Using ANSYS For Finite Element Analysis, Volume I A Tutorial For Engineers by Wael A. Altabey, Mohammad Noori, Libin Wang PDF

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ALTABEY • NOORI • WANG

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Customized Content Over the past two decades, the use of finite element method as a
Bundle—the more design tool has grown rapidly. Easy to use commercial software, such as
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the greater your practicing engineers. The objective of this book is to demonstrate the
discount! use of one of the most commonly used Finite Element Analysis software,
ANSYS, for linear static, dynamic, and thermal analysis through a series
of tutorials and examples. Some of the topics covered in these tutorials
Using ANSYS
for Finite
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ISBN: 978-1-94708-320-2
Using ANSYS for
Finite Element
Analysis
Using ANSYS for
Finite Element
Analysis
A Tutorial for Engineers
Volume I
Wael A. Altabey, Mohammad Noori,

and Libin Wang
MOMENTUM PRESS, LLC, NEW YORK

Using ANSYS for Finite Element Analysis: A Tutorial for Engineers,
Volume I
Copyright © Momentum Press®, LLC, 2018.
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Abstract
Finite Element Method (FEM) is a well-established technique for analyz-

ing the behavior and the response of structures or mechanical components
under static, dynamic, or thermal loads. Over the past two decades the use
of finite element analysis as a design tool has grown rapidly. Easy to use
commercial software have become common tools in the hands of students
as well as practicing engineers. The objective of this two volume book is
to demonstrate the use of one of the most commonly used Finite Element
Analysis software, ANSYS, for linear static, dynamic, and thermal anal-
ysis through a series of tutorials and examples. Some of the topics and
concepts covered in these tutorials include development of beam, frames,
and grid equations; 2-D elasticity problems; dynamic analysis; and heat
transfer problems. We are hoping these simple, yet, fundamental tutorials
will assist the users with the better understanding of finite element
modeling, how to control modeling errors, the safe use of the FEM in sup-
port of designing complex load bearing components and structures. There
are many good textbooks currently used for teaching the fundamentals of
finite element methods. There are also detailed users manuals available
for commercial software (ANSYS). However, those sources are useful for
advanced students and users. Therefore, there was a need to develop a
tutorial that would supplement a course in basic finite element or can be
used by practicing engineers who may not have the advanced training in
finite element analysis. That is the gap addressed by this book.
Keywords
ANSYS, composite materials, Dynamics, Failure analysis, Fatigue loads,

FEM, optimization, statistics
Contents
List of Figures ix
Preface xi
1 Introduction to Finite Element Analysis 1
1.1 Finite Element Method 1
1.2 Review Topics 15
1.3 General Steps of FEM 26
1.4 The Most Common Finite Element Types 27
1.5 Types of Element Formulation Methods 27
1.6 Derivation of Spring Element Equations Using
Direct Method 28
1.7 Bar Element Formulation Using Direct Method 31
1.8 Examples of Linear FEM 34
1.9 FEA: Modeling, Errors, and Accuracy 48
2 Static Analysis Using ANSYS 53
2.1 Overview of Structural Analysis 53
2.2 Static Analysis Procedure 54
3 Geometric Modeling 65
3.1 Typical Steps Involved in Model Generation
Within ANSYS 65
3.2 Importing Solid Models Created in CAD Systems 66
3.3 Solid Modeling 68
3.4 Tutorial 1: Solid Modeling Using 2D Primitives 69
3.5 Tutorial 2: Solid Modeling Using 3D Primitives 79
viii • Contents
4 Static Analysis Using Line Elements 91

4.1 Tutorial 3: Static Analysis Using Truss Elements 91
4.2 Tutorial 4 (a): Static Analysis Using BEAM Elements 112
4.3 Tutorial 4 (b): Static Analysis Using Beam Elements
with Distributed Load 115
5 Static Analysis Using Area Elements 121
5.1 Tutorial 5: Static Analysis Using Area Elements:
Plane Problem (Bracket) 121
5.2 Tutorial 6: Static Analysis Using Area Elements:
Plane Problem (Wrench) 141
6 Static Analysis Using Volume Elements 147
6.1 Tutorial 7: Static Analysis Using Volume Elements:
Component Design 147
6.2 Tutorial 8: Static Analysis Using Volume Elements:
Assembly Design 153
7 Thermal Stress Analysis 161
7.1 Tutorial 9: Thermal Analysis of Mechanical Structure 161
7.2 Tutorial 10 (a): Thermal-Stress Analysis-Sequential
Coupled Field 168
7.3 Tutorial 10 (b): Thermal-Stress Analysis: Direct-Coupled
Field177
Summary 185
Bibliography 187
Index 189
List of Figures
Figure 1.1. A diagram of the two common branches of the

general modeling solution. 2
Figure 1.2. The thermomechanical stresses in an air-cooled
turbine blade depicted. 3
Figure 1.3. The complex three-dimensional geometry of
the blade along with the combined thermal and
mechanical loadings. 3
Figure 1.4. The mathematical FEM. 5
Figure 1.5. The physical FEM. 6
Figure 1.6. A two dimensional FE model for a gear tooth. 7
Figure 1.7. Linear and nonlinear behavior of the structure. 9
Figure 1.8. Three-dimensional body. 17
Figure 1.9. Equilibrium of elemental volume. 18
Figure 1.10. (a) Plane stress (b) Plane strain. 21
Figure 1.11. Outline of an FE analysis project. 49
Figure 1.12. (a) A tapered bar loaded by axial force P,
(b) Discretization of the bar into four uniform
two-node elements of equal length. 50
Figure 1.13. Lateral midpoint displacement versus time for a
beam loaded by a pressure pulse. The material is
elastic-perfectly plastic. Plots were generated by
various users and various codes. 51
Preface
The finite element method (FEM) is a well-established technique for

analyzing the structural behavior of mechanical components and systems.
In recent years, the use of finite element analysis as a design tool has
grown rapidly. Easy-to-use commercial software have become common
tools in the hands of students, as well as practicing engineers.
The objectives of this work include:
• To teach students the basic concepts in the linear FEM as related to

solving engineering problems in solids and heat transfer.
• To provide students with a working knowledge of finite element
analysis tools and their use in mechanical design.
• The topics covered in this course include: introduction to finite
element; finite element formulation; introduction to a general
FE software (ANSYS); development of beam, frames, and grid
equations; 2D elasticity problems; dynamic analysis; and heat

transfer problems.
Gain insight into appropriate use of finite element modeling, under-

stand how to control modeling errors, benefit from hands-on exercise at
the computer workstation, and understand the safe use of FEM in support
of designing complex load-bearing components and structures.
There are many good textbooks already in existence that cover the
theory of FEMs. Similarly, there are detailed user manuals available
for commercial software (ANSYS). But, these are useful for advanced
students and users. Therefore, there was a need to develop a computer
session manual in line with the flow of the course and utilizing the software
platform available in the department. Students will be able to acquire the
required level of understanding and skill in modeling, analysis, validation,
and report generation for various design problems.
xii • Preface
This work could also be very helpful for the students of senior design
(mechanical system design) and (FEA for large deformation problems). In
addition, it could be used for computer sessions of short courses on stress
analysis techniques and finite element analysis offered by the Mechanical
Engineering department.
After giving a brief introduction to the finite element analysis and
modeling, various guided tutorials have been included in this manual.
Several new tutorials have been developed and others adapted from
different sources including ANSYS manuals in two volumes, ANSYS
workshops and Internet resources. Tutorials have been arranged in each
volume according to the flow of the course and cover topics such as
solid modeling using 2D and 3D primitives available in ANSYS, static
structural analysis (truss, beam, 2D and 3D structures), dynamic analysis
(harmonic and modal analysis), and thermal analysis.
Wael A. Altabey, Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University, Alexandria
(21544), Egypt. Postdoctoral follow, International Institute for Urban
Systems Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu (210096),
China.
Mohammad Noori, Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA 93405,
USA.
E-mail: wael.altabey@gmail.com
mnoori@outlook.com
Chapter 1
Introduction to Finite
Element Analysis
1.1 Finite Element Method
The field of mechanics can be subdivided into three major areas: theo-
retical, applied, and computational. Theoretical mechanics deals with
fundamental laws and principles of mechanics studied for their intrinsic
scientific value. Applied mechanics transfers this theoretical knowledge
to scientific and engineering applications, especially through the con-
struction of mathematical models of physical phenomena. Computational
mechanics solves specific problems by simulation through numerical
methods implemented on digital computers.
One of the most important advances in applied mathematics in the
20th century has been the development of the finite element method as
a general mathematical tool for obtaining approximate solutions to
boundary-value problems. The theory of finite elements draws on almost
every branch of mathematics and can be considered as one of the richest
and most diverse bodies of the current mathematical knowledge.
1.1.1 Mathematical Modeling of Physical

Systems
In general, engineering problems are mathematical models of physical

situations. Two main goals of engineering analysis are to be able to iden-
tify the basic physical principle(s) and fundamental laws that govern the
behavior of a system or a control volume and to translate those princi-
ples into a mathematical model involving an equation or equations that
can be solved accurately to predict qualitative and quantitative behavior
of the system. The resulting mathematical model is frequently a single
2 • Using ANSYS for Finite Element Analysis
d ifferential equation or a set of differential equations with a set of cor-

responding boundary and initial conditions whose solution should be
consistent with and accurately represent the physics of the system. These
governing equations represent balance of mass, force, or energy. When
possible, the exact solution of these equations renders detailed behavior of
a system under a given set of conditions.
In situations where the system is relatively simple, it may be possible
to analyze the problem by using some of the classical methods learned
in elementary courses in ordinary and partial differential equations. Far
more frequently, however, there are many practical engineering problems
for which we cannot obtain exact solutions. This inability to obtain an
exact solution may be attributed to either the complex nature of governing
differential equations or the difficulties that arise from dealing with the
boundary and initial conditions. To deal with such problems, we resort to
numerical approximations. In contrast to analytical solutions, which show
the exact behavior of a system at any point within the system, numerical
solutions approximate exact solutions only at discrete points, called nodes.
Due to the complexity of physical systems, some approximation must
be made in the process of turning physical reality into a mathematical
model. It is important to decide at what points in the modeling process
these approximations are made. This, in turn, determines what type of ana-
lytical or computational scheme is required in the solution process. Let us
Physical
problem
Simplified model Complicated model
Exact solution
Approximate
for approximate
solution for
model
exact model
FEM approach
Figure 1.1. A diagram of the two common branches of the general modeling
solution.
Introduction to Finite Element Analysis • 3
consider a diagram of the two common branches of the general modeling

solution process as shown in Figure 1.1.
For many real-world problems, the second approach is in fact the
only possibility. For instance, suppose that the aim is to find the thermo-
mechanical stresses in an air-cooled turbine blade depicted in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.3 shows the complex three-dimensional geometry of the
blade along with the combined thermal and mechanical loadings, which
makes the analysis of the blade a formidable task. Nevertheless, many
powerful commercial finite element packages are available that can be
implemented to perform this task with relative ease.
Figure 1.2. The thermomechanical stresses

in an air-cooled turbine blade depicted.
Temperature
max Equivalent
stress
min
max
min
Figure 1.3. The complex three-dimensional geometry of the blade along

with the combined thermal and mechanical loadings.
1.1.2 Basic Concept of Numerical Methods
The basic concept of these methods is based on the idea of building a

complicated object with simple blocks, or, dividing a complicated object
into small and manageable pieces. Application of this simple idea can be
found everywhere in everyday life, as well as in engineering. Examples
include Lego (kids’ play), buildings, and approximation of the area
of a circle:
Element Si
1 2
Area of one triangle = Si = R sin qi
2
N
1 2  2p 
Area of one circle = ∑Si = R N sin  
i =1 2 N
Where N = total number of triangles (elements). The first step of any

numerical procedure is discretization. This process divides the medium of
interest into a number of small subregions and nodes.
There are two common classes of numerical methods: finite differ-
ence methods and finite element methods (FEMs). With finite difference
methods, the differential equation is written for each node, and the deriv-
atives are replaced by difference equations. This approach results in a set
of simultaneous linear equations. Although finite difference methods are
easy to understand and employ in simple problems, they become difficult
to apply to problems with complex geometries or complex boundary
conditions. This situation is also true for problems with nonisotropic
properties. By contrast, FEM uses integral formulations, rather than dif-
ference equations to create a system of algebraic equations. Moreover,
an approximate continuous function is assumed to represent the solution
for each element. The complete solution is then generated by connect-
ing or assembling the individual solutions, allowing for continuity at the
interelemental boundaries.
Thus, FEM is a numerical analysis technique for obtaining approxi-
mate solutions to a wide variety of engineering problems.
1.1.3 A Brief History of FEM
Finite element analysis (FEA) was first developed in 1943 by R. Courant,

who utilized the Ritz method of numerical analysis and minimization
of variational calculus to obtain approximate solutions to vibration
systems. Shortly thereafter, a paper published in 1956 by M. J. Turner,
R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp established a broader definition
of numerical analysis. The paper centered on the “stiffness and deflection
of complex structures.”
By the early 1970s, FEA was limited to expensive mainframe com-
puters generally owned by the aeronautics, automotive, defense, and
nuclear industries. Since the rapid decline in the cost of computers and the
phenomenal increase in computing power, FEA has been developed to an
incredible precision. Present day super computers are now able to produce
accurate results for all kinds of parameters.
1.1.4 The FEM Analysis Process
A model-based simulation process using FEM consists of a sequence of

steps. This sequence takes two basic configurations depending on the
environment in which FEM is used. These are referred to as the mathe-
matical FEM and the physical FEM.
The mathematical FEM as depicted in Figure 1.4, the centerpiece in
the process steps of the mathematical FEM is the mathematical mode,
which is often an ordinary or partial differential equation in space and
time. Using the methods provided by the variational calculus, a discrete
finite element model is generated from the mathematical model. The
resulting FEM equations are processed by an equation solver, which
provides a discrete solution. In this process, we may also think of an
ideal physical system, which may be regarded as a realization of the
mathematical model. For example, if the mathematical model is the

Verification
Mathematical discretization + solution error
model
FEM
Solution
Physical Discrete
Complicated model
problem solution
Verification
solution error
Figure 1.4. The mathematical FEM.

Mathematical
model
Solution
Physical Discrete
Complicated model
problem solution
Verification
solution error
Simulation error = Modeling + Solution error
Figure 1.5. The physical FEM.
Poisson’s equation, realizations may be a heat conduction problem. In

mathematical FEM, this step is unnecessary and indeed FEM discretiza-
tions may be constructed without any reference to physics.
The concept of error arises when the discrete solution is substituted
in the mathematical and discrete models. This replacement is generically
called verification. The solution error is the amount by which the discrete
solution fails to satisfy the discrete equations. This error is relatively
unimportant when using computers. More relevant is the discretization
error, which is the amount by which the discrete solution fails to satisfy
the mathematical model.
The physical FEM is depicted in Figure 1.5; in the physical FEM pro-
cess, the centerpiece is the physical system to be modeled. The processes of
idealization and discretization are carried out concurrently to produce the dis-
crete model. Indeed, FEM discretizations may be constructed and adjusted
without reference to mathematical models, simply from experimental mea-
surements. The concept of error arises in the physical FEM in two ways,
known as verification and validation. The verification is the same as in the
mathematical FEM: the discrete solution is replaced into the discrete model
to get the solution error. As noted earlier, this error is not generally important.
Validation tries to compare the discrete solution against observation
by computing the simulation error, which combines modeling and solu-
tion errors. As the latter is typically insignificant, the simulation error in
practice can be identified with the modeling error. Comparing the discrete
solution with the ideal physical system would in principle quantify the
modeling errors.
1.1.5 How Does FEA Work?
FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes, which make a grid
called a mesh. Figure 1.6 shows a two-dimensional FE model for a gear
Typical
element
Typical
node
Figure 1.6. A two dimensional FE model for a gear tooth.
tooth. All nodes and elements lie in the plane of the paper. This mesh
is programmed to contain the material and structural properties, which
define how the structure will react to certain loading conditions. Nodes
are assigned at a certain density throughout the material depending on
the anticipated stress levels of a particular area. Regions that will receive
large amounts of stress usually have a higher node density than those that
experience little or no stress. Points of interest may consist of: fracture
point of previously tested material, fillets, corners, complex detail, and
high-stress areas. The mesh acts like a spider web, in that from each node,
there extends a mesh element to each of the adjacent nodes. This web of
vectors is what carries the material properties to the object creating many
elements (theory).
A wide range of objective functions (variables within the system)
is available for minimization or maximization: mass, volume, tempera-
ture, strain energy, stress strain, force, displacement, velocity, accelera-
tion, synthetic (user-defined). There are multiple loading conditions that
may be applied to a system. Point, pressure, thermal, gravity, and centrif-
ugal static loads, thermal loads from solution of heat transfer analysis,
enforced displacements, heat flux and convection, point, pressure, and
gravity dynamic loads. Each FEA program may come with an element
library or one is constructed over time. Some sample elements are: rod
elements, beam elements, plate or shell or composite elements, shear
panel, solid elements, spring elements, mass elements, rigid elements,
and viscous damping elements. Many FEA programs also are equipped
with the capability to use multiple materials within the structure such as:
i sotropic: identical throughout, orthotropic: identical at 90 degrees, general

anisotropic: different throughout.
The basic ingredients of any FEA of structural problems are:
• Geometry
• Material model (constitutive model)
• Loading
• Support or boundary conditions
1.1.6 Types of Structural Analysis
Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the FEM.

Structure is defined as something that is designed to bear load. There-
fore, the term structural (or structure) implies not only civil engineer-
ing structures such as bridges and buildings, but also naval, aeronautical,
and mechanical structures such as ship hulls, aircraft bodies, and machine
housings, as well as mechanical components such as pistons, machine
parts, and tools.
FEA has become a solution to the task of predicting failure due to
unknown stresses by showing problem areas in a material and allowing
designers to see all of the theoretical stresses within. This method of prod-
uct design and testing is far superior to the manufacturing costs, which
would accrue if each sample was actually built and tested. FEA consists
of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed
for specific results. It is used in new product design and existing product
refinement. A company is able to verify whether a proposed design will be
able to perform to the client’s specifications prior to manufacturing or con-
struction. Modifying an existing product or structure is utilized to qualify
the product or structure for a new service condition. In case of structural
failure, FEA may be used to help determine the design modifications to
meet the new condition. There are generally two types of analysis that
are used in industry: 2D modeling and 3D modeling. While 2D modeling
conserves simplicity and allows the analysis to be run on a relatively nor-
mal computer, it tends to yield less accurate results. 3D modeling, how-
ever, produces more accurate results while sacrificing the ability to run on
all, but the fastest computers effectively. Within each of these modeling
schemes, the programmer can insert numerous algorithms (functions),
which may make the system behave linearly or nonlinearly. Linear sys-
tems are far less complex and generally do not take into account plastic
deformation. Nonlinear systems do account for plastic deformation, and
many also are capable of testing a material all the way to fracture.
F
Linear
Nonlinear
Figure 1.7. Linear and nonlinear behavior of the structure.
Structural analysis consists of linear and nonlinear behavior of the

structural material, as shown in Figure 1.7. Linear behavior assumes that
the material is not plastically deformed. Nonlinear behavior consists of
stressing the material past its elastic capabilities (into the plastic range).
The stresses in the material then vary with the amount of deformation.
Vibrational analysis is used to test a material against random vibrations,
shock, and impact. Each of these incidences may act on the natural vibra-
tional frequency of the material, which, in turn, may cause resonance and
subsequent failure. Fatigue analysis helps designers to predict the life of a
material or structure by showing the effects of cyclic loading on the spec-
imen. Such analysis can show the areas where crack propagation is most
likely to occur. Failure due to fatigue may also show the damage tolerance
of the material. Heat transfer analysis models the conductivity or thermal
fluid dynamics of the material or structure. This may consist of a steady-
state or transient transfer. Steady-state transfer refers to constant thermal
properties in the material that yield linear heat diffusion.
Thus, some of the common types of structural analysis performed
using FEA are as follows.
1.1.6.1 Static Analysis (Linear and Nonlinear)
A static analysis calculates the effects of steady loading conditions on a

structure, while ignoring inertia and damping effects, such as those caused
by time-varying loads. A static analysis can, however, include steady
inertia loads (such as gravity and rotational velocity) and time-varying
loads that can be approximated as static equivalent loads (such as the
static equivalent wind and seismic loads commonly defined in many
building codes).
Static analysis is used to determine the displacements, stresses,
strains, and forces in structures or components caused by loads that do
not induce significant inertia and damping effects. Steady loading and
response conditions are assumed; that is, the loads and the structure’s
response are assumed to vary slowly with respect to time. The kinds of
loading that can be applied in a static analysis include:
• Externally applied forces and pressures

• Steady-state inertial forces (such as gravity or rotational velocity)
• Imposed (nonzero) displacements
• Temperatures (for thermal strain)
• Fluences (for nuclear swelling)
1.1.6.2 Transient Dynamic Analysis (Linear and Nonlinear)
Transient dynamic analysis (sometimes called time history analysis) is

a technique used to determine the dynamic response of a structure under
the action of any general time-dependent loads. You can use this type of
analysis to determine the time-varying displacements, strains, stresses,
and forces in a structure, as it responds to any combination of static, tran-
sient, and harmonic loads. The time scale of the loading is such that the
inertia or damping effects are considered to be important. If the inertia
and damping effects are not important, you might be able to use a static
analysis instead.
1.1.6.3 Modal Analysis
You use modal analysis to determine the vibration characteristics (natural

frequencies and mode shapes) of a structure or a machine component
while it is being designed. It also can be a starting point for another,
more detailed, dynamic analysis, such as a transient dynamic analysis,
a harmonic response analysis, or a spectrum analysis.
1.1.6.4 Harmonic Analysis
Any sustained cyclic load will produce a sustained cyclic response (a

harmonic response) in a structural system. Harmonic response analysis
gives you the ability to predict the sustained dynamic behavior of your
structures, thus enabling you to verify whether or not your designs will
successfully overcome resonance, fatigue, and other harmful effects of
forced vibrations.
1.1.6.5 Spectrum Analysis
Spectrum analysis is one in which the results of a modal analysis are used
with a known spectrum to calculate displacements and stresses in the
model. It is mainly used in place of a time history analysis to determine
the response of structures to random or time-dependent loading condi-
tions such as earthquakes, wind loads, ocean wave loads, jet engine thrust,
rocket motor vibrations, and so on.
1.1.6.6 Buckling Analysis
Buckling analysis is a technique used to determine buckling loads,

critical loads at which a structure becomes unstable, and buckled

mode shapes—the characteristic shape associated with a structure’s
buckled response.
1.1.6.7 Nonlinear Analysis
If a structure experiences large deformations, its changing geometric

configuration can cause the structure to respond nonlinearly.
Nonlinear stress–strain relationships are a common cause of non
linear structural behavior.
Many factors can influence a material’s stress–strain properties,
including load history (as in elastoplastic response), environmental condi-
tions (such as temperature), and the amount of time that a load is applied
(as in creep response).
1.1.6.8 Contact Problems
Contact problems are highly nonlinear and require significant computer

resources to solve. It is important that you understand the physics of
the problem and take the time to set up your model to run as efficiently
as possible.
Contact problems present two significant difficulties. First, you gen-
erally do not know the regions of contact until you have run the problem.
Depending on the loads, material, boundary conditions, and other factors,
surfaces can come into and go out of contact with each other in a largely
unpredictable and abrupt manner. Second, most contact problems need to
account for friction. There are several friction laws and models to choose
from, and all are nonlinear. Frictional response can be chaotic, making
solution convergence difficult.
In addition to these two difficulties, many contact problems must also
address multi-field effects, such as the conductance of heat and electrical
currents in the areas of contact.
1.1.6.9 Fracture Mechanics
Cracks and flaws occur in many structures and components, sometimes

leading to disastrous results. The engineering field of fracture mechanics
was established to develop a basic understanding of such crack propaga-
tion problems.
Fracture mechanics deals with the study of how a crack or flaw in a
structure propagates under applied loads. It involves correlating analytical
predictions of crack propagation and failure with experimental results.
The analytical predictions are made by calculating fracture parame-
ters such as stress intensity factors in the crack region, which you can
use to estimate crack growth rate. Typically, the crack length increases
with each application of some cyclic load, such as cabin pressurization-
depressurization in an airplane. Further, environmental conditions such
as temperature or extensive exposure to irradiation can affect the fracture
propensity of a given material.
1.1.6.10 Composites
Composite materials have been used in structures for a long time. In recent
times, composite parts have been used extensively in aircraft structures,
automobiles, sporting goods, and many consumer products.
Composite materials are those containing more than one bonded
material, each with different structural properties. The main advantage of
composite materials is the potential for a high ratio of stiffness to weight.
Composites used for typical engineering applications are advanced fiber
or laminated composites, such as fiberglass, glass epoxy, graphite epoxy,
and boron epoxy.
FEA allows you to model composite materials with specialized ele-
ments called layered elements. Once you build your model using these
elements, you can do any structural analysis (including nonlinearities such
as large deflection and stress stiffening).
1.1.6.11 Fatigue
Fatigue is the phenomenon in which a repetitively loaded structure frac-

tures at a load level less than its ultimate static strength. For instance, a
steel bar might successfully resist a single static application of a 300 kN
tensile load, but might fail after 1,000,000 repetitions of a 200 kN load.
The main factors that contribute to fatigue failures include:
• Number of load cycles experienced

• Range of stress experienced in each load cycle
• Mean stress experienced in each load cycle
• Presence of local stress concentrations
A formal fatigue evaluation accounts for each of these factors as

it calculates how used up a certain component will become during its
anticipated lifecycle.
1.1.6.12 Other Types of Engineering Analysis
Other types of engineering that can be solved using FEA are:
• Heat transfer (linear and nonlinear)

• Fluid flow (laminar and turbulent)
• Crash dynamics
• Electromagnetics
• Optimization
• Kinematics
1.1.7 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
• Model irregularly shaped bodies quite easily

• Handle general load conditions without difficulty
• Model bodies composed of several different materials because the
element equations are evaluated individually
• Handle unlimited number and kinds of boundary conditions
• Vary the size of the elements to make it possible to use small
elements where necessary
• Alter the FE model relatively easily and cheaply

• Corrective measures can be taken before any hardware is built
(also, the number of prototypes can be reduced)
• Physically meaningful to engineers and resemble actual structure
Disadvantages
• Experience and judgment needed

• Requires good computing facility
1.1.8 Areas of Application
1.1.8.1 Structural
• A1 Stress analysis
• A2 Buckling
• A3 Vibration analysis
• A4 …..
1.1.8.2 Nonstructural
• B1 Heat transfer
• B2 Fluid flow
• B3 Distribution of electric or magnetic
• B4 Lubrication
• B5 …..
1.1.8.3 Examples of Multi-physics Applications
• A + B1 Thermal analysis
• B1 + B2 Convective flow
• A + B1 + B2 Manufacturing processes
1.1.8.4 Common Fields of Application
• Mechanical engineering
• Aerospace engineering
• Civil engineering
• Automobile engineering
• Electrical engineering
• Chemical engineering
• Geomechanics
• Biomechanics
1.2 Review Topics
1.2.1 Matrix Operations
Matrix Algebra
• A matrix is an m × n array of numbers arranged in m rows and n
columns.
• m = n A square matrix.
• m = 1 A row matrix.
• n = 1 A column matrix.
• aij Element of matrix a row i, column j
Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar:
[a] = k [c] aij = k cij
Addition of matrices: Matrices must be of the same order (m × n). Add

them term by term:
[c] = [a] + [b] cij = aij + bij
Multiplication of two matrices: If [a] is m × n, then [b] must have n rows:
[c] = [a] [b]
n
cij = ∑aie � bie
e =1
Transpose of a matrix: Interchange of rows and columns:
[aij] = [aji]T
• If [a] is m × n, then [a]T is n × m

• If [a] = [a]T, then [a] is symmetric. [a] must be a square matrix
The identity matrix (or unit matrix) is denoted by the symbol [I]:
[a ][ I ] = [ I ][a ] = [a]
1 0 0 
[ I ] = 0 1 0
0 0 1 
Differentiating a matrix:
d  daij 
dx
[ a] =  
 dx 
Example of differentiating a matrix:
1  a11 a12   x 
U= [x y]   
a22   y 
2  a21
 ∂U 
 ∂x   a a12   x 
 ∂U  = 
11
 
   a21 a22   y 
 ∂y 
Integrating a matrix:
[a ]� dx = ∫a� ij dx
The inverse of a matrix is such that:
[a ][a ]−1 = [ I ]
To find the inverse of a matrix, first find the determinant of the matrix:
|a| = determinant of the matrix [a]
Next, calculate the cofactors of [a]. Cofactors of [aij] are given by:
cij = (−1)i + j d
Where matrix d is the first minor of [aij] and is matrix [a] with row i and
column j deleted.
Finally, determine the inverse
 aij 
−1
=
[c ]T
  a
1.2.2 Elasticity Equations
1.2.2.1 Stress Equilibrium Equations
A three-dimensional body occupying a volume V and having a surface S

is shown in Figure 1.8. Points in the body are located by x, y, and z coor-
dinates. The boundary is constrained on some region, where displacement
is specified. On part of the boundary, distributed force per unit area T,
also called traction, is applied. Under the force, the body deforms. The
deformation of a point (x = [x y z]T) is given by the three components of
its displacement: u = [u v w]T
The distributed force per unit volume, for example, the weight per
unit volume, is the body force vector f given by:
T
f =  f x fy f z 
The body force acting on the elemental volume dV is shown in

igure 1.8. The surface traction T may be given by its component values
F
at points on the surface:
y
σy
x
z
τ yx
τ yz xy
τx
τ zy
τzx τxz
Loaded material body
σz
Figure 1.8. Three-dimensional body.

T
T = Tx Ty Tz 
Examples of traction are distributed contact force and action of

p ressure. A concentrated load P acting at a point i is represented by its
three components:
T
Pi =  Px Py Pz 
i
The stresses acting on the elemental volume dV are shown in

igure 1.9. When the volume dV shrinks to a point, the stress tensor is rep-
F
resented by placing its components in a (3 × 3) symmetric matrix. How-
ever, we represent stress by the six independent components as follows:
s = s x sy sz txy t yz txz 
Where s x , s y , and s z are normal stresses and txy , t yz , and tzx are shear
stresses. Let us consider equilibrium of the elemental volume shown in
Figure 1.9. First, we get forces on faces by multiplying the stresses by
the corresponding areas. Writing ∑ Fzx = 0, ∑ Fy = 0, and ∑ Fz = 0 and
recognizing dV = dx dy dz, we get the equilibrium equations:
∂s x ∂txy ∂txz
+ + + Fx = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂txy ∂s y ∂t yz
+ + + Fy = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂txz ∂t yz s z
+ + + Fz = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
y σyy
σyx
σyz σxy
σzy σxx
σzx σxz
x
σzz
Figure 1.9. Equilibrium of elemental volume.

1.2.2.2 Strain–Displacement Relationship
Strains can be calculated by differentiating displacement functions.

Differentiation of a function is possible only if it is continuous. There-
fore, the strain–displacement relations are also known as compatibility
equations and are given as follows:
∂u ∂u ∂v
ex = gzy = +
∂x ∂y ∂x
∂v ∂u ∂w
ey = gxz = +
∂y ∂z ∂x
∂w ∂w ∂v
ez = g yz = +
∂z ∂y ∂z
In matrix form:
∂ 
 ∂x 0 0
 
 ∂
 ex   0 0
∂y 
e   
 y   ∂
e   0 0 u 
 z =  ∂z   
 v 
gxy   ∂ ∂
   ∂y 0   w
∂x 
gxz   
g   ∂ ∂
 yz   0
∂z ∂x 
 
0 ∂ ∂
 ∂z ∂y 
1.2.2.3 Stress-Strain Relationships
For linear elastic materials, the stress–strain relations come from the gen-
eralized Hooke’s law. For isotropic materials, the two material properties
are Young’s modulus (or modulus of elasticity) E and Poisson’s ratio ν.
For a three-dimensional case, the state of stress at any point in relation to
the state of strain as follows:
1 − v v v 0 0 0 
  e
s x   v 1 − v v 0 0 0  x 
s   v v 1 − v 0 0 0  e y 
 y   
s   1 − 2v  
 z =  0 0 0 0 0   ez 
 g
txy   2
  xy 
   1 − 2v  
t yz   0 0 0 0 0  g yz 
2 
t    
 zx  1 − 2v  gzx 
 0 0 0 0 0 
 2 
In matrix notation:
{s} = [ D] {e}
Where [D] is known as a stress–strain matrix or material properties matrix
and is given by:
1 − v v v 0 0 0 
 v 1− v v 0 0 0 
 
 v v 1− v 0 0 0 
 
 1 − 2v
E
[ D ] = (1 + v)(1 − 2v)  0 0 0 0 0 
2 
 1 − 2v 
 0 0 0 0 0 
 2 
 1 − 2v 
 0 0 0 0 0 
 2 
1.2.2.4 Special Cases
One dimension: In one dimension, we have normal stress along the x-axis
and the corresponding normal strain. Stress–strain relations are simply to:
{σx}=[E]{εx}
Where [D] = [E]

Plane stress: A thin planar body subjected to in-plane loading on its edge
surface is said to be in plane stress. A ring press-fitted on a shaft as shown
in Figure 1.10(a) is an example. Here, stresses s x , txz, and tzy are set as
zero. The Hooke’s law relations then give us:
P P
z
σx = 0
τxz = 0
τzy = 0
(a)
P P
z
εz = 0
γzx = 0
γyz = 0
(b)
Figure 1.10. (a) Plane stress (b) Plane strain.
 
 s  1 u 0   ex 
x
    
s y  = u 1 0  e y 
    
txy  0 0 1 − u  gxy 
 2 
Plane strain: If a long body of uniform cross-section is subjected to trans-

verse loading along its length, a small thickness in the loaded area, as
shown in Figure 1.10(b), can be treated as subjected to plane strain. Here
e z, gzx, and g yz are taken as zero. Stress s z may not be zero in this case. The
stress–strain relations can be obtained directly as:
 
s  1 u 0   ex 
x
  E   
s y  = u 1 0  e y 
  (1 + v ) (1 − 2v )  1 − u  gxy 
txy  0 0  
 2 
1.2.3 Solution of Set of Linear Algebraic

Equations
1.2.3.1 Cramer’s Rule
Consider a set of linear algebraic equations written as follows:

In matrix notation: [a]{x} = {c}
n
Or, in index notation: ∑ j =1 aij x j = ci
Let matrix  d (i)  be matrix [a] with column i replaced by [c]. Then:
 
d (i )
xi =
a
Example:
Consider a set of three linear algebraic equations given as follows:
− x1 + 3 x2 − 2 x3
2 x1 − 4 x2 + 2 x3
4 x2 + x3
In matrix form:
 −1 3 −2   x1  2 
 2 −4 2   x  = 1 
  2  
 0 4 1   x3  3 
Solution using Cramer’s rule:
−1 3 −2
a = 2 −4 2 = ( −1) ( −4 − 8) − (3) ( 2 − 0) + ( −2) (8 − 0) = 12 − 6 − 16 = 10
0 4 1
d (1) 2 3 −2
1 −41
x1 = = 1 −4 2 = = 4.1
a (−10) −10
3 4 1
d ( 2) −1 2 −2
1 −11
x2 = = 2 1 2 = = 1.1
a (−10) −10
0 3 1
d (3) −1 3 2
1 −14
x3 = = 2 −4 1 = = 1.4
a (−10) −10
0 4 3
1.2.3.2 Inversion
[a ]{ x} = {c}
[a ]−1 [a ]{ x} = [a ]−1 {c}
[ I ]{ x} = [a ]−1 {c}
∴ { x} = [ a ] {c}
−1
Example:
 −1 3 −2   x1  2 
 2 −4 2   x  = 1 
   2    using inversion,
 0 4 1   x3  3 
 x1   1.2 1.1 0.2  2   4.1 

      
∴  x2 x  =  0.2 0.1 0.2  1  =  1.1 
 x   −0.8 −0.4 0.2  3  −1.4 
 3      
1.2.3.3 Gaussian Elimination
General system of n equations with n unknowns:
 a11 a1n   x1   c1 
   =  
    
 an1 ann   xn  cn 
Steps in Gaussian elimination:

1. Eliminate the coefficient of x1 in every equation except the first one.
Select a11 as the pivot element.
• Add the multiple −a21 / a11 of the first row to the second row.
• Add the multiple −a31 / a11 of the first row to the third row.
• Continue this procedure through the nth row
After this step:
 a11 a12 a1n 

 ´ 
 x1   c1 
´
a2 n   x2  c 
´
0 a22
   =  2
    
 `  x   
ann   n  cn 
´
 0 an 2
2. Eliminate the coefficient of x2 in every equation below the second

′
one. Select a22 as the pivot element.
′ ′
• Add the multiple a32 / a22 of the second row to the third row.
′ ′
• Add the multiple a42 / a22 of the second row to the fourth row.
• Continue this procedure through the nth row.
After this step:
 a11 a12 a13 a1n  c

 ´ 
 x1   1 
´ ´  ´ 
0 a22 a23 a2 n   x2  c 
     2 
0 0 a33
''
a3'' n   x3  =  c '' 
 
    
3

 ´   xn   
 0 an 2 an'' 3 ann
''
 cn 
3. Repeat the process for the remaining rows until we have a triangu-
larized system of equations:
 a11 a12 a13 a14 a1n   c1 

 ´ ´ ´ ´   x1   ´ 
0 a22 a23 a24 a2 n   x2   c 
    2 
0 0 a33
''
a34
''
a3'' n   x3   c '' 
   =  3 
0 0 0 a44
'''
a4'''n   x4   c ''' 
4
    
    
 ´ x 
n −1   n  c n −1 
 0 an 2 an'' 3 an''' 4 ann   n 
Solve using back substitution:
cnn −1
xn = n −1
ann
 n 
1
xi =
aii 

a1, n +1 − ∑ air xr 

r = i +1
Example:
 2 2 1   x1  9 
 2 1 0   x  = 4 
  2  
1 1 1   x3  6 
1. Eliminate the coefficient of x1 in every equation except the first one.

Select a11 as the pivot element.
• Select a11 = 2 as the pivot element.
• Add the multiple − a21 / a11 = − 2 / 2 = − 1 of the first row to the
second row.
1
• Add the multiple − a31 / a11 = − = − 0.5 of the first row to the
2
third row.
2 2 1   x1   9 
 0 −1 −1   x  =  −5 
  2  
 0 0 0.5  x3  1.5
2. Eliminate the coefficient of x2 in every equation below the second

′
one. Select a22 as the pivot element (already done in this example).
2 2 1   x1   9 
 0 −1 −1   x  =  −5 
  2  
 0 0 0.5  x3  1.5
3. Solve using back substitution:
x3 =
c3''
=
( 3 2) = 3
a33
''
( 12)
x2 =
( −5 + 3) = 2
−1
x1 =
(9 − 2 ( 2) − 3) = 1
2
1.3 General Steps of FEM
The objective of structural analysis is usually to determine the displace-

ments and stresses throughout the structure, which is in equilibrium and
is subjected to applied loads. At any point in the continuum body, there
are 15 unknowns (three displacements, six stresses, and six strains). To
determine these 15 unknowns, we have 15 equations in three-dimensional
case shown as follows:
Unknowns Unknowns governing equations

Displacements (u,v,w) 3 Stress equilibrium equations 3
Stresses 6 Compatibility equations 6
 ex e y ez gxy g yz gxz 

Strains 6 Stress–strain equations 6
 ex e y ez gxy g yz gxz 

15 15
There are two general approaches associated with the finite element
method to solve the governing equations: force (or flexibility) method and
displacement (or stiffness) method. The force method uses internal forces
as the unknown of the problem, whereas the displacements are the sys-
tem variable in displacement method. The displacement method is more
desirable because its formulation is simpler for most structural analysis
problems. Furthermore, a vast majority of general-purpose finite element
programs have incorporated the displacement formulation for solving
structural problems. Consequently, only the displacement method will be
used throughout this course.
The basic steps involved in any FEA consist of the following:
Preprocessing phase (build the FE model, loads, and constraints)
1. Discretize and select element type.

2. Select a displacement function.
3. Define strain/displacement and stress/strain relationships.
4. Derive element stiffness matrix and equations.
5. Assemble equations and introduce Boundary Conditions (BCs).
Solution phase: (assemble and solve the system of equations)

6. Solve for the unknown degrees of freedom.
Post-processing Phase: (sort and display the results)
7. Solve for element stresses and strains.

8. Interpret the results.
1.4 The Most Common Finite Element Types
The basic idea of FEA is to make calculations at only limited (finite)

number of points and then interpolate the results for the entire domain
(line, surface, or volume). Any continuous object has infinite degrees of
freedom, and it is just not possible to solve the problem in this format.
FEM reduces the degrees of freedom from infinite to finite with the help
of discretization or meshing (nodes and elements).
1D (line) element 2D (plane) element 3D (solid) element
(Spring, truss, beam,

pipe, etc.)
(Membrane, plate,
shell, etc.) (3-D fields, temperature,
displacement, stress,
flow velocity)
1.5 Types of Element Formulation

Methods
The element characteristic matrix has different names in different problem

areas. In structural mechanics, it is called a stiffness matrix; it relates nodal
displacements to nodal forces. There are three important ways to derive an
element characteristic matrix.
1.5.1 Direct (Equilibrium) Method
The direct method is based on physical reasoning. It is limited to very

simple elements (spring, bar, and beam), but is worth studying because it
enhances our physical understanding of FEM. According to this method,
the stiffness matrix and element equations relating nodal forces to nodal
displacements are obtained using force equilibrium conditions for a basic
element, along with force/deformation relationships.
1.5.2 Work or Energy Methods
To develop the stiffness matrix and equations for two- and three-
dimensional elements, it is much easier to apply a work or energy method.
These are based on variational calculus. The variational method is appli-
cable to problems that can be stated by certain integral expressions such
as the expression for potential energy. The principle of virtual work (using
virtual displacement), the principle of minimum potential energy, and
Castigliano’s theorem are methods frequently used for the purpose of der-
ivation of element equations. The principle of virtual work is applicable
for any material behavior, whereas the principle of minimum potential
energy and Castigliano’s theorem are applicable only to elastic materials.
For the purpose of extending, FEM outside the structural stress anal-
ysis field, a functional (a scalar function of other functions) analogous to
the one to be used with the principle of minimum potential energy is quite
useful in deriving the element stiffness matrix and equations.
1.5.3 Methods of Weighted Residuals
Weighted residual methods are particularly suited to problems for which

differential equations are known, but no variational statement or func-
tional is available. For stress analysis and some other problem areas, the
variational method and the most popular weighted residual method (the
Galerkin method) yield identical finite element formulations.
1.6 Derivation of Spring Element

Equations using Direct Method
To understand the FE formulation, we start with the concept “Everything

important is simple.” Figure shows a spring element
1 k 2
xˆ
ƒˆ1x ,dˆ1x ƒˆ2x ,dˆ2x
L
Two nodes: Node 1, node 2

Local nodal displacements: dˆ1x ,dˆ2x (inch, m, mm)
Local nodal forces: ƒˆ ,fˆ (lb, newton)
1x 2x
Spring constant (stiffness) K (lb/in, N/m, N/mm)
The stiffness equation for a single spring element in a local coordinate

system can be written as:
∧  ∧ 
 f 1x   k11 k12   d 1x   ∧   ∧   ∧
 ∧ =   ⇒  f  = k d 
 f   k21 k22   ∧       
 2x  d
 2x 
Step 1: Select the element type

Consider linear spring element subjected to tensile forces
k
2
1 ˆx
L
1 k 2
T
T x̂
dˆ1x dˆ2x
Step 2: Select a displacement function
• Degree of freedom (DOF) per node = 1

• Number of nodes per element = 2
• Total (DOF) per element = 2 × 1 = 2
• Number of coefficients = 2
1
x y
x2 xy y2
x3 x2 y x y2 y3
x4 x3 y x2 y2 x y3 y4
Assume a linear displacement function:
∧ ∧
u = a1 + a2 x
Write in matrix form:
∧  ∧   a1 
u = 1 x   
   a2 
 
Express u^ as a function of nodal displacements (  d 1x , d 2 x  ).
∧ ∧
Apply boundary condition:

∧ ∧ ∧
At x∧ = 0 u∧ = d 1x ∴ u∧ (0) = a1 + a2 ( 0) = d 1x ∴ a1 = d 1x
∧ ∧
∧ ∧ d 2 x − d 1x
At x = L u = d 2 x ∴ u ( L ) = a1 + a2 ( L ) = d 2 x ∴ a1 =
∧ ∧ ∧
L
Substituting values of coefficients:

∧
 ∧ ∧   ∧ 
∧  ∧ ∧  ∧
∧ d 2 x − d 1x  ∧  x ∧ x x x   d 1x 
x = 1 −  d 1x +   d 2 x = 1 −
∧
∴ u = d 1x +   
 L   L  L  L L ∧ 
        d 2 x 
 ∧
∴ u = [ N ] d 
∧
 
∧ ∧
x x
Where N1 = 1 − and N 2 =
L L
N1 and N2 are called shape functions or interpolation functions. They
express the shape of the assumed displacements. The sum of all shape
functions at any point within an element should be equal to 1.
N1 = 1 N2 = 0 at node 1
N1 = 0 N2 = 1 at node 2
N1 + N2 = 1
N1 N2 N1 N2
1 2 1 2
1 2
L
L L
Step 3: Define the strain/displacement and stress/strain relationships

∧ ∧
Deformation, d = u∧ ( L) − u∧ ( 0) = d 2 x − d 1x
 ∧ ∧ 
From the force/deformation relationship: T = k d = k  d 2 x − d 1x 
 
Where T is the tensile force and δ is the total elongation.
Step 4: Derive the element stiffness matrix and equations

Consider the equilibrium of forces for the spring.
∧  ∧ ∧ 
At node 1, f 1x = −T = k  d 1x − d 2 x 
 
At node 2, f
∧
2x
 ∧ ∧ 
= T = k  d 2 x − d 1x 
 
In matrix form,
 ∧  ∧ 
− k   d 1x    ∧ ( e)   ∧( ) 
  ∧ ( e)  
e
 f 1x   k 
 ∧ =   ⇒  f  =  k  d 
 f  −k k   ∧       
 2x  d 2 x       
Note k is symmetric. Is k singular or nonsingular? That is, can we solve

the equation? If not, why?
Step 5: Assemble the element equations to obtain the global equations
and introduce the boundary conditions
(e) 
N ∧
Global stiffness matrix: [ K ] = ∑ e =1  k 
 
e
N  ∧ 
( )
Global load vector: { F } = ∑ e =1  f 
 
∴ { F } = [ K ] {d }
This vector does not imply a simple summation of the element matrices,
but rather denotes that these element matrices must be assembled properly
satisfying compatibility conditions.
Step 6: Solve for nodal displacements
Displacements are then determined by imposing boundary conditions, such
as support conditions, and solving a system of equations, {F} = [K]{d},
simultaneously.
Step 7: Solve for element forces
Once displacements at each node are known, then substitute back into
element stiffness equations to obtain element nodal forces.
1.7 Bar Element Formulation using

Direct Method
Step 1: Select the element type
y
Tˆ x ˆ (force/length)
Cx
ˆy T
x̂, û
2
L dˆ2x , f̂2x
1
θ
T
x
dˆ1x , fˆ1x
Assumptions:
∧ ∧
• The bar cannot sustain shear force, that is, f 1 y = 0, f 2 y = 0.
• Any effect of transverse displacement is ignored.
• Hooke’s law applies, that is, s x = E e x.
• No intermediate applied loads.
Two nodes: Node 1, Node 2

Local nodal displacements: ∧ ∧
d 1x , d 2 x (inch, m, mm)
Local nodal forces: ∧ ∧
f 1x , f 2 x (lbs., Newton)
Length L (inch, m, mm)
Cross-sectional area A (Sq. inch, Sq. m, Sq. mm)
Modulus of elasticity E (psi, Pa, MPa)
The stiffness equation for a single spring element in a local coordinate

system can be written as:
∧  ∧ 
 f 1x   k11 k12   d 1x   ∧   ∧   ∧
 ∧ =   ⇒  f  = k d 
 f   k21 k22   ∧       
 2x  d 2 x 
Step 2: Select a displacement function
• Degree of freedom (DOF) per node = 1

• Number of nodes per element = 2
• Total (DOF) per element = 2 × 1 = 2
• Number of coefficients = 2
Assume a linear displacement function:
∧ ∧
u = a1 + a2 x
Write in matrix form.

∧  ∧   a1 
u = 1 x   
  a2 
∧ ∧
Express u^ as a function of nodal displacements ( d 1x , d 2 x )
Apply boundary condition:
∧ ∧ ∧
At x∧ = 0 u∧ = d 1x ∴ u∧ ( 0) = a1 + a2 ( 0) = d 1x ∴ a1 = d 1x
∧ ∧
∧ ∧ d 2 x − d 1x
At x = L u = d 2 x ∴ u ( L) = a1 + a2 ( L) = d 2 x ∴ a1 =
∧ ∧ ∧
L
Substituting values of coefficients:
∧
 ∧   ∧ 
∧ ∧  ∧  ∧
∧ d 2 x − d 1x  ∧  x ∧  x ∧ x x   d 1x 
d 2 x = 1 −
∧
∴u = d 1x +  x = 1− d 1x +  
 L   L  L  L L ∧ 
        d 2 x 
 ∧
∴ u = [ N ] d 
∧
 
∧ ∧
x x
Where N1 = 1 − and N 2 =
L L
Step 3: Define the strain/displacement and stress/strain relationships
From the definition of strain, the strain/displacement relationship can be
derived as:
 ∧    ∧   ∧  ∧ 
d u  d  d 1x    dN1 dN 2   d 1x   1 1   d 1x 
∴ {e} =  =   [ N1 N2 ]    =   =  − L  
 dx   dx   d∧2 x    dx dx   ∧  L   ∧ 
      d 2 x  d 2 x 
 ∧
∴ {e} = [ B ]  d 
 
Where e is known as strain–displacement matrix.

From Hooke’s law, the stress/strain relationship is: s x = E e x.
Step 4: Derive the element stiffness matrix and equations
To derive the stiffness equation using direct method, we employ equilib-
rium condition at each node.
 ∧ ∧ 
∧ d 2 x − d 1x  AE  ∧ ∧ 
At node 1, f 1x = − T = − As x = − A( E e x ) = − AE  =  d 1x − d 2 x 
 L  L  
 
∧ AE  ∧ ∧ 
At node 2, f 2 x = T =  d 2 x − d 1x 
L  
In matrix form,
∧  ∧ 
 f 1x  AE  1 −1 d 1x   ∧ (e )   ∧ (e )   ∧ (e ) 
 =    ⇒  f  =  k  d 
 f∧  L  −1 1  d∧2 x       
 2x   
Steps 5 to 7 are same as before.
1.8 Examples of Linear FEM
Example 1
For the structure shown in the figure, determine the nodal displacements,
the forces in each element, and the reactions.
2 3
2
1 1 2 3 15 kN 4 E = 210 GPa
3m A = 3 × 10–4 m2
4 5
2
3m
EA
k= the stiffness of element
L
All elements of the previous figure have the same material and
dimensions.
EA  1 −1
k (1) = k ( 2) = k (3) = k ( 4) = k =
L  −1 1 
210 *103 * 300  1 −1

k=  −1 1 
3000  
 21 −21
k=  *10
3
 −21 21 
The global stiffness matrix (K)
K = k1 + k2 + k3 + k4
  21 −21 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 0 
  −21 21 0 0 0  0 21 −21 0 0  0 21 0 −21 0  0 21 0 0 −21
 
K = 10 *   0
3
0 0 0 0  + 0 −21 21 0 0  + 0 0 0 0 0  + 0 0 0 0 0 
       
 0 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 0  0 −21 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 0 
  0 0 0 0  0 0 0  0 0 0  0 −21 0 21 
 0 0 0 0 0 0
 21 −21 0 0 0 
 −21 84 −21 −21 −21

K = 10 *  0
3
−21 21 0 0 
 
 0 −21 0 21 0 
 0 −21 0 0 21 
The nodal displacement equations:
{F}=[K ]{d}
 F1x   d1x 
F  d 
 2 x   2 x 
 F3 x  = [ K ]  d3 x 
F  d 
 4x   4x 
 F5 x   d5 x 
 F1x   21 −21 0 0 0  0 
15000   −21 84 −21 −21 −21 d 2 x 
    
 F3 x  = 10 *  0 −21 21 0  0 
3
0
 F   
 0 −21 0 21 0  0 
 4x   
 F5 x   0 −21 0 0 21   0 
F1x = −21*103 * d 2 x (1)
15000 = 84 *103 * d 2 x (2)

F3 x = −21*103 * d 2 x (3)
F4 x = −21*103 * d 2 x (4)
F5 x = −21*103 * d 2 x (5)
From equation (2), d2x = 0.17857 mm

From equations (1–3–4–5), the reactions, F1x = F3x = F4x = F5x = –3.75kN
The force in each element, {f} = [k]{d}
The first element between nodal 1, 2:
 f1(x1)  3  21 −21 d1x = 0 

 (1)  = 10 *   
 f 2 x   −21 21   d 2 x 
f1(x1) = −21*103 * d 2 x
f1(x1) = −3.75 kN
f 2(1x) = − f1(x1) = 3.75 kN
The second element between nodal 2, 3:
 f 2(x2)  3  21 −21  d 2 x 
 ( 2)  = 10 *   
 f3 x   −21 21  d3 x = 0 
f 2(x2) = 21*103 * d 2 x
f 2(x2) = 3.75 kN
f3(x2) = − f 2(x2) = −3.75 kN
The third element between nodal 2, 4:

 f 2(x2)  3  21 −21  d 2 x 
 ( 2)  = 10 *   
 f 4 x   −21 21  d 4 x = 0 
f 2(x2) = 21*103 * d 2 x
f 2(x2) = 3.75 kN
f 4(x2) = − f 2(x2) = −3.75 kN
The fourth element between nodal 2, 5:
 f 2(x2)  3  21 −21  d 2 x 
 ( 2)  = 10 *   
 f5 x   −21 21  d5 x = 0 
f 2(x2) = 21*103 * d 2 x
f 2(x2) = 3.75 kN
f5(x2) = − f 2(x2) = −3.75 kN

Example 2
Derive a finite element to solve this problem.
1000 lb
60°
3 2
1000 lb
30° 1
3
4
To derive this problem must be tack the rotational effect by multiply-

ing the local stiffness matrix in rotational matrix (R).
The rotational matrix in this problem can be derived as:
 c2 cs −c 2 −cs 
 
 cs s2 −cs −s2 
= 
2
 −c −cs c2 cs 
 
 − cs −s2 cs s2 
Where: c2 = cos2 (β), s2 = sin2 (β), cs = cos (β)*sin (β).

β = The angle between x-axis and the element C.C.W.
c2 cs s2
β1 = 120° 0.25 −0.433 0.75
β2 = 180° 1 0 0
β3 = 210° 0.75 0.433 0.25
The property of this matrix is a symmetric matrix. This matrix is

multiplied with the local stiffness matrix of each element.
Ei Ai
k (i ) =
Li
[ Ri ] i = 1, 2, 3
Where: [Rj]= [R] when derived with βi .
i =3
[ K ] = ∑k (i ) i = 1, 2, 3
i =1
And, the next steps as the same in example 1.
Example 3
Analyze a thin plate of uniform thickness t = 5 mm using an appropriate
finite element formulated in part (a) and (b). The recommended mesh
for the plate is shown in the figure. Determine the displacement at point
(250, 125) and stresses in the element A only. Use E = 210 GPa and
ʋ = 0.30.
4 3
(4)
(1), A 5
(3) 250 mm
(2)
1 2
500 mm 30°
(a) 40 kN
The governing global matrix equation is:

{F} = [K]{d}
Expanding matrices in global matrix equation, we obtain
 F1x   R1x   d1x   0 

F   d 
 1 y   R1 y 
  0 
 1y   
 F2 x  20000  d2 x  d2 x 
     
 F2 y   34641 d 2 y 
 
d 2 y 
F   R  d   0 
 3x   3x   3x 
 = = [ K ]  = [K ]
 F3 y   R3 y   d3 y 
   
 0 
F   R  d   0 
 4x   4x   4x   
 F4 y   R4 y  d 4 y   0 
d 
 F5 x   0 
 
 d5 x 
   
 5x 
 F5 y   0   d5 y   d5 y 
   
Where [K] is an 10 × 10 before deleting rows and column to account for

the fixed boundary support at nodes 1, 3, and 4.
Assemblage of stiffness matrix
The stiffness matrix for element is:
[k] = tA[B]T [D] [B]
Element (1)
m=4
(1) j=5
i=1
For element (1), we have coordinates and xi = 0, yi = 0, xm = 0, ym = 250,

xj = 250 and yj = 125 because the global axes are set up at node 1, and
1
A= bh
2
1
A = ( 250)( 250) = 31250 mm 2
2
t = 5 mm
The matrix [B] is given by:
 bi 0 bj 0 bm 0
1  
[B] = 2 A  0 gi 0 gj 0 gm 
 
 gi bi gj bj gm bm 
Where: bi = y j − ym = 125 − 250 = − 125

b j = ym − yi = 250 − 0 = 250
bm = yi − y j = 0 − 125 = −125
gi = xm − x j = 0 − 250 = −250
g j = xi − xm = 0 − 0 = 0
gm = x j − xi = 250 − 0 = 250
Therefore, substituting in [B] matrix,
 −125 0 250 0 −125 0 

1 
[ B ] = 62500  0 −250 0 0 0 250 
 −250 −125 0 250 250 −125
For plane stress, the [D] matrix is conveniently expressed here as:
 
1 u 0 
E  
[D] = 2 
u 1 0 
(1 − u ) 
1− u 
0 0 
 2 
With ʋ = 0.3 and E = 210 GPa, we obtain
 1 0.3 0 
210000 
[D] = 0 .3 1 0 
0.91 
 0 0 0.35
 −125 0 −250 
 0
 −250 −125 
 1 0.3 0 
T 210000  250 0 0 
Then, [ B ] [ D ] =   0.3 1 0 
62500(0.91)  0 0 250  
 0 0 0.35
 −125 0 250 
 
 0 250 −125 
 −125 −37.5 −87.5 

 −75 −250 −43.75
 
 250 75 0 
∴ [ B ] [ D ] = 3.6923 
T

 0 0 87.5 
 −125 −37.5 87.5 
 
 75 250 −43.75
The stiffness matrix for element (1) is:
 −125 −37.5 −87.5 

 −75 −250 −43.75
   −125 0 250 0 −125 0 
 250 0  1 
250 
75
[ ]
k = ( 5)( 31250 )( 3 .6923)  ×  0 −250 0 0 0
 0 0 87.5  62500
 −250 −125 0 250 250 −125
 −125 −37.5 87.5 
 
 75 250 −43.75
 37500 20313 −31250 −21875 −6250 1563 

 20313 67969 −18750 −10938 −1563 −57031
 
 −31250 −18750 6250 0 −31250 18750 
[k ] = 9.2308  −21875 −10938 0 21875 21875 −10938


 −6250 −1563 −31250 21875 37500 −20313
 
 1563 −57031 18750 −10938 −20313 67969 
Element (2)
m=5
(2)
i=1 j=2
1
A= bh
2
1
A= (500)(125) = 31250 mm2
2
For element (2), we have coordinates xi = 0, yi = 0, xm = 250, ym = 125,

bi = y j − ym = −125
b j = ym − yi = 125
bm = yi − y j = 0
gi = xm − x j = −250
g j = xi − xm = −250
gm = x j − xi = 500
 −125 0 125 0 0 0 
[ B ] = 62500  0 −250 0 −250 0 500
1 
 −250 −125 −250 125 500 0 
 1 0.3 0 
[ D ] = 0.91 0.3 1 0 
210000 
 0 0 0.35
 −125 0 −250 
 0 −250 −125
  1 0.3 0 
210000  125 −250  
0 
0
Then, [ B ] [ D ] =
T
  0.3 1
62500(0.91)  0 −250 125  
 0 0 0.35
 0 0 500 
 
 0 500 0 
 −125 −37.5 −87.5 

 −75 −250 −43.75
 
 125 37.5 −87.5 
∴ [ B ] [ D ] = 3.6923 
T

 −75 −250 43.75 
 0 0 175 
 
 150 500 0 
 −125 −37.5 −87.5 

 −75 −250 −43.75
   −125 0 125 0 0 0 
 125 37.5 −87.5 
[k ] = (5)(31250)(3.6923)  −75 −250 43.75  × 62500  0 −250 0 −250 0 500
1
   −250 −125 −250 125 500 0 
 0 0 175 
 
 150 500 0 
 37500 20313 6250 −1560 −43750 −18750 

 20313 67970 1560 57030 −21880 −125000 

 6250 1560 37500 −20310 −43750 18750 
[k ] = 9.2308  −1560 57030 −20310 67970 21880 −125000
 
 −43750 −21880 −43750 21880 87500 0 
 
 −18750 −1125000 18750 −125000 0 250000 
Element (3)
j=3
m=5 (3)
i=2
1
A = bh
2
1
A = ( 250)( 250) = 31250 mm 2
2

bi = y j − ym =125
b j = ym − yi =125
bm = yi − y j = − 250
gi = xm − x j = − 250
g j = xi − xm = 250
gm = x j − xi = 0
 125 0 125 0 −250 0 

1 
[ B ] = 62500  0 −250 0 250 0 0 
 −250 125 250 125 0 −250 
 1 0.3 0 
210000 
[D] = 0 .3 1 0 
0.91 
 0 0 0.35
 125 0 −250 
 0 −250 125 
  1 0.3 0 
210000  125 250  
[ B ] [ D ] = 62500(0.91)  0 250 125  0.3 1 0 
T 0
  0 0 0.35
 −250 
0 0 
 
 0 0 −250 
 125 37.5 −87.5

 −75 −250 43.75 

 125 37.5 87.5 
∴ [ B ] [ D ] = 3.6923 
T

 75 250 43.775 
 −250 −75 0 
 
 0 0 −87.5
Then, The stiffness matrix for element (3) is:

 125 37.5 −87.5
 −75 −250 43.75 
  125 0 125 0 −250 0 
 125 37.5 87.5  1  
[k ] = (5)(31250)(3.6923)  75 250 ×
43.75  62500 
0 −250 0 250 0 0 
  −250 125 250 125 0 −250 
 −250 −75 0 
 
 0 0 −87.5
 37500 −20313 −6250 −1563 −31250 21875 

 −20313 67979 1563 −57031 18750 −10938

 −6250 1563 37500 −20313 −31250 −21875
[k ] = 9.2308  −1563 −57031 −20313 67979 −18750 −10938


 −31250 18750 −31250 −18750 62500 0 
 
 21875 −10938 −21875 −10938 0 21875 
Element (4)
m=4 j=3
(4)
i=5
1
A = bh
2
1
A = (500)(125) = 31250 mm 2
2

xj = 500 and yj = 250, because the global axes are set up at node 1, and
bi = y j − ym = 0
b j = ym − yi =125
bm = yi − y j = −125
gi = xm − x j = − 500
g j = xi − xm = 250
gm = x j − xi = 250
 0 0 125 0 −125 0 
1 
[B] = 0 −500 0 250 0 250 
62500 
 −500 0 250 125 250 125 
 1 0.3 0 
[ D ] = 0.91 0.3 1 0 
210000 
 0 0 0.35
 0 0 −500 
 0 −500 0 
  1 0.3 0 
210000  125 250  
0 
0
Then, [ B ] [ D ] =
T
  0.3 1
62500(0.91)  0 250 125  
 0 0 0.35
 −125 0 250 
 
 0 250 −125
 0 0 −175 
 −150 −500 0 

 125 37.5 87.5 
∴ [ B ] [ D ] = 3.6923 
T

 75 250 43.75 
 −125 −37.5 87.5 
 
 75 250 −43.75
 0 0 −175 
 −150 −500 0 
  0 0 125 0 −125 0 
 125 87.5 
[k ] = (5)(31250)(3.6923)  75 250 43.75  × 62500  0 −500 0 250 0 250
37.5 1
   −500 0 250 125 250 125 
 −125 −37.5 87.5 
 
 75 250 −43.75
 87500 0 −43750 −21880 −43750 21880 

 0 250000 −18750 −125000 18750 −125000 

 −43750 −18750 37500 20310 6250 −1560 
[k ] = 9.2308  −21880 −125000 20310 67979 1560 57030 
 
 −43750 18750 6250 1560 37500 −20310 
 
 21880 −125000 −1560 57030 −20310 67970 
The stiffness matrix
 37500 20313 0 0 0 0 −6250 1563 −31250 −21875

 20313 67969 0 0 0 0 −1563−57031 −18750 −10938

 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 k (1)  = 9.2308 ∗  
   0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 −6250 −1563 0 0 0 0 37500 −20313 −31250 21875 
 
 1563 −57031 0 0 0 0 −20313 67969 18750 −10938
 
 −31250 − 18750 0 0 0 0 −31250 18750 6250 0 
 −21875 −10938 0 0 0 0 21875 −10938 0 21875 
 37500 20313 6250 −1560 0 0 0 0 −43750 −18750 

 20313 67 9 70 1560 57030 0 0 0 0 −21880 −125000 

 6250 1560 37500 −20310 0 0 0 0 −43750 18750 
 
 −1560 57030 −20310 67970 0 0 0 0 21880 −125000 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
( )
 k  = 9.2308 ∗ 
2

   0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 −43750 − 21880 −43750 21880 0 0 0 0 87500 0 
 −18750 −125000 18750 −125000 0 0 0 0 0 250000 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 37500 −20313 −6250 −1563 0 0 −31250 21875 
 
0 0 −20313 67979 1563 −57031 0 0 18750 −10938
0 0 −6250 1563 37500 −20313 0 0 −31250 −21875
( )
 k  = 9.2308 ∗ 
3

  0 0 −1563 −57031 −20313 67979 0 0 −18750 −10938
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 −31250 18750 −31250 −18750 0 0 62500 0 
0 0 21875 −10938 −21875 −10938 0 0 0 21875 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  0
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 37500 20310 6250 −1560 −43750 −18750 
( )
 k  = 9.2308 ∗ 
4

  0 0 0 0 20310 67979 1560 57030 −221880 −125000 
0 0 0 0 6250 1560 37500 −20310 −43750 18750 
 
0 0 0 0 −1560 57030 −20310 67970 21880 −125000 
 
0 0 0 0 −43750 −21880 −43750 21880 87500 0 
0 0 0 0 −18750 −125000 18750 −125000 0 250000 
The total stiffness matrix can be obtained:
[ K ] =  K (1)  +  K (2)  +  K (3)  +  K (4) 
[ K ] = 9.2308 ∗
 75000 40626 6250 −1560 0 0 −6250 1563 −75000 −40625 
 40626 135939 1560 57030 0 0 −1563 −57031 −40630 −135938

 6250 1560 75000 −40623 −6250 −1563 0 0 −75000 40625 
 
 −1560 57030 −40623 135949 1563 −57031 0 0 40630 −135938
 0 0 −6250 1563 75000 0 6250 −1560 −75000 −40625 
 
 0 0 −1563 −57031 0 135958 1560 57030 −40630 −135938
 −6250 −1563 0 0 6250 1560 75000 −40623 −75000 40625 
 
 1563 −57031 0 0 −1560 57030 −40623 135939 40630 −135938
 
 −75000 −40630 −75000 40630 −75000 −40630 −75000 40630 243750 0 
 −40625 −135938 40625 −135938 −40625 −135938 40625 −135938 0 543750 
By applying the governing global matrix equation, we get:
{F} = [K]{d}
 R1x   75000 40626 6250 −1560 0 0 −6250 1563 −75000 −40625   0 
 R   
 1 y   40626 1359 −1563 −57031 −40630 −135938  0 
939 1560 57030 0 0
 
20000   6250 1560 75000 −40623 −6250 −1563 0 0 −75000 40625   2x 
    
 34641  −1560 57030 −40623 135949 1563 −57031 0 0 40630 −135938  2y 
 R   0 −6250 −1560 −75000 −40625   0 
 3x   0 1563 75000 0 6250
 =   
 R3 y   0 0 −1563 −57031 0 135958 1560 57030 −40630 −135938  0 
 R   −6250 −1563 0 0 6250 1560 750000 −40623 −75000 40625   0 
 4x    
 R4 y   1563 −57031 0 0 −1560 57030 −40623 135939 40630 −135938   0 
  −75000 −40630 −75000 40630 −75000 −40630 −75000 40630 243750 0  
0 5x
    
−40625 −135938 40625 −135938 −40625 −135938 40625 −135938
 0  
0 543750   5y 

The previous governing global matrix equation has 10 equations with 10

unknowns, which are (R1x, R1y, R3x, R3y, R4x, R4y, d2x, d2y, d5x, d5y); we can get
them by solving the following equations.
By using MATLAB, we can solve them and the results are as follows:
R1x = − 7.6722 kN , R1 y = 13.675 kN , R1 = 15.680 kN
R3 x = − 13.483 kN , R3 y = − 42.210 kN , R3 = 44.311 kN
R4 x = − 4.4911 kN , R4 y = − 6.1025 kN , R4 = 7.5770 kN
d 2 x = 0.0632 mm, d 2 y = 0.0513 mm
d5 x = 0.0109 mm, d5 y = 0.0081 mm
The displacement at point (250, 125) = (0.0109, 0.0081) mm

We can determine the stresses in each element by using equation:
{s} = [ D ][ B ]{d }
The stress for element A, we then have
 d1x 
  d 
1 u  1y 
0   b1 0 b5 0 b4 0 
E   1   d5 x 
{s} = u 1 0 × g1 g5 g4   
(1 − u )
0 0 0
2 2A  d5 y
 1− u   g1 b1 g5 b5 g4 b4   
0 0  d 
 2   4x 
d 4 y 
Substituting numerical values for matrix [D], [B] given by the analysis of
element A and the appropriate part of {d}, we can obtain:
 0 
 0 
 1 0.3 0   −125 0 250 2 −125 0  
210000  × 0  0.0109 
{s} = 0 .3 1 0 −250 0 0 0 250 
 0.0081
0.91( 62500)   
 0 0 0.35  −250 −125 0 250 250 −125  
 0 
 
 0 
 s  10.0615
 x   
 s y  =  3.0185  Mpa
   2.6169 
txy   
1.9 FEA: Modeling, Errors, and Accuracy
Modeling is the simulation of a physical structure or physical process by

means of a substitute analytical or numerical construct. It is not simply
preparing a mesh of nodes and elements. Modeling requires that the phys-
ical action of the problem be understood well enough to choose suitable
A problem Anticipate A problem Preprocess

must be physical must be prepare the
solved behavior solved FE model
plan how
FE results
will be Plan revised
Is FE Yes FE model
checked to
analysis using insight
see if they Solve
required? provided by
are equations of
reasonable the current the FE model
FE model
Analytical or
experimental No
solution
Postprocess
Are results reasonable?
display FE
Yes Are error estimates small?
results
Stop Does model revision do little
to alter computed results? Computer
software
Figure 1.11. Outline of an FE analysis project.
kinds of elements, and enough of them, to represent the physical action

adequately. Figure 1.11 gives an outline of an FEA project.
1.9.1 Modeling Error
Whatever the analysis method, we do not analyze the actual physical

problem; rather, we analyze a mathematical model of it. Thus, we intro-
duce modeling error. For example, in the elementary beam theory, we
represent a beam by a line (its axis) and typically ignore deformations
associated with transverse shear. This is an excellent approximation for
slender beams, but not for very short beams. Or, for axial load problem
of Figure 1.12, we would probably assume that a state of uniaxial stress
prevails throughout the bar, which is proper if taper is slight, but improper
if taper is pronounced. Real structures are not so easily classified, as they
are often built of parts that would be idealized mathematically in differ-
ent ways and have cutouts, stiffeners, and connectors whose behavior
is uncertain.
The foregoing considerations must be addressed in order to decide what
types of elements to use and how many of them. If a beam is deep, trans-
verse shear deformation may become important and should be included
in beam elements. If a beam is very deep, two- or three-dimensional ele-
ments are more appropriate than beam elements. If a beam has a wide
cross-section, the plate theory may be more appropriate than beam theory
(then, of course, choose plate elements rather than beam elements). If an
hO
hO + ∆h P
x x, u
LT 4@L = LT
(a) (b)
Figure 1.12. (a) A tapered bar loaded by axial force P, (b) Discretization of the
bar into four uniform two-node elements of equal length.
axisymmetric pressure vessel has a thick wall, one should regard it as a

solid of revolution, rather than a shell of revolution, and choose axisym-
metric solid elements, rather than axisymmetric shell elements.
1.9.2 Discretization Error
Let us now consider the axially tapered bar of Figure 1.4 in more detail
and describe how the FEM implements the mathematical model. We will
assume that a satisfactory mathematical model is based on a state of uniax-
ial stress. An analytical solution is then rather easy, but we pretend not to
know it and ask for an FE solution instead. We discretize the mathematical
model by dividing it into two node elements of constant cross-section, as
shown in Figure 1.4b. Each element has length L, accounts only for a con-
stant uniaxial stress along its length, and has an axial deformation given
by the elementary formula PL/AE. For each element, A may be taken as
constant and equal to the cross-sectional area of the tapered bar at an x
coordinate corresponding to the element center. The displacement of load
P is equal to the sum of the element deformations. Intuitively, we expect
that the exact displacement be approached as more and more elements
are used to span the total length LT. However, even if many elements are
used there is an error, known as discretization error, which exists because
the physical structure and the mathematical model each has infinitely
many degrees of freedom (DOF) (namely, the displacements of infinitely
many points), while the FE model has a finite number of DOF (the axial
displacements of its nodes).
How Many Elements Are Enough?
Imagine that we carry out two FEAs, the second time using a more refined
mesh. The second FE model will have lesser discretization error than the
first, and will also represent the geometry better if the physical object has
curved surfaces. If the two analyses yield similar solutions, we suspect

that results are not much in error. Or, we might establish a sequence of
solutions by solving the problem more than twice, using a finer mesh each
time. By studying how the sequence converges, we may be able to state
with some confidence that the results from the finest mesh are in error by
less than, say, 5 percent.
1.9.3 Numerical Error
After the analyst has introduced modeling error and discretization error, the
computer introduces numerical error by rounding or truncating numbers
as it builds matrices and solves equations. Usually, the numerical error is
small, but some modeling practices can greatly increase it.
FE computer programs have become widely available, easier to use,
and can display results with attractive graphics. Even an inept user can
produce some kind of answer. It is hard to disbelieve FE results because of
the effort needed to get them and the polish of their presentation. But, any
model, good or bad, can produce smooth and colorful stress contours. It
is possible that most FEAs are so flawed that they cannot be trusted. Even
a poor mesh, inappropriate element types, incorrect loads, or improper
supports may produce results that appear reasonable on casual inspection.
200 mm 20 mm
1-ms presuure pulse 4 mm
10
3c
2
3c
5 2 9
5
Displacement, mm
7
10
3b 9
10
0 2
7
8 5
1
1 9
7 3b
–5 8
5 8
1
10
–10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure 1.13. Lateral midpoint displacement versus time for a beam loaded by a
pressure pulse. The material is elastic-perfectly plastic. Plots were generated by
various users and various codes [2].
A poor model may have defects that are not removed by refinement of
the mesh.
A responsible user must understand the physical nature of the
problem and the behavior of finite elements well enough to prepare a
suitable model and evaluate the quality of the results. Competence in
using FE for stress analysis does not imply competence in using FE for
(say) magnetic field problems. The engineer who uses the software, not
the software vendor, even if the results are affected by the errors in the
software, takes responsibility for the results produced.
Figure 1.13 is an example of discrepancies that may appear. A pressure
pulse is applied to a straight beam with hinge supports. The loading causes
the material to yield and the beam to vibrate. Analysis seeks to track the lat-
eral displacement of the midpoint as a function of time. The results plotted
come from 10 reputable analysis codes and were obtained by users regarded
as expert. Yet, if any of the curves is correct, we c annot tell which one it is.
Admittedly, the problem is difficult. The results indicate strong sensitivities
of both physical and computational nature. This example reminds us that
any analysis program is based on theory and approximation, and that a user
may push the program beyond its range of validity.
Chapter 2
Static Analysis Using

ANSYS
2.1 Overview of Structural Analysis
A brief overview of structural analysis as carried out by ANSYS is

provided in the following sections.
2.1.1 Definition of Structural Analysis
Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the finite

element method. The term structural (or structure) implies not only civil
engineering structures, such as bridges and buildings, but also naval, aero-
nautical, and mechanical structures such as ship hulls, aircraft bodies, and
machine housings, as well as mechanical components, such as pistons,
machine parts, and tools.
2.1.2 Definition of Static Analysis
A static analysis calculates the effects of steady loading conditions on a

structure, while ignoring inertia and damping effects, such as those caused
by time-varying loads. A static analysis can, however, include steady iner-
tia loads (such as gravity and rotational velocity) and time-varying loads
that can be approximated as static equivalent loads (such as the static
equivalent wind and seismic loads commonly defined in many building
codes). Static analysis is used to determine the displacements, stresses,
strains, and forces in structures or components caused by loads that do
not induce significant inertia and damping effects. Steady loading and
response conditions are assumed, that is, the loads and the structure’s
response are assumed to vary slowly with respect to time. The kinds of
loadings that can be applied in a static analysis include:
• externally applied forces and pressures,

• steady-state inertial forces (such as gravity or rotational velocity),
• imposed (nonzero) displacements,
• temperatures (for thermal strain),
• fluences (for nuclear swelling).
2.1.3 Linear versus Nonlinear Static Analyses
A static analysis can be either linear or nonlinear. All types of nonlinear-

ities are allowed—large deformations, plasticity, creep, stress stiffening,
contact (gap) elements, hyperelastic elements, and so on. This chapter
focuses on linear static analyses, with brief references to nonlinearities.
Details of how to handle nonlinearities are described in Nonlinear Struc-
tural Analysis notes.
2.2 Static Analysis Procedure
2.2.1 Preprocessing: Building a Model
Building a finite element model requires more of your time than any other
part of the analysis. First, you specify a jobname and analysis title. Then,
you use the PREP7 preprocessor to define the element types, element real
constants, material properties, and the model geometry.
2.2.1.1 Defining the Jobname
The jobname is a name that identifies the ANSYS job. When you define a
jobname for an analysis, the jobname becomes the first part of the name of
all files the analysis creates. (The extension or suffix for these files’ names
Static Analysis Using ANSYS • 55
is a file identifier such as .DB.) By using a jobname for each analysis,

you insure that no files are overwritten. If you do not specify a jobname,
all files receive the name FILE or file, depending on the operating sys-
tem. You can change the default jobname as follows: by using the initial
jobname entry option when you enter the ANSYS program, either via the
launcher or on the ANSYS execution command. From within the ANSYS
program, you can use either of the following: Command(s):/FILNAME or
GUI: Utility Menu > File > Change Jobname. The /FIL NAME command
is valid only at the Begin level. It lets you change the jobname.
2.2.1.2 Defining an Analysis Title
The /TITLE command (Utility Menu > File > Change Title), defines a title
for the analysis. ANSYS includes the title on all graphics displays and on
the solution output. You can issue the /STITLE command to add subtitles;
these will appear in the output, but not in graphics displays.
2.2.1.3 Defining Units
The ANSYS program does not assume a system of units for your analysis.
Except in magnetic field analyses, you can use any system of units so
long as you make sure that you use that system for all the data you enter.
(Units must be consistent for all input data.) For micro-electro mechanical
systems (MEMS), where dimensions are on the order of microns, see
the conversion factors in System of Units in the ANSYS Coupled-Field
Analysis Guide. Using the /UNITS command, you can set a marker in the
ANSYS database, indicating the system of units that you are using. This
command does not convert data from one system of units to another; it
simply serves as a record for subsequent reviews of the analysis.
2.2.1.4 Defining Element Types
The ANSYS element library contains more than 150 different element
types. Each element type has a unique number and a prefix that identifies the
element category: BEAM4, PLANE77, SOLID96, and so on. The f ollowing
element categories are available:
Beam Circuit Combination Contact Fluid

HF (high Hyperelastic Infinite Interface Link
frequency)
Mass Matrix Mesh Pipe Plane
Prets Shell Solid Source Surface
(pretension)
Target Transducer User Viscoelastic or
viscoplastic
1. Main Menu > Preprocessor > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete
2. Add an element type.

3. Structural shell family of elements.

4. Choose the eight-noded layered shell element. (SHELL99).
5. OK to apply the element type and close the dialog box.
6. Close the element type dialog box.
2.2.1.5 Defining Element Real Constants
Element real constants are properties that depend on the element type,
such as cross-sectional properties of a beam element. For example, real
constants for BEAM3, the 2D beam element, are area (AREA), moment
of inertia (IZZ), height (HEIGHT), shear deflection constant (SHEARZ),
initial strain (ISTRN), and added mass per unit length (ADDMAS). Not
all element types require real constants, and different elements of the same
type may have different real constant values.
1. Main Menu > Preprocessor > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete

2. Add a real constant set.
3. OK for PLANE42
4. Enter the value of thickness

5. OK to define the real constant and close the dialog box.
2.2.1.6 Defining Material Properties
Most element types require material properties. Depending on the appli-

cation, material properties can be linear (see Linear Material Properties)
or nonlinear (see Nonlinear Material Properties). As with element types
and real constants, each set of material properties has a material reference
number. The table of material reference numbers versus material property
sets is called the material table. Within one analysis, you may have mul-
tiple material property sets (to correspond with multiple materials used in
the model). ANSYS identifies each set with a unique reference number.
While defining the elements, you point to the appropriate material refer-
ence number using the MAT command.
2.2.1.7 Linear Material Properties
Linear material properties can be constant or temperature-dependent,

and isotropic or orthotropic. To define constant material properties
(either isotropic or orthotropic), use one of the following: Command(s):

MPGUI:Main Menu > Preprocessor > Material Props > Material Models.
(See Material Model Interface for details on the GUI.) You also must spec-
ify the appropriate property label; for example, EX, EY, EZ for Young’s
modulus; KXX, KYY, KZZ for thermal conductivity; and so forth. For
isotropic material, you need to define only the X-direction property;
the other directions default to the X-direction value. For example: MP,
EX,1,2E11 ! Young’s modulus for material ref. no. 1 is 2E11
MP, DENS,1,7800 ! Density for material ref. no. 1 is 7800
MP, KXX,1,43 ! Thermal conductivity for material ref. no 1 is 43
2.2.1.8 Nonlinear Material Properties
Nonlinear material properties are usually tabular data, such as plas-

ticity data (stress–strain curves for different hardening laws), magnetic
field data (B–H curves), creep data, swelling data, hyperelastic material
data, and so on. The first step in defining a nonlinear material property
is to activate a data table using the TB command (see Material Model
Interface for the GUI equivalent). For example, TB,BH,2 activates the
B–H table for material reference number 2. To enter the tabular data,
use the TBPT command. For example, the following commands define
a B–H curve:
TBPT,DEFI,150,.21
TBPT,DEFI,300,.55
TBPT,DEFI,460,.80
TBPT,DEFI,640,.95
TBPT,DEFI,720,1.0
TBPT,DEFI,890,1.1
TBPT,DEFI,1020,1.15
TBPT,DEFI,1280,1.25
TBPT,DEFI,1900,1.4
You can verify the data table through displays and listings using the
TBPLOT or TBLIST commands.
2.2.2 Creating the Model Geometry

Once you have defined material properties, the next step in an analysis is
generating a finite element model—nodes and elements—that adequately
describes the model geometry. There are two methods to create the finite
element model: solid modeling and direct generation. With solid mod-
eling, you describe the geometric shape of your model, then instruct the
ANSYS program to automatically mesh the geometry with nodes and ele-
ments. You can control the size and shape in the elements that the program
creates. With direct generation, you manually define the location of each
node and the connectivity of each element. Several convenience opera-
tions, such as copying patterns of existing nodes and elements, symmetry
reflection, and so on, are available. Details of the two methods and many
other aspects related to model generation—coordinate systems, working
planes, coupling, constraint equations, and so on, are described in the
ANSYS Modeling and Meshing Guide.
2.2.2.1 Apply Loads and Obtain the Solution
In this step, you use the SOLUTION processor to define the analysis type
and analysis options, apply loads, specify load step options, and initiate
the finite element solution. You also can apply loads using the PREP7
preprocessor.
2.2.2.2 Defining the Analysis Type and Analysis Options
You choose the analysis type based on the loading conditions and the
response you wish to calculate. For example, if natural frequencies and
mode shapes are to be calculated, you would choose a modal analysis.

You can perform the following analysis types in the ANSYS program:
static (or steady-state), transient, harmonic, modal, spectrum, buckling,
and substructuring. Not all analysis types are valid for all disciplines.
Modal analysis, for example, is not valid for a thermal model. The analy-
sis guide manuals in the ANSYS documentation set describe the analysis
types available for each discipline and the procedures to do those anal-
yses. Analysis options allow you to customize the analysis type. Typical
analysis options are the method of solution, stress stiffening on or off,
and Newton–Raphson options. To define the analysis type and analy-
sis options, use the ANTYPE command (Main Menu > Preprocessor >
Loads > Analysis Type > New Analysis or Main Menu > Preprocessor >
Loads > Analysis Type > Restart) and the appropriate analysis option
commands (TRNOPT, HROPT, MODOPT, SSTIF, NROPT, etc.). For
GUI equivalents for the other commands, see their descriptions in the
ANSYS Elements Reference. If you are performing a static or full tran-
sient analysis, you can take advantage of the Solution Controls dialog
box to define many options for the analysis. For details about the Solution
Controls dialog box, see Solution. You can specify either a new analy-
sis or a restart, but a new analysis is the choice in most cases. A single
frame restart that allows you to resume a job at its end point or abort
point is available for static (steady-state), harmonic (2D magnetic only),
and transient analyses. A multi-frame restart that allows you to restart an
analysis at any point is available for static or full transient structural anal-
yses. See Restarting an Analysis for complete information on performing
restarts. The various analysis guides discuss additional details necessary
for restarts. You cannot change the analysis type and analysis options
after the first solution. A sample input listing for a structural transient
analysis is shown next. Remember that the discipline (structural, thermal,
magnetic, etc.) is implied by the element types used in the model.
ANTYPE, TRANS TRNOPT, FULL NLGEOM, ON
Once you have defined the analysis type and analysis options, the
next step is to apply loads.
Some structural analysis types require other items to be defined first,
such as master degrees of freedom and gap conditions. The ANSYS Struc-
tural Analysis Guide describes these items where necessary.
2.2.2.3 Applying Loads
The word loads as used in ANSYS documentation includes boundary con-

ditions (constraints, supports, or boundary field specifications), as well as
other externally and internally applied loads. Loads in the ANSYS pro-
gram are divided into six categories: DOF Constraints, Forces, Surface
Loads, Body Loads, Inertia Loads, and Coupled-field Loads.
You can apply most of these loads either on the solid model (key-
points, lines, and areas) or the finite element model (nodes and elements).
For details about the load categories and how they can be applied on your
model, see Loading in this book. Two important load-related terms you
need to know are load step and substep. A load step is simply a config-
uration of loads for which you obtain a solution. In a structural analysis,
for example, you may apply wind loads in one load step and gravity in a
second load step. Load steps are also useful in dividing a transient load
history curve into several segments. Substeps are incremental steps taken
within a load step. You use them mainly for accuracy and convergence
purposes in transient and nonlinear analyses. Substeps are also known as
time steps—steps taken over a period of time.
2.2.2.4 Specifying Load Step Options
Load step options are options that you can change from load step to load
step, such as number of substeps, time at the end of a load step, and out-
put controls. Depending on the type of analysis you are doing, load step
options may or may not be required. The analysis procedures in the analy-
sis guide manuals describe the appropriate load step options as necessary.
See Loading for a general description of load step options.
2.2.2.5 Initiating the Solution
To initiate solution calculations, use either of the following: Command(s):

SOLVE GUI: Main Menu > Solution > Solve > Current LS.
When you issue this command, the ANSYS program takes model
and loading information from the database and calculates the results.
The results are written to the results file (Jobname.RST, Jobname.RTH,
Jobname.RMG, or Jobname.RFL) and also to the database. The only dif-
ference is that only one set of results can reside in the database at one time,
while you can write all sets of results (for all substeps) to the results file.
2.2.3 Review the Results
Once the solution has been calculated, you can use the ANSYS postpro-
cessors to review the results. Two postprocessors are available: POST1
and POST26. You use POST1, the general postprocessor, to review results
at one substep (time step) over the entire model or selected portion of the
model. The command to enter POST1 is /POST1 (Main Menu > General
Postproc), valid only at the Begin level. You can obtain contour displays,
deformed shapes, and tabular listings to review and interpret the results of
the analysis. POST1 offers many other capabilities, including error esti-
mation, load case combinations, calculations among results data, and path
operations. You use POST26, the time history postprocessor, to review
results at specific points in the model over all time steps. The command to
enter POST26 is /POST26 (Main Menu > TimeHist Postpro), valid only at
the Begin level. You can obtain graph plots of results data versus time (or
frequency) and tabular listings. Other POST26 capabilities include arith-
metic calculations and complex algebra.
Chapter 3
Geometric Modeling
The ultimate purpose of finite element analysis is to recreate mathemat-

ically the behavior of an actual engineering system. In other words, the
analysis must be an accurate mathematical model of a physical prototype.
In the broadest sense, this model comprises all the nodes, elements,
material properties, real constants, boundary conditions, and other fea-
tures, including geometry, that are used to represent the physical system.
The ANSYS program offers you the following approaches to geometric
modeling:
• Creating a solid model within ANSYS.

• Using direct generation.
• Importing a model created in a computer-aided design (CAD)
system.
3.1 Typical Steps Involved in Model

Generation Within ANSYS
1. Begin by planning your approach. Determine your objectives,

decide what basic form your model will take, choose appropriate
element types, and consider how you will establish an appro-
priate mesh density. You will typically do this general planning
before you initiate your ANSYS session.
2. Enter the preprocessor (PREP7) to initiate your model building
session. Most often, you will build your model using solid m
odeling
procedures.
3. Establish a working plane.
4. Generate basic geometric features using geometric primitives and

Boolean operators.
5. Activate the appropriate coordinate system.
6. Generate other solid model features from the bottom up. That
is, create keypoints, and then define lines, areas, and volumes
as needed.
7. Use more Boolean operators or number controls to join separate
solid model regions together as appropriate.
8. Create tables of element attributes (element types, real constants,
material properties, and element coordinate systems).
9. Set element attribute pointers.
10. Set meshing controls to establish your desired mesh density if
desired. This step is not always required because default element
sizes exist when you enter the program. (If you want the program
to refine the mesh automatically, exit the preprocessor at this point
and activate adaptive meshing.)
11. Create nodes and elements by meshing your solid model.
12. After you have generated nodes and elements, add features such as
surface-to-surface contact elements, coupled degrees of freedom,
and constraint equations
13. Save your model data to Jobname.DB.
14. Exit the preprocessor.
3.2 Importing Solid Models Created

in CAD systems
As an alternative to creating your solid models within ANSYS, you can

create them in your favorite CAD system and then import them into
ANSYS for analysis, by saving them in the IGES file format or in a file
format supported by an ANSYS connection product. Creating a model
using a CAD package has the following advantages:
• You avoid a duplication of effort by using existing CAD models to

generate solid models for analysis.
• You use more familiar tools to create models.
However, models imported from CAD systems may require extensive

repair if they are not of suitable quality for meshing.
Geometric Modeling • 67
3.3 Solid Modeling
The purpose of using a solid model is to relieve you of the time-consuming

task of building a complicated finite element model by direct generation.
Let us take a brief look at some of the solid modeling and meshing opera-
tions that you can use to speed up the creation of your final analysis model.
Building your model from the bottom up: Keypoints, the points
that define the vertices of your model, are the lowest-order solid model
entities. If, in building your solid model, you first create your keypoints,
and then use those keypoints to define the higher-order solid model enti-
ties (that is, lines, areas, and volumes), you are said to be building your
model from the bottom up. Keep in mind that models built from the bottom
up are defined within the currently active coordinate system.
Building your model from the top down: The ANSYS program also
gives you the ability to assemble your model using geometric primitives,
which are fully defined lines, areas, and volumes. As you create a prim-
itive, the program automatically creates all the lower entities associated
with it. If your modeling effort begins with the higher primitive entities,
you are said to be building your model from the top down. You can freely
combine bottom-up and top-down modeling techniques, as appropri-
ate, in any model. Remember that geometric primitives are built within
the working plane, while bottom-up techniques are defined against the
active coordinate system. If you are mixing techniques, you may wish to
consider using the CSYS, WP or CSYS, 4 command to force the coordinate
system to follow the working plane.
Using Boolean operators: You can sculpt your solid model using inter-
sections, subtractions, and other Boolean operations. Booleans allow you
to work directly with higher solid model entities to create complex shapes.
(Both bottom-up and top-down creations can be used in Boolean operations.)
Dragging and rotating: Boolean operators, although convenient, can
be computationally expensive. Sometimes, a model can be constructed
more efficiently by dragging or rotating.
Moving and copying solid model entities: A complicated area or vol-
ume that appears repetitively in your model needs only be constructed once;
it can then be moved, rotated, and copied to a new location on your model.
You might also find it more convenient to place geometric primitives in their
proper location by moving them, rather than by changing the working plane.
3.4 Tutorial 1: Solid Modeling using

2D Primitives
In this tutorial, the bottom-up solid modeling of a retaining ring is pre-

sented. In the ring diagram shown, build a solid model of the retaining
ring using extrusion command. When you are done, save the database.
Rather than drawing two circles and subtracting one from the other, circu-
lar annulus will be used to create the main ring. A 2D cross-section of the
retaining ring will be first drawn, having the complete details (including
fillet radius) shown. Solid Boolean operations will be performed to make
a single object from the various entities. The 2D object, together with its
mesh, will be extruded to obtain the final retaining ring.
Program Options
Boolean operations, add, subtract circle, annulus modeling, reflect (mirror)
modeling, extrude
Step-by-Step ANSYS Solution
1. Start ANSYS; save file with your given job name:

File -> Save As -> Retaining-Ring -> OK
2. Create the ring by using the annulus command:
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Areas ->
Circle -> Annulus ->
In dialog box, enter WP X = 0, WP Y = 0, Rad-1 = 8,
Rad-2 = 6.5 -> OK
3. Create a rectangle:
Rectangle -> By Dimensions ->
In dialog box, enter X1, X2 X-coords = -2, 2 and
Y1, Y2 Y-coords = -7.5, -9.5 -> OK
4. Add the two areas (ring and rectangle) by Boolean operation to

make a single area:
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Operate -> Booleans ->
Add -> Areas ->
Using the mouse, pick the ring (point to the ring and left-click),
then pick the rectangle, or select pick all -> OK Save _DB
5. Create another rectangle:

Rectangle -> By Dimensions ->
In dialog box, enter X1, X2 X-coords = -0.25, 0.25 and
Y1, Y2 Y-coords = -6, -10 -> OK
6. Subtract the new rectangle from the existing area to get middle slot
of the retaining ring:

Subtract -> Areas ->
Using the mouse, pick the existing area -> Apply ->
pick rectangle -> OK
Neglect warning; close. Save _DB
7. Create a circle to get one of the holes in the retaining ring:

Circle -> Solid Circle ->
In dialog box, enter WP X = 1, WP Y = -8,
Radius = 0.6 -> OK
8. Make a mirror copy of the circle to get the second hole in the retain-
ing ring:
Preprocessor -> Reflect -> Areas -> Pick the circle ->
Apply ->
In dialog box, enter KINC Keypoint Increment = 0 -> OK
The hole on the right will be mirrored on the left side.
9. Subtract the two circles from the main body to get the two holes:
Subtract -> Areas -> Using the mouse, pick main body ->
Apply -> pick one circle, pick other circle -> OK
Save _DB
10. Change view to make the lines visible, so that you can perform the
fillet operation:
Menu bar at the top -> Plot -> Lines
11. Round-off on the two sides of the bottom part of the retaining ring
using the fillet command:
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Lines -> Line Fillet ->
Using the mouse, pick the arc portion of the right main body,
then pick the straight line on the right bottom part -> Apply ->
In the dialog box, enter RAD Fillet radius = 1 -> Apply
Similarly, pick the arc portion of the left main body, then pick the
straight line on the left bottom part -> Apply ->
In the dialog box, enter RAD Fillet radius = 1 -> OK
Save _DB
12. Go back to the area view mode; lines are no more visible:
Menu bar at the top -> Plot -> Areas
Note: Before generating the mesh, we need to define two different element
types: a 2D element for the cross-sectional view of the retaining ring that
we have just created, and a 3D element to get the actual solid retaining
ring having the required thickness. The 2D area will be first meshed, then
the area will be extruded to create a 3D volume. The mesh will be extruded
along with the geometry, and the 3D mesh elements will be automatically
generated in the volume.
13. Define the two element types:
Preprocessor -> Element Type -> Add/Edit/Delete -> Add ->
In the dialog box, click on Structural-Solid on the left,
then click on Quad 4 node 42 on the right -> Apply ->
Again, in the dialog box, click on Structural-Solid on the left,
then click on Brick 8node 45 on the right -> OK -> Close
Save _DB
14. Perform meshing on the 2D cross-sectional view of the retaining

ring:
Preprocessor -> Meshing -> Mesh -> Areas ->
Free -> Pick All
Neglect the warning; close
Save _DB
15. Extrude the meshed area into a meshed volume:

Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Operate ->
Extrude -> Elem Ext Opts ->
In the dialog box, [TYPE] Element type number:
click on 2 SOLID45
in the drop-down menu, then enter [VAL1] No.
Element divs = 10 -> OK
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Operate -> Extrude ->

Areas -> By XYZ Offset -> Pick All ->
In the dialog box, enter DX = 0, DY = 0, DZ = 1 -> OK
Neglect warning; close.
SAVE_DB
16. Change the view to 3D isometric view to see the complete retaining
ring:
Menu bar at the top -> Plot_Ctrls -> Pan Zoom Rotate … ->
Click on ISO -> Close
17. Change the view to un-meshed one so that you can see the solid
drawing of the retaining ring:
Menu bar at the top -> Plot -> Volumes
3.5 Tutorial 2: Solid Modeling using 3D

Primitives
In this tutorial, top-down solid modeling of a pillow block will be

addressed. The pillow block diagram shown, build a half symmetry solid
model of this pillow block. When you are done, save the database.
Bracket 1.5 R, 0.75
Bushing
Counterbore 1.0R, 01875
Web, 0.15
1.7
Four 0.75D Base 6x3x1
holes, 0 75 offset
All dimensions in inches
Program Options
APDL, scalar parameters Boolean operations, GLUE Boolean operations,
subtract graphics, hidden-line options graphics, viewing angle primitives,
volumes working plane.
1. Enter ANSYS in the working directory specified by your instructor

using p-block as the job name.
2. Switch to isometric view:
Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Pan, Zoom, Rotate … [ISO]
Or issue: /VIEW,1,1,1,1
3. Create the base of the pillow block:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > -Modeling- Create >
-Volumes- Block > By Dimensions ...X1 = 0, X2 = 3,
Y1 = 0, Y2 = 1, Z1 = 0, Z2 = 3, then [OK]
Or issue: /PREP7
BLOCK,0,3,0,1,0,3
4. Offset working plane to location X = 2.25, Y = 1.25, Z = 0.75:

Utility Menu > WorkPlane > Offset WP by Increments …
Set X,Y,Z Offsets = 2.25, 1.25, 0.75
Set XY, YZ, ZX Angles = 0, -90, 0, then [OK]
Or issue: WPOFF, 2.25, 1.25, 0.75
WPROT, 0, -90, 0
5. Create a solid cylinder having a diameter of 0.75 inches and a depth

of -1.5 inches:
-Volumes- Cylinder >
Solid Cylinder + Radius = 0.75/2
Depth = -1.5, then [OK]
Or issue: CYL4, , ,0.75/2, , , ,-1.5
6. Copy the solid cylinder to new location with:

DZ=1.5: Main Menu > Preprocessor > Copy >
Volumes +Pick the cylinder volume (Vol. Number 2),
then [OK] DZ = 1.5, then [OK]
Or issue: VGEN,2,2, , , , ,1.5, ,0
7. Subtract the two solid cylinders from the base:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > -Modeling- Operate >
-Booleans- Subtract > Volumes + Pick the base volume
(Vol. 1), then [OK]
Pick the two cylinder volumes (Vols. 2 and 3), then [OK]
Or issue: VSBV, 1, ALL
8. Align the working plane with the Global Cartesian origin:

Utility Menu > WorkPlane > Align WP with >
Global Cartesian
Or issue: WPCSYS,-1,0
VPLOT
9. Create the base of the bushing bracket:

-Volumes- Block > By 2 Corners & Z +
WP X = 0
WP Y = 1
Width = 1.5
Height = 1.75
Depth = 0.75, then [OK]
Or issue: BLC4,0,1,1.5,1.75,0.75
10. Offset working plane to the front face of the bushing bracket:
Utility Menu > WorkPlane > Offset WP to > Keypoints +
Pick keypoint at the top left corner of the front face, then [OK]
Or issue: KWPAVE, 16
11. Create the arch of the bushing bracket:

-Volumes- Cylinder > Partial Cylinder +
WP X = 0
WP Y = 0
Rad-1 = 0
Theta-1 = 0
Rad-2 = 1.5
Theta-2 = 90
Depth = -0.75, then [OK]
Or issue: CYL4,0,0,0,0,1.5,90,-0.75
12. Create cylinders for the counterbore and the through hole in the
bushing bracket:
-Volumes- Cylinder > Solid Cylinder + WP X = 0
WP Y = 0
Radius = 1
Depth = -0.1875, then [Apply] WP X = 0
WP Y = 0
Radius = 0.85
Depth = -2, then [OK]
Or issue: CYL4,0,0,1, , , ,-0.1875
CYL4,0,0,0.85, , , ,-2
13. Subtract the two solid cylinders to form the counterbore and bush-
ing through-hole:
-Booleans- Subtract > Volumes + Pick the two volumes that
form the base and the arch of the bushing bracket [Apply]
Pick the counterbore cylinder [Apply]
Pick the same two base volumes [Apply]
Pick the through-hole cylinder [OK]
14. Merge coincident keypoints:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > Numbering Ctrls >
Merge Items … Set Label to “Keypoints”, then [OK]
Or issue: NUMMRG,KP
15. Create the web:
(a) Create a keypoint in the middle of the front top edge of the base:
Keypoints > KP between KPs + Pick the two upper front
corner keypoints of the base, then [OK]
RATI = 0.5, then [OK]
Or issue: KBETW,7,8,0,RATI,0.5
(b) Create a triangular area:

-Areas- Arbitrary > Through KPs + Pick the 1st keypoint
where the base of the bushing bracket intersects the base
of the pillow block at X=1.5
Pick the 2nd keypoint where the base of the bushing bracket
intersects the bottom arch surface at X=1.5
Pick the 3rd keypoint that was created in step 14a at
X=1.5, Y=1, Z=3 [Ok]
Or issue: A,14,15,9
(c) Extrude area along area normal:

Extrude > -Areas- Along Normal + Pick the triangular
area created in step 14b, then [OK]
DIST = -0.15, then [OK]
Or issue: VOFFST,3,-0.15
16. Glue the volumes together:

-Booleans- Glue > Volumes + [Pick All]
Or issue: VGLUE,ALL
17. Turn volume numbers on and then plot volumes:

Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Numbering …
Set Volume numbers on, then [OK]
Or issue: /PNUM,VOLU,1
VPLOT
18. Save and exit ANSYS:

Pick the “SAVE_DB” button in the Toolbar
Pick the “QUIT” button in the Toolbar
Select “Quit—No Save!” [OK]
Or issue: FINISH /EXIT,ALL
Chapter 4

Line Elements
4.1 Tutorial 3: Static Analysis using

Truss Elements
In this tutorial, analysis of a two-dimensional (2D) truss is presented. The

truss diagram shown, determine the nodal deflections, reaction forces, and
stress for the truss system shown as follows (E = 200 GPa, A = 3250 mm2).
2 4 8
4 6
11
3
280 kN 1 210 kN 5 280 kN 360 kN 3.118 m
7 9
2 6 10
1 60º 60º
7
R
3 5
3.6 m 3.6 m 3.6 m
(Modified from Chandrupatla and Belegunda, Introduction to Finite

Elements in Engineering, p. 123)
1. Give the simplified version a title (such as Bridge Truss Tutorial):

In the Utility menu bar, select File > Change Title:
The following window will appear:
Enter the title and click OK. This title will appear in the bottom-left
corner of the Graphics window once you begin. Note: to get the title to
appear immediately,
select Utility Menu > Plot > Replot
2. Enter keypoints.
The overall geometry is defined in ANSYS using keypoints, which
specify various principal coordinates to define the body. For this example,
these keypoints are the ends of each truss.
We are going to define seven keypoints for the simplified structure as
given in the following table (these keypoints are depicted by numbers in
the preceding figure).
Coordinate
keypoint x y
1 0 0
2 1800 3118
3 3600 0
4 5400 3118
5 7200 0
6 9000 3118
7 10800 0
From the ANSYS Main Menu select:
Preprocessor > Modeling > Create > Keypoints > In Active CS

Static Analysis Using Line Elements • 93
The following window will then appear:
To define the first keypoint, which has the coordinates x = 0 and y = 0:

Enter keypoint number 1 in the appropriate box, and enter the x,
y coordinates: 0, 0 in their appropriate boxes (as shown earlier). Click
Apply to accept what you have typed.
Enter the remaining keypoints using the same method.
Note: When entering the final data point, click on OK to indicate that
you are finished entering keypoints. If you first press Apply and then OK
for the final keypoint, you will have defined it twice! If you did press
Apply for the final point, simply press Cancel to close this dialog box.
The units of measure (i.e., mm) were not specified. It is the respon-
sibility of the user to ensure that a consistent set of units is used for the
problem; thus making any conversions where necessary.
Correcting mistakes When defining keypoints, lines, areas, volumes,

elements, constraints, and loads, you are bound to make mistakes. For-
tunately, these are easily corrected so that you do not need to begin from
scratch every time an error is made! Every Create menu for generating these
various entities also has a corresponding Delete menu for fixing-up things.
3. Form lines; the keypoints must now be connected. We will use the
mouse to select the keypoints to form the lines. In the main menu,
select:
Preprocessor > Modeling > Create > Lines >
Lines > In Active Coord.
The following window will then appear:
Use the mouse to pick keypoint #1 (i.e., click on it). It will now be
marked by a small yellow box.
Now move the mouse toward keypoint #2. A line will now show on
the screen joining these two points. Left-click and a permanent line will
appear.
Connect the remaining keypoints using the same method.

When you are done, click on OK in the Lines in Active Coord
window.
Disappearing Lines: Please note that any lines you have created may
disappear throughout your analysis. However, they have most likely NOT
been deleted. If this occurs at any time, from the Utility Menu, select:
Plot > Lines
4. Define the type of element

It is now necessary to create elements. This is called meshing.
ANSYS first needs to know what kind of elements to use for our problem.
From the Preprocessor Menu, select:
Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete.
Click on the Add... button.

The following window will appear:
For this example, we will use the 2D spar element as selected in the
preceding figure. Select the element shown and click OK.
You should see Type 1 LINK1 in the Element Types window. Click
on Close in the Element Types dialog box.
5. Define geometric properties.
We now need to specify geometric properties for our elements:
In the Preprocessor menu, select: Real Constants > Add/Edit/Delete
Click Add... and select Type 1 LINK1 (actually it is already selected).

Click on OK. The following window will appear:
As shown in the preceding window, enter the cross-sectional area

(3250 mm): Click on OK.
Set 1 now appears in the dialog box. Click on Close in the Real
Constants window.
6. Element material properties.
You then need to specify material properties:

In the Preprocessor menu, select: Material Props > Material
Models
Double-click on Structural > Linear > Elastic > Isotropic
We are going to give the properties of steel. Enter the following fields:
EX 200000
Set these properties and click on OK. Note: You may obtain the note
PRXY will be set to 0.0. This is Poisson’s ratio and is not required for
this element type. Click OK on the window to continue. Close the Define
Material Model Behavior window by clicking on the X box in the upper
right-hand corner.
7. Mesh size.
The last step before meshing is to tell ANSYS what size the elements
should be. There are a variety of ways to do this, but we will just deal with
one method for now. In the Preprocessor menu, select:
Meshing > Size Cntrls > ManualSize > Lines > All Lines
In the size NDIV field, enter the desired number of divisions per line.
For this example, we want only one division per line; therefore, enter 1
and then click OK. Note that we have not yet meshed the geometry, we
have simply defined the element sizes.
8. Mesh.
Now the frame can be meshed. In the Preprocessor menu, select:
Meshing > Mesh > Lines
And, click Pick All in the Mesh Lines Window. Your model should
now appear as shown in the window.
9. Plot numbering.
To show the line numbers, keypoint numbers, node numbers..., from
the Utility Menu (top of screen), select:
PlotCtrls > Numbering...
Fill in the window as shown next and click OK.

Now you can turn numbering on or off at your discretion.
10. Saving your work.

Save the model at this time, so if you make some mistakes later on,
you will at least be able to come back to this point. To do this, on the Util-
ity Menu, select File > Save as.... Select the name and location where you
want to save your file. It is a good idea to save your job at different times
throughout the building and analysis of the model to back-up your work in
case of a system crash or what have you.
Solution phase: assigning loads and solving
You have now defined your model. It is now time to apply the load(s)
and constraint(s) and solve the resulting system of equations. Open up the
Solution menu (from the same ANSYS Main Menu).
11. Define analysis type.
First, you must tell ANSYS how you want it to solve this problem:
From the Solution Menu, select:
Analysis Type > New Analysis.
Ensure that Static is selected, that is, you are going to do a static anal-
ysis on the truss as opposed to a dynamic analysis, for example. Click OK.
12. Apply constraints.
It is necessary to apply constraints to the model; otherwise, the
model is not tied down or grounded and a singular solution will result. In
mechanical structures, these constraints will typically be fixed, pinned and
roller-type connections. As shown earlier, the left end of the truss bridge is
pinned, while the right end has a roller connection. In the Solution menu,
select:
Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Displacement > On Keypoints
Select the left end of the bridge (Keypoint 1) by clicking on it in

the Graphics window and click on OK in the Apply U, ROT on
KPs window.
This location is fixed, which means that all translational and rota-
tional degrees of freedom (DOFs) are constrained. Therefore, select All
DOF by clicking on it and enter 0 in the Value field and click OK.
You will see some blue triangles in the Graphics window indicating
the displacement constraints. Using the same method, apply the roller con-
nection to the right end (UY constrained). Note that more than one DOF
constraint can be selected at a time in the Apply U, ROT on KPs window.
Therefore, you may need to deselect the All DOF option to select just the
UY option.
13. Apply loads.
As shown in the diagram, there are four downward loads of 280kN,
210kN, 280kN, and 360kN at keypoints 1, 3, 5, and 7, respectively. Select:
Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Force/Moment > on Keypoints.
Select the first keypoint (left end of the truss) and click OK in the
Apply F/M on KPs window.
Select FY in the Direction of force/mom. This indicate that we will
be applying the load in the y direction. Enter a value of −280000 in the
Force/moment value box and click OK.
Note that we are using units of N here, this is consistent with the
previous values input. The force will appear in the Graphics window as
a red arrow.
Apply the remaining loads in the same manner. The applied loads and
constraints should now appear as shown as follows:
14. Solving the system.
We now tell ANSYS to find the solution:
In the Solution menu, select Solve > Current LS. This indicates that
we desire the solution under the current load step (LS).
The preceding windows will appear. Ensure that your solution options
are the same as shown earlier and click OK.
Once the solution is done, the following window will pop up. Click
Close and close the /STATUS Command window.
Post-processing: viewing the results
(a) Hand calculations:

We will first calculate the forces and stress in element 1 (as labeled in
the problem description).
∑ M1 = 0 = 210 * 3.6 − 280 * 7.2 − 360 *10.8 + F7 *10.8
−210 * 3.6 + 280 * 7.2 + 360 * 10.8

∴ F7 = = 617kN
10.8
∑ Fy = 0 = −280 − 210 − 280 − 360 + 617 + F1
∴ F1 = 280 + 210 + 280 + 360 − 617 = 513 kN
Element (1) forces/stress:
513 − 280
FE1 = = 269 kN
cos(30)
FE 1 269
sE 1 = = = 82.8 MPa
A 3250
(b) Results using ANSYS:

15. Reaction forces

A list of the resulting reaction forces can be obtained for this element.
From the Main menu, select:
General Postproc > List Results > Reaction > Solu.
Select All struc forc F as shown and click OK. These values agree
with the reaction forces calculated by hand.
16. Deformation:
In the General Postproc menu, select:
Plot Results > Deformed Shape.
The following window will appear. Select Def + undef edge and click
OK to view both the deformed and the undeformed object.
Observe the value of the maximum deflection in the upper left-
hand corner (DMX = 7.409). One should also observe that the constrained
DOFs appear to have a deflection of 0 (as expected!).
17. Deflection:
For a more detailed version of the deflection of the beam, from the
General Postproc menu, select:
Plot results > Contour Plot > Nodal Solution.

The following window will appear.
Select DOF solution and USUM as shown in the preceding window.
Leave the other selections as the default values. Click OK.
Looking at the scale, you may want to use more useful intervals. From
the Utility Menu, select:
Plot Controls > Style > Contours > Uniform Contours...

Fill in the following window as shown and click OK. You should
obtain the following.
18. Listing of result:

The deflection can also be obtained as a list as shown next.
General Postproc > List Results > Nodal Solution
Select DOF Solution and ALL DOFs from the lists in the List Nodal
Solution window and click OK. This means that we want to see a listing
of all DOFs from the solution.
Are these results what you expected? Note that all the DOFs were
constrained to zero at node 1, while UY was constrained to zero at node 7.
If you wanted to save these results to a file, select File within the
results window (at the upper left-hand corner of this list window) and
select Save as.
19. Axial stress:
For line elements (i.e., links, beams, spars, and pipes), you will
often need to use the Element Table to gain access to derived data (i.e.,
stresses, strains). For this, example we should obtain axial stress to com-
pare with the hand calculations. The Element Table is different for each
element; therefore, we need to look at the help file for LINK1 (Type help
link1 into the Input Line). From Table 1.2 in the Help file, we can see that
SAXL can be obtained through the ETABLE, using the item LS,1.
From the General Postprocessor menu, select:
Element Table > Define Table
Click on Add....
As shown, enter SAXL in the Lab box. This specifies the name of the
item you are defining. Next, in the Item, Comp boxes, select By sequence
number and LS. Then enter 1 after LS, in the selection box.
Click on OK and close the Element Table Data window.
Plot the stresses by selecting Element Table > Plot Elem Table. The
following window will appear. Ensure that SAXL is selected and click OK.
Because you changed the contour intervals for the Displacement plot
to User Specified, you need to switch this back to Auto calculated to
obtain new values for VMIN/VMAX.
Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Style > Contours > Uniform Contours ...
Again, you may wish to select more appropriate intervals for the con-
tour plot.
20. List the stresses.
From the Element Table menu, select List Elem Table.
From the List Element Table Data window that appears, ensure
SAXL is highlighted. Click OK.
Note that the axial stress in Element 1 is 82.9MPa as predicted

analytically.
21. Quitting ANSYS:
To quit ANSYS, select QUIT from the ANSYS Toolbar or select:
Utility Menu/File/Exit....
In the dialog box that appears, click on Save Everything (assuming
that you want to) and then click on OK.
4.2 Tutorial 4 (a): Static Analysis Using

BEAM Elements
In this tutorial, the effect of self-weight on a cantilever beam will be

addressed. The loads will not be applied to the beam shown next in order
to observe the deflection caused by the weight of the beam itself. The
beam is to be made of steel with a modulus of elasticity of 200GPa.

Preprocessing: Defining the Problem
1. Give example a title:

Utility Menu > File > Change Title... /title, effects of self-weight for
a cantilever beam
2. Open Preprocessor menu:
ANSYS Main Menu > Preprocessor /PREP7
3. Define keypoints:
Preprocessor > Modeling > Create > Keypoints> In Active
CS... K,#,x,y,z
We are going to define two keypoints for this beam, as given in the
following table:
Keypoint Coordinates (x,y,z)

1 (0,0)
2 (1000,0)
4. Create lines.
Preprocessor > Modeling > Create > Lines > Lines > In Active Coord
L,1,2
Create a line joining keypoints 1 and 2
5. Define the type of element
Preprocessor > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete...
For this problem, we will use the BEAM3 (Beam 2D elastic) element.
This element has three degrees of freedom (translation along the X and Y
axes, and rotation about the Z axis).
6. Define real constants
Preprocessor > Real Constants... > Add...
In the Real Constants for BEAM3 window, enter the following geo-
metric properties: Cross-sectional area AREA: 500
Area moment of inertia IZZ: 4166.67
Total beam height: 10
This defines a beam with a height of 10 mm and a width of 50 mm.
7. Define element material properties.
Preprocessor > Material Props > Material Models > Structural >
Linear > Elastic > Isotropic
In the window that appears, enter the following geometric properties
for steel: Young’s modulus EX: 200000
Poisson’s Ratio PRXY: 0.3
8. Define element density:
Linear > Density
In the window that appears, enter the following density for steel:
Density DENS:
7.86e-6
9. Define mesh size:
Preprocessor > Meshing > Size Cntrls > ManualSize > Lines > All
Lines...
For this example, we will use an element edge length of 100 mm.
10. Mesh the frame:
Preprocessor > Meshing > Mesh > Lines > Pick All
11. Define analysis type:
Solution > Analysis Type > New Analysis > Static ANTYPE,0
12. Apply constraints:
Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Displacement > On
Keypoints Fix keypoint 1 (i.e., all DOF constrained)
13. Define gravity:
It is necessary to define the direction and magnitude of gravity for this

problem. Select:
Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Inertia > Gravity...
The following window will appear. Fill it in as shown to define an
acceleration of 9.81m/s2 in the y direction.
Note: Acceleration is defined in terms of meters (not mm as used
throughout the problem). This is because the units of acceleration and
mass must be consistent to give the product of force units (Newton in this
case). Also note that a positive acceleration in the y direction stimulates
gravity in the negative Y direction. There should now be a red arrow point-
ing in the positive y direction. This indicates that acceleration has been
defined in the y direction: DK,1, ALL,0, ACEL,9.8. The applied loads
and constraints should now appear as shown in the figure as follows:
14. Solve the system:

Solution > Solve > Current LS
Solve:
Postprocessing: Viewing the Results
Hand Calculations
Hand calculations were performed to verify the solution found using
ANSYS. The maximum deflection was shown to be 5.777 mm.
15. Show the deformation of the beam:
General Postproc >Plot Results > Deformed Shape ... > Def + undef
edge PLDISP,2
As observed in the upper left-hand corner, the maximum dis-

placement was found to be 5.777 mm. This is in agreement with the
theoretical value.
4.3 Tutorial 4 (b): Static Analysis Using

Beam Elements with Distributed Load
In this tutorial, the effect of distributed loads on beam elements is

addressed. A distributed load of 1000 N/m (1 N/mm) will be applied to a
solid steel beam with a rectangular cross-section as shown in the following
figure. The cross-section of the beam is 10 mm × 10 mm, while the mod-

ulus of elasticity of the steel is 200GPa.

1. Open preprocessor menu /PREP7.

2. Give example a title:
Utility Menu > File > Change Title ... /title, Distributed Loading
3. Create keypoints:
Preprocessor > Modeling > Create > Keypoints > In Active CS
K,#,x,y
We are going to define two keypoints (the beam vertices) for this
structure as given in the following table:
Keypoint Coordinates (x,y,z)

1 (0,0)
2 (1000,0)
4. Define lines:
Preprocessor > Modeling > Create > Lines > Lines > Straight Line
L,K#,K#
Create a line between keypoint 1 and keypoint 2.
5. Define element types:
Preprocessor > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete...
For this problem, we will use the BEAM3 element. This element has
three degrees of freedom (translation along the X and Y axis’s, and rota-
tion about the Z axis). With only three degrees of freedom, the BEAM3
element can only be used in 2D analysis.
6. Define real constants:

Preprocessor > Real Constants... > Add...
In the Real Constants for BEAM3 window, enter the following
geometric properties: Cross-sectional area AREA: 100
Area Moment of Inertia IZZ: 833.333
Total beam height HEIGHT: 10
This defines an element with a solid rectangular cross section 10 mm
× 10 mm.
7. Define element material properties:
In the window that appears, enter the following geometric properties
for steel: Young’s modulus EX: 200000
Poisson’s Ratio PRXY: 0.3
8. Define mesh size:
Preprocessor > Meshing > Size Cntrls > ManualSize > Lines > All
Lines...
For this example, we will use an element length of 100 mm.
9. Mesh the frame:
Preprocessor > Meshing > Mesh > Lines > click Pick All
10. Plot elements:
Utility Menu > Plot > Elements
You may also wish to turn on element numbering and turn off
keypoint numbering
Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Numbering ...

Solution > Analysis Type > New Analysis > Static ANTYPE, 0
Keypoints
Pin keypoint 1 (i.e., UX and UY constrained) and fix keypoint 2 in the

y direction (UY constrained).
13. Apply loads:
We will apply a distributed load, of 1000N/m or 1N/mm, over the
entire length of the beam. Select:
Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Pressure > On
Beams
Click Pick All in the Apply F/M window.

As shown in the following figure, enter a value of 1 in the field VALI
Pressure value at node I, then click OK.
The applied loads and constraints should now appear as shown in the
following figure.
Note: To have the constraints and loads appear each time you select
Replot, you must change some settings. Select Utility Menu > PlotCtrls >
Symbols.... In the window that appears, select Pressures in the pull-down
menu of the Surface Load Symbols section.
14. Solve the system:
Solve:
15. Plot deformed shape:
General Postproc > Plot Results > Deformed Shape PLDISP.2
Plot principle stress distribution:

As shown previously, we need to use element tables to obtain
principle stresses for line elements. Select:
General Postproc > Element Table > Define Table
Click Add....
In the window that appears, enter SMAXI in the User Label for
Item section.
In the first window in the Results Data Item section, scroll down
and select By sequence num. In the second window of the same section,
select NMISC.
In the third window, enter 1 anywhere after the comma click Apply.
Repeat steps 2 to 4, but change SMAXI to SMAXJ in step 3a and
change 1 to 3 in step 3b. Click OK. The Element Table Data window
should now have two variables in it.
Click Close in the Element Table Data window. Select:
General Postproc > Plot Results > Line Elem Res...
Select SMAXI from the LabI pull-down menu and SMAXJ from the
LabJ pull-down menu.
Note: ANSYS can only calculate the stress at a single location on the
element. For this example, we decided to extract the stresses from the I
and J nodes of each element. These are the nodes that are at the ends of
each element.
For this problem, we wanted the principal stresses for the elements.
For the BEAM3 element, this is categorized as NMISC, 1 for the I nodes
and NMISC, 3 for the J nodes. A list of available codes for each ele-
ment can be found in the ANSYS help files (i.e., type help BEAM3 in the
ANSYS Input window).
As shown in the following plot, the maximum stress occurs in the
middle of the beam with a value of 750MPa.
Chapter 5

Area Elements
5.1 Tutorial 5: Static Analysis Using Area

Elements: Plane Problem (Bracket)
In this tutorial, we will discuss the plane stress. The problem to be mod-
eled in this example is a simple bracket shown in the following figure.
This bracket is to be built from a 20 mm-thick steel plate. A figure of the
plate is shown as follows:
This plate will be fixed at the two small holes on the left and has a
load applied to the larger hole on the right.
Verification Example
The first step is to simplify the problem. Whenever you are trying
out a new analysis type, you need something (i.e., analytical solution or
experimental data) to compare the results to. This way, you can be sure
that you have gotten the correct analysis type, units, scale factors, and so
on. The simplified version that will be used for this problem is that of a flat
rectangular plate with a hole shown in the following figure.

1. Give the simplified version a title:

Utility Menu > File > Change Title
2. Form geometry:
Boolean operations provide a means to create complicated solid models.
These procedures make it easy to combine simple geometric entities to
create more complex bodies. Subtraction will used to create this model;
however, many other Boolean operations can be used in ANSYS.
Create the main rectangular shape. Instead of creating the geometry
using keypoints, we will create an area (using GUI):
Preprocessor > Modeling > Create > Areas > Rectangle >
By 2 Corners
Static Analysis Using Area Elements • 123
Fill in the window as shown in the preceding figure. This will create
a rectangle where the bottom-left corner has the coordinates 0,0,0 and the
top-right corner has the coordinates 200,100,0. (Alternatively, the com-
mand line code for the preceding command is BLC4,0,0,200,100.) Create
the circle:
Preprocessor > Modeling > Create > Areas > Circle > Solid Circle
Fill in the window as shown. This will create a circle where the center
has the coordinates 100,50,0 (the center of the rectangle) and the radius of
the circle is 20 mm. (Alternatively, the command line code for the preced-
ing command is CYL4,100,50,20.)
Subtraction:
Now we want to subtract the circle from the rectangle. Prior to this
operation, your image should resemble the following:
To perform the Boolean operation, from the Preprocessor menu,

select:
Modeling > Operate > Booleans > Subtract > Areas
At this point, a Subtract Areas window will pop up and the ANSYS
Input window will display the following message: [ASBA] Pick or enter
base areas from which to subtract (as shown in the following figure).
Therefore, select the base area (the rectangle) by clicking on it. Note:
the selected area will turn pink once it is selected. The following window
may appear because there are two areas at the location you clicked.
Ensure that the entire rectangular area is selected (otherwise click

Next) and then click OK.
Click OK on the Subtract Areas window.
Now you will be prompted to select the areas to be subtracted; select
the circle by clicking on it and then click OK.
You should now have the following model:
(Alternatively, the command line code for the above step is
ASBA,1,2)
3. Define the type of element:

Preprocessor Menu > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete
Add the following type of element: Solid (under the Structural
heading) and the Quad 82 element, as shown in the preceding figure.
PLANE82 is a higher order version of the two-dimensional, four-

node element (PLANE42). PLANE82 is an eight-node quadrilateral
element, which is better-suited to model curved boundaries. For this
example, we need a plane stress element with thickness; therefore, click
on the Options... button. Click and hold the K3 button, and select Plane
strs w/thk, as shown next.
(Alternatively, the command line code for the preceding step is

ET,1,PLANE82 followed by KEYOPT,1,3,3.)
4. Define the geometric properties:
As in previous examples,
Preprocessor menu > Real Constants > Add/Edit/Delete
Enter a thickness of 20 as shown in the following figure. This defines
a plate thickness of 20 mm. (Alternatively, the command line code for the
preceding step is R,1,20.)
5. Element material properties:

As shown in the previous examples, select:
Preprocessor > Material Props > Material models > Structural >
We are going to give the properties of steel. Enter the following when
prompted:
EX 200000
PRXY 0.3
MP,EX,1,200000 followed by MP,PRXY,1,0.3.)
6. Mesh size:
To tell ANSYS how big the elements should be,
Preprocessor > Meshing > Size Cntrls > Manual Size > Areas > All
Areas
Select an element edge length of 25. We will return later to determine

whether this was adequate for the problem. (Alternatively, the command
line code for the above step is AESIZE,ALL,25.)
7. Mesh:
Now the frame can be meshed. In the Preprocessor menu, select:
Meshing > Mesh > Areas > Free
And, select the area when prompted.

AMESH,ALL.) You should now have the following:
8. Saving your job:

Utility Menu > File > Save as...
Solution phase: assigning loads and solving:
You have now defined your model. It is now time to apply the load(s)
and constraint(s) and solve the resulting system of equations.
Ensure that a static analysis will be performed:
Solution > Analysis Type > New Analysis
ANTYPE,0.)
As shown previously, the left end of the plate is fixed.
Lines
Select the left end of the plate and click on Apply in the Apply
U,ROT on Lines window. Fill in the window as shown next.
This location is fixed, which means that all DOFs are constrained.
Therefore, select All DOF by clicking on it and enter 0 in the Value field
as shown in the preceding figure.
You will see some blue triangles in the graphics window indicating
the displacement constraints.

DL,4,,ALL,0.)
11. Apply loads:
As shown in the diagram, there is a load of 20 N/mm distributed on
the right-hand side of the plate. To apply this load:
Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Pressure > On Lines
When the window appears, select the line along the right-hand edge
of the plate and click OK. Calculate the pressure on the plate end by divid-
ing the distributed load by the thickness of the plate (1MPa).
Fill in the Apply PRES on lines window as shown next.
Note: The pressure is uniform along the surface of the plate; therefore,
the last field is left blank. The pressure is acting away from the surface
of the plate, and is therefore defined as a negative pressure. The applied
loads and constraints should now appear as shown in the following figure.
12. Solving the system:

Hand Calculations
Now, as the purpose of this exercise was to verify the results, we need to
calculate what we should find.
Deflection: The maximum deflection occurs on the right hand side of
the plate and was calculated to be 0.001 mm—neglecting the effects of the
hole in the plate (i.e., just a flat plate). The actual deflection of the plate is
therefore expected to be greater but in the same range of magnitude.
Stress: The maximum stress occurs at the top and bottom of the hole
in the plate and was found to be 3.9MPa.
Convergence Using ANSYS
At this point, we need to find whether or not the final result has con-
verged. We will do this by looking at the deflection and stress at particular
nodes while changing the size of the meshing element.
As we have an analytical solution for the maximum stress point,
we will check the stress at this point. First, we need to find the node
corresponding to the top of the hole in the plate. First, plot and number
the nodes:
Utility Menu > Plot > Nodes
Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Numbering...
The plot should look similar to the one shown as follows. Make a note
of the node closest to the top of the circle (i.e., #49).
13. List the stresses:

(General Postproc > List Results > Nodal Solution > Stress,
Principals SPRIN)
And, check the SEQV (equivalent stress / von Mises stress) for the
node in question. (as shown in red as follows).
The equivalent stress was found to be 2.9141MPa at this point. We
will use smaller elements to try to get a more accurate solution.
14. Resize elements:
To change the element size, we need to go back to the Preprocessor
menu
Preprocessor > Meshing > Size Cntrls > Manual Size >
Areas > All Areas
Now decrease the element edge length (i.e., 20).
Now remesh the model:
Preprocessor > Meshing > Mesh > Areas > Free
Once you have selected the area and clicked OK, the following
window will appear:
Click OK. This will remesh the model using the new element edge
length.
Solve the system again (note that the constraints need not be reapplied).
Solution Menu > Current LS
Repeat steps a through d until the model has converged. (Note: the
number of the node at the top of the hole has most likely changed. It is
essential that you plot the nodes again to select the appropriate node.) Plot
the stress/deflection at varying mesh sizes shown as follows to confirm
that convergence has occurred.
Note the shapes of both the deflection and stress curves. As the
number of elements in the mesh increases (i.e., the element edge length
decreases), the values converge toward a final solution.
The von Mises stress at the top of the hole in the plate was found to
be approximately 3.8MPa.
This is a mere 2.5 percent difference between the analytical solution
and the solution found using ANSYS.
The approximate maximum displacement was found to be 0.0012
mm; this is 20 percent greater than the analytical solution. However, the
analytical solution does not account for the large hole in the center of the
plate, which was expected to significantly increase the deflection at the

end of the plate.
0.000650 4.00
0.000640 3.75
Delection (mm)
Stress (Mpa)
0.000630 3.50
0.000620 3.25
0.000610 SEQV 3.00

USUM
0.000600 2.75
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Number of elements
Therefore, the results using ANSYS were determined to be appropri-

ate for the verification model.
15. Deformation:
General Postproc > Plot Results > Deformed Shape > Def +
undeformed
To view both the deformed and the undeformed object.
Observe the locations of deflection.
16. Deflection:
General Postproc > Plot Results > Nodal Solution...
Then select DOF solution, USUM in the window.
Alternatively, obtain these results as a list.

General Postproc > List Results > Nodal Solution...
Are these results what you expected? Note that all translational
degrees of freedom were constrained to zero at the left end of the plate.
17. Stresses:
Then select Stress, von Mises in the window.
You can list the von Mises stresses to verify the results at certain
nodes:
General Postproc > List Results
Select:
Stress, Principals SPRIN
Bracket Example
Now we will return to the analysis of the bracket. A combination of GUI
and the command line will be used for this example. The problem to be
modeled in this example is a simple bracket shown in the following figure.
This bracket is to be built from a 20 mm-thick steel plate. A figure of the
plate is shown as follows. This plate will be fixed at the two small holes on
the left and have a load applied to the larger hole on the right.
1. Give the bracket example a title:

Utility Menu > File > Change Title
2. Form the geometry:
Again, Boolean operations will be used to create the basic geometry
of the bracket.
Create the main rectangular shape.
The main rectangular shape has a width of 80 mm, a height of 100 mm,
and the bottom-left corner is located at coordinates (0,0). Ensure that the
Preprocessor menu is open. (Alternatively, type /PREP7 into the com-
mand line window.) Now instead of using the GUI window, we are going
to enter code into the command line. Now, I will explain the line required
to create a rectangle:
BLC4, XCORNER, YCORNER, WIDTH, HEIGHT
BLC4, X coord (bottom left), Y coord (bottom left), width, height.
Therefore, the command line for this rectangle is BLC4,0,0,80,100.
Create the circular end on the right-hand side. The center of the circle
is located at (80,50) and has a radius of 50 mm. The following code is used
to create a circular area:
CYL4, XCENTER, YCENTER, RAD1

CYL4, X coord for the center, Y coord for the center, radius; there-
fore, the command line for this circle is CYL4,80,50,50.
Now create a second and third circle for the left-hand side using the
following dimensions:
Parameter Circle 2 Circle 3

XCENTER 0 0
YCENTER 20 80
RADIUS 20 20
Create a rectangle on the left hand end to fill the gap between the two
small circles.
XCORNER −20
YCORNER 20
WIDTH 20
HEIGHT 60
Your screen should now look like the following:
Boolean Operations: Addition

We now want to add these five discrete areas together to form one
area. To perform the Boolean operation, from the Preprocessor menu,
select:
Modeling > Operate > Booleans > Add > Areas

In the Add Areas window, click on Pick All.
AADD,ALL.)
Parameter Circle 1 Circle 2 Circle 3

WP X 80 0 0
WP Y 50 20 80
Radius 30 10 10
Create the Bolt Holes

We now want to remove the bolt holes from this plate. Create the three
circles with the parameters given as follows: Now select
Preprocessor > Modeling > Operate > Booleans > Subtract > Areas
Select the base areas from which to subtract (the large plate that was
created). Next, select the three circles that we just created. Click on the
three circles that you just created and click OK.
ASBA,6,ALL.)
Now you should have the following:
3. Define the type of element:

As in the verification model, PLANE82 will be used for this example:
Preprocessor > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete
Use the Options... button to get a plane stress element with thickness.

ET,1,PLANE82 followed by KEYOPT,1,3,3.)
Under the Extra Element Output K5, select nodal stress.
4. Define the geometric contents:
Preprocessor > Real Constants > Add/Edit/Delete
Enter a thickness of 20 mm.
R,1,20.)
5. Element material properties:
Preprocessor > Material Props > Material Library > Structural >
We are going to give the properties of steel. Enter the following when
prompted:
EX 200000
PRXY 0.3
(The command line code for the preceding step is MP,EX,1,200000
followed by MP,PRXY,1,0.3.)
Mesh Size
Preprocessor > Meshing > Size Cntrls > Manual Size > Areas > All
Areas
Select an element edge length of 5. Again, we will need to make sure
the model has converged. (Alternatively, the command line code for the
preceding step is AESIZE,ALL,5.)
6. Mesh:
Preprocessor > Meshing > Mesh > Areas > Free
And, select the area when prompted.
AMESH,ALL.)
7. Saving your job:

Utility Menu > File > Save as...
Solution Phase: Assigning Loads and Solving
You have now defined your model. It is now time to apply the load(s) and
constraint(s) and solve the resulting system of equations.
Solution > New Analysis And select Static.
ANTYPE,0.)
9. Apply constraints.
As illustrated, the plate is fixed at both of the smaller holes on the
left-hand side.
Nodes
Instead of selecting one node at a time, you have the option of cre-
ating a box, polygon, or circle, of which all the nodes in that area will be
selected. For this case, select circle as shown in the following window.
You may want to zoom in to select the points:
Utility Menu / PlotCtrls / Pan, Zoom, Rotate...
Click on the center of the bolt hole and drag the circle out so that it
touches all of the nodes on the border of the hole.
Click on Apply in the Apply U,ROT on Lines window and constrain

all DOFs in the Apply U,ROT on Nodes window. Repeat for the second
bolt hole.
10. Apply loads:
As shown in the diagram, there is a single vertical load of 1000N,
at the bottom of the large bolt hole. Apply this force to the respective
keypoint:
Solution > Define Loads > Apply > Structural > Force/Moment > On
Keypoints
Select a force in the y direction of -1000
The applied loads and constraints should now appear as shown next:
11. Solving the system:

Post-Processing: Viewing the Results
We are now ready to view the results. We will take a look at the deflected
shape and the stress contours once we determine whether convergence
has occurred.
Convergence using ANSYS
At this point, we need to find whether or not the final result has con-
verged. Because we cannot solve for a solution analytically, we must try.
12. Deformation:
General Postproc > Plot Results > Def + undeformed
To view both the deformed and the undeformed object, the graphic
should be similar to the following:
Observe the locations of deflection. Ensure that the deflection at the

bolt hole is indeed 0.
13. Deflection:
To plot the nodal deflections use:
General Postproc > Plot Results > Contour Plot > Nodal Solution
Then, select DOF Solution—USUM in the window.
Alternatively, obtain these results as a list:
General Postproc > List Results > Nodal Solution...
Are these results what you expected? Note that all translational
degrees of freedom were constrained to zero at the bolt holes.
14. Stresses:
Then, select von Mises Stress in the window.
You can list the von Mises stresses to verify the results at certain
nodes:
General Postproc > List Results. Select Stress, Principals SPRIN
15. Quitting ANSYS
To quit ANSYS, click QUIT on the ANSYS toolbar or select:
Utility Menu > File > Exit...
In the window that appears, select Save Everything (assuming that
you want to) and then click OK.
5.2 Tutorial 6: Static Analysis using Area

Elements: Plane Problem (Wrench)
In this tutorial, the stress analysis of a bicycle wrench is presented. The

problem to be found is the von Mises stresses for the bicycle wrench
shown under the given distributed and boundary condition.
Material Properties: Modulus of elasticity: E = 200GPa, Poisson’s

ratio: ν = 0.32
Geometry: Lengths and radii as shown, Thickness: 3 mm
Loading: Distributed load: 88 N/cm, Constraints: ux, uy, uz = 0 at
left hexagon
Solution Methodology
As the thickness (3 mm) is quite small compared to the overall length of
about 12 cm, the problem can be reasonably treated as a plane stress prob-
lem. In ANSYS, it will be treated as a plane stress with thickness problem.
The geometry will be created through rectangle, circle and hexagon
commands, together with Boolean operations of add (union) and subtract
(difference).
1. Start ANSYS:
File -> Save As -> Filename -> OK
2. Use the structural solid element PLANE82 for FEM modeling:
Preprocessor -> Element Type -> Add/Edit/Delete -> Add ->
Structural Mass-Solid -> Select 8node 82 -> OK -> Options -> Ele-
ment Behavior: Select Plane Stress w/thk -> OK -> Close
3. Enter real constants for the element type chosen:
Preprocessor -> Real Constants -> Add/Edit/Delete -> Add -> OK ->
Enter Thickness THK = 0.3 -> OK -> Close
4. Enter material property data for specified steel:
Preprocessor -> Material Props -> Material Model -> Structural ->
Linear -> Elastic -> Isotropic -> Enter Young’s modulus EX = 200e9
and Poisson’s ratio PRXY = 0.32 -> OK -> Close
Note: After each significant step, click SAVE_DB on ANSYS toolbar.
5. Create the geometry for two similar rectangles 1.5 cm by 3 cm at

locations (2.25, 0.5) and (7.25, 0.5):
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Areas-Rectangle -> By 2
Corners -> In dialogue box enter WP X = 2.25, WP Y = 0.5, Width = 3,
Height = 1.5 -> Apply -> Enter values for next rectangle: WP X = 7.25,
WP Y = 0.5, Width = 3, Height = 1.5 -> OK
Note: Click on Plot Controls -> Pan, Zoom, Rotate -> Click on
small circle until both rectangles fit the screen.
6. Create the geometry for three circles, all of 1.25 cm radius:
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Areas -> Circle -> Solid
Circle -> In the dialog box, enter WP X = 1.25, WP Y = 1.25, Radius =
1.25 -> Apply -> Enter values for the next circle -> WP X = 6.25, WP
Y = 1.25, Radius = 1.25 -> Apply -> Enter values for the next circle ->
WP X = 11.25, WP Y = 1.25, Radius = 1.25 -> OK
7. Perform the Boolean operation add to union the areas together:

Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Operate -> Booleans -> Add -> Areas ->
Pick All
8. Create the geometry for three hexagons, two of 7 mm side (at the
ends) and one of 9 mm side (in the center):
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Create -> Areas -> Polygon -> Hexagon
-> In the dialog box, enter WP X = 1.25, WP Y = 1.25, Radius = 0.7 ->
Theta = 120 -> Apply -> Enter values for the next hexagon -> WP X
= 6.25, WP Y = 1.25, Radius = 0.9 -> Theta = 120 -> Apply -> Enter
values for the next hexagon -> WP X = 11.25, WP Y = 1.25, Radius =
0.7 -> Theta = 120 -> OK
9. Perform the Boolean operation subtract to get the hexagonal holes
in the wrench body:
Preprocessor -> Modeling -> Operate ->Booleans -> Subtract ->
Areas -> Click on the solid portion of the wrench -> Apply -> One by
one, pick the three hexagonal areas -> OK
10. Now, create a mesh in the final wrench shape, first refining the
mesh size:
Preprocessor -> Meshing -> Size Controls -> ManualSize -> Size ->
Enter Size = 0.1 -> OK Preprocessor -> Meshing -> Mesh -> Areas ->
Free -> Click on the wrench -> OK
11. Apply the boundary conditions and the load:

Preprocessor -> Loads -> Analysis Type -> New Analysis -> Static ->
OK
Preprocessor -> Loads -> Define Loads -> Apply -> Structural ->
Displacement -> On Key Points -> Click on the six corner points of the
left hexagon -> OK -> Select All DOF -> OK
Preprocessor -> Loads -> Define Loads -> Apply -> Structural ->
Pressure -> On Lines -> Pick the line indicated in problem statement
(top line of the right arm) -> OK -> Enter VALUE = 88 -> OK
12. Perform the solution:
Solution -> Solve -> Current LS -> OK
13. Start post-processing: Check the deformed shape:
General Post Proc -> Plot Results -> Deformed Shape -> Def + undef
edge -> OK
14. Examine the stresses: find von Mises stresses:

General Postproc -> Plot Results -> Contour Plot -> Nodal Solution
-> Stress -> von Mises SEQV -> Def + undef edge -> OK
Chapter 6

Volume Elements
6.1 Tutorial 7: Static Analysis using

Volume Elements: Component Design
In this tutorial, the analysis of an open-ended cylinder with internal

pressure is presented. The unknown to be found is the stresses in a thick
open-ended steel cylinder (shown) with an internal pressure (such as a
pipe discharging to the atmosphere).
Material properties: Young’s modulus: E = 30 × 106 psi, Poisson’s
ratio: ν = 0.3
Geometry: Internal radius: ri = 5 in, external radius: ro = 11 in, length:
arbitrary, for segment of a long, open-ended cylinder
Loading: Internal pressure: p = 1,000 psi.
Constraints: uz = 0 on a radial surface parallel to the x-y plane,
ux = 0 on a radial surface parallel to y-z plane, uy = 0 on top/bottom
surface (prevent rigid body motion in y-direction)
5 in
11 in
The y-axis is the axis of symmetry. The cylinder can be generated by
revolving a rectangle 6in. wide and of arbitrary height 360° about the
y-axis. For the 3D analysis, we will make use of symmetry and analyze
one quadrant of the cylinder. If y-axis is the axis of revolution of the cyl-
inder, both x-y and y-z planes are planes of symmetry. As the height of the
segment considered is arbitrary, we will use a segment 1in. in height for
the finite element model. The geometry is shown as follows:
5 in
1 in
11 in
1. Start ANSYS:
File → Save As → Filename → OK
2. Use a tetrahedron element for the FEM modeling:
Preprocessor → Element Type → Add/Edit/Delete → Add →
Structural Mass → Solid → Select Tet 10node 92 → OK → Close
3. Enter material property data for steel:
Preprocessor → Material Props → Material Modes → Structural →
Linear → Elastic → Elastic → Enter EX = 3e7 and PRXY = 0.3 →
OK → Close window
4. Create the geometry for rectangle 1 × 6in. starting 5in. from the
y-axis. This rectangular area will be revolved 90° about the y-axis
to produce the desired volume:
Preprocessor → Modeling → Create → Areas → Rectangle →By 2
Corners → In the dialog box, enter WP X = 5, WP Y = 0, Width = 6,
Height = 1 → OK
Static Analysis Using Volume Elements • 149
5. Define two keypoints on the y-axis for revolving purposes:

In the command dialog box, enter:
K, 10, 0, 0, 0 (Enter) Defines keypoint number 10 at (0, 0, 0)
K, 11, 0, 5, 0 (Enter) Defines keypoint number 11 at (0, 5, 0)
Keypoints 1,2,3,4 are already used by ANSYS to define the rectangle,
so we used numbers 10 and 11.
6. Revolve the area:
Preprocessor → Modeling → Operate → Extrude → Areas → About
Axis → Pick the area → OK → Pick the two keypoints on the y-axis →
OK → Arc length in degrees = 90 → OK
Go to the oblique view:
Plot Controls → Pan, zoom, rotate → Click on Obliq
7. Now create a mesh of tetrahedral elements using the default

settings.
Preprocessor → Meshing → Mesh → Volumes → Free: Pick the solid
just created → OK
8. Define loads and boundary conditions. Apply an internal pressure of

1,000 psi and displacement constraints that prevent points m
oving
across planes of symmetry and also restrain rigid body movement
in the y-direction.
Preprocessor → Loads → Define Loads → Apply → Structural →
Displacement → Symmetry B.C. → On Areas → Pick the radial sur-
face parallel to x-y plane → Apply → Pick the radial surface parallel to
y-z plane → OK
Displacement → On Areas → Pick top (or bottom) surface → OK →
Select degree of freedom constraint UY → OK
Use Cntl + Right Mouse button to rotate the solid so as to get a

better view of the area you want to pick. It may also help to activate the
area numbers and plot them. Then, pick the area number of interest, for
example:
PlotCntls → Numbering . . . turn area numbers ON Plot → Areas
Pressure → On Areas: Pick the inner area of the cylinder. Enter a
pressure of 1000 → OK
9. Perform the solution:

Solution → Solve → Current LS → OK → Close → File → Close
10. Start post-processing. Check the deformed shape to see whether it
is reasonable (the dotted line is the undeformed shape):
General Post Processor → Plot Results → Deformed Shape → Def +
undef edge → OK
11. Examine the stresses:

General Postprocessor → Plot Results → Contour Plots → Element
Solu → Stress → X- direction SX → OK
Solution Comparison
The theoretical solution for this problem is:
Inside surface of cylinder: SX = -1,000 psi, SZ = 1,520.8 psi
Outside surface of cylinder: SX = 0 psi, SZ = 520.8 psi.
In the ANSYS solution shown, the upper arrow shows Sx normal to
the y-z plane, which corresponds to the cylinder hoop stress. The scale
at the bottom indicates a maximum value of 1,528 psi, which is close to
the theoretical value of 1,521 psi.
The lower arrow shows Sx in a direction normal to the inner surface
of the cylinder with a scale value of -1,006, again close to the internal
pressure of 1,000 psi.
Thus the ANSYS-calculated results seem to agree pretty well with the
theoretical results.
6.2 Tutorial 8: Static Analysis Using

Volume Elements: Assembly Design
In this tutorial, the open 3D solid analysis of an extrusion-die assembly is

discussed. The unknown to be found is the von Misses stress distribution
and the deformed shape of given extrusion-die assembly, under give pres-
sure loading and boundary condition.
Material properties: E = 5 × 106 MPa, ν = 0.15
Geometry:
Loading: Pressure = 90 Mpa on the front face of the die

Boundary Cond.: UZ = 0 on back surface of sub-bolster.
Using the geometry given, reconstruct it in the ANSYS environment
in 3D. Applying the appropriate loading and boundary conditions, solve to
attain the desired stress distribution and deformed shapes.
1. Start ANSYS.
2. Defining of element type to be used:
Preprocessor → element type → add/del…→add … → structural
solid – Tet 10 node 92 → ok → close.
3. Enter the material properties.
Preprocessor → material properties → material model → structural
→ linear → elastic → isotropic
Press OK and then close window after you have entered the following
values:
EX = 5e6,
PRXY = 0.15
4. Creating the geometry. Sub-bolster
Preprocessor → modeling → create → volumes → cylinder → hollow

cylinder
Enter the following values: WPx = 0, WPy = 0, Rad-1 = 140,
rad-2 = 190, depth = 90
To get a better 3D view, go to the ANSYS top menu and click
plotctrls → pan-zoom-rotate → oblique → Close
To move the working plane to a new origin, type the following in the
ANSYS command window: WPAVE,0,0,90
5. Creating the geometry. bolster

cylinder
Enter the following values: WPx = 0, WPy = 0, Rad-1 = 0, Rad-2 =
190, Depth = 100
Now, we create the bolster extrusion passage by creating a block in
the bolster and then subtracting it form the bolster volume.
Preprocessor → modeling → create → volumes → block →
by center,cornr…
Enter the following values: WPx = 0, WPy = 0, Width= 80, height = 80,
depth = 100
Preprocessor → modeling → operate → Boolean → subtract → volumes
Now, pick first the volume of the bolster via mouse. Click apply.
Now pick the volume of the block. Click OK.
To redraw the volumes, go to ANSYS top menu and click:
Plot → volumes.
6. Creating the geometry. Die ring

cylinder
Enter the following values: WPx = 0, WPy = 0, Rad-1 = 150,
rad-2 = 190, depth = 150
7. Creating the geometry. Die backer

cylinder
Enter the following values:

WPx = 0, WPy = 0, Rad-1 = 0, rad-2 = 150, depth = 80
Now, we create the die-backer extrusion passage by creating a block
in the die-backer and then subtracting it from its volume.
Preprocessor → modeling → create → volumes → block → by
center,cornr…
Enter the following values: WP = 0, WPy = 0, Width= 74, height = 74,
depth = 80
Now, pick first the volume of the die-backer via mouse. Click apply.
Now pick the volume of the block. Click OK.
8. Creating the geometry. Die

cylinder
Enter the following values: WPx = 0, WPy = 0, Rad-1 = 0, rad-2 =
150, depth = 70
Now we create the extrusion-die passage by creating a block in the die
and then subtracting it from its volume.
Preprocessor → modeling → create → volumes → block → by
center,cornr…
Enter the following values: WPx = 0, WPy = 0, Width= 70, height = 70,
depth = 70

Now pick first the volume of the die via mouse. Click apply. Now,
pick the volume of the block. Click OK.
In the ANSYS top menu, click plot → volumes to redraw all the
volumes.
Before we mesh the volumes, we must glue all of them to restrict

relative motion between the surfaces in contact.
Preprocessor → modeling → operate → Booleans → glue → volumes
→ pick all→ Meshing
Before we mesh, we will set up a start sizing tool for meshing.
Preprocessor → meshing → size cntrl → smart size→ basic →
(set at) 6
Now we mesh all volumes:
Preprocessor → meshing→ mesh → volumes → free→ (pick all)
Having completed the preprocessor phase, we now move to the

solution phase. Go to the ANSYS main menu and click on solution.
First we put the boundary conditions to the assembly. We must restrict
the movement of the back face of the sub-bolster. But, first, we change the
view so that we can easily manipulate the back of the assembly.
From the ANSYS top menu:
Plotctrls → pan-zoom-rotate → (click) back → (click) once each on
“+X” “+Y” → Close
Plotctrls → numbering… → (check) area numbers → ok → Plot →
areas
ANSYS main menu → solution → define loads → apply → structural
→ displacement → on areas → (select the back face of the sub-
bolster i.e. area #1) → apply → (select ALL) in the constraints
window → ok → Ok
9. Again, for convenience, change the view of the assembly from the
previously shown steps back to oblique. Now we apply the pressure
from the front face of the die.
ANSYS main menu → solution → define loads → apply → structural
→ pressure → on areas → (select the front face of the die only i.e.
area#43) → apply → (load pressure value) 90e6 → ok.
Now we solve the problem by:
ANSYS main menu → solution → solve → current LS
10. Having completed the solution phase, we now wish to look at the
stresses developed and displacements if any in the assembly units.
For viewing von Misses stress distribution as a result of the applied

pressure on the assembly:
ANSYS main menu → general post processing → plot result →
contour plot → nodal solution → (chose) stress-von misses SEQV→
(check) deformed + undef. Edge → ok
For viewing displacements, if any, as a result of the applied pressure

on the assembly:
ANSYS main menu → general post proc → plot results → deformed
shape → (deformed + unreformed edge)
Chapter 7
Thermal Stress Analysis
7.1 Tutorial 9: Thermal Analysis of

Mechanical Structure
In this section, thermal analysis of an axisymmetric pipe with fins is pre-

sented. A pipe with cooling fins is to be analyzed for temperature and ther-
mal flux distributions under given loading conditions (see next page). The
model is axisymmetric. Also, only half the fin is modeled, so the bottom
of the model is a symmetry boundary.
Loads and Material Properties



using “pipe-th” as the jobname.
2. Set the GUI Preferences to Thermal:
Main Menu > Preferences … Select “Thermal”, then [OK]
3. Read input from “pipe-th.inp” to create the 2D axisymmetric model
and specify mesh divisions on lines:
Utility Menu > File > Read Input from … Select “pipe-th.inp”, then
[OK]
Or issue:/INPUT,pipe-th,inp
Note: The input file is given at the end of the tutorial. Type it using
any text editor or give input directly in PREP.
4. Specify the element type to be PLANE55 and set keyopt(3) =
axisymmetric:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete …
[Add ...]
Pick “Thermal Solid” and “Quad 4node 55”, then [OK] [Options ...]
Set K3 = Axisymmetric, then OK] [Close]
Or issue: ET, 1, PLANE55,,, 1
Thermal Stress Analysis • 163
5. Read the material properties from the material library for 304 Stain-
less Steel:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Material Props > Material Library >
Import Library …
Select “BIN”, then [OK]
Select “Stl_AISI-304.BIN_MPL”, then [OK]
Review the ansuitmp window
Close the ansuitmp window
6. Mesh the model using mapped meshing with 2D quad elements:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > MeshTool …
Pick [Set] under Size Controls: Global SIZE = 0.25/2, then [OK]
Select “Mapped”, then [Mesh] [Pick All] [Close]
Or issue: MSHAPE,0,2D MSHKEY,1 ESIZE,0.25/2
AMESH, ALL
7. Apply convection loads to the solid model lines:

Main Menu > Solution > -Loads- Apply > -Thermal- Convection
> On Lines + Pick the outer four lines (10, 2, 7, and 6), then [OK]
Set VALI = 0.69e-4 and VAL2I = 70, then [Apply]
Pick the inner two lines (9 and 13), then [OK]
Set VALI = 0.28e-3 and VAL2I = 450, then [OK]
Utility Menu > Plot > Multi-Plots
Or issue:
/SOLU SFL,2,CONV,0.69e-4, ,70
SFL,6,CONV,0.69e-4, ,70
SFL,7,CONV,0.69e-4, ,70
SFL,10,CONV,0.69e-4, ,70
SFL,9,CONV,0.28e-3, ,450
SFL,13,CONV,0.28e-3, ,450
GPLOT
8. Save the database and obtain the solution:

Pick the “SAVE_DB” button in the Toolbar (or select: Utility
Menu > File > Save as Jobname.db)
Main Menu > Solution > -Solve- Current LS
Review the “/STATUS Command” window and then close it
[OK]
[Close] - to close the yellow message window after the solution is
completed
Or issue: SAVE /SOLU SOLVE
9. Enter the general postprocessor and review the results:
Main Menu > General Postproc
Or issue: /POST1
(a) Plot temperatures:

Main Menu > General Postproc > Plot Results > -Contour Plot-
Nodal Solu ... Pick “DOF solution” and “Temperature TEMP”, then
[OK]
Or issue: /POST1/ PLNSOL, TEMP
(b) Plot thermal flux:
Nodal Solu ... Pick “Flux & gradient” and “Thermal flux TFSUM”,
then [OK]
Or issue: PLNSOL,TF,SUM
(c) Plot the thermal gradient:
Nodal Solu ... Pick “Flux & gradient” and “Thermal grad TGSUM”,
then [OK]
Or issue: PLNSOL,TG,SUM

Pick the “QUIT” button from the toolbar (or select: Utility Menu >
File > Exit...). Select “Save Everything” [OK].
Or issue: FINISH /EXIT,ALL
11. The command log file:

/TITLE, 2D AXI-SYMM THERMAL ANALYSIS W/ CONV.
LOADING-ESIZE=0.125
/PREP7
! Solid Model
RECTNG,5,6,0,1
RECTNG,6,12,0,.25
AADD,all
!* Create fillet LFILLT,10,7,.2, , FLST,2,3,4
FITEM,2,5
FITEM,2,8
FITEM,2,2
AL,5,8,2
AADD,all
KWPAVE, 9 wpro,,,90.000000
ASBW, 2
KWPAVE, 5 wpro,,30.000000, wpro,,30.000000, wpro,,30.000000,
ASBW,3
KWPAVE,5,10 wpro,,90.000000, ASBW,2 ,asbw,4
LCOMB,11,18 ,0
LCCAT,11,12
! Prepare for meshing
LESIZE,5, , ,33,.25, , , ,0
LESIZE,7, , ,33,.25, , , ,0
LESIZE,2, , ,6, , , , ,0
LESIZE,8, , ,3, , , , ,0
LESIZE,11, , ,3, , , , ,0
LESIZE,12, , ,3, , , , ,0
LESIZE,17, , ,3, , , , ,0
WPSTYLE,,,,,,,,0 lplot
7.2 Tutorial 10 (a): Thermal-Stress

Analysis-Sequential Coupled Field
In this tutorial, the thermal analysis of an axisymmetric pipe with fins

and sequential-coupled field is introduced. Continue the axisymmetric fin
problem from Tutorial 9 to do a thermal-stress analysis. The pipe has an
internal pressure as shown. Also, as the top line (at Y = 1.0) represents a
line of repetitive symmetry, we will couple the UY degrees of freedom of
all nodes along that line.

using “pipe-th-str” as the jobname.
2. Resume the pipe-th.db database file from Workshop 3 (or pipe-th.
db1):
Utility Menu > File > Resume from …
Select “pipe-th.db”, then [OK]
Or issue: RESUME,pipe-th,db
3. Set the GUI Preferences to Structural:
Main Menu > Preferences …
Select “Structural” and unselect “Thermal”, then [OK]
4. Change the title:
Utility Menu > File > Change Title ... /TITLE = “2D AXI-SYMM
THERMAL-STRESS ANALYSIS W/ INT. PRESS - ESIZE=0.125”
[OK]
5. Delete the convection loading on the solid model lines:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > Loads > -Loads- Delete > All Load
Data > All SolidMod Lds … [OK]
Or issue: /PREP7
LSCLEAR,SOLID
6. Change the thermal elements to their corresponding structural ele-
ments:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Element Type > Switch Elem Type …
Select “Thermal to Struc”, then [OK]. Review the warning message,
then [Close] Or issue: ETCHG,TTS
7. Set the element behavior to axisymmetric:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete
… [Options ...]
Set K3 = Axisymmetric, then [OK] [Close]
Or issue: KEYOPT, 1, 3, 1
8. Apply temperature load from thermal analysis in Workshop 3:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Loads > -Loads- Apply > Tem-
perature > From Therm Analy . Select the “pipe-th.rth” results file,
then [OK].
Or issue:
LDREAD,TEMP, , , , ,pipe-th,rth
9. Apply symmetry boundary condition on lines at Y = 0:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Loads > -Loads- Apply > Displace-
ment > Symmetry B.C.- On Lines +
Select lines 3, 5, 11, then [OK].
Or issue:
DL,3, ,SYMM
DL,5, ,SYMM DL,11, ,SYMM
10. Couple UY DOF on nodes at Y = 1:
(a) Select nodes at Y = 1:
Utility Menu > Select > Entities ... Select “Nodes” and “By Location”
Select “Y coordinates”
Set Min,Max to 1, then [OK]
Or issue: NSEL,S,LOC,Y,1
(b) Define a UY DOF couple set on the select set of nodes:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Coupling / Ceqn > Couple DOFs +
[Pick All]
NSET = 1
Set Lab = UY, then [OK].
Utility Menu > Select > Everything
Or issue: CP,1,UY,ALL ALLSEL,ALL
11. Apply internal constant pressure to line:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > Loads > -Loads- Apply > Pressure >
On Lines + Pick lines 9 and 13, then [OK]
VALUE = 1000, then [OK]
Or issue: SFL,9,PRES,1000
SFL,13,PRES,1000
12. Verify the temperature load by displaying body force loads:

Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Symbols
Set Body Load Symbols = “Structural temps”, then [OK]
Utility Menu > Plot > Elements
Or issue: /PBF,TEMP, ,1
EPLOT
Review the “/STATUS Command” window and then close it [OK].
completed
Or issue: SAVE
/SOLU SOLVE
Main Menu > General Postproc >
Or issue: /POST1
(a) Plot the displacement:

Nodal Solu ...
Pick “DOF solution” and “Translation USUM”, select “Def +
undef edge”, then [OK]
Or issue: PLNSOL,U,SUM,2,1
(b) Plot von Mises stress:

Nodal Solu ... Pick “Stress” and “von Mises SEQV”, select “Def
shape only”, then [OK]
Or issue: PLNSOL,S,EQV
(c) Plot radial stress:

Nodal Solu ... Pick “Stress” and “X-direction SX”, then [OK]
Or issue: PLNSOL,S,X
(d) Expand the axisymmetric radial stress 90° about the Y axis and
reflect about the x-z plane:
Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Style > Symmetry Expansion > 2D
Axi-Symmetric ... Pick “1/4 expansion” and set reflection to “yes”,
then [OK]
Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Pan, Zoom, Rotate … [ISO]
Or issue: /EXPAND, 9,AXIS,,,10,,2,REC T,HALF,,0.00001
/VIEW,1,1,1,1
/REPLOT
(e) Plot the longitudinal (axial) stress:
Nodal Solu ...
Pick “Stress” and “Y-direction SY”, then [OK]
Or issue: PLNSOL,S,Y
(f) Plot the tangential (circumferential or hoop) stress:
Nodal Solu ...
Pick “Stress” and “Z-direction SZ”, then [OK]
Or issue: PLNSOL,S,Z

Pick the “QUIT” button from the Toolbar (or select: Utility Menu >
File > Exit...) Select “Save Everything”
[OK]
Or issue: FINISH
/EXIT,ALL
7.3 Tutorial 10 (b): Thermal-Stress

Analysis: Direct-Coupled Field
In this tutorial, the thermal analysis of axisymmetric pipe with fins and
direct-coupled field will be addressed. In this workshop problem, we will
rerun the previous problem using the direct coupled field method. The
axisymmetric fin will again be used for this analysis, which will include
the thermal and structural loads applied previously.

Same thermal loading applied in Tutorial 9. Internal pressure applied
simultaneously:

using “pipe-direct” as the jobname.
2. Read input from “pipe-th.inp” to create the 2D axisymmetric model

and specify mesh divisions on lines:
Utility Menu > File > Read Input from … Select “pipe-th.inp”, then
[OK]
Or issue: /INPUT,pipe-th,inp
3. Add an axisymmetric coupled field element type (plane13):
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete…
Select “Coupled Field” and “Vector Quad 13”, then [OK]
4. Modify element options for structural or thermal, axisymmetric:
Options K1 = UX UY Temp AZ K3 = Axisymmetric [OK]
[Close]
Or issue: ET,1,PLANE13
KEYOPT,1,1,4
KEYOPT,1,3,1
5. Mesh the model using mapped meshing with 2D quad elements:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > MeshTool …
Pick [Set] under Size Controls: Global SIZE = 0.25/2, then [OK]
Select “Mapped”, then [Mesh] [Pick All]
Or issue: MSHAPE,0,2D MSHKEY,1
ESIZE,0.25/2
AMESH,ALL
6. Read the material properties from the material library for 304
Stainless Steel:
Library Path ... Enter path for “Path for READING files” (eg. h:\
ansys57\matlib) [OK].
Import Library … Select “BIN”, then [OK].
Select “Stl_AISI-304.BIN_MPL”, then [OK] Review the ansuitmp
window
Close the ansuitmp window
7. Apply convection loads to the solid model lines:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Loads > - Loads- Apply > -Thermal-
Convection > On Lines +
Pick the outer four lines, then [OK]
Set VALI = 0.69e-4 and VAL2I = 70, then [Apply]
Pick the inner two lines, then [OK]
Set VALI = 0.28e-3 and VAL2I = 450, then [OK]
Or issue: SFL,2,CONV,0.69e-4, ,70
SFL,6,CONV,0.69e-4, ,70
SFL,7,CONV,0.69e-4, ,70
SFL,10,CONV,0.69e-4, ,70
SFL,9,CONV,0.28e-3, ,450
SFL,13,CONV,0.28e-3, ,450
8. Apply internal constant pressure to line:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > Loads > -Loads- Apply > Pressure >
On Lines +
Pick lines 9 and 13, then [OK]
VALUE = 1000, then [OK]
Or issue: SFL,9,PRES,1000
SFL,13,PRES,1000
9. Couple UY DOF on nodes at Y = 1:
(a) Select nodes at Y = 1:
Utility Menu > Select > Entities ... Select “Nodes” and “By Location”
Select “Y coordinates”
Set Min,Max to 1, then [OK]
Or issue: NSEL,S,LOC,Y,1
(b) Define a UY DOF couple set on the select set of nodes:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Coupling / Ceqn > Couple DOFs +
[Pick All]
NSET = 1
Set Lab = UY, then [OK]
Utility Menu > Select > Everything
Or issue: CP,1,UY,ALL ALLSEL,ALL
10. Apply symmetry boundary condition on lines at Y = 0:

Main Menu > Preprocessor > Loads > -Loads- Apply > Displacement
> Symmetry B.C.- On Lines +
Select lines 3, 5, 11, then [OK]
Or issue: DL,3, ,SYMM DL,5, ,SYMM DL,11, ,SYMM
Review the “/STATUS Command” window and then close it
[OK]
[Yes] – to continue with solve after warnings
completed
Or issue: SAVE
/SOLU SOLVE

Main Menu > General Postproc >
Or issue: /POST1
(a) Plot the temperatures:

Nodal Solu ...
Pick “DOF solution” and “Temperature TEMP”, then [OK]
Or issue: PLNSOL,TEMP
(b) Plot the displacement::
Nodal Solu ...
Pick “DOF solution” and “Translation USUM”, select “Def + undef
edge”, then [OK].
Or issue: PLNSOL,U,SUM,2,1
(c) Plot von Mises stress:
Nodal Solu ...
Pick “Stress” and “von Mises SEQV”, select “Def shape only”, then
[OK]
Or issue: PLNSOL,S,EQV
(d) Expand the axisymmetric radial stress 90° about the Y axis and
reflect about the x-z plane:
Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Style > Symmetry Expansion > 2D
Axi-Symmetric ...
Pick “1/4 expansion” and set reflection to “yes”, then [OK]
Utility Menu > PlotCtrls > Pan, Zoom, Rotate …[ISO]
Or issue: /EXPAND, 9,AXIS,,,10,,2,RECT,HALF,,0.00001
/VIEW,1,1,1,1
/REPLOT
(e) Plot the temperatures:
Nodal Solu ...
Pick “DOF solution” and “Temperature TEMP”, then [OK]
Or issue: PLNSOL,TEMP

Pick the “QUIT” button from the Toolbar (or select: Utility Menu >
File > Exit...)
Select “Save Everything”
[OK]
Or issue: FINISH
/EXIT,ALL
Summary
In this volume of the book “Fundamentals of Finite Element Methods with

ANSYS Tutorials and Applications for Engineering” after providing a
brief introduction on finite element analysis and modeling, various guided
tutorials were presented to demonstrate how simple structural analysis can
be carried out by ANSYS. Most of these tutorials have been specifically
developed for this book and are based on the version of ANSYS shown in
the corresponding figures of the tutorial examples. For the static analysis
of different structures, the most common finite element types introduced in
Section 1.4, such as solid modeling using 2D and 3D primitives available
in ANSYS, static structural analysis (truss, beam, 2D and 3D structures),
and thermal analysis, are explained.
In the second volume, tutorials demonstrate dynamic analysis capa-
bilities of ANSYS and the topics covered include harmonic and modal
analysis. In addition, analysis of composite structures, probabilistic design
analysis, APDL programming, and design optimization are presented
through corresponding tutorials.
Bibliography
Cook, R.D. 1995. Finite Element Modeling for Stress Analysis, 1st ed. H
oboken,
NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Incropera, F.P. 1985. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Example 3.7,
2nd ed., 104. Singapore: John Wiley & Sons.
Reddy, J.N. 1993. An Introduction to the Finite Element Method, New York:
McGrawHill.
Logan, D.L. 2001. A First Course in the Finite Element Method, 3rd ed. Mason,
OH: Thomas Learning Publishing.
Reddy, J.N. 1972. “Exact Solutions of Moderately Thick Laminated Shells.”
Journal Engineering Mechanics 110, no. 5, pp. 794–805.
Timoshenko, S. 1956. Strength of Material, Part II, Elementary Theory and
Problems, 3rd ed., 111. New York, NY: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc.
Index
A deformation, 132
addition of matrices, 15 element material properties,
algebraic equation. See linear 126
algebraic equations geometric properties,
ANSYS. See also geometric 125–126
modeling; static analysis listing the stresses, 130–132
model geometry loads, applying, 128–129
analysis type and analysis meshing, 126–127
options, 61–62 saving, 127
applying loads and obtaining solving, 129–130
solution, 61, 62–63 stresses, 133–134
initiate solution, 63 title, giving, 122
load step options, 63 type of element, 125
preprocessing plane problem (wrench)
analysis title, 55 ANSYS solution, 142–146
element real constants, 57–59 geometry, 142
element types, 56–57 loading, 142
jobname, 54–55 material properties, 142
linear material properties, methodology, 142
59–60 assembly design (static analysis)
material properties, 59 ANSYS solution, 154–160
nonlinear material properties, boundary condition, 154
60–61 geometry, 154
units, 55 loading, 154
results, 63–64 material properties, 154
applied mechanics, 1 methodology, 154
area elements, static analysis
plane problem (bracket), B
121–122, 134–141 bar element formulation, 31–33
analysis type, 127 beam elements, static analysis.
Boolean operations, 122–124 See also distributed loads on
constraints, 127–128 beam elements
deflection, 133 analysis type, 113
190 • Index
constraints, 113 distributed loads on beam

deformation, 115 elements. See also beam
element density, 113 elements, static analysis
element material properties, 113 analysis type, 118
gravity, 113–114 constraints, 118
keypoints, 112 deformation, 119–120
lines, creating, 113 element material properties, 117
meshing, 113 element types, 116
preprocessor menu, 112 keypoints, 116
real constants, 113 lines, 116
solving, 115 loads, applying, 118–119
title, giving, 112 meshing, 117
type of element, 113 plot elements, 117–118
bracket (plane problem). See area preprocessor menu, opening, 116
elements, static analysis real constants, 117
buckling analysis, 11 solving, 119
title, giving, 116
C dynamic analysis. See transient
CAD model, 66–68 dynamic analysis
compatibility equation, 19
component design (static analysis) E
ANSYS solution, 148–153 elasticity equations
constraints, 147 one dimension, 20
geometry, 147 plane strain, 21
loading, 147 plane stress, 20–21
material properties, 147 strain-displacement relationship,
methodology, 148 19
composites, 12 stress equilibrium equations,
computational mechanics, 1 17–18
contact problems, 11–12 stress-strain relationships, 19–20
Cramer’s rule, 22–23 elementary beam theory, 49
element characteristic matrix
D direct method, 27
differentiating a matrix, 16 variational method, 28
direct-coupled field (thermal weighted residual methods, 28
analysis) element real constants, 57–59
ANSYS solution, 177–184 engineering analysis, 13
loads and material properties,
177 F
direct (equilibrium) method, 27 fatigue, 13
bar element formulation, 31–33 fatigue analysis, 9
spring element equations, 28–31 FEA program, 7–8
discretization error, 50–51 finite difference method, 4
displacement/stiffness method, 26 finite element analysis (FEA)
Index • 191
discretization error, 50–51 L

history of, 5 linear algebraic equations
modeling error, 49–50 Cramer’s rule, 22–23
numerical error, 51–52 Gaussian elimination, 23–26
finite element method (FEM) inversion, 23
bar element formulation, linear behavior, 9–10
31–33 linear material properties, 59–60
description, 1 linear vs. nonlinear static analysis,
element characteristic matrix, 54
27–28 load step options, 63
examples, 34–48
FEA, 6–8 (see also finite element M
analysis (FEA)) material properties, 59
mathematical model, 1–3, 5–6 mathematical model, 1–3, 5–6
numerical methods, 4 matrix algebra, 15–17
physical, 6 mechanical structure (thermal
spring element equations, analysis)
28–31 ANSYS solution, 162–168
steps of, 26–27 loads and material properties,
structural analysis (see structural 161
analysis of FEM) modal analysis, 10
types, 27 modeling, 48–49
force / flexibility method, 26 modeling error, 49–50
fracture mechanics, 12 multi-physics application, 14
multiplication of a matrix by a
G scalar, 15
Galerkin method, 28 multiplication of two matrices, 15
Gaussian elimination, 23–26
geometric modeling N
solid model, 68–69 nonlinear analysis, 11
steps in, 65–66 nonlinear behavior, 9–10
3D, 79–89 nonlinear material properties,
2D, 69–78 60–61
using CAD system, 66–68 nonstructural application, 14
numerical error, 51–52
H numerical methods, 4
harmonic analysis, 10
heat transfer analysis, 9 O
one dimension elasticity equation,
I 20
identity matrix, 16
integrating a matrix, 16 P
inverse of a matrix, 16 physical FEM, 6
inversion, 23 plane strain elasticity equation, 21
192 • Index
plane stress elasticity equation, linear material properties,

20–21 59–60
post-processing phase, 27 material properties, 59
preprocessing phase, 26 nonlinear material properties,
60–61
S units, 55
sequential-coupled field (thermal results, 63–64
analysis) steady-state transfer, 9
ANSYS solution, 169–177 stiffness matrix, 27
loads and material properties, strain-displacement relationship,
169 19
solid modeling, 68–69 stress equilibrium equations,
3D, 79–89 17–18
2D, 69–78 stress-strain relationships, 19–20
solution phase, 26 structural analysis, 53
spectrum analysis, 10 structural analysis of FEM, 8–9
spring element equations, 28–31 advantages, 13–14
static analysis, 9–10 application, 14–15
definition of, 53–54 buckling analysis, 11
linear vs. nonlinear, 54 composites, 12
loadings in, 54 contact problems, 11–12
using area elements (see area disadvantages, 14
elements, static analysis) engineering types, 13
using beam elements (see beam fatigue, 13
elements, static analysis) fracture mechanics, 12
using truss elements (see truss harmonic analysis, 10
elements, static analysis) modal analysis, 10
using volume elements (see nonlinear analysis, 11
volume elements, static spectrum analysis, 10
analysis) static analysis, 9–10
static analysis procedure transient dynamic analysis, 10
model geometry structural application, 14
analysis type and analysis
options, 61–62 T
applying loads and obtaining theoretical mechanics, 1
solution, 61, 62–63 thermal analysis
initiate solution, 63 direct-coupled field
load step options, 63 ANSYS solution, 177–184
preprocessing loads and material properties,
analysis title, 55 177
element real constants, mechanical structure
57–59 ANSYS solution, 162–168
element types, 56–57 loads and material properties,
jobname, 54–55 161
Index • 193
sequential-coupled field solving, 104–105

ANSYS solution, 169–177 title, giving, 91–92
loads and material properties, 2D model, 8, 69–78
169
3D model, 8, 79–89 V
time history analysis. see transient variational method, 28
dynamic analysis vibrational analysis, 9
transient dynamic analysis, 10 volume elements, static analysis
transpose of a matrix, 15 assembly design
truss elements, static analysis ANSYS solution, 154–160
analysis type, 101 boundary condition, 154
axial stress, 110–111 geometry, 154
constraints, applying, 101–103 loading, 154
deflection, 107–109 material properties, 154
deformation, 106–107 methodology, 154
element material properties, 98 component design
forming lines, 94–95 ANSYS solution, 148–153
geometric properties, 96–97 constraints, 147
keypoints, 92–94 geometry, 147
listing, 109–110 loading, 147
listing the stresses, 111–112 material properties, 147
loads, applying, 103–104 methodology, 148
meshing, 95–96, 99, 100
plot numbering, 100 W
quitting ANSYS, 112 weighted residual methods, 28
reaction forces, 106 wrench (plane problem). See area
saving, 100–101 elements, static analysis
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EBOOKS Using ANSYS for Finite Element
ALTABEY • NOORI • WANG

FOR THE Analysis SUSTAINABLE STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING
A Tutorial for Engineers, Volume I
SYSTEMS COLLECTION
LIBRARY Mohammad Noori, Editor
Wael A. Altabey • Mohammad Noori • Libin Wang
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Using ANSYS
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These simple, yet, fundamental tutorials are expected to assist the users
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Using ANSYS for Finite Element Analysis, Volume I

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Wael A. Altabey is an assistant professor in the department of A Tutorial for
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THE TERMS University, Nanjing, China.
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Finite Element Method (FEM) is a well-established technique for analyz-

ANSYS, composite materials, Dynamics, Failure analysis, Fatigue loads,

4 Static Analysis Using Line Elements 91

Figure 1.1. A diagram of the two common branches of the

The finite element method (FEM) is a well-established technique for

• To teach students the basic concepts in the linear FEM as related to

Gain insight into appropriate use of finite element modeling, under-

1.1 Finite Element Method

1.1.1 Mathematical Modeling of Physical

In general, engineering problems are mathematical models of physical

d­ ifferential equation or a set of differential equations with a set of cor-

Simplified model Complicated model

consider a diagram of the two common branches of the general modeling

Figure 1.2. The thermomechanical stresses

Figure 1.3. The complex three-dimensional geometry of the blade along

1.1.2 Basic Concept of Numerical Methods

The basic concept of these methods is based on the idea of building a

Where N = total number of triangles (elements). The first step of any

1.1.3 A Brief History of FEM

Finite element analysis (FEA) was first developed in 1943 by R. ­Courant,

1.1.4 The FEM Analysis Process

A model-based simulation process using FEM consists of a sequence of

Figure 1.4. The mathematical FEM.

Figure 1.5. The physical FEM.

Poisson’s equation, realizations may be a heat conduction problem. In

1.1.5 How Does FEA Work?

Figure 1.6. A two dimensional FE model for a gear tooth.

i­ sotropic: identical throughout, orthotropic: identical at 90 degrees, general

1.1.6 Types of Structural Analysis

Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the FEM.

Figure 1.7. Linear and nonlinear behavior of the structure.

Structural analysis consists of linear and nonlinear behavior of the

1.1.6.1 Static Analysis (Linear and Nonlinear)

A static analysis calculates the effects of steady loading conditions on a

• Externally applied forces and pressures

1.1.6.2 Transient Dynamic Analysis (Linear and Nonlinear)

Transient dynamic analysis (sometimes called time history analysis) is

1.1.6.3 Modal Analysis

You use modal analysis to determine the vibration characteristics ­(natural

Any sustained cyclic load will produce a sustained cyclic response (a

1.1.6.6 Buckling Analysis

Buckling analysis is a technique used to determine buckling loads,

If a structure experiences large deformations, its changing geometric

Contact problems are highly nonlinear and require significant computer

Cracks and flaws occur in many structures and components, sometimes

Fatigue is the phenomenon in which a repetitively loaded structure frac-

• Number of load cycles experienced

A formal fatigue evaluation accounts for each of these factors as

1.1.6.12 Other Types of Engineering Analysis

Other types of engineering that can be solved using FEA are:

4 Static Analysis Using Line Elements 91

Figure 1.1. A diagram of the two common branches of the

1.1.1 Mathematical Modeling of Physical

d ifferential equation or a set of differential equations with a set of cor-

Finite element analysis (FEA) was first developed in 1943 by R. Courant,

i sotropic: identical throughout, orthotropic: identical at 90 degrees, general

You use modal analysis to determine the vibration characteristics (natural

1.2.3 Solution of Set of Linear Algebraic

 a11 a12 a1n 

 a11 a12 a13 a1n  c

 a11 a12 a13 a14 a1n   c1 

1.5 Types of Element Formulation

1.6 Derivation of Spring Element