarises the types which have been used in the Northern North Sea
installations:

(1) Diatomites
Made up of the fossils of a whole range of highly diverse aquatic
organisms. Their substance is almost pure silica and they have a very
adsorbent porous structure. The particle size varies from 5 to 100µ.
Diatomites are able to adsorb impurities present in emulsified forms
such as oils and hydrocarbons and also retain a number of micro-
organisms.

(2) Perlites
Expanded and crushed aluminium silicates which have an apparent
density only half that of diatomites. However, they do not have the
same adsorbent capacities.

(3) Cellulose
99.5% pure cellulose is used in this media. Properly used, it has the
same filtering action as a slow filter-paper but is only a very feeble
adsorbent. It is quite insoluble in cold or tepid water but liberates
appreciable quantities of soda and organic matter.

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6 PUMPING FACILITIES

The injection pumping process provides the correct, continuous flowrate at

the appropriate injection wellhead pressure. Spare pumping capacity is
essential as high pressure pumps require frequent maintenance. Pump
discharge and distribution manifolds route the water to the injection wells.

All injection pumps are multistaged, high speed and large capacity at a high
discharge pressure. A great deal of power is required to drive these units.

Water injection pumps are usually driven by electric motors through a

gearbox, although in some instances they are driven by gas turbines. A
typical flowpath of water through the injection pump is shown in Figure
12.2.

The total capacity of the pumps has to satisfy the maximum injection rate
plus 100/a spare capacity at the requisite injection wellhead pressure.
Typical flowrates and pressures are 436 m3/hr at 236barg. Each pump is
protected by a flow operated leak-off valve and a low suction pressure trip;
low flow shutdown trips may also be fitted.

7 INJECTION WELLS

Water injection wells are drilled into carefully selected points in the
reservoir to effect a controlled water front advance for maximum oil
recovery. Individual well injection rate control is necessary to prevent
overinjection resulting in fracturing. Separate injection wells are required
for produced water when used for injection purposes.

The number of injection wells on each platform varies according to

reservoir characteristics and the platform position.

Treated seawater is pumped to the manifold system and to each of the

water injection wellheads through individual flowlines and hand control
valves. Each well has facilities for automatic closure in the event of an
emergency.

The well shut-in pressures are net of the reservoir pressure at the well and
the hydrostatic head due to the seawater in the well tubing.

As shown in Figure 12.13 flow from the water injection header to each of
the injection wellheads is through a hand control valve immediately
upstream of the wellhead. The water enters the wellhead through a valve
arrangement on the xmas tree which also contains valves for normal
operation, emergency shutdown and wireline operations. The flowrate is
measured using an orifice plate device equipped with indicating and
totalising facilities.

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8 INJECTION WATER QUALITY CONTROL AND CHEMICAL TREATMENT

A water injection system in service requires routine monitoring to ensure an

effective injection programme.

At present, only treatment with hypochlorite, oxygen scavenger scale

inhibitor and antifoam is being used. However, should long-term operation
of the water injection system reveal that an unacceptable level of corrosion
is taking place, then treatment with a corrosion inhibitor may be
considered.

Types of chemical treatment are as follows:

8.1 Antifoam
The antifoam treatment facility is used when the seawater becomes
contaminated with, in particular, high protein levels. An antifoam chemical
is injected upstream of the deaerator tower.

8.2 Filter Aid

Filter aid is used for some filtration systems, particularly for sand filters. It
is not necessary for the precoat filters which give satisfactory filtration
results without further additions.

8.3 Hypochlorite
Chlorination is an effective means of controlling marine growth
in seawater systems. One of the most convenient ways of achieving this is
by electrolysis of seawater to produce sodium hypochlorite. Sodium
hypochlorite is a stable compound of chlorine which is the same compound
formed when chlorine gas is added to seawater.
Generation of hypochlorite is determined by the chlorine demand of the
seawater and by the amount of residual chlorine required to maintain
satisfactory biological control up to the deaerator inlets.
Added to this the residual hypochlorite acts as a catalyst for oxygen
scavenger to achieve the final oxygen content quality.

8.4 Oxygen Scavenger

The vacuum deaeration process only reduces the dissolved oxygen
concentration to about 200ppb from approximately 9.5ppm. The remaining
residual dissolved oxygen is then reduced to virtually “zero” by the
injection of a chemical oxygen scavenger into the deaerator. Usually, liquid
ammonium bisulphite is used for this purpose which will also react with any
residual chlorine present. This extra demand must be considered when
determining the oxygen scavenger dosing rate.
The current dosage rate is the amount required to effect a 2ppm equivalent
sulphite (SO3) excess downstream of the deaerators. This excess is applied
to react with any oxygen ingress downstream of the deaerators.
Application of ammonium bisulphite will cause a slight pH drop in the
seawater as small quantities of acid are liberated on reaction with the
dissolved oxygen.

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8.5 Scale Inhibitor

There are basically two reasons for treating the seawater with scale
inhibitor:

(1) To prevent calcium carbonate scale deposits forming in seawater

during temperature changes, for example, the seawater service
distribution system when it is cooled and at the injection well bore
formation (especially during the early part of the injection
programme).

(2) To prevent the possible formation of insoluble sulphate and/or

carbonate deposits when seawater contacts formation water
(incompatibility). This is particularly important during the initial
injection period. A knowledge of the composition of the formation
water is desirable to establish the potential severity of this problem.

Scale inhibitor is injected into water injection wells 1 hour prior to any
planned shutdown. This is to prevent calcium carbonate scaling of seawater
around and in the well due to heating by the surrounding formation. The
injection rate is 10 to 20ppm depending on the product used.

8.6 Biocide

When a planned injection well shutdown is carried out, an organic biocide is

injected into the system 24 hours prior to the shutdown. This biocide
treatment is necessary to minimise the buildup of sulphate reducing
bacteria (SRB) colonies in the anaerobic part of the system.

Hypochlorite cannot be used for this purpose as it is a powerful oxidising

agent and will cause corrosion. It also has a poor penetration ability unlike
most organic biocides.

There are several types of organic biocides available. Gluteraldehyde is

currently used for the Shell North Sea Operations as the principal organic
biocide for the anaerobic systems.

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9 INJECTION WATER QUALITY MONITORING DEVICES

9.1 Membrane Filtration

Membranes are used for water quality examinations to ensure adequate fine
filtration is being achieved.

9.2 Oxygen Analysers

Continuous on-line monitoring analysers will detect and alarm if the oxygen
content rises above the maximum preset value (normally l2ppb).

9.3 Biological Analysis

Monitoring for bacterial activity is carried out on a routine basis by the

offshore Laboratory Technicians. This entails taking samples of the injection
water and using a culture medium to make the bacteria of interest grow.
This will permit an estimate of the number and type of bacteria to be
made.

9.4 Corrosion Rate Analysis

Corrosion probes and coupons along with galvanic probes are provided on
the water injection pipework and flowlines to allow regular checks to be
carried out in an effort to detect early signs of corrosion.

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SECTION 12

SEAWATER SYSTEMS

Figures

12.1 Seawater/Water Injection System Overview

12.2 Typical Seawater Service System
12.3 Seawater Lift Pump
12.4 Seawater Strainers and Pressure Control
12.5 Deaeration System
12.6 Cartridge Filter
12.7 Sand Filter
12.8 Dual/Multimedia Filter
12.9 Dual Multimedia Filter Package
12.10 Precoat Filter
12.11 Precoat Filtration Plant
12.12 Injection Water Pumps
12.13 Water Injection Wellhead
 12.1 Seawater/Water Injection System Overview

© Petrofac Training Services / June 2010

 12.2 Typical Seawater Service System

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 12.3 Seawater Lift Pump

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 12.4 Seawater Strainers and Pressure Contr

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 12.5 Deaeration System

12.5a Air Augmentor and Vacuum Pump

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 12.5b Deaerator Unit

12.5c Gas Stripper

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 12.6 Cartridge Filter

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 Fig12.12 Injection Water Pumps

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 Fig 12.13 Water Injection Wellhead

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