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The tremendous growth of the media in last one decade, has significantly affected the norms and values, body image perception, and purchasing behavior world over and in Pakistan. The purpose of this paper is to examine: (1) the relationships of social culture factors and body image (2) the impact of media on body image, social comparison and internalization, and (3) the mediating effects of self esteem and religiosity.
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IMPACT OF MEDIA AND SOCIAL FACTORS ON SOCIAL COMPARISON AND BODY IMAGE, IN KARACHI Untitled
The tremendous growth of the media in last one decade, has significantly affected the norms and values, body image perception, and purchasing behavior world over and in Pakistan. The purpose of this paper is to examine: (1) the relationships of social culture factors and body image (2) the impact of media on body image, social comparison and internalization, and (3) the mediating effects of self esteem and religiosity.
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The tremendous growth of the media in last one decade, has significantly affected the norms and values, body image perception, and purchasing behavior world over and in Pakistan. The purpose of this paper is to examine: (1) the relationships of social culture factors and body image (2) the impact of media on body image, social comparison and internalization, and (3) the mediating effects of self esteem and religiosity.
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Tariq Jalees, Director of College Of Management Sciences, PAF-KIET tariqj@pafkiet.edu.pk ABSTRACT Background/Objectives: The tremendous growth of the media in last one decade, has significantly affecte d the norms and values, body image perception, and purchasing behavior world ove r and in Pakistan. The purpose of this paper is to examine: (1) the relationship s of social culture factors and body image (2) the impact of media on body image , social comparison and internalization, and (3) the mediating effects of self e steem and religiosity. Design/methodology/approach: The conceptual framework for this study is based on Social Comparison Theory. Se lf administered questionnaires with established reliability and validity have be en used in this paper. Valid sample size was 192, and was drawn through quota sa mpling. Various statistical techniques were used for analysis purpose including: (1) Principal Axis Factoring method for reducing the numbers of items from some of the constructs(2) Cronbach’s alpha for measuring the reliabilities(3) Multiple regression for assessing the relationships, and (4) Sobel’s test for ascertaining the mediating effects of self esteem and religiosity. Major Findings: Media and social factors have moderate role on the impact of body image. Howeve r, comparatively, weaker relationships were found between exposure to media and social comparison and internalization. The mediating role of religiosity, and se lf esteem were found to be weak. Limitations The findings are limited to local consumer of Karachi, only, and cannot be gener alized across the whole Pakistan or internationally. Implication: The research provides an in-depth understanding of Pakistani consumers in respec t to media and social factors which could be used by the marketers to understand their behavior and develop appropriate marketing strategies. From social perspe ctive it would help the governmental agencies to develop strategies to control t he aftereffects of body image. Contribution Bulk of the research on this issue has been carried out in developed countries, and South East Asian countries. No such study in Pakistan has been ever carried out. It will validate the Social Comparison Theory and other constructs in Pakis tan. Keywords Social Comparison Theory, Body Image, Internalization, Self Esteem, Int ernalization Key Area: Marketing IMPACT OF MEDIA AND SOCIAL FACTORS ON SOCIAL COMPARISON AND BODY IMAGE, IN KARACHI Tariq Jalees, Director of College Of Management Sciences, PAF-KIET tariqj@pafkiet.edu.pk 1 Background The growth of television in the developing counties including Pakistan has been remarkable. Up to the year 1997 there were only a few TV channels available for the population of Pakistan. By the year 2009 the media environment changed dram atically and now they have the facility of watching more than 100 foreign and lo cal TV channels (Media Pakistan, 2009). In view of the media exposure conceptua l definition of body image has changed considerably over a period of time. Init ially, body image was considered as a picture formed by individuals in their min d about their body (Cash and Pruzinsky 2004). Subsequently, body image definitio n became multidimensional due to inclusion of “self attitude towards body image” in terms of size, shape and aesthetic. Addition of these constructs has broadened t he conceptual definitions of body image (Cash and Pruzinsky 2004). Similarly, th e explosion of televisions networks in Pakistan in last one decade has completel y revolutionized the culture. The ideal model being portrayed by the media has s ignificantly changed the local population’s perception of body image, dressing hab its, styles of living and purchasing behavior (Kamran, 2009) 1.1 Gaps in Literature and contribution Researchers in recent years have again started using social comparison theory in their researches specially for explaining the mechanism of interaction between ideal beauty models in media and young women (Martin and Kennedy, 1993; Richin 1 991). However, very little empirical researches have been carried out for measu ring their behavior phenomena (Parker, 1995). Most of the researches on the impa ct of role models on body image have been focused on adolescent girls (McCabe, R icciardelli, 2001), adolescents’ females (Levine.et.al, , 1994), but very few on a ll age groups and both male and female (Hesse-Biber, 1996;Berg,2001). No such integrated study on media and body image has ever been carried out in Pa kistan. The contribution of this paper is that it has examined how religiosity a ssimilates with the social comparison theory in explaining the impact of media o n body image and other related constructs. This would, not, only revalidate the constructs in an eastern culture like Pakistan, but would also increase their ge neralize ability. 1.2 Limitation The scope of this study is limited to one city only and hence the finding could not be generalized as being overall perception of Pakistan’s consumers. Since Kara chi has diversified ethnicity, therefore, the sample should have been drawn in s uch a manner that it would have reflected the perception of all the ethnical pop ulation living in Karachi. Future researcher may use a larger sample drawn on al l Pakistan bases. They could explore whether the body image perception varies et hnically, by age and gender. 1.3 Objective of the Study The purpose of this paper is to examine: (1) How media in Pakistan is affecting body image (2) Impact of social factors on body image (3) Impact of media on co mparison, and internalization (4) Explore the mediating role of self esteem, and religiosity on exposure to media and body image. 2 Brief Literature Review and Theoretical Framework 2.1 Conceptual framework The conceptual framework of this study is based on Social Comparison Theory (Fes tinger, 1954). The social comparison theory helps in understanding the causes of media images on people and its affect on their body image. It also examines the individual behavior in response to peer groups and other social categories (Mil kie, 1999). The focal point of the theory is that people compare/internalize the mselves with other on the basis of those dimensions that are similar to them (Fe stinger, 1954). Figure-1 Conceptual framework 2.2 Hypotheses 2.2.1 Media and Body Image Media pressure to be thin is stronger now than what it was two decade ago. In a study it was found that diet promotion was negligible on TV up to 1973, but now the share of these types of advertisements is about 5% which is high considering that advertising is a 130 billion-dollar industry, and the most powerful influe ncers in America (Berg, 2001). Besides television magazine is another source of internalizing thin models (Thompsons &Heinberg, 1999). Media has completely chan ged the cultural ideals of the last two decades (Berg, 2001). Tiggeman, et.al (2 003) found that one of the reasons females read magazines as they want to keep t hemselves updated on the issues related to beauty, fitness, and grooming product s. Television, advertisement magazine are not only source of upward comparison b ut the images being portrayed in these media are impossible to achieve (Schooler et. At, 2004, Thompson, J. K., & Heinberg, L. J. (1999)). Thus the following h ypothesis has been formulated: H1: The level of exposure of (1) TV (2) Magazine (3) Advertising has direct infl uence on the body image. 2.2.2 Social factors and body Image Cash (1995) is of the opinion that some of the common influencers of the body im age are family, peers, and society; however Cash, Ancis & Strachan (1997) observ ed that negative body image has adverse impact on self esteem. Family is general ly considered as major factor of socialization to young children. Children perc eption about their bodies is strongly influenced by parents and other care giver s. Parents either explicitly or implicitly convey to their children that they s hould not deviate from the ideal norms in society (Kelly, 2004) Besides, direct ly pressuring children to lose weight, parents also indirectly influences the ch ildren on their diet, physical attributes and physical appearance (Kelly, 2004) . Besides parents, children, also, get inspired and influenced by their teachers. The quantum of research on teacher’s impact on children and their perceive body image is negligible. The teachers are role models of the students and how they carry themselves and communicate about image, or being overweight leaves a stron g impression on children. Children while seeking counsel from the teacher would share personal and confidential issues which they might not with others. (Kelly, 2004) H2: There is no relationship between Social factors (Mother, father, Teacher , and Peers) and Body Image. 2.2.3 Media and Social Comparison Exposure to media leads to Social comparison. The comparison could be upward or downward. In upward comparison individuals compare themselves with someone who is superior to them. Generally, upward comparison leads to depression of mood. In case of downward comparison the target personality would be those who may be inferior to them on several dimensions (Festinger, 1954). Some researchers have emphasized that this comparison helps in the elevation of mood (Lin & Kulk, 200 2, schooler et al, 2004, Tiggeman & mcgil, 2004, Tiggeman & Slater, 2004). The d erived hypothesis is presented below: H3: There is not relationship between exposure to media and social comparison. 2.2.4 Exposure to media and Internalization Generally, two explanations are given for body image dissatisfaction. One is soc ial comparison theory and the other is the degree of internalization (Stormer & Thompson, 1996). Women generally assess their attractiveness by internalizing th e thin ideal models. If the exposure is high, the level of internalization may a lso be higher and vice versa (Cattarin et. Al., 2002). This discussions lead to the following hypothesis. H4: There is no relationship between exposure to Media Exposure and Internalizat ion. 2.2.5 Body image and self-esteem Individual’s positive or negative attitude towards their body comes in the definit ion of self esteem (Rosenberg, 1965). Studies shows that there is relationship b etween body image and self esteem (Mayo, 1992), however (Cash, Anis & Strachan ( 1997) further added by stating that that negative body image has adverse impac t on the self esteem. Polivy and Herman(2004) is of the opinion that media would not adversely affect the people who have high level of self esteem. Thus the fo llowing hypothesis has been developed. H5: Self esteem would mediate the relationship between exposure to Media and bod y Image. 2.2.6 Religiosity and body image Religiosity refers to level of commitment to a religious group, and it plays a s ignificant role in influencing consumer behavior. Since consumer buying behavior is governed by religion, therefore, it could also be used for segmenting consum ers markets (Delener, 1990b). Another study also supported the premise that cons umer attitude and behavior are governed by religiosity, whereas the attitude is based on consumer’s belief or religion (Esso and Dibb, 2004;Nitton and Sally 2004 ). The religious philosophy provides frame of reference on how to live, and beha ve in a society (Weaver & Agle, 2002), therefore, the impact of media exposure o n body image vary with the level of religiosity. Thus the following hypothesis h as been generated. H6: Religiosity would mediate the relationship between exposure to Media and bo dy Image. 3 Methodology 3.1 Instrument Questionnaires as an instrument are commonly used in descriptive and exploratory researches. The constructs in this study has been previously used in the similar context by the other researchers, and have proven reliabilities and validities as depicted below: Table No.1 Summary of constructs used Measure Author No. of Items Scale Rating No o Factors Reliability Validity Scale type Body Image (BIG3) Cash and Syzmanski,1995 22 1-4 2 .76 to . 81 Yes L Self Esteem Rosenberg, 1965 10 1-4 1 .82 to .88 Yes L Internalization (SATAQ-3) Thompson et.al, 2004 16 1-5 2 .90 to .97 Yes L Social Comparison Fujita, 1996 13 1-10 2 .95 Yes L Socio Cultural Feedback McCabe & Ricciardelli,2001 9 1-5 2 .72 Yes L Religiosity Orientation Worthing et.al, 2003 10 1-5 2 .93 to . 96 Yes L Exposure To Media Stice, et.al, 1994 11 - 2 .76 to,7 3 Yes N
3.2 Population and Sample Size
An appropriate sample size is a critical factor for any research. Tull & Hakins( 1998) after reviewing several hundred researches reported that sample size on consumer researches on national basis were ranged between 1000 to 2500. Compara tively, sample sizes for regional based consumers’ studies were found to be 200 to 1000. Hair Jr. et al, (2007) advocates 30 samples per cell for factorial design . This study has not used factorial design, therefore Sekran (2003) view of mini mum 30 samples per variables have been used which comes out to be 180 (6 variabl es X 30 samples).The sample size for this 225 and valid samples were 192. 3.3 Sampling Technique Sampling drawing techniques comes in two broad categories. One is probability sa mpling and other is non-probability sampling. Generally, the probability samplin g is preferred when overall generalize ability is critical for the study. Howeve r, for probability sampling, a pre-requisite is defining sampling frame, which i s not possible if the research is consumer oriented and national based (Saunders , Lewis, & Thornhill, 2008). This in essence means that all the probability samp ling techniques such as simple random, systematic, stratified random, cluster, a nd multi- cluster technique would not be possible in a research of this quantum. Thus, the researcher has used quota sampling by allocating 200 samples to five areas of Karachi which are: (1) Defense (2) Clifton (3) PECHS (4) Bhadrabad (5) North Nazimabad. 3.4 Normality Normality of data is a pre-requisite for Regression and t and Z, tests. Normalit y of data was carried out in several stages. Initially, Box, Whisker, and Steam Leaf were plotted for identifying outliers. Outliers are those observations whic h are significantly different than the entire sample data (Harir, Jr. et.al, 200 7). Myers et al., (2006) suggest that if the quantum of the outliers is within 1 % it would be more appropriate to leave them alone. Outliers of 5% or greater th an the sample data should be recoded to the nearest upward or downward values (T abachnick & Fidell, 2001). The outliers in this study were within 1% range and h ence were left alone. Some of the researchers suggest converting each variable t o Z-score and removing those which exceeds ± 2.5. However, in this study normality were based on simple rule of checking whether the skewness and Kurtosis is less er than ±1.0 (Leech et.al, 2009). The skewness and Kurtosis of all constructs wer e within this range of ±1 (Results are discussed in Section 4.3). 3.5 Research Technique The Principal factor analysis with Varimax rotation was applied for reducing the number of items from the constructs, and Cronbach’s alpha was used for ascertaini ng the reliabilities. Multiple regression technique was used for measuring the r elationships, and Sobel Test was used for measuring the mediating affect. 4 Results and Discussions 4.1 Factor loading for reducing the items Principal factor analysis with Varimax rotation was applied on the above five co nstructs. The assumption of independent sampling, linear relationships, and mode rate correlation ships were met. The criteria used were: (1) The Barley Test of Speheriicity was significant P <.05) (2) Kaiser-Meyer Olikin Measure of Sampling should be greater 0.60 (3)To include the top 4-6 items with factorial loading o f at least 0.60.The summarized results are presented below: Table number 2 Varimax Factor Loading Construct Original items Kaiser-Meyer Olkin Barley Test of Sphercity Cumulative Factor loading Items Retained Self Esteem 10 0.878 0 86% 5 Body Image Ideal 11 .910 0 78% 4 Social Comparison 11 .8290 0 90% 5 Religiosity 10 .767 9 85% 5
4.2 Reliability of the constructs
The instrument used for this pretest comprised of constructs which were earlier used by the researchers and therefore have established validities and reliabilit ies. However, the reliabilities of the used constructs were again reestablished, and the summarized results are presented below: Table No.3.Reestablishing Reliabilities for Pretest Construct Cronbach’s Alpha Cronbach,s Alpha on Standarized Items No Of Items Mean S.D Body Image .592 .592 11 6.4 .998 Self Esteem .825 .821 10 4.67 .97 Internalization .826 .827 8 5.25 1.07 Social Comparison .810 .789 9 4.782 .701 Religiosity .768 .768 10 4.388 .985 Media Feedback .702 .704 5 4.37 .793 The above table shows that the reliably of internalization the highest (α=.826, M= 5.25, SD=1.07). Reli bilities of the ll the constructs were gre ter th n 0.7 ex cept body im ge (α=.592, M=6.4, SD=.998) re within the ccept ble r nge indic tin g th t the respective items h ve re son ble intern l consistency nd reli bility . Although, the lph for Body Im ge perception is on the lower side, but sever l rese rch journ ls still ccept this if one or two constructs h ve the lph in the r nge of 0.60 to 0.70 (Leech, et. l, 2007). 4.3 Norm lity of constructs In order to scert in the norm lity of the d t , the descriptive st tistics were gener ted, which is summ rized below: T ble number-4 (Descriptive st tistics) Min Me n St.dev Skewness Kurtosis Exposure to Advertisement 3 4.63 .998 -.022 -.181 Exposure to Medi 3 4.37 .793 -.759 -.997 Body Im ge 4.03 6.4826 1.02161 .573 -.548 Soci l Comp rison 2.94 4.7827 .70142 .415 .286 Self Esteem 2.8 4.666 .9700 .550 -.728 Religiosity 1.8 4.388 .9845 .133 -.145 Mother Feedb ck 1.00 4.7006 1.69635 -.445 -.841 F ther Feedb ck 1.0 4.324 1.6362 -.213 -.945 Te cher Feedb ck 1.50 5.8299 1.52901 -.251 -.147 Peers Feedb ck 1.0 4.065 1.5376 -.111 -.423 Intern liz tion 3 4.69 .818 .209 -.348 V lid N (list wise) 193 193 193 193 193 The bove t ble shows th t exposure to dvertisement (Me n=4.63, SD= .998) h s t he lowest skewness (0.22), nd exposure to medi (Me n = 4.37, SD= 0.759) h s th e highest skewness (-0.759). On the other h nd Religiosity (Me n =4.388, SD=.98 5) h s the highest kurtosis, nd Exposure to medi (Me n=4.37, SD=.793) h s the lowest kurtosis. However, since ll the constructs in terms of skewness nd kurt osis re within the r nge of ±1.5, therefore it could be s fely ssumed th t the d t h s norm l tendency. 4.4 Hypothesis Testing 4.4.1 Hypothesis one Multiple regression n lysis w s used to test if (1) Exposure to M g zine (2) Ex posure Advertisement signific ntly predicted p rticip nts' r tings of Body Im ge . The summ rized results re presented below: T ble number-5 Regression summ ry Un st nd rdized Coefficients St nd rdized Coefficient t Sig V ri bles B Std. Error Bet (Const nt) 3.713 0.484 7.673 0 Exposure To M g zine 0.368 0.052 0.440 7.112 0 Exposure to Advertisement .304 .064 .297 4.714 0 Note: R2 = 0.406; Adjusted R2= .400, P<.05 The results of the regression indic ted the two predictors expl ined 40.6% of th e v ri nce (R2=.406, F (2,190) =64.998, p<.05). It w s found th t exposure to m g zine signific ntly predicted Body Im ge (ß = .368, p<.05), s did exposure to d vertisement (ß = .304, p<.05). The bove results subst nti te the findings of Stice nd Sh w( 1994) to the exte nt th t two predictors h ve rel tionship with the depend v ri ble. However the difference in the two findings is th t this study shows positive rel tionship, w here s St ice nd Sh w (1994) found inverse rel tionship. They found th t exposu re to medi dversely ffects body im ge(speci lly women), nd results in incre sed feeling of depression, unh ppiness, sh me, guilt, nd decre sed confidence(S tice nd Sh w, 1994). Comp r tively, V rn do (2000) found no signific nt rel tio nship between exposure to medi nd body diss tisf ction. 4.4.2 Hypothesis Two The hypothesis two postul tes th t there is no rel tionship between soci l feedb ck nd body im ge. Multiple regression n lysis w s used to test if (1) Mother’s Feedback (2) Father Feedback (3) Teacher’s Feedback (4) Peers Feedback significant ly predicted participants ratings of Body Image. The summarized results are pre sented below: Table number-6 Regression Summary Un standardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficient T Sig Variables B Std. Error Beta (Constant) 5.390 .303 17.785 .000 Mother Feedback -0.084 -0.052 -0.140 -1.634 .104 Father Feedback .021 0.053 -0.034 -.401 .689 Teacher Feedback .358 0.043 0.536 8.357 000 Peers Feedback -0.125 0.046 -0.188 -2.722 0.007 ote: R2 = 0.583; Adjusted R2= ..399, P<.05 The results of the regression indicated the four predictors explained only 39.9% of the variance (R2=.399 F (4,188) =24.4.998, p<.05). It was found that teacher’s feedback (B=.536, p<.05) is the strongest predictors for body image as compared to mother Feedback (B= - 0.084, p<.05), and Peers feedback B= - 0.125, p<.05). Incidentally father’s feedback (B= - 0.021, p<.05) has no significant relationship with the body image. The findings that Social culture factors on aggregate basis affects the body ima ge substantiate the findings of Kelly (2000) This study also shows very weak r elationships between (1) Mother feedback (2) father feedback (3) and peers fee dback on body image, and stronger relationship of teacher. This finding can also be related the finding of Kelly (2000) who found that parents, teacher media in fluences the body image with varied degree of influence. However, there is signi ficant variation in this study and of Kelly (2000) in terms of respondents. This study is based on all the age groups (15 years to 55), whereas the findings of Kelly (2000) is based on teen agers. 4.4.3 Hypothesis Three The hypothesis three postulates that there is no relationship between exposure t o Media Exposure and Social Comparison. Multiple regression analysis was used to test if (1) Exposure to magazines, and (2) exposure to television significantly predicted participants ratings of Social comparison. The summarized results ar e presented below Table number-7 Regression Summary: Un standardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficient T Sig Variables B Std. Error Beta (Constant) 2.8937 .208 13.914 .000 Exposure to Magazine .291 0.037 0.507 7.914 .000 Exposure to Television .123 0.045 -.175 2.726 .007 Note: R2 = 0.3363; Adjusted R2= .356, P<.05 The results of the regression indicated the four predictors explained only 33.63 % of the variance (R2=0.336, F (2,192) =54.099, p<.05). It was found that exposu re to magazine (ß _ = .291 p<.05,) significantly predicted Social comparison as di d exposure to Television (ß = .123 p<.05,) This study suggests that exposure to media has a moderate relationship with soci al comparison. Comparatively, in another research it was found that women compar e themselves with the models (stice and Shaw, 1994). Other scholars while using the social comparison theory found that “we seek to compare ourselves to others we believe are similar to ourselves, particularly to determine our own levels of a bilities” (Blessenoff, 2006). 4.4.4 Hypothesis Four The hypothesis four postulates that there is no relationship between Media Expos ure and Internalization. Multiple regression analysis was used to test if (1) Ex posure to magazines and (2) Exposure to Television significantly predicted parti cipants ratings of internalization. The summarized results are presented below: Table number-8 Regression Summary Un standardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficient T Sig Variables B Std. Error Beta (Constant) 2.830 .271 10.441 .000 Exposure to Magazine .139 0.037 0.507 7.914 .000 Exposure to Television .265 0.059 .3241 4.552 .000 Note: R2 = 0.204, Adjusted R2= .`96, P<.05 The results of the regression indicated the two predictors explained only 20.40% of the variance (R2=0.205, F (2,190) =24.412, p<.05). It was found that exposur e to magazine (ß _ = .139 p<.05,) significantly predicted Internalization as did e xposure to Television (ß = .265 p<.05,). The above findings are similar to the oth er researchers who found that women not only compare themselves with the models in the media and idealized them. (Englen-Maddox, l2005). In an another study it was found that when women are exposed to media would find high level of discrep ancy between their body perception, and the ones being portrayed in media(Posave , H. Posave, P & Posave, E., 1998) 4.4.5 Hypothesis Five The hypothesis five postulates that self esteem would mediate the relationship b etween exposure to Media and body Image. In order to test meditation effect Sob el’s multiple regression was carried out twice. First exposure to media (independe nt) and self esteem (mediating variable) were regressed. Subsequently, Mediating variable (self esteem) and body Image (Dependent variable) were regressed. The generated results were solved through Sobel’s equation/calculator, which is pres ented below: Z-value = a*b/SQRT(b2*sa2 + a2*sb2) a = raw (un standardized) regression coefficient for the association between IV and mediator = 0.226; sa = standard error of a.=.9768; b = raw coefficient for t he association between the mediator and the DV (when the IV is also a predictor of the DV)= .276; sb = standard error of b. The summarized results generated through Sobel;s calculator are presented below : • Sobel Test statistics = 0.362748 • Standard Error=0.031753 • P value (two tail)=0.71684568 The above P value at 95% confidence level falls at the non-critical region; ther efore, hypothesis that the mediation effect is zero has been accepted. That is s elf esteem does not mediate the relationship of exposure to media and body image . Contrarily, other researchers found that generally the women with high self es teem would have stronger association with the body image (Harter, 1999). In an a nother study it was found that people with body image concern generally would h ave low self esteem (West & Sweeting, 1997). In an another study it was found th at body image satisfaction would have strong relationship with the self esteem ( Lerner,et.al, 1973). 4.4.6 Hypothesis 6 The hypothesis six postulates that religiosity would mediate the relationship be tween exposure to Media and body Image. Like previous hypothesis, first indepen dent variable (Exposure to media) was regressed. Generated results were used to Sobel’s equation/calculator, which is presented below: z-value = a*b/SQRT(b2*sa2 + a2*sb2) a = raw (un standardized) regression coefficient for the association between IV and mediator = 0.206; sa = standard error of a=0.960; b = raw coefficient for th e association between the mediator and the DV (when the IV is also a predictor o f the DV)= 0.263; Sb = standard error of b= .9494 The summarized results generated through Sobel;s calculator/equation are present ed below: • Sobel Test statistics = 0.62321983 • Standard Error=0.032287291 • P value (two tail)=0.5331407 The above P value at 95% confidence level falls at the non-critical region; ther efore, hypothesis that the mediation effect is zero has been accepted. It was ex pected that the religiosity would mediate the relationship of exposure to media and body image. 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