Outline: Chapter 19

A Revolution in Politics: The Era of the French Revolution and Napoleon

I. Beginnings of the Revolutionary Age: The American Revolution
British Attempts to Reorganize Its American Empire
Reorganization, Resistance, and Rebellion
the immediate causes of the American Revolution stemmed from Great Britain’s respo
nse to its victory over France in the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), known as the F
rench and Indian War in the American colonies
from the Americans’ point of view, the British colonies were young and vibrant com
pared to the old and decadent British society
from the British point of view, all people in the empire were part of a single u
nit and represented indirectly by Parliament which was the supreme authority thr
oughout
in the colonies, where there was a preponderance of independent farmers, 50% of
adult males could vote
in Britain, fewer than 20% of adult males could vote
a key result of the Seven Years’ War in North America was growing tensions between
American colonists and the English government demanding more revenue from the c
olonies to pay for the victorious British army
after 1763, the British authorities and colonists came into conflict over Britis
h efforts to raise new revenues through increased taxes. (EX: Stamp Act of 1765-
--very unpopular with Americans)
the Tea Act of 1773 was devised by the British to bail out the British East Indi
a Company by allowing it to bypass American wholesalers
150 colonists responded in Boston by dumping British tea into Boston Harbor whil
e disguised as Native Americans (Boston Tea Party)
the British Parliament responded to the colonists’ Boston Tea party by passing the
Coercive Acts
closed the port in Boston until compensation was made for the destroyed tea
restricted town meetings
strengthened the authority of the royal governor in Massachusetts
designed to punish radical Massachusetts as an example to other colonies, the Co
ercive Acts backfired
colonial assemblies everywhere denounced the British action
led to the meeting of the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia (September,
1774)
the 1st CC’s more militant representatives urged the forming of militias to counte
ract British actions
when the British army under General Gage attempted to stop rebel mobilization in
Massachusetts, fighting between colonists and redcoats erupted at Lexington and
Concord in April, 1775
The War of Independence
After Lexington and Concord, more than a year passed before the colonists decide
d to declare their independence from the British Empire
Thomas Paine’s political pamphlet Common Sense (January, 1776) was an important fa
ctor in mobilizing public sentiment toward independence
the pamphlet sold 120,000 copies in 3 months in the colonies
argued that it was ridiculous for “a continent to be perpetually governed by an is
land”
On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress approved the Declaration of Ind
ependence written by Thomas Jefferson
affirmed the Enlightenment’s natural rights of “life, liberty, and the pursuit of ha
ppiness”
declared the colonies “free and independent states absolved from all allegiance to
the British crown
officially began the American Revolution
the 2nd CC authorized the formation of a Continental Army with George Washington
appointed its commander-in-chief
compared to British forces, the Continental Army consisted of undisciplined amat
eurs whose terms of service were usually brief
British Army: 50,000 British red coats & 30,000 German mercenaries
Continental Army: 400,000 served in army and militias but Washington never had m
ore than 20,000 troops at his disposal for any one battle
Essential to the colonists’ winning independence was the generous military and fin
ancial aid provided from various European states, especially France
the American victory at the Battle of Saratoga (October, 1777) was the turning p
oint of the war
despite the fact that the British had won most of the battles they were on the v
erge of defeat due to the fact that they were squared off against not only the A
mericans but much of Europe
the decisive battle took place at Yorktown (1781) where a combined Continental
and French armies led by Washington along with the French Navy boxed in the Brit
ish Army under General Cornwallis who was forced to surrender
Treaty of Paris (1783) formally ended the war
recognized the independence of the American Colonies
granted Americans control of western territory from the Appalachians to the Miss
issippi River
B. Toward a New Nation
due to their aversion to establishing a united nation with a strong central gove
rnment, the colonies passed the dish-water weak Articles of Confederation (1781)
after the war’s conclusion, a series of economic, political, and international pro
blems led to a movement for a stronger central government
In the summer of 1787, the Constitutional Convention met to initially revise the
Articles but eventually to write an entirely new document
The US Constitution (1789) created a central government distinct from and superi
or to the governments of the individual states
national government was given the power to levy taxes, raise a national army, re
gulate foreign and domestic trade, establish a national currency
created a national government with 3 branches
Executive branch headed by a President who could:
execute the laws
veto the legislature’s acts
make judicial and executive appointments
supervise foreign affairs
direct military forces
Legislative branch
upper house called Senate elected by State legislatures (2 Senators per state)
lower house called the House of Representatives elected directly by the people (
number of reps for each state based on state’s population)
Judicial branch
Supreme Court
Other lower federal courts
Role was to enforce the Constitution as the supreme law of land
new constitution had to be ratified by popularly chosen conventions in 9 of 13 s
tates before it would take effect
c. The Constitution of 1789 was barely passed by the Continental Congress
thanks to the advocacy of Federalists who promised to add a Bill of Rights
d. the Bill of Rights (1791), the first ten amendments to the US Constitution,
guaranteed American citizens the freedom of religion, speech, press, petition, a
nd assembly, as well as the right to bear arms, protection against unreasonable
searches and arrests, trial by jury, due process of law, and protection of prope
rty rights
The Impact of the American Revolution
the American Revolution affected Europeans by proving that the ideas of the Enli
ghtenment could be realized politically
a key conduit of ‘enlightened’ American political and moral ideas back to Europe was
formed by the hundreds literate and influential French army and navy officers w
ho had fought on the American side during the Revolutionary War
C. Impact America s Revolution on Europe
the American Revolution affected Europeans by proving that the ideas of the Enli
ghtenment could be realized politically
a key conduit of ‘enlightened’ American political and moral ideas back to Europe was
formed by the hundreds literate and influential French army and navy officers w
ho had fought on the American side during the Revolutionary War €
Background to the French Revolution
A. Social Structure of the Old Regime
the French economy of the 18th Century was growing due to increased trade and
industrial production
wealth was not evenly distributed in France as French society was divided into l
egal categories known as estates
1. First Estate
consisted of the clergy and numbered about 130,000 people
clergy were exempt from paying France’s chief tax called the “taille”
church agreed to make a “voluntary” contribution every five years to the state
great gulf in income still existed between higher and lower clergy
2. Second Estate
Consisted of the French nobility which numbered 350,000 and owned 25 to 30 perce
nt of the land
on the eve of the French Revolution, the First and Second estates dominated Fren
ch society
members of this estate held many of the leading positions in the government, the
military, the law courts, and the higher church offices
controlled a good deal of heavy industry in France particularly in mining and me
tallurgy
French nobility was also divided
Nobles of the Robe
derived their status from officeholding
dominated royal law courts and important administrative offices
Nobles of the Sword
claimed to be descendants of the original medieval nobility
attempted to limit the sale of military officerships to 4th generation nobles th
rough the Segur Law
as a group, the nobles sought to expand their privileges at the expense of the m
onarchy
although there were many poor nobles, on the whole the fortunes of the wealthy a
ristocrats outstripped those of most others in French society
common to all nobles were tax exemptions
3. Third Estate
consisted of the commoners of French society who constituted the overwhelming ma
jority of the French population
peasants made up 75 to 80 % of this estate
skilled artisans, shopkeepers, and other wage earners in the cities were part of
this estate
about 8% of the population was considered middle class or the bourgeoisie (merch
ants, lawyers, doctors, writers, public office holders, bankers, industrialists)
by the 18th Century, the French bourgeoisie and the nobility were increasingly l
ess distinguishable from each other
B. Other Problems Facing the French Monarchy
The most immediate cause of the French Revolution was the government’s failure to
resolve its debts
As one measure of the French crown’s terrible financial predicament, by 1788 the i
nterest payments on state debt alone amounted to one-half of all government spen
ding
Vital fiscal reform of the French state just prior to the revolution was impeded
by nobles of the robe in the thirteen regional French parlements who regularly
refused to approve or enforce new royal tax proposals
Just prior to the revolution in France, the number of poor in France went up gre
atly due to a manufacturing depression which caused food shortages, unemployment
, and inflation
1 in 3 citizens of France were deemed poor on the eve of the revolution
on the verge of complete financial collapse, the French monarchy under Louis XVI
called the Estates-General into session for the first time since 1614
III. French Revolution
From Estates-General to National Assembly
the government ruled that when the Estates-General opened on May 5, 1789 that th
e 3rd Estate would have 600 delegates while the 1st and 2nd Estates would have 3
00 apiece
the cahiers de doleances, or statements of local grievances, called for the abol
ishing the fiscal privileges of the church and nobility (written by reform-minde
d members of the Third Estate)
the Estates-General was divided from the beginning over the issue of voting by o
rders or by head
Voting by order (estate) meant that each estate would vote separately and have v
eto power over the other two (supported by nobility and clergy) [won out]
Voting by head meant every delegate would have one vote (supported by commoners)
1. National Assembly
he controversy over voting by order versus is voting by head in the Estates-Gene
ral saw the Third Estate respond by forming a "National Assembly"
most delegates still wanted to make changes within a framework of respect for th
e authority of the king (Sieyes was a notable exception)
on June 17, 1789, the Third Estate voted to constitute itself a National Assembl
y and decided to draw up a constitution
on June 20, the deputies of the Third Estate arrived at their meeting place, onl
y to find their doors locked; thereupon they moved to a nearby indoor tennis cou
rt and swore that they would continue to meet until they had produced a French c
onstitution (TENNIS COURT OATH)
these actions constitute the first step in the French Revolution since the Third
Estate had no legal right to act as the National Assembly
this "revolution of lawyers" in 1789 appeared doomed because the imminent royal
use of armed force against them
Common People Intervene
this revolution was saved by the intervention of armed commoners, especially in
urban uprisings against royal forces and armories
armed commoners most famous uprising took place in Paris on July 14, 1789 when t
hey stormed the Bastille which was a royal arsenal and prison
the storming of the Bastille saved the National Assembly because after this Loui
s XVI was unable to enforce his will because his royal forces were too unreliabl
e after this incident (this encouraged commoners to take matters into their own
hands)
a growing resentment of the entire seigneurial system with its fees and obligati
ons, greatly exacerbated by the economic and fiscal activities of the great esta
te holders in the difficult decade of the 1780s, created the conditions for a po
pular uprising
viewed aristocracy with suspicion
B. Destruction of the Old Regime
One of the first acts of the National Assembly was to destroy the relics of feud
alism or aristocratic privilege by voting to abolish seigneurial rights as well
as the fiscal privileges of nobles, clergy, towns, and provinces
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (August, 1789)
used as the ideological foundation for the assembly’s actions as well as an educat
ional device for the nation
this charter of basic liberties reflected the ideas of the major philosophes of
the French Enlightenment
owes much to the American Declaration of Independence and American state constit
utions
guaranteed citizens the right to “liberty, property, security, and resistance to o
ppression”.
Called to an end to exemptions from taxation based on social standing, freedom a
nd equal rights to all men, and access to public office based on talent
The monarchy was to be limited in nature
Freedom of speech and press were coupled with the outlawing of arbitrary arrests
The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791)
written by French women’s activist Olympe de Gouges
argued that the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen did not apply t
o women.
She wrote her declaration to address the needs of French women
Argued that women should be treated as equals to men in both legal and political
rights
Was ignored entirely by the males in the National Assembly who did little to imp
rove the lot of women in French society
The King and Church
at first, an otherwise inactive Louis XVI refused to enact the decrees on the ab
olition of feudalism and the Declaration of Rights
Women’s march on Versailles on October 5, 1789 changed Louis XVI’s thinking
thousands of Parisian women armed with broomsticks, lances, pitchforks, swords,
pistols, and muskets marched on Louis XVI’s Palace of Versailles to demand bread a
nd to confront the king and the National Assembly
the women’s action had forced the Parisian National Guard under Lafayette to follo
w their lead and march with them
when Louis’s assurances that he would send grain to Paris fell short in the eyes o
f the women, they demanded that the King and his wife and son return to Paris wi
th them
the king complied and brought with him wagonloads of grain with him
he also accepted the National Assembly’s decrees
Louis and his family would be virtual prisoners in Paris from this time onward
the Catholic Church was viewed as an important pillar of the old order and it so
on came under attack by reformers
church lands were confiscated by the state
the church was secularized by the new Civil Constitution (1790) which had both b
ishops and priests be elected by the people, paid by the state, and had to swea
r an oath to the state
the pope forbade this and only 54% of the French clergy took this new oath to th
e state
made the church an enemy to the revolution which gave a counterrevolution a popu
lar base from which to operate
church legislation bad mistake by the National Assembly
5. A New Constitution
by 1791, the National Assembly had finally completed a new constitution that est
ablished a limited, constitutional monarchy
the king had very few powers that were not subject to review by the new Legislat
ive Assembly
the Legislative Assembly
had the sovereign power of the state
was to sit for two years with 745 representatives chosen by an indirect system o
f election that preserved the power in the hands of the more affluent members of
society
although all citizens had the same civil rights, only men over the age of 25 pay
ing taxes equivalent in value to three days’ unskilled labor could vote (4.3 milli
on male citizens qualified in 1790)
the citizens who could vote did not elect the members of the Legislative Assembl
y directly, but voted for electors who chose the assembly
electors were men who paid in taxes an equivalent of 10 days’ labor (50,000 elect
ors total)
to be a deputy you had to be a man paying taxes worth at least 25 days’ labor
it abolished all the old local and provincial divisions and divided France into
83 departments of roughly equal size in area and population
bourgeoisie was generally in charge of these departments
passed self-denying ordinance which prevented members of the National Assembly f
rom being re-elected to the new Legislative Assembly
political clubs that were critical of the new government began to pop up by mid
1791
the Jacobins
emerged as the most important radical element in French politics during this tim
e
named after the Jacobin convent in Paris which they took over in 1789
clubs also formed in the provinces where they served primarily as discussion gro
ups (900 clubs by Spring of 1791)
members were usually the elite of their local societies, but they also included
artisans and tradespeople
by mid 1791, the government was still facing severe financial difficulties due t
o massive tax evasion
bourgeois politicians in power remained loyal to the king
king undercut the Assembly badly by trying to flee the country with his family (
captured at Varennes and brought back to Paris)
king attempted to work with new assembly upon his forced return
6. Opposition from Abroad
over a period of time, some European countries had become concerned about the Fr
ench example and feared that revolution would spread to their countries
Austria and Prussia issued the Declaration of Pillnitz (August 27, 1791) which w
as designed to uplift the French monarchy by means of force if necessary
Rather than wait for an attack, the French Legislative Assembly declared war on
Austria on April 20, 1792
The French fared badly in the early fighting
The Sans-culottes
a radical group upset with how the war was going, economic shortages, and the go
vernment (king in particular)
organized a mob which attacked the Legislative Assembly and the king’s residence
took the king hostage and forced the Assembly to suspend the monarchy
C.radical Revolution
Before the National Convention met, the Paris Commune (sans-culottes) dominated
the political scene
led by minister of justice Georges Danton (1759-1794)
sought revenge on those who had aided the king and resisted the popular will
thousands of presumed traitors were arrested and then massacred as ordinary Pari
sian trades people and artisans solved the problem of overcrowded prisons by mas
s executions of their inmates
National Convention
it was called to draft a new constitution
it also acted as the sovereign ruling body of France
its composition was similar to previous conventions:
it was dominated by lawyers, professionals, and property owners (also had artisa
ns represented for the first time)
two-thirds were under the age of 45
almost all had previous political experience as a result of the revolution
almost all were intensely distrustful of the king
one of its first acts, in September of 1792, was to abolish the monarchy and est
ablish a republic
the convention split into factions over what to do with the deposed king with th
e two largest factions being the Girondins and the Mountain
The Girondins
represented primarily the provinces
feared the radical Parisian mobs
wanted to keep the king alive as a hedge against the future
The Mountain
represented the interest of the city of Paris
primarily middle class
owed much of its strength to the popular and radical elements within the city
wanted the king executed
the Mountain emerged as the victor over the Girondins and controlled the Nationa
l Convention during the early stages of the "Radical Revolution"
by a narrow margin, the Mountain was able to pass a decree calling for the execu
tion of the king
King Louis XVI was executed by the state on January 21, 1793
His execution created new enemies both domestically and abroad
At the end of May and beginning of June, 1793, the sans-culottes organized a dem
onstration, invaded the National Convention, and forced the arrest and execution
of the leading Girondins
The authority of the National Convention was repudiated in western France partic
ularly in Vendee
Major provincial cities of Lyons and Marseilles favored a decentralized republic
to free themselves from the dominance of Paris
After Louis XVI s execution, an informal coalition of Austria, Prussia, Spain, P
ortugal, Great Britain, and the Dutch Republic was formed to fight the French Re
public
by late spring after numerous victories over the French Army, some members of th
e coalition were poised to invade France
to meet these crises, the program of the National Convention became one of curbi
ng anarchy and counterrevolution at home while attempting to win the war by a gr
eat national mobilization
3. The Committee of Public Safety and the Reign of Terror
the convention gave broad powers to an executive committee known as the Committe
e of Public Safety
Committee of Public Safety
gave the country the leadership it needed to weather the domestic and foreign cr
ises of 1793
initially dominated by Georges Danton, Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794) became
the true leader
on August 23, 1793 the committee decreed a universal mobilization of the nation
in less than a year, the French revolutionary government had raised an army of 6
50,000
by September, 1794, it numbered 1,169,000 (the largest army in European History)
by 1795, the anti-French coalition s efforts against France had stalled and the
coalition itself was breaking up
the French republic s army in the 1790s fueled modern nationalism
Reign of Terror
to meet the domestic crisis, the National Convention and the Committee of Public
Safety established the "Reign of Terror."
to preserve the revolution from its internal enemies, rebellious cities were bru
tally defeated by the Revolutionary Armies
50,000 people fell victim to this reign (16,000 by guillotine)
victims included Marie Antionette, Olympe de Gouges, leading Girondins, and thou
sands of peasants
the nobles constituted 8% of the victims
the clergy constituted 6% of the victims
the middle class constituted 25% of the victims
the peasants constituted 60% of the victims
the bulk of the Terror s executions took place in places that had been in open r
ebellion against the authority of the National Convention such as the Vendee reg
ion and the cities of Lyons and Marseilles
4. The "Republic of Virtue"
by the Spring of 1793, the C of PS were sending "representatives on mission" as
agents of the central government to all departments to explain the war emergency
measures and to implement laws dealing with the wartime emergency
the C of PS established a system of requisitioning food supplies for the cities
enforced by the forays of the Revolutionary Armies into the countryside
the C of PS created the Law of General Maximum which established price controls
on goods declared of first necessity ranging from food and drink to fuel and clo
thing (mixed results)
Women continued to play an active role in the radical phase of the revolution
As spectators at political clubs and the National Convention, women made members
and deputies aware of their demands
in 1793, two women---an actress and a chocolate manufacturer---founded the Socie
ty for Revolutionary Republican Women
composed of largely working class women
viewed themselves as a family of sisters and vowed to defend France at all cos
ts
Still, male revolutionaries reacted disdainfully to female participation
the Paris Commune outlawed women s clubs and forbade women to be present at its
meetings
conservative or radical, most men believed a woman s place was still in the home
the National Convention took measures to de-Christianize the republic
the word "saint" was removed from street names & churches were pillaged
priests were encouraged to marry
converted Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris into a Temple of Reason
new French Revolutionary republican calendar was anti-Christian
began being used on October 5, 1793
removed most Christian holidays from the calendar
went to a ten day week, removing Sundays
in addition to its anti-Christian function, the calendar also served to mark the
Revolution as a new historical beginning
intensely unpopular with the people
abandoned by Napoleon on January 1, 1806
de-Christianization created far more enemies than friends
f. in 1794, the C of PS under Robespierre’s direction turned against its radic
al Parisian supporters, executing many of the leaders of the Paris Commune
greatly pacified the commune which was good for general order
this action suppressed the people who had been Robespierre’s chief supporters
g. success militarily versus outside foes made the "Reign of Terror" unnecessar
y and unwanted by the majority of French citizens
h. Robespierre continued the state ordered executions anyway because he was obs
essed with purifying French political scene
i. Finally, an anti-Robespierre coalition within the National Convention gather
ed enough votes to condemn him death
j. Robespierre was guillotined on July 28, 1794
k. The two chief accomplishments of the National Convention and C of PS: were th
e preservation of the revolution from being destroyed by foreign enemies and bei
ng safe from counterrevolution domestically
Reaction and the Directory
D. Thermidorean Reaction and the Directory
€ the government of the Directory in the period of the Thermidorean reaction incre
asingly had to rely on military support for its survival
the military was the chief supporter of the Directory
the government was faced with enemies on both the left and right of the politica
l spectrum
new elections in 1797 created even more uncertainty and instability
these problems led to a military coup d etat in 1799 led by popular general Napo
leon Bonaparte
V. Age of Napoleon
Rise to Power
born in Corsica in 1769 (son of a lawyer)
a child of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution
obtained a royal scholarship to study at a military school in France
his education led to his commission in 1785 as a lieutenant
spent next seven years studying the philosophes and the great military leaders a
nd battles of the past
the French Revolution and the European war that followed broadened his sights an
d presented him new opportunities
in 1792, he was promoted to captain, and in the following year, he performed so
well as an artillery commander that he was promoted to a brigadier general at th
e age of 25
in October of 1795, he saved the National Convention from a Parisian mob and in
1796 was made the commander of the French army in Italy
his energy, forceful personality, military brilliance allowed him to make quick
work of the Austrians in Italy
returned to France as a hero in 1797
chief reason for Napoleon’s fast rise to power was his series of stunning defeats
over the enemies of France
opposed an invasion of England, he led an attack of Egypt in 1799 instead
returned to France when English navy cut off his supply lines
participated in a coup d’etat that made him a virtual dictator when he was made 1s
t consul (made consul for life in 1802)
crowned himself Emperor of France in 1804
B. Domestic Policies of Emperor Napoleon
in 1801, Napoleon made peace with the oldest and toughest enemy of the R
evolution, the Catholic Church
Napoleon saw the necessity to come to terms with the Catholic church in order to
stabilize his regime
Concordat of 1801 accomplished goal
Introduced extensive legal code, the Code Napoleon
reaffirmed the ideals of the Revolution while creating a uniform legal system
recognized the principle of the equality of all citizens before the law
recognized the right of individuals to choose their own professions
allowed for religious toleration
abolished serfdom and feudalism
continued to protect property rights
outlawed trade unions and strikes
father’s control over families in France was restored (undid Revolution family leg
islation)
women in general were treated as less than equal
Napoleon developed a powerful centralized administrative machine
Replaced local assemblies with prefects who were career civil servants whose car
eers depended on the central government
Advancement in his government or military was based on demonstrated abilities
Napoleon overhauled the tax collection system making it more efficient
60 of 73 newspapers were shut down
all manuscripts had to be approved by the government
private mail was routinely read by the government
C. Napoleon s Empire and Europe s Response
when Napoleon came to power as consul in 1799, France was at war with a second E
uropean coalition of Russia, Great Britain, and Austria
sought to make peace and achieved his goal at Amiens in 1802
left France with new frontiers and number of client territories from the North S
ea to the Adriatic
peace did not last due to unresolved animosities between the French and the Brit
ish
war was renewed in 1803 as France took on Great Britain along with Prussia, Russ
ia, and Austria
Napoleon won a series of victories over the coalition at places such as Ulm, Aus
terlitz, Jena, and Eylau from 1805 to 1807
His victories allowed him to create a new European order named the Grand Empire
Grand Empire
was composed of three different parts but united under the rule of Napoleon
the empire included: Italy, Spain, Holland, the Swiss Republic, the Grand Duchy
of Warsaw, and eventually a union of German states EXCLUDING Prussia and Austria
within the empire, Napoleon demanded obedience, in part because he needed a comm
on front against the British and in part to feed his ever-growing ego
within the empire, he pushed for legal equality, religious toleration, and econo
mic freedom
tried to destroy old order (nobility and noble-supporting clergy had rights take
n away)
empire fell apart quickly due to the survival of Great Britain and the force of
Nationalism
The Invasion of Russia
Napoleon s invasion marked the beginning of the end for him and his power
In June of 1812, Napoleon led a Grand Army of 600,000 men into Russia
Napoleon s hope for victory depended on quickly meeting and defeating the Russia
n Army
the Russian forces refused to give battle and retreated for hundreds of miles wh
ile torching their own villages
these tactics stretched supply lines and made it next to impossible for Napoleon
s army from finding food and forage
Napoleon s army finally were given the opportunity to fight the Russians at Boro
dino (indecisive and costly victory)
Napoleon and his weary army finally reached the outskirts of Moscow to find the
city ablaze
without food or supplies, Napoleon was forced to abandon Moscow in October and b
egin his army s "Great Retreat"
lack of supplies and a particularly harsh Russian winter devastated his army on
this retreat
by the time it arrived in Poland in January of 1813, only 40,000 troops remained
this military disaster led to a war of liberation all over Europe, culminating i
n Napoleon s defeat in April of 1814
Final Downfall of Napoleon
the defeated emperor was exiled to the island of Elba off the coast of Tuscany,
while Louis XVIII (brother of Louis XVI) was established as the Bourbon King of
France
Louis XVIII had little support within France
Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to Paris with the backing of the army in
triumph on March 20, 1815
On June 18, 1815, the British Duke of Wellington would defeat Napoleon once and
for all at the Battle of Waterloo
Napoleon was exiled by the Allies to St. Helena, an island in the south Atlantic
, where he lived out the remainder of his unhappy days