applied

sciences
Article
Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Industrial Facilities
under Static and Cyclic Loading
Sergey V. Elizarov *, Vera A. Barat, Denis A. Terentyev, Peter P. Kostenko, Vladimir V. Bardakov,
Alexander L. Alyakritsky, Vasiliy G. Koltsov and Pavel N. Trofimov
INTERINIS-IT LLC, Moscow 101000, Russia; baratva@interunis-it.ru (V.A.B.);
terentyevda@interunis-it.ru (D.A.T.); kostenkopp@interunis-it.ru (P.P.K.); bardakovvv@interunis-it.ru (V.V.B.);
sasa@interunis-it.ru (A.L.A.); koltsovvg@interunis-it.ru (V.G.K.); pav.trof@yandex.ru (P.N.T.)
* Correspondence: serg@interunis-it.ru; Tel.: +7-495-361-1990




Received: 12 July 2018; Accepted: 19 July 2018; Published: 26 July 2018


Featured Application: Structure health monitoring for refinery equipment, bridges, rotating
machines, cranes and draglines.

Abstract: Acoustic emission (AE) testing is traditionally carried out on non-operating objects. Such
requirement is associated both with the Kaiser effect, leading to the necessity for exceeding the
test load above the working one and with a high level of noise during object operation. However,
AE testing could be performed under operating conditions, if the AE data acquisition period is
increased and a specialized method is developed, which should take account of the effect of various
noise, features of the object loading under operating conditions, the effect of damaging factors and
possible destruction mechanisms. This paper investigates the possibility to carry out structural health
monitoring (SHM) of hydrotreaters, highway bridges, high-temperature pipelines, gas adsorbers,
roller bearings of rotary kilns and draglines on the basis of AE method. Architecture of SHM-system
and specific data analysis procedures are proposed.

Keywords: structural health monitoring; acoustic emission; non-destructive testing; hydrotreater;

bridge; high temperature; gas adsorber; rotary kiln; dragline

1. Introduction
Nowadays the status of complex (especially dangerous) industrial structures is widely assessed
by structural health monitoring (SHM), that is the continuous evaluation of their structural heath [1].
The main reasons to apply SHM are:

• access to the structure during operation is difficult or impossible;

• periodic nondestructive testing (NDT) is not possible or is time-consuming;
• temporary stoppage of equipment for its testing induces large financial losses;
• rapid development of operational defects and, as a result, low damage tolerance of the structure;
• the consequences of structural failure, which can lead to large material losses and a danger for
maintenance personnel;
• the presence of known defects when it is necessary to extend the lifetime of the equipment.

SHM of equipment allows the early detection of most of the failures and alerts maintenance
personnel about developing malfunction that already exists but is not yet dangerous and does not
disrupt the operability of the equipment. Among various NDT methods, the acoustic emission (AE)
method is the most effective one in the monitoring mode. This method due to the possibility of remote
testing and high sensitivity in the crack detection allows real-time monitoring of the structures with a

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228; doi:10.3390/app8081228 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 2 of 26

length of up to several hundred meters. It is important to emphasize that the detectability of a defect is
not affected by its orientation. AE method makes it possible to detect the following types of defects:
cracks, microcracks, various types of corrosion damage and leaks [2]. Despite all the advantages of AE
method, other types of testing should be used to provide a more accurate and objective assessment of
the structural health [3–7]. This is caused by several reasons: firstly, in the case of usual AE testing, a
temporarily decommissioned structure must be additionally loaded to stimulate the growth of the
defects, while in the monitoring mode this need disappears, since testing is performed continually
and AE sources emit under the influence of variations in operational loads, the value of which is
not precisely known. Therefore, it must be ensured that the almost unlimited time of the AE testing
can compensate the reduced magnitude of the load changes. Secondly, AE testing in the monitoring
mode is complicated by increased process acoustic noise of the equipment. Experience in the use of
monitoring systems shows that under such conditions defects are reliably detected only at the final
stages of destruction, when the number of AE signals and their amplitudes increase by more than an
order of magnitude. All this leads to the need of complex monitoring, that is the use of AE method
with other NDT methods, as well as with the tracking of operational parameters.
Also, the design and implementation of structural health monitoring system (SHM-system)
should always take into account the specificity of the monitored structures. It is necessary first to
study the design features of the structure and the results of previous investigations, analyze the types
of loads and factors that generate defects [8]. For the determination of the zones in the structure, in
which the occurrence of cracks is most likely, the stress-strain state of the structure can be numerically
simulated. Then a complete investigation of the structure is carried out, usually with trial AE testing.
As a result, the acoustic parameters of the structure are determined, with the types of possible defects,
their nature of developing, reasons of the formation, their most probable positions and their influence
on the lifetime of the structure are revealed. Sufficiency of load changes for the stimulation of AE
sources is estimated. After that, the selection of methods and instruments of NDT and the positions of
the sensors are determined. In addition, in the course of preliminary work, noise filtering and data
analysis procedures are developed for each specific structure (due to the large volume of primary
data).

2. Methods
«INTERUNIS-IT» Limited Liability Company has developed SHM-systems for various structures
and plants on the basis of A-Line AE system. SHM-system hardware is implemented as a distributed
system for data collection and processing with digital data transfer. All components of SHM-system
are built from the unified measuring devices and have a common control core. The proposed concept
of SHM-system design implies the unification of different components into a single system:

• Monitoring by multiple NDT methods.

• Monitoring of the structure’s stress-strain state.
• Tracking of the working parameters of the industrial process [9]

SHM-system is a system designed to assess the diagnostics of hazardous matters in real time
without stopping, dismantling and shut down. SHM-system provides information about the status of
the monitoring facility in the required quantity and quality for testing. The structure of SHM-system
includes the following functional elements: equipment for primary data collection, multifunctional
data acquisition and transmission modules, concentrators, galvanic isolation switching cabinet and
central computer station (Figure 1).
The equipment for primary data collection may include one or several types of acoustic emission
sensors, strain gauges, corrosion rate meters; pH meters, vibration sensors, displacement meters and
inclinometers, crack opening sensors; level gauges, thermocouples, pressure sensors, gas analyzers,
video recorders and weather station. The specific composition varies depending on the structure and
the goal of the monitoring.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 3 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 3 of 26

Multifunctional
Multifunctionaldata dataacquisition
acquisitionandand transmission
transmissionmodule is theismain
module the element of this architecture
main element of this
and is a separate device in an explosion-proof enclosure with installed cable
architecture and is a separate device in an explosion-proof enclosure with installed cable entries. entries. Each module
contains
Each moduleseveral measuring
contains several units that collect
measuring unitsdata
that from
collectexternal
data fromsensors
externalof various
sensors types,
of variousand, if
necessary,
types, and, supply power to
if necessary, them.power
supply In particular,
to them.analogue filtering,
In particular, digitization
analogue anddigitization
filtering, digital filtering
and of
digital as
signals, filtering
well asofcalculation
signals, as ofwell
AEas calculation(such
parameters of AEasparameters
arrival time, (such as arrival
amplitude, time, amplitude,
duration, etc.) and the
duration, etc.)
registration and the registration
of waveforms are performedof waveforms are performed
in a measuring in a measuring
unit intended for operation unit intended
with an AE forsensor.
operation
The with anof
total number AEsensors
sensor. connected
The total number of sensorscan
to the module connected
be up toto6.theInmodule
addition, canmodule
be up toincludes
6. In
a addition, module unit,
digital processing includes a digital processing
communication unit, communication
unit and power unit. Multifunctional unit anddata power unit.and
acquisition
Multifunctional data acquisition and transmission modules are connected in
transmission modules are connected in series with each other by a cable that provides power and relayseries with each other
bydata
the a cable that the
through provides
cascadedpowerline.and
Therelay the data
modules through
are placed, asthe cascaded
a rule, near the line. The modules
sensors, are
which together
placed, as a rule, near the sensors, which together with digital data transmission, achieve high
with digital data transmission, achieve high interference immunity.
interference immunity.
The concentrator is a separate device in an explosion-proof enclosure that receives information
The concentrator is a separate device in an explosion-proof enclosure that receives information
from several (up to 4) cascaded lines of modules and sends it further via the Ethernet interface.
from several (up to 4) cascaded lines of modules and sends it further via the Ethernet interface.
The switching cabinet of the galvanic isolation carries out a galvanic isolation between the primary
The switching cabinet of the galvanic isolation carries out a galvanic isolation between the
supply voltage of 220 V/50 Hz and the secondary direct current (DC) voltage of 48 V, as well as the
primary supply voltage of 220 V/50 Hz and the secondary direct current (DC) voltage of 48 V, as well
galvanic isolation
as the galvanic between
isolation the measuring
between units.units.
the measuring
The
The central computer station, whichdesigned
central computer station, which is for receiving,
is designed transmitting,
for receiving, storingstoring
transmitting, and analyzing
and
data and for measuring channels control. The central computer station
analyzing data and for measuring channels control. The central computer station includes includes computing devices for
data processing
computing and for
devices storing, as well as aand
data processing display andasinput
storing, well devices, or a and
as a display device for devices,
input communicating
or a
with a remote-control terminal.
device for communicating with a remote-control terminal.
The
The SHM-system
SHM-system can also also include
include an an automated
automatedworkstation—a
workstation—a remote
remote terminal
terminal used used
for for
remote
remoteaccess
access to centralcomputer
to a central computerstation,
station, monitoring
monitoring datadata processing
processing and performing
and performing backupsbackups
of
ofinformation.
information.

Figure 1. Example of structural health monitoring (SHM)-system structural scheme.

Figure 1. Example of structural health monitoring (SHM)-system structural scheme.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 4 of 26

3. Results and Discussion

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 4 of 26
3.1. Hydrotreater of Oil Refinery Plant
3. Results and Discussion
3.1.1. SHM-System Location
3.1. Hydrotreater of Oil Refinery Plant
Overheating caused by a run-away of the process induced the formation of defects at the
hydrotreater at the oil refinery
3.1.1. SHM-System Locationplant. During periodic AE testing, significant AE sources were detected
and it was assumed that it is the destruction of the cladding layer. In December 2006, SHM-system
Overheating caused by a run-away of the process induced the formation of defects at the
was put into operation, the task of which was to ensure the safe operation of the hydrotreater with an
hydrotreater at the oil refinery plant. During periodic AE testing, significant AE sources were
extended lifespan
detected and ituntil
wasitassumed
is possible thattoitreplace it.
is the destruction of the cladding layer. In December 2006,
Structurally, the hydrotreater is a thick-walled
SHM-system was put into operation, the task of which vertical
was steel vessel.
to ensure the The
safe inner surface
operation of theof the
hydrotreater is protected
hydrotreater from thelifespan
with an extended influenceuntilof
it an aggressive
is possible medium
to replace it. by a cladding layer. The high
operatingStructurally,
temperatures theof the hydrotreater
hydrotreater is a thick-walled ◦ C to 425
(from 320 vertical ◦ C),
steel the aggressive
vessel. environment
The inner surface of the and
high hydrotreater is protected
operating pressure arefrom the that
factors influence of an to
can lead aggressive mediumand
the generation by a catastrophically
cladding layer. Therapid
high flaw
operating temperatures of the hydrotreater (from 320 °C to 425 °C), the
growth, especially when the cladding layer is destroyed, which can induce hydrogen embrittlement aggressive environment and
high operating pressure are factors that can lead to the generation and catastrophically rapid flaw
and a decrease in the strength of the material.
growth, especially when the cladding layer is destroyed, which can induce hydrogen embrittlement
The main diagnostic method of SHM-system was the method of AE testing. The AE handling
and a decrease in the strength of the material.
part was The represented by 18 AE sensors GT200UB (130–200 kHz), grouped into 6 belts, 4 on the
main diagnostic method of SHM-system was the method of AE testing. The AE handling
hydrotreater
part was represented1 by
shell and belt18 on
AEeach lid.GT200UB
sensors Sensors(130–200
were mounted
kHz), groupedon waveguides
into 6 belts,to4 on
ensure
the the
temperature allowed
hydrotreater shellfor the1 sensor
and belt oniseach
not exceeded.
lid. SensorsTemperature,
were mounted vibration and pressure
on waveguides sensors
to ensure the were
also installed.
temperature A threshold
allowed for data
the acquisition
sensor is notalgorithm
exceeded.was used. Thevibration
Temperature, threshold value
and was about
pressure sensors40 dB.
were also installed.converter
The analog-to-digital A threshold data acquisition
(ADC) sampling rate algorithm was used.
was equal to 2 The
MHz. threshold value was about
40 dB. The analog-to-digital converter (ADC) sampling
By May 2007, the state of the hydrotreater had deteriorated. It was rate was equal to 2 MHz. found to have 9 active
zones, corresponding to AE sources with varying degrees of danger (Figureto2).
By May 2007, the state of the hydrotreater had deteriorated. It was found have
The9 active zones,
activity of some
corresponding to AE sources with varying degrees of danger (Figure 2). The activity of some zones
zones increased significantly, which indicated a progressive flaw growth and the possibility of the
increased significantly, which indicated a progressive flaw growth and the possibility of the
hydrotreater destruction. The source found in zone #5 and characterized by 370 events, was considered
hydrotreater destruction. The source found in zone #5 and characterized by 370 events, was
to be considered
critically active.
to be critically active.

Figure 2. Location map. Color of points mean quantity of location events. Blue points: 1–2 events,
Figure 2. Location
yellow: map.orange
3–10 events, Colorpoints:
of points
11–25mean quantity
events, of location
red points: events.
26–100 events, Blue
brown points:
points: 1–2
more events,
than
yellow:
1003–10 events, orange points: 11–25 events, red points: 26–100 events, brown points: more than
events.
100 events.
 ,x Appl. Sci. 2018,
Appl. 8,2018,
Sci. x Appl.
8,Sci.
x 2018, 8, x 5 of 26 5 of 26 5 of 26 5 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 5 of 26

r to resolve the Inissue

order
Inof order
Appl. to
the2018,
Sci. resolve
time
In ofthe
to8, order decommissioning,
xresolve issue
to the of the
resolve
issue oftime
the it of
issue
the was
ofdecommissioning,
time decided
the time to
of conduct
it wasit decided
of decommissioning,
decommissioning, it to
was decided conduct
was decided
to5 ofconduct
26 to conduct
nalysis of monitored
additional
AE analysis
data.
additional
In order of
additional
analysis monitored
to resolve of
analysis AE
monitored data.
of monitored
the issue ofAE
thedata.
timeAE data.
of decommissioning, it was decided to conduct additional
In order to resolve the issue of the time of decommissioning, it was decided to conduct
analysis of monitored AE data.
additional analysis of monitored AE data.
Analysis of3.1.2.
AE Data
Cluster Analysis
3.1.2. Cluster of AEAnalysis
3.1.2.Analysis
Cluster Data
of AE Data of AE Data
3.1.2.3.1.2.
Cluster Analysis
Cluster Analysis of AE
ofAE Data
eliminary filtering,
Aftera cluster
preliminary
After analysis
preliminary
After filtering,
of the
preliminary aAE
filtering, Data
cluster
data was
analysis
filtering,
a cluster carriedof the
aanalysis
clusterout. AE
of AE data
analysis
the signals
AEof was
data
the were
carried
was
AE data out.
carriedwasAE signals
out.
carried were
AE signals
out. AEweresignals were
each measuring
clustered
channelAfter
for
clustered each preliminary
separately.
measuring As filtering,
achannel
measure a cluster
separately.
of the analysis
similarity
channel As a of the
measure
for
separately.
As a AE
each
measuredata
of
As pair
the
a was
of carried
similarity
After preliminary filtering, a cluster analysis of the AE data was carried out. AE signals were each
clustered
for each for
measuring
each measuring
channel separately. measure
of the out.
for
similarity
of the AE
each signals
pair
similarity
for each of
forwere
pair of pair of
clustered
orrelation coefficient
signals, the
of
signals, for
correlation
their
the each
waveforms
signals,
clustered measuring
coefficient
correlation was
the correlation
for each channel
used
of
coefficient
measuring their separately.
(threshold
waveforms
coefficient
of their
channel value
waveformsAs
was
of their As
separately. a
wasmeasure
usedset
waveforms
was of
(threshold
to 0.7),
usedwas
a measure theor similarity
avalue
(threshold
used
of the was for
(threshold each
set
valuefor
similarity wasto pair
0.7),
value of
or
set pair
each towas signals,
a
0.7),
ofsetortoa 0.7), or a
ed on the similarity
measurethe correlation
between
based
measure signals, thecoefficient
ontheir
the
measure
based AE
similarity
correlation
on based
the ofbetween
parameters. their
coefficient
similarity
on the waveforms
As their
a result,
of
similarity
between theirAE was
AEused
"clusters
parameters.
waveforms
their
between of(threshold
was signals"
parameters.
their AEAs
usedparameters.
As value
a (threshold
result,
were was
"clusters
value
a result, asetoftosignals"
was
As "clusters
result, 0.7),
set orwere
a or
measure
to signals"
0.7),
"clusters
of a were
of signals" were
formed based
[10].
formed measure
on[10].
the
formedbased
similarityon the
[10]. similarity
between between
their their AE parameters.
AE parameters. As a result, As"clusters
a result, "clusters
of signals" of signals"
were formedwere [10].
about 500,000 AE formed
In total,
In signals
total, about [10].
wereabout
500,000
about
In 500,000
analyzed,
total, AE
500,000
about AE
including
signals
AE signals
500,000 were
signals AEwere
65,000 analyzed,
were analyzed,
waveforms.
signals
analyzed,
were including
including
For AE
analyzed,65,000
including 65,000
signals waveforms.
waveforms.
including
65,000 waveforms.
65,000 For
Forwaveforms.
AE AE signals
signals signals
For AE signals
registered Inbytotal,
the about
channels 500,000 AE signals were analyzed, including 65,000 waveforms. For cluster
AE signals
y the channels
registered
testing by
registeredzone the #5,
channels
registered
by 23
the channelsthetesting
clusters
by testing werezone
channels
testing zone
formed.
#5,#5,
zone 2323
testing #5,clusters
While
clusters
zone were
were
23 clusters
#5, 23 formed.
conducting formed.
were cluster
clusters While
While
formed.
were conducting
conducting
While
formed. conducting
While analysis,
cluster
conducting
cluster cluster
registered by the channels testing zone #5, 23 clusters were formed. While conducting cluster
clusters wasanalysis,
attributed
14 14 to
analysis, clusters
clusters process-induced
14was
analysis, was 14attributed
attributed
clusters was
clustersAE events,
to process-induced
to process-induced
attributed
was to4 process-induced
attributedclusters AEcorresponded
to AE events,
events, 4toclusters
4 clusters
process-induced
AE events, thecorresponded
AE corresponded
4 events,
clusters to theto
4 corresponded
clusters theto the to the
correlated
corresponded
analysis, 14 clusters was attributed to process-induced AE events, 4 clusters corresponded to the
oise and 5 clusters
correlated
werecorrelated
noise noise
characterized
and
correlated 5and
correlated
noise 5 and
clustersclusters
noise
as
5 the
were
noise
and
were
sources
clusters
and
5 clusters 5characterized
characterized
were of AE
clusters aswith
werecharacterized
weretheascharacterized
characterized
high
theas
sourcesprobability.
sources
as of AE
the
the
of
sources
as
sources
AE
with
the
ofof
with
high high ofprobability.
probability.
sources
AE AE with
with high high
AE with
probability.
probability.high probability.
st representative The
clusters
most
The were
representative
most formed for
representative clusters
signals registered
were
clusters formed by for
channels
signals № registered
8
The most representative clusters were formed for signals registered by channels № 8№
The most representative were
clustersformed
were for
formed
signals and
for № by
17
registered
signals channels №
channels
registered
by channels 8
by andand8№
channels 17
and
№ 17№ 8 17and № 17
ble 1). These(Figure
signals 3,
had
(Figure
(FigureTable
an3, amplitude
1).
Table
3,(Figure
(Figure TableThese
1).
1).
3, Table signals
of
These
3, These
Tablemore
1). These 1).hadthan
signals
signals an
Thesehad
signals 70
hadamplitude
dB
an
signals
had an with
anamplitude
AE of
amplitude amore
high
of
had an amplitude
amplitude than
more
ofmore
of morethan70
probability
thandB
than
of 70 70
more they
70
AE with
dB
dBdB than
AE a high
with
AE 70
with
AE a probability
high they
probability
dBAEprobability
a high with a high they
probability they
they
ed by AE source
were located
generated
were
werewere inwere
zone
by AE
generated
generated #5.
source
by AE
generated
generated by AE
by AE located
source
source
by AE
source in
located
located zone
source
located in
inin#5.
zone
zone#5.
located
zone #5.
in zone #5.

(a) (b)
(a) (a) (a) corresponding
Figure 3. Waveforms (a) (b) (b) (b) (b)
to clusters centers of mass, for acoustic emission (AE) signals
Figure 3. Waveforms corresponding to clusters centers of mass, for acoustic emission (AE) signals from
Waveforms corresponding
FigureFiguretofrom
3. channels:
3. Waveforms
clusters
Waveforms
Figure 3.(a)Waveforms
centers channel
corresponding
of mass,#8;to
corresponding(b)clusters
for channel
acoustic#17.
centers
corresponding emission
to clusters of mass,
(AE)
tocenters
clusters for
signals
acoustic
of centers
mass, for emission
of acoustic
mass, (AE) signals
foremission
acoustic (AE)
emission
signals
(AE) signals
channels: (a) channel #8; (b) channel #17.
nnels: (a) channel #8;
from(b)channels:
channel #17.
(a)
from channels: channel
from (a) #8; (b)
channels:
channel channel
(a)#8;
channel #17.
(b) channel
#8; (b)
#17.
channel #17.
Table 1. Parameters of clusters for channels 8 and 17.
Table 1. Parameters of clusters for channels 8 and 17.
Parameters
Table 1. Parameters of clusters
Tablefor1.channels
Parameters
Table 8 and
of 17.
clusters
1. Parameters
Table Channel
for
1. Parameters channels
of clusters of № 88 and
forclusters for17.
channels Channel
8channels
and 17. № 17
8 and 17.
Signals in the cluster 284 138
Parameters Parameters Parameters
Channel
Parameters № 8dBAE
Parameters Channel
Channel
Channel №
Channel№8 817Channel
№8 Channel
№Channel
8 № 17
Channel 17 Channel
№ 17 № 17
Mean amplitude, 72 69
Signals in the cluster Signals inSignals
the
Signals
Mean cluster
inin284
Signals
the cluster
inµs
thetime,
rise the cluster
cluster 284138 284
284240 284 138 379 138
138 138
Mean amplitude, dBAE Mean Mean Mean
amplitude,
Meanamplitude,
dB
Mean72AE
amplitude, dB
amplitude,
duration, dBµsAE
AE dBAE 7272
69 893
72 72 69
69
1057 69 69
Mean rise time, µs Mean Mean Mean
rise time, rise
240
µstime, µs 240240
379 240 379
379 379
riseMean
time,rise
µs time, µs 240 379
Mean duration, µs 3.1.3. TestingMean
of theduration,
Dismantled
Mean Mean
duration, 893
µs Object
µs duration,
duration,
Mean µs µs
893
893
1057893
1057
893 1057 1057 1057
Thus, the results of the cluster analysis confirmed a previously determined degree of danger of
of the Dismantled 3.1.3.
3.1.3. TestingTesting
Object
3.1.3. of theof
Testing
AE 3.1.3.
sourceof the
the Dismantled
Dismantled
Testing Object
Dismantled
located inofzone
the Object
Dismantled
#5. Object Objectto stop the hydrotreater was made. The dismantled
A final decision
hydrotreater was investigated by NDT in order to establish the reasonsdetermined
of its transition to theof critical
Thus, Thus,
e results of the cluster analysis
Thus, the
the results results
theconfirmed
of the
Thus,
results theof
of the
cluster
athe
resultscluster
previously
analysis
cluster
of the analysis
determined
confirmed
analysis
cluster confirmed
confirmed
analysisadegree aa previously
previously of danger
confirmed determined
previously of
aofpreviously
determined degree degree
of danger
determined
degree danger
of ofof
ofdegree
danger ofdanger of
AE state.
source Internal
located examination
in zone #5. revealed
A final numerous
decision to disintegrations
stop the hydrotreater the cladding
was made.layer The(up to its
dismantled
cated in zoneAE#5.source
A final
AE located
sourcedecision
AE in
located zone
sourceto stop
in #5.
located
zone the
A final
hydrotreater
#5.
in A decision
zone
final #5. to
was
decision
A stop
final made.
to the
decision
stop hydrotreater
Thethe
to dismantled
complete absence in some areas) (Figure 4). Dimensions of damages were up to 5 mm. Ultrasonichydrotreater
stop the was made.
hydrotreater
was The
made. dismantled
was The made.
dismantled
The dismantled
was investigated hydrotreater
hydrotreater
by NDT was
hydrotreater in was
order
hydrotreater investigated
investigated
wasto establish
investigated
was by
by NDT
byinvestigated
NDT
the reasons
in
NDT orderin
in
by order
of
toNDT
its
order to
establish establish
transition
to
in the
establish
order to the
reasons
to the reasons
thecritical
establish of its
reasons of its
thetransition
ofreasons
its transition
toits
transition
of the to the
critical
transition
to the ofcritical
critical
to the critical
testing revealed numerous discontinuities in welds and the base metal shell. The lengths
al examination state.
state.revealed
InternalInternal
numerous examination
examination revealed
disintegrations
revealed numerous
numerous
of revealed
the disintegrations of the cladding layer (up to its complete
state. Internal
state.
discontinuities examination
Internal
were examination
100 mmrevealed
along andcladding
numerous disintegrations
15 mm numerous layer
disintegrations
in depth. (up
of Inthe
toone its
cladding
disintegrations
of the
of the layer
cladding
ofmost (up to
the active
cladding
layer its
(up
zones,layer
to its(up to its
sence in some completeabsence
areas) (Figure
absence
complete in some
4).
complete
absence
discontinuities areas)
in Dimensions
some in
absence
weresome (Figure
areas) of
areas)
in
detected 4).(Figure
(Figure
damages
some
both Dimensions
4).
in Dimensions
areas)were
welds4). up
andto
(Figure of
Dimensions 5damages
in4).of mm.
the damages
Dimensions were
ofUltrasonic
were
damages
heat-affected up
of to to
up
damages
were
zone. 5Certain
mm.
5 mm.
up wereUltrasonic
5 Ultrasonic
todiscontinuities
mm. 5 testing
up toUltrasonic
mm. Ultrasonic
aled numerous testing revealed
discontinuities
revealed
testing numerous
occurred numerous
revealed
testing discontinuities
atin different
welds
revealed
numerous depths,
the from
discontinuities
and
numerous in welds
base
discontinuities 26
inmetaltoand
in80
welds
discontinuities the
mm.
shell.
and
welds base
The
the
in andmetal
These lengths
base
weldsthe shell.
damages
metal
and
base The
of the shell.
metal lengths
demonstrated
base The
shell. oflengths
metal discontinuities
significant
The shell. ofThe of
lengths lengths of
were
es were 100discontinuities 100
mmdiscontinuities
along and mm
degradation
were alongwith
15were
100
mmmm
discontinuities andloss15 of
in were
100 mm
depth.
along
mm 100in depth.
mechanical
and
In mm
along one
15
andInof
mmone
properties
along of
thein
15 mm the
of
most
and the
depth.most
metal,active
15 active
in which
In one
depth.
mm in zones,
zones, leads
ofone
Indepth. discontinuities
theofto brittle
Inmost
the fracture
active
onemost of the were of
zones,
active detected
the
mostzones,active zones,
es were detected both in
inwelds
both structure
discontinuities welds
discontinuitieswere and
[11].
and
discontinuities
wereininthe
detected theheat-affected
both
detected heat-affected
were in welds
detected
both inzone.
and
zone.
welds
both Certain
in
in Certain
andthe discontinuities
inheat-affected
welds discontinuities
the
and in thezone.
heat-affected occurredCertain
heat-affected
zone. atCertain
different depths,discontinuities
discontinuities
zone.discontinuities
Certain from
different depths,
occurred26 to
from
occurred80 mm.
at different
26 These
at todifferent
occurred damages
80depths,
mm.
at different
depths, demonstrated
These
from fromdamages
26 to 2680from
depths, significant
demonstrated
to mm. 8026mm.These degradation
to 80 damages
Thesesignificant
mm.damages with
These loss
demonstrated
damagesof mechanical
demonstrated significant
demonstratedproperties
significant significant
of
with loss ofdegradation
mechanicalthe metal,
degradationwith which
properties
loss
degradation ofleads
withofloss with to
mechanical
the brittle
of metal,
mechanical
loss of fracture
properties
which leads
mechanical of
ofto
properties the
the structure
brittle
metal,
thefracture
properties
of [11].
which
metal,
of the of
leads
which the leads
metal, towhich
brittle fracture
to brittle
leads to of theof
fracture
brittle fracture
the of the
]. structure Thus,structure
[11].
structure the use of
[11]. SHM-system allowed, on the one hand, to extend the lifetime of the hydrotreater
[11].
by 6 months and on the other hand, to prevent the destruction of the hydrotreater during operation
with all the ensuing consequences.
 Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 6 of 26

Thus, the use of SHM-system allowed, on the one hand, to extend the lifetime of the
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228
hydrotreater by 6 months and on the other hand, to prevent the destruction of the hydrotreater6 of 26
during operation with all the ensuing consequences.

Figure 4. Breach of the cladding layer.

Figure 4. Breach of the cladding layer.
3.2. AE Method Application for Bridge Monitoring
3.2. AE Method Application for Bridge Monitoring
3.2.1. Structure Description
3.2.1. Structure Description
Experimental studies were conducted on a highway bridge across a river. It is a 7-span metal
bridge with reinforced
Experimental studies concrete supports. on
were conducted Theafoundations for pylons
highway bridge are apiled.
across river.The length
It is of themetal
a 7-span
bridge
bridge withisreinforced
about 700 m. The bridge
concrete has 2 traffic
supports. The lanes. As a result
foundations for of the abnormal
pylons are piled.operating impact,of the
The length
theis supports
bridge about 700#1m.
andThe#5 bridge
sank inhas
by 112 mm lanes.
2 traffic and 44 As
mm, respectively.
a result After that operating
of the abnormal it was decided to the
impact,
install an SHM-system on this bridge.
supports #1 and #5 sank in by 112 mm and 44 mm, respectively. After that it was decided to install an
Preliminary studies consisted of 3 main stages, the objectives of which were: determination of
SHM-system on this bridge.
the AE parameters of noise signals, determination of propagation parameters of the AE signals and
Preliminary
determinationstudies consisted
of the optimal of 3 main
arrangement of stages, theon
the sensors objectives
the bridgeofconstruction
which were: determination
elements [12,13]. of
the AE
Investigation of the possibility of AE signals detection used Hsu-Nielsen source for location and and
parameters of noise signals, determination of propagation parameters of the AE signals
determination
filtration. of the optimal arrangement of the sensors on the bridge construction elements [12,13].
Investigation of the possibility of AE signals detection used Hsu-Nielsen source for location
3.2.2. Analysis of Noise Parameters
and filtration.
The first experiment consisted in the recording and analysis of noise at various sections of the
3.2.2.bridge.
Analysis
As aofdata
Noise Parameters
collection system, a 4-channel external USB I/O module “E20-10”, manufactured by
“L-Card”
The company (Moscow,
first experiment consisted Russia),
in thewas used. This
recording andsystem provides
analysis the at
of noise consistently recordingof the
various sections
data with the sample rate 2.5 MHz for every channel. Two sensors of GT200 type (130–200 kHz)
bridge. As a data collection system, a 4-channel external USB I/O module “E20-10”, manufactured
were connected to the module, which were installed on the bridge. The signal from the sensor went
by “L-Card” company (Moscow, Russia), was used. This system provides the consistently recording
to the preamplifier with a gain of 26 dB and a frequency filter of 30–500 kHz.
data withThethe AE
sample rate 2.5
data were takenMHzin 3for everyzones
different channel.
of the Two sensors
bridge of GT200
structure (Figure type
5). (130–200 kHz) were
connectedZoneto theI: module,
In the area which
of thewere installed
expansion onnear
joint the bridge.
the shoreThe signal(Figure
support from the 5a),sensor
sensorswent
wereto the
preamplifier
installed with
insidea the
gainbeam
of 26structure
dB and near
a frequency
the boltedfilter of 30–500
joints. kHz. between the sensor and the
The distance
The AE data
expansion jointwere taken
is 5 m. ZoneinII:3In
different
the area zones of the bridge
of attachment structure
of the beam and the(Figure
support5).(Figure 5b), AE
sensors were installed on the lower girder and on the support. Zone
Zone I: In the area of the expansion joint near the shore support (Figure 5a), sensors III: In area of the exit
werehatch
installed
section of the box beam (Figure 5c), AE sensors were installed inside
inside the beam structure near the bolted joints. The distance between the sensor and thethe beam structure at a distance
expansion
joint of 3m
is 5 m.from
Zone each
II: other
In thesymmetrically with respect
area of attachment of theto the
beamhatch.
and the support (Figure 5b), AE sensors
were installed on the lower girder and on the support. Zone III: In area of the exit hatch section of the
box beam (Figure 5c), AE sensors were installed inside the beam structure at a distance of 3 m from
each other symmetrically with respect to the hatch.
For all signals from passing vehicles, the energy is concentrated in the frequency region up to
60 kHz.
 Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 7 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 7 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2018,
For8,all
1228
signals from passing vehicles, the energy is concentrated in the frequency region up to 607 of 26
For all signals from passing vehicles, the energy is concentrated in the frequency region up to 60
kHz.
kHz.

(a) (b) (c)

(a)
Figure 5. Experiment scheme: (a) Zone I; (b) (b)
Zone II; (c) Zone III. AE sensors(c)
are marked as
Figure 5. Experiment scheme: (a) Zone I; (b) Zone II; (c) Zone III. AE sensors are marked as
yellow-green circles.
Figure 5. Experiment
yellow-green circles. scheme: (a) Zone I; (b) Zone II; (c) Zone III. AE sensors are marked as
yellow-green circles.
Vibration of the bridge from passing vehicles was the most common type of noise (Figure 6).
Some characteristic
Vibration of the bridgefeatures
fromof passing
these signals are was
vehicles a long
the duration (1–3 s) type
most common and of
relatively high 6).
noise (Figure
Vibration of the bridge from passing vehicles was the most common type of noise (Figure 6).
Some amplitudes of
characteristic about 56–90
features dB .
of these The primary
signals reason
are a are for the
longaduration appearance of
(1–3 s) and these signals is the fact
(1–3relatively high amplitudes
AE
Some characteristic features of these signals long duration s) and relatively high
that the passage of the cars leads to vibration and friction of poorly fixed structural elements.
of about 56–90 dB . The primary reason for the appearance of these signals is the fact that the passage
AE
amplitudes of about 56–90 dBAE. The primary reason for the appearance of these signals is the fact
of that
the cars leads toof
the passage vibration and friction
the cars leads of poorly
to vibration fixed structural
and friction of poorly elements.
fixed structural elements.

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

(c)
Figure 6. Acoustic emission (AE) signals from passing vehicles: (a) Zone I; (b) Zone II; (c) Zone III.

(c)
Figure 6. Acoustic emission (AE) signals from passing vehicles: (a) Zone I; (b) Zone II; (c) Zone III.
Figure 6. Acoustic emission (AE) signals from passing vehicles: (a) Zone I; (b) Zone II; (c) Zone III.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 8 of 26

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 8 of 26

Signals caused by impacts of structural elements have amplitudes similar to signals from passing
Signals
vehicles, of caused
the order by impacts
of 56–90 dBAE ofbutstructural
they haveelements
1–2 timeshave amplitudes
shorter similar
duration, to signals from
not exceeding 50,000 µs
passing vehicles, of the order of 56–90 dB AE but they have 1–2 times shorter duration, not exceeding
(Figure 7). The energy of the signals, as a rule, lies in the frequency range up to 200 kHz. The primary
cause50,000 µs signals
of these (Figure is
7).the
Thevibration
energy ofofthe signals,
weakly as a structural
fixed rule, lies incomponents
the frequency
ofrange up to 200
the bridge, as akHz.
result of
The primary cause of these signals is the vibration of weakly fixed structural components of the
which their collision occurs. An example may be the impact of a ladder or hatch on the bridge girder
bridge, as a result of which their collision occurs. An example may be the impact of a ladder or hatch
or the impact of wheel sets on the expansion joint [14].
on the bridge girder or the impact of wheel sets on the expansion joint [14].

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 7. AE signals caused by impacts of structural elements: (a) Zone I; (b) Zone II; (c) Zone III.
Figure 7. AE signals caused by impacts of structural elements: (a) Zone I; (b) Zone II; (c) Zone III.
3.2.3. Analysis of AE Signals Propagation
3.2.3. Analysis of AE Signals Propagation
Hsu-Nielsen source was used to estimate signal propagation properties. The measurements in
Hsu-Nielsen
this experiment source
were was used
carried outtousing
estimate signal32D
the A-Line propagation properties.with
system (Interunis-IT) Thethreshold
measurements
data in
acquisition. The
this experiment wereADC sampling
carried frequency
out using was 2 MHz.
the A-Line The following
32D system values were
(Interunis-IT) withobtained: AE data
threshold
wave propagation
acquisition. speed is 2838
The ADC sampling m/s, attenuation
frequency coefficient
was 2 MHz. in the far field
The following zone
values is 1.65
were dB/m. Based
obtained: AE wave
on the obtained
propagation speed isvalues of theattenuation
2838 m/s, attenuation coefficient,
coefficientnoise
in thelevel and amplitudes
far field zone is 1.65of dB/m.
signals Based
from the
on the
AE signal simulator, the maximum distance between the AE sensors for linear or planar location was
obtained values of the attenuation coefficient, noise level and amplitudes of signals from the AE signal
determined. This value lies in the range from 11 to 16 m.
simulator, the maximum distance between the AE sensors for linear or planar location was determined.
An acoustic contact quality was also estimated in zone II (Figure 5b). In the course of the
This value lies init the
experiment wasrange from
revealed that11the
tosignals
16 m. simulated in the girder region are not detected by the AE
An acoustic contact quality was also estimated in zone II (Figure 5b). In the course of the
experiment it was revealed that the signals simulated in the girder region are not detected by the
AE sensor mounted on the support, which indicates that there is no acoustic contact. Thus, for a full
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 9 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 9 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 9 of 26
sensor mounted
monitoring on theseparate
of the bridge, support, AE
which indicates
testing that the
of both theresupports
is no acoustic contact.
and the mainThus,
upperforpart
a fullof the
monitoring
sensor of theonbridge,
mounted the separate
support, AE testing
which of both
indicates that the supports
there is no and thecontact.
acoustic main upper part
Thus, for of
a the
full
bridge is necessary.
bridge is necessary.
monitoring of the bridge, separate AE testing of both the supports and the main upper part of the
3.2.4.bridge is necessary.
Identification of AE Signals from the Hsu-Nielsen Source
3.2.4. Identification of AE Signals from the Hsu-Nielsen Source
Simulation of AE signals
3.2.4.Simulation
Identification of AE by thefrom
Signals Hsu-Nielsen source Source
the Hsu-Nielsen was carried out at various points of the lateral
of AE signals by the Hsu-Nielsen source was carried out at various points of the
beamlateral
of the bridge
beam
Simulation
structure
of the
of bridge
inside
structure
AE signals
one of one
inside
by the
the of
bridge
Hsu-Nielsen
sections.
thesource
bridge TheThe
sections.
was carried
distance
distance
out
from
fromthe
at various the sensor
sensor
points
to the
to
of the
Hsu-Nielsen
lateral source
the Hsu-Nielsen
beam was
of the from
source was
bridge 0.15
fromto0.15
structure 15 m.15one
to
inside Totally
m.of about
Totally
the 100
about
bridge pulses
100 were
pulses
sections. Thewereexcited
excited
distance (Figure
(Figure
from 8).
8). to
the sensor
the Hsu-Nielsen source was from 0.15 to 15 m. Totally about 100 pulses were excited (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Signals from Hsu-Nielsen source at 1 m distance from AE sensor.

Figure 8. Signals from Hsu-Nielsen source at 1 m distance from AE sensor.
Figure 8. Signals from Hsu-Nielsen source at 1 m distance from AE sensor.
For detection of signals from the Hsu-Nielsen source, a planar location was constructed (Figure
For
9). Itdetection
is revealed
For of that
detection signals
the from
signals
of signals fromthe Hsu-Nielsen
from
the Hsu-Nielsen
Hsu-Nielsen source,
sourceaaare
source, planar location
withlocation
planar certaintywas constructed
located
was (Figure 9).
in their(Figure
constructed actual
It is revealed
places
9). It is andthat thethat
form
revealed signals
compact from Hsu-Nielsen
clusters,
the signals in contrast
from source areThis
to noise.
Hsu-Nielsen source with certainty
areconfirms
with thelocated in their
possibility
certainty located actual
of their
in places
identifying
actual
and form
signals compact
from clusters,
defects basedinoncontrast
location to noise.
data. This confirms the possibility of identifying
places and form compact clusters, in contrast to noise. This confirms the possibility of identifying signals
from signals
defectsfrom defects
based based ondata.
on location location data.

Figure 9. Planar location. Hsu-Nielsen source signals are marked by red, noise is marked by orange.
Color of
Figure points location.
9. Planar indicatesHsu-Nielsen
total number of events
source in are
signals thismarked
coordinates.
by red,Yellow
noise ispoints:
marked3–10 events,
by orange.
Figure 9. Planar location. Hsu-Nielsen source signals are marked by red, noise is marked by orange.
orangeofpoints:
Color points11–25 events,
indicates rednumber
total points: of
26–100 events.
events in thisBlue circle – location
coordinates. Yellowcluster of 3–10
points: signals from
events,
ColorHsu-Nielsen
of points indicates total number of events in this coordinates. Yellow points: 3–10 events,
orange points:source.
11–25 events, red points: 26–100 events. Blue circle – location cluster of signals from
orange points: 11–25 events, red points: 26–100 events. Blue circle – location cluster of signals from
Hsu-Nielsen source.
Hsu-Nielsen
Since thesource.
bridge is a structure of testing characterized by a high level of acoustic noise, a
locational cluster
Since the bridgecorresponding
is a structure to a of
defect cancharacterized
testing be masked byby a large number
a high of acoustic
level of false locations
noise, of a
noise
Since events.
locational The
cluster is
the bridge complexity
corresponding of the
a structure oftotestingdetection
a defect algorithm
can be masked
characterized lies
by by in the
a large
a high fact that
number
level the values
of false
of acoustic of the
locations
noise, AE
of
a locational
parameters
noise
cluster events.ofThe
corresponding the noise and useful
complexity
to a defect of
can signals
the vary algorithm
bedetection
masked in
byfairly wide
a large lies and overlapping
in the
number fact ranges.
that locations
of false the This
values isthe
dueAE
ofofnoise to
events.
the variety of
parameters ofthe noise sources and different distances between the sensor and points where the defect
The complexity thenoise and useful
detection signalslies
algorithm varyininthe
fairly
factwide
thatandtheoverlapping
values of theranges. This is due toof the
AE parameters
or simulator
the variety ofisnoise
placed - fromand
sources 0 todifferent
15 m. distances between the sensor and points where the defect
noise and useful signals vary in fairly wide and overlapping ranges. This is due to the variety of noise
The difference
or simulator is placed of-parameters
from 0 to 15ism. best shown in the two-dimensional plots of characteristics, for
sources and different
example,
distances between the sensor and points where the defect or simulator is placed -
The difference of parameters is best“Counts/Duration
on the scatter plot diagram versus Duration”
shown in the two-dimensional plots (Figure 10a) and the
of characteristics, for
from example,
0 to 15plot
scatter m.ondiagram “Energy
the scatter plot versus
diagram Counts/Duration”
“Counts/Duration (Figure
versus10b). As can be(Figure
Duration” seen from
10a)theand chart,
the
The
the AEdifference
scatter impulses
plot of
diagram parameters
emitted is best
at theversus
“Energy distance shown
of 7 m fromin the
Counts/Duration” two-dimensional
the sensor
(Figurehave
10b).the canplots
Asparameter of
be seen characteristics,
distribution other for
from the chart,
example, on the scatter plot diagram “Counts/Duration versus Duration” (Figure
the AE impulses emitted at the distance of 7 m from the sensor have the parameter distribution other 10a) and the scatter
plot diagram “Energy versus Counts/Duration” (Figure 10b). As can be seen from the chart, the AE
impulses emitted at the distance of 7 m from the sensor have the parameter distribution other than the
noise distribution. When the distance increases over 7 m, the differences disappear, the AE impulse
parameters become close to those of noise [13].
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 10 of 26

than Sci.
Appl. the2018,
noise distribution.
8, 1228 When the distance increases over 7 m, the differences disappear, the AE
10 of 26
impulse parameters become close to those of noise [13].

(a) (b)
Figure 10. (a) Scatter plot diagram of AE signal energy and duration; (b) scatter plot diagram of
Figure 10. (a) Scatter plot diagram of AE signal energy and duration; (b) scatter plot diagram of
amplitude and parameter “counts/duration.” Impulses corresponding to noise are marked black,
amplitude and parameter “counts/duration.” Impulses corresponding to noise are marked black, while
while impulses from the Hsu-Nielsen source emitted at distances of 0–2 m, 2–7 m and 7–15 m from
impulses from the Hsu-Nielsen source emitted at distances of 0–2 m, 2–7 m and 7–15 m from AE
AE sensors are marked green, yellow and red, respectively.
sensors are marked green, yellow and red, respectively.

3.2.5. SHM-System
3.2.5. SHM-System
SHM-system for this application was designed and installed on the bridge. AE sensors,
SHM-system for this application was designed and installed on the bridge. AE sensors, vibration
vibration transducers, strain gauges, temperature sensors, modules for collecting, measuring and
transducers, strain gauges, temperature sensors, modules for collecting, measuring and processing
processing signals were installed on the span of the bridge structure (box beams). Low-frequency AE
signals were installed on the span of the bridge structure (box beams). Low-frequency AE sensors,
sensors, inclinometers, crack opening sensor were installed on the supports. In addition,
inclinometers, crack opening sensor were installed on the supports. In addition, SHM-system is
SHM-system is equipped with video cameras to monitor the traffic situation, a weather station to
equipped with video cameras to monitor the traffic situation, a weather station to monitor wind loads
monitor wind loads and to determine the presence of precipitation for AE signals filtering and a
and to determine the presence of precipitation for AE signals filtering and a communication system.
communication system.
3.3. High-Temperature Process Pipeline
3.3. High-Temperature Process Pipeline
On the active high-temperature pipeline without decommissioning, studies were produced to
assessOn thethe active high-temperature
feasibility of conducting AEpipeline monitoring.without decommissioning,
Application studiesofwere
of AE monitoring produced to
high-temperature
assess
or cyclicthe thermalfeasibility
loaded of conducting
structures AE monitoring.
is an effective method forApplication of AE
defects detection. monitoring
Several interestingof
high-temperature or cyclic thermal loaded structures is an effective method
applications are described in the papers [15–18]. The tested object consisted of pipe sections with a for defects detection.
Several
diameterinteresting
of 50 to 80 applications
mm with a total are length
describedof 8 in
m.the papers [15–18].
Individual The tested
pipe sections object consisted
were connected with bothof
pipe sections
flanged with a diameter
and welded joints. The of 50 to 80 mm
working with a of
medium total
thelength of 8was
pipeline m. Individual
molten salt, pipe
thesections were
temperature
connected with both flanged
◦ and welded joints. The working medium
of which could reach 600 C. To synchronize the AE data with the operating mode of the pipeline, of the pipeline was molten
salt, the temperature
one thermocouple wasofinstalled.
which could8 AE reach
sensors 600
were°C. installed
To synchronize
throughthe AE data with
waveguides. the operating
Simulations of AE
mode of the pipeline, one thermocouple was installed. 8 AE sensors
signals were carried out once per day by emitting from a sensor to monitor the attenuation factor. were installed through
waveguides.
When theSimulations
pipeline was of cold,
AE signals were carried
the propagation out once
velocity per day by coefficient
and attenuation emitting fromwereameasured,
sensor to
monitor
which the 4900
were attenuation
m/s and factor.
1.7–2.7 dB/m, respectively. Then the pipeline was put into operation. AE
data were taken in variouswas
When the pipeline cold, modes
operating the propagation
of the pipeline velocity and attenuation
for 63 days, including in coefficient were
the total amount
measured, which were 4900 m/s and 1.7–2.7 dB/m, respectively. Then
for 15.5 days in a stationary high-temperature regime. The process of heating the pipeline was long the pipeline was put into
operation.
and took up AEtodata weredays.
several takenDuring
in various operating
the heating modesthe
process, of the
meltpipeline
began toforflow
63 days, including
into the in
pipeline.
the total amount for 15.5 days in a stationary high-temperature regime.
The most suitable was the use of the frequency range 100–500 kHz and the threshold in the region The process of heating the
pipeline
of 40–55 was dBAElong and found
. It was took up to the
that several days.
activity andDuring the heating
amplitudes process,
of noise the melt
increased began to with
significantly flow
into the pipeline.
the pipeline The most
temperature rising suitable
at a rate was the use1 of
exceeding the frequency
◦ C/min, especially range
when100–500
clamping kHz and the
fixtures for
threshold in the region of 40–55 dB AE. It was found that the activity and amplitudes of noise
waveguides were used (Figure 11a). Amplitudes of noise reached values of up to 100 dBAE . It is
increased
assumed that significantly
the occurrencewith the pipeline
of noise temperature
is associated withrising at a rateexpansion
the thermal exceedingof1the°C/min, especially
pipeline, which
when
induced clamping
frictionfixtures for waveguides
on the thermocouple andwere used
other items(Figure
on the11a). Amplitudes
surface of noise
of the pipe. Duringreached values
the work in
of
theup to 100 dBmode,
stationary AE. It is assumed that the occurrence of noise is associated with the thermal expansion
the noise level was reduced to an acceptable one and amounted to about 50 dBAE .
of theIt pipeline,
is revealed which
that theinduced friction
attenuation on the thermocouple
coefficient increases withand the other items onofthe
accumulation surface on
sediments of the
the
pipe. During the work in the stationary mode, the noise level was reduced
inner surface of the pipeline and can reach 58 dB/m. With this level of attenuation, the maximum to an acceptable one and
amounted
distance betweento about the50AE dBsensors
AE.
could not be more than 0.7 m. The value of the propagation velocity
for acoustic waves was unchanged.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 11 of 26

It is revealed that the attenuation coefficient increases with the accumulation of sediments on
the
Appl.inner surface
Sci. 2018, 8, 1228of the pipeline and can reach 58 dB/m. With this level of attenuation, the maximum 11 of 26
distance between the AE sensors could not be more than 0.7 m. The value of the propagation velocity
for acoustic waves was unchanged.
In the
In the course
course of of the
the work, the melt
work, the melt leakage was observed
leakage was observed asas aa result
result of
of the
the destruction
destruction of of the
the
flange joint gasket. In this case, the AE system recorded an increase in the duration of the AE signalsa
flange joint gasket. In this case, the AE system recorded an increase in the duration of the AE signals
afewfewhours
hours before
beforethe the
leakleak
invisible under
invisible the layer
under of thermal
the layer insulation
of thermal began to
insulation be observed
began visually
to be observed
(Figure 11b).
visually (Figure 11b).
As aa result
As resultofofthethe conducted
conducted studies, the possibility
studies, of AEofmonitoring
the possibility of the most
AE monitoring of thecritical
mostsections
critical
of the pipeline was confirmed: the detection and location of crack-like defects and
sections of the pipeline was confirmed: the detection and location of crack-like defects and detectiondetection of leaks
on this pipeline by the AE method can be accomplished.
of leaks on this pipeline by the AE method can be accomplished.

(a)

(b)
Figure 11. Amplitudes
Figure 11. Amplitudes ofof noise
noisedepend
dependon
onthe
thepipeline
pipelinetemperature
temperature(a);
(a); the
the melt
melt leakage
leakage (b).(b). Colors
Colors of
of points indicates different channels.
points indicates different channels.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 12 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 12 of 26

3.4. SHM-Systemfor
3.4.SHM-System forOil
OilRefinery
RefineryEquipment
Equipmentwith
withDefects
DefectsPresence
Presence
At an
At an oil
oil refinery,
refinery, non-permissible
non-permissibledefects defectswere
werefound
foundininthe theupper
upper part
part of of
thethe
gasgas adsorber
adsorber of
of the circulating gas (commissioned in 1970). From 1999 to 2009, the lamination
the circulating gas (commissioned in 1970). From 1999 to 2009, the lamination was known to exist in was known to
existmain
in the mainend upper end plate 2
the upper plate (the area(the arealamination
of the of the lamination
~0.4 m2, ~0.4 m , the
the depth of depth of the lamination:
the lamination: 6.1–12.4
mm). On the same unit, the defect of the planar type (crack) in the weld of the shell to the endto
6.1–12.4 mm). On the same unit, the defect of the planar type (crack) in the weld of the shell the
plate
end plate (length: 140 mm, depth: 12–14 mm) was also present (Figure 12).
(length: 140 mm, depth: 12–14 mm) was also present (Figure 12). This gas adsorber has the following This gas adsorber has
the following
parameters: parameters:
working working
pressure: pressure:
4.2 MPa, 4.2 MPa,
operating operating+45
temperature temperature +45 ◦ C, wall
°С, wall thickness: thickness:
22.0–24.0 mm,
22.0–24.0 mm, the inner diameter: 1.156
the inner diameter: 1.156 m and the height: 16.45 m. m and the height: 16.45 m.
AA preliminary
preliminarydecision
decisionwaswas made
made to install a monitoring
to install system
a monitoring for thefor
system upper
the part
upperof the adsorber.
part of the
The main task of the monitoring system was to ensure safe operation
adsorber. The main task of the monitoring system was to ensure safe operation of the adsorber of the adsorber before its
replacement within a year.
before its replacement within a year.
Prior to
Prior to installation
installation ofof the
the monitoring
monitoring systemsystem during
during thethe overhaul
overhaul in in the
the spring
spring of of 2012,
2012, its
its AE
AE
testing was carried out (Figures 12 and 13). AE sources of class I and II were registered,
testing was carried out (Figures 12 and 13). AE sources of class I and II were registered, the locations the locations of
which were correlated with the place of previously detected defects on the
of which were correlated with the place of previously detected defects on the vessel head of the vessel head of the adsorber
(Figure 12).
adsorber This allowed
(Figure 12). This us allowed
to assume ustheto possibility
assume the of further expansion
possibility of furtherof theexpansion
laminationofzone the
during the life extension period of the adsorber.
lamination zone during the life extension period of the adsorber.
Based on
Based on the
the results
resultsofofthe
theAEAEtesting,
testing,thethepreviously
previously approved
approved decision
decisionon on
thethe
installation of the
installation of
monitoring system for the vessel head of the gas adsorber was confirmed.
the monitoring system for the vessel head of the gas adsorber was confirmed. The expanded The expanded SHM-system
included 4 AEincluded
SHM-system sensors and
4 AEa sensors
weatherand station (Figurestation
a weather 14). The threshold
(Figure datathreshold
14). The acquisition approach
data was
acquisition
used, and was
approach the threshold
used, andvalue was about
the threshold 45 dB
value AE .about 45 dBAE.
was

Figure 12. Previously found defects of gas absorber head plate: lamination in the vessel head (gray
Figure 12. Previously found defects of gas absorber head plate: lamination in the vessel head (gray
areas) and locations of the registered AE source (orange). Color of points indicates total number of
areas) and locations of the registered AE source (orange). Color of points indicates total number
events in this coordinates. Yellow points: 3–10 events, orange points: 11–25 events, red points: 26–100
of events in this coordinates. Yellow points: 3–10 events, orange points: 11–25 events, red points:
events.
26–100 events.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 13 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 13 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 13 of 26

Figure
Figure 13. 13.
GasGas adsorberschematic
adsorber schematic drawing
drawing with
withplaces
placesofof
AEAE
sensors mounting.
sensors mounting.
Figure 13. Gas adsorber schematic drawing with places of AE sensors mounting.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c) (d)
(c) (d)
Figure 14. SHM-system for gas adsorber: (a) overall view of the head part; (b) AE sensor mounting
Figure(c)
place; 14.workplace
SHM-system of for gas adsorber:
operator; (a) overall
(d) dialogue box view
of theofsoftware
the headA-Line
part; (b)Mon.
AE sensor
Color mounting
of points
Figure 14. SHM-system for gas adsorber: (a) overall view of the head part; (b) AE sensor mounting
place; (c) total
indicates workplace
numberofofoperator;
events in(d) dialogue
this box of
coordinates. the software
Green A-Line
points: 1–2 events,Mon. Color
yellow of points
points: 3–10
place;events,
(c) workplace
indicates of operator;
total points:
orange number (d) dialogue
of events
11–25 in red
events, box26–100
thispoints: of theGreen
coordinates. software A-Line
points: Mon. Color
1–2 events, ofpoints:
yellow points3–10
indicates
total events,
numberorange
of events in this
points: 11–25coordinates. Green 26–100
events, red points: points: 1–2 events, yellow points: 3–10 events, orange
points: 11–25 events, red points: 26–100
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 14 of 26

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 14 of 26

3.5. Roller Bearings of Rotary kilns
3.5. Roller
Appl. Bearings
Sci. 2018, 8, x of Rotary kilns 14 of 26
3.5.1. Tested Object
3.5. Tested
3.5.1. Roller Bearings
Object of Rotary kilns
The possibility of conducting AE testing of roller bearings of rotary kilns without their
TheTested
decommissioning
3.5.1. possibility
wasofinvestigated
Object conducting AE testing
(Figure of Using
15). roller bearings of rotaryfor
AE monitoring kilns without
rotating their
equipment is
an decommissioning
alternative solution was toinvestigated (Figure 15).
vibrodiagnostics UsingIn
[19,20]. AEthe
monitoring for rotating
case of slowly equipment
rotating is anthe use
elements,
The solution
alternative possibility of conducting AE
to vibrodiagnostics testing ofcase
roller bearings of rotary kilns without their
of the AE method is more effective for[19,20]. In the
the diagnosis of of slowly
rolling rotating
bearings, elements,
rotatingthe use ofrollers
shafts, the and
AE method is more effective for the diagnosis of rolling bearings, rotating shafts, rollers and othersan
decommissioning was investigated (Figure 15). Using AE monitoring for rotating equipment is
othersalternative
[21,22]. Experimental
solution to work was
vibrodiagnosticscarried out
[19,20]. at
In thean alumina
case of plant
slowly in the sintering and calcination
[21,22]. Experimental work was carried out at an alumina plant in rotating elements,
the sintering and the use of the
calcination
shopsAE and also in
method is the
more repair shop.
effective for the diagnosis of rolling bearings, rotating shafts, rollers and others
shops and also in the repair shop.
[21,22]. Experimental work was carried out at an alumina plant in the sintering and calcination
shops and also in the repair shop.

Figure 15. Rotary kiln on paired roller bearings. 1: kiln; 2: roller bearings; 3: support
Figure 15. Rotary kiln on paired roller bearings. 1: kiln; 2: roller bearings; 3: support foundation.
foundation.
Figure 15. Rotary kiln on paired roller bearings. 1: kiln; 2: roller bearings; 3: support
foundation.
The kilnisisa acylinder
The kiln cylinder with
with aadiameter
diameterof of
upup
to 5tom5and a length
m and of up of
a length to up
185 to
m, 185
installed with a
m, installed with
slope. The
a slope. The kilnkilnisissupported
supported by by7–87–8pairs of roller
pairs bearings.
of roller Each pair
bearings. of roller
Each pair bearings
of rollerconsists
bearings of 2consists
The kiln is a cylinder on with a diameter of up toEach5 m block
and a consists
length ofofup to 185pressed
m, installed
onto itwith
by a
of 2support
support
slope.
blocks,
The
blocks,
kiln
mounted
is
mounted
supported
a common
on
by
a7–8 foundation.
common
pairs of
foundation.
roller bearings.
Each
Each
block
pair of
a shaft
consists
roller
of a shaft
bearings
pressed
consists of 2
onto
a supporting roller and 3 bearing assemblies mounted in 2 bearing housings (Figure 16). The rotation
it by support
a supporting
blocks, roller and 3 bearing assemblies mounted in 2 bearing housings (Figure it by The
16).
period of the kilnmounted
is 50 s; the on arotation
commonperiod foundation.
of the Each block
support consists
roller is 12.5of as.shaft
Thepressed
lifetimeontoof the
rotation period
a supporting
monitored
of the kiln
rollerwas
supports andfrom is 50 s;
3 bearing the
1 to 13
rotation
assemblies period of the support roller is 12.5
years. mounted in 2 bearing housings (Figure 16). The rotation
s. The lifetime of the
monitored
period supports
Rollerofsupport
the kiln was from
isisa50 complex 1 torotation
s; the 13 years.
load periodelement
carrying of the support roller
of the kiln. In iscase
12.5ofs.itsThe lifetime ofanthe
breakdown,
monitored
Roller supports
support is awas from
complex 1 to 13
load years.
carrying element of the
emergency stop of the equipment occurs, followed by the replacement of defective components. kiln. In case of its breakdown,
Of an
emergency Roller support
stop of the
the 200 supporting is a complex
equipment
blocks load
occurs,
at the plant, carrying
followed
on average element of
by theper
5 blocks the kiln.
replacement In
year are replacedcase of its
of defective breakdown,
becausecomponents.
of broken an Of
emergency
thebearings
200 and stop
supporting 1 more of the
blocksblock equipment
atdue
theto occurs,
the
plant, followed
fracture
on averageof the5by the Therefore,
shaft.
blocks replacement
per yearitare of necessary
is defective
replacedcomponents.
to of Of
ensure the
because broken
the 200 of
detection supporting blocks at the plant, onasaverage 5 blocks
and per year are replaced because of broken
bearings and 1defects
moreofblock all itsdueelements
to thesuchfractureshaft,
of roller
the shaft. bearings.
Therefore, it is necessary to ensure the
bearings
The and
roller 1
is amore
part block
of the due to
support the fracture
block and of
is the
in shaft.
direct Therefore,
contact with it the
is necessary
kiln. Thus, to the
ensure
mainthe
detection of defects of all its elements such as shaft, roller and bearings.
detection of defects of all its elements such as shaft,
defects on it are scoring and metal chipping from rolling contact under load.roller and bearings.
The roller is a part of the support block and is in direct contact with the kiln. Thus, the main
The roller is a part of the support block and is in direct contact with the kiln. Thus, the main
defectsdefects on it scoring
on it are are scoring andand metal
metal chipping
chippingfrom from rolling contactunder
rolling contact under load.
load.

Figure 16. Roller support.

Figure 16. Roller support.

Figure 16. Roller support.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 15 of 26

The shaft is a cast steel component. Since roller bearings are operated under unfavorable
Appl. Sci. 2018,
temperature 8, x
conditions, with a high level of vibration and under cyclic loading, the most 15 of 26
likely
defect of the shaft is the formation of fatigue cracks. Since the shaft is a monolithic all steel construction
The shaft is a cast steel component. Since roller bearings are operated under unfavorable
with numerous protrusions and thickness differences, it is difficult to carry out the NDT of shaft by
temperature conditions, with a high level of vibration and under cyclic loading, the most likely
traditional scanning
defect of the shaft methods, even for roller
is the formation bearings
of fatigue in Since
cracks. decommissioned
the shaft is astate. The main
monolithic bearing
all steel
elements include with
construction an outer ring, an
numerous inner ring,
protrusions andcylindrical
thickness rolling bodies
differences, it isand a separator.
difficult to carry Destruction
out the
of theNDT
bearing occurs
of shaft for 3 main
by traditional reasons:
scanning incorrect
methods, evenmounting of the bearing,
for roller bearings insufficient
in decommissioned quantity
state. The or
main bearing elements include an outer ring, an inner ring, cylindrical
low quality of lubricants, as well as fatigue failure of the bearing. Due to the low angular velocityrolling bodies and a
separator.
(1 rotation Destruction
in 12.5 of the bearing
s), a well-known occurs
method offor 3 main reasons:
vibrometry is notincorrect mounting
quite suitable foroftesting
the bearing,
the roller
insufficient
bearings and AEquantity or low
is expected toquality
provideof alubricants, as well as fatigue failure of the bearing. Due to the
good solution.
low angular velocity (1 rotation in 12.5 s), a well-known method of vibrometry is not quite suitable
3.5.2. for testing the Research
Preliminary roller bearings and AE is expected to provide a good solution.

AE sensors
3.5.2. GT200
Preliminary was used with a working frequency range of 130–200 kHz. The signal from
Research
the sensor was fed to the preamplifier with a gain of 26 dB and a frequency filter of 30–500 kHz. As a
AE sensors GT200 was used with a working frequency range of 130–200 kHz. The signal from
data collection system,
the sensor was fed toathe
4-channel external
preamplifier with aUSB
gainI/O
of 26module
dB and a"E20-10,”
frequency manufactured by “L-Card”
filter of 30–500 kHz. As a
company
data collection system, a 4-channel external USB I/O module "E20-10,” manufactured by “L-Card” of
(Moscow, Russia), was used. The output data of this module was long time waveforms
the AE signal with
company a sampling
(Moscow, Russia),frequency of 2.5
was used. The MHz.data of this module was long time waveforms of
output
the AE signal with a sampling frequency of 2.5 MHz.
3.5.3. Noise Investigation
3.5.3. Noise Investigation
In the case of roller bearings of a rotary kiln in the operating mode, the noise level in the audible
In thehigh.
range is quite case of roller bearings
However, in theofrange
a rotary kiln in30
above the operating
kHz, due tomode, the noise
the point drylevel in thebetween
contact audible the
range is quite high. However, in the range above 30 kHz, due to the point dry
shroud of the kiln and the roller, the acoustic noise, as a rule, was no more than 32 dBAE at thecontact between themost
shroud of the kiln and the roller, the acoustic noise, as a rule, was no more than 32 dBAE at the most
unfavorable point of the structure: at the feed point of the batch. The only significant external source
unfavorable point of the structure: at the feed point of the batch. The only significant external source
of acoustic noise is scoring and roughness on the surface of the roller or kiln bandage. When it touches
of acoustic noise is scoring and roughness on the surface of the roller or kiln bandage. When it
the place of scuffing,
touches anscuffing,
the place of AE signal with
an AE amplitude
signal of up toof100
with amplitude up todB100 arises.
AE dB However, such noise
AE arises. However, such
signals can easily be excluded from further analysis, since their registration
noise signals can easily be excluded from further analysis, since their registration occurs occurs withwith
a certain
a
periodcertain
equalperiod
to theequal
period of rotation
to the period ofofrotation
the roller support,
of the or the kiln
roller support, (Figure
or the 17). 17).
kiln (Figure

(a) (b)
Figure 17. AE signals with periods (a) 12.5 s and (b) 50 s associated with scoring and roughness on
Figure 17. AE signals with periods (a) 12.5 s and (b) 50 s associated with scoring and roughness on the
the roller surface or a kiln bandage.
roller surface or a kiln bandage.
3.5.4. Calibration Measurements
3.5.4. Calibration Measurements
In the repair shop, measurements were made to determine attenuation and propagation
velocity
In of theshop,
the repair acoustic signal on the were
measurements decommissioned support block
made to determine with the and
attenuation end propagation
caps removed.velocity
To
of thesimulate
acousticthe sources
signal of AE,
on the an electronic simulator
decommissioned supportwas used.
block The
with emission
the end capswas producedTo
removed. onsimulate
the
shaft inof
the sources the
AE,region of the filletsimulator
an electronic and at the was
ends used.
of the shaft, as well aswas
The emission on the inner andon
produced outer
the rings
shaftofin the
the bearings (Figure 18).
region of the fillet and at the ends of the shaft, as well as on the inner and outer rings of the bearings
(Figure 18).
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 16 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 16 of 26

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 16 of 26

Figure
Figure 18. Scheme
18. Scheme of the
of the roller
roller bearingwith
bearing withthe
the protective
protective caps
capsremoved. TheThe
removed. points of emitting
points by by
of emitting
simulator and the recommended positions for the sensors mounting.
simulator and the recommended positions for the sensors mounting.
Figure 18. Scheme of the roller bearing with the protective caps removed. The points of emitting by
Within
simulatortheandshaft, the attenuation
the recommended coefficient
positions for thewas 5 dB/m.
sensors The presence of a high attenuation
mounting.
Within the shaft,
value (30–35 dB) isthe attenuation
revealed coefficient
at the boundary was 5 dB/m.
between bearing The presence
housings and theof ashaft.
high attenuation value
(30–35 dB)The obtained
is revealed
Within results
at thethe
the shaft, revealed
boundary that
attenuation the
between AE bearing
testing
coefficient wasshould
housings
5 dB/m. be The
performed
andpresence as of
the shaft.follows
a high(Figure 18).
attenuation
For
The full
value AE testing
obtained
(30–35 isof
results
dB) all 3 bearings,
revealed
revealed useAE
thatboundary
at the the thetesting
zone location
between should
bearingwith the accuracy
behousings
performed and as ofshaft.
the element
thefollows (Figureof18).a For
full AEspecificThe
testing bearing.
of all For
obtained this task,
results
3 bearings, it isthe
revealed
use required
that to place
the location
zone AE testingthe AEthe
should
with sensors
be at allof
performed
accuracy available access
as follows
the element points,
(Figure
of 18).
a specific
namely full3this
sensors on each of 3the 2 bearing housings
bearing. ForFor AE task,
testing it of
is all bearings,
required use
to place the AE(Figure
thezone 19a).
location
sensors Since
with
at all thethe length ofofthe
accuracy
available access shaft
thepoints,is small
element of a 3
namely
(4050 mm),
specific it is enough
bearing. For thistotask,
provide
it is access
requiredto the
to shaftthe
place by AE
removing
sensors the
at covers
all and toaccess
available installpoints,
one
sensors on each of the 2 bearing housings (Figure 19a). Since the length of the shaft is small (4050 mm),
sensor
namely at 3each of 2 ends
sensors on each(Figure
of the19b) for its housings
2 bearing full AE testing
(Figureincluding linear
19a). Since thelocation.
length ofSlow rotation
the shaft of
is small
it is enough
the sensorto provide
at the access todoes
the not
shaft by removing the coversdifficulties
and to install oneduration
sensor atofeach of 2
(4050 mm), it isshaft
enoughendsto provide cause
accesssignificant
to the shaft technical
by removing the with
coversthe and to install the
one
ends AE (Figure
testing 19b) for
of about its h. (Figure 19b) for its full AE testing including linear location. Slow rotation of the
full AE testing including linear location. Slow rotation of the sensor at
sensor at each of 2 1ends
shaft ends does not
the sensor cause
at the shaftsignificant technical
ends does not difficultiestechnical
cause significant with thedifficulties
duration with
of the AE
the testingofofthe
duration about
1 h. AE testing of about 1 h.

(a) (b)
Figure 19. Sensors mounted at bearing housing (a) and at the end of the roller bearing (b) with the
protective caps removed. (a) (b)
Figure 19. Sensors mounted at bearing housing (a) and at the end of the roller bearing (b) with the
Figure
3.5.5. AE Sensors mounted at bearing housing (a) and at the end of the roller bearing (b) with the
19.Testing
protective caps removed.
protective caps removed.
The next stage of the work is to carry out AE testing of the support without taking the object out
of3.5.5. AE Testing
operation. The AE data were taken with a regular rotation of the kiln and the support for 1–2 h.
3.5.5.Five
AE Testing
support
The nextblocks with
stage of theopen
workcaps were out
is to carry examined, where
AE testing both
of the the bearings
support withoutand thethe
taking shaft were
object out
directly
The accessible.
of operation.
next stageThe Also, 10
AE work
of the support
data were blocks
is totaken
carrywith with closed
a regular
out AE caps were
rotation
testing of theof tested, where access
the kilnwithout
support was
and the taking available
supportthe
for object
1–2 h. out
only
Fivetosupport
of operation. the bearings.
The AEblocks
datawith
wereopen
takencaps were
with examined,
a regular where
rotation of both the and
the kiln bearings and the for
the support shaft
1–2were
h. Five
supportdirectly
blocks accessible.
with open Also, 10 support
caps blocks with
were examined, closedboth
where caps the
were tested, where
bearings access
and the waswere
shaft available
directly
3.5.6.
onlyAE Testing
to the of Bearings
bearings.
accessible. Also, 10 support blocks with closed caps were tested, where access was available only to
In one of the bearings, the lubricant dried, which led to intense friction and a rattling in the
the bearings.
3.5.6. AE Testing of Bearings
audible range. AE sensors also recorded signals with an amplitude of about 100 dBAE and a duration
of
3.5.6. AEmoreInthan
one 100,000
Testing µs (Figure
the bearings,
of Bearings 20).
the lubricant dried, which led to intense friction and a rattling in the
audible range. AE sensors also recorded signals with an amplitude of about 100 dBAE and a duration
Inofone
moreofthan
the 100,000
bearings, the lubricant
µs (Figure 20). dried, which led to intense friction and a rattling in the
audible range. AE sensors also recorded signals with an amplitude of about 100 dBAE and a duration
of more than 100,000 µs (Figure 20).
 Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 17 of 26

When defects are formed, for example, fatigue cracking or crack, a significant change in the
nature of the AE signal flow occurs such as the activity grows, amplitude trends appear, and, most
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228there is a periodicity of appearance due to the fact that acoustic signals at this stage
importantly, 17 of 26
occur during periodic collision of the bearing roller with place of damage [23].
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 17 of 26

When defects are formed, for example, fatigue cracking or crack, a significant change in the
nature of the AE signal flow occurs such as the activity grows, amplitude trends appear, and, most
importantly, there is a periodicity of appearance due to the fact that acoustic signals at this stage
occur during periodic collision of the bearing roller with place of damage [23].

Figure 20. AE signal recorded on the bearing housing. Drying of lubricant.

Figure 20. AE signal recorded on the bearing housing. Drying of lubricant.
A moderately active source of AE was detected on the bearing of one of the supports (Figure
21a), which,
When defectsdue
are toformed,
a low for characteristic
example, amplitude level, did
fatigue cracking not undergo
or crack, the confirmation
a significant change in the
natureprocedure.
of the AEAsignal
more powerful
flow occurs periodic
such source
as the of AE (about
activity grows,100amplitude
dBAE), found on another
trends appear,support
and, most
(Figure 21b), was a crack in the outer ring of the bearing.
importantly, there is a periodicity of appearance due to the fact that acoustic signals at this stage occur
Figureof
during periodic collision 20.the
AE bearing
signal recorded
rolleron the bearing
with place ofhousing.
damage Drying of lubricant.
[23].
A moderately active source of AE was detected on the bearing of one of the supports (Figure 21a),
A moderately active source of AE was detected on the bearing of one of the supports (Figure
which, due to a low characteristic amplitude level, did not undergo the confirmation procedure.
21a), which, due to a low characteristic amplitude level, did not undergo the confirmation
A more powerful periodic source of AE (about 100 dBAE ), found on another support (Figure 21b), was
procedure. A more powerful periodic source of AE (about 100 dBAE), found on another support
a crack in the21b),
(Figure outer ring
was of the
a crack bearing.
in the outer ring of the bearing.

(a)

(a)

(b)
Figure 21. Periodic AE signals registered on the bearing housing. (a) Moderately active source of AE;
(b) external ring crack.

(b)
Figure 21. Periodic AE signals registered on the bearing housing. (a) Moderately active source of AE;
Figure 21. Periodic AE signals registered on the bearing housing. (a) Moderately active source of AE;
(b) external ring crack.
(b) external ring crack.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 18 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 18 of 26

3.5.7.3.5.7.
AE Testing of the
AE Testing Shaft
of the Shaft
Thesignal,
The AE AE signal, characteristic
characteristic for thefor the friction
friction process,process, is a continuous
is a continuous randomcharacterized
random process process
characterized by a distribution of pulse amplitudes close to normal, which is not typical
by a distribution of pulse amplitudes close to normal, which is not typical for cracks. It is foundfor cracks. It that
is found that higher RMS amplitudes of the acoustic signal are observed in roller bearings with a
higher RMS amplitudes of the acoustic signal are observed in roller bearings with a long service life,
long service life, which allows us to conclude that the RMS amplitude of the AE signal characterizes
which allows us to conclude that the RMS amplitude of the AE signal characterizes the integral degree
the integral degree of wear of the shaft surface [24]. Figure 22 shows the signals obtained in the
of wear of the shaft surface [24]. Figure 22 shows the signals obtained in the diagnosis of roller shafts
diagnosis of roller shafts that were in service for 2 and 9 years. The corresponding RMS amplitudes
that were inmV
are 0.9 service formV.
and 2.2 2 and 9 years. The corresponding RMS amplitudes are 0.9 mV and 2.2 mV.

(a)

(b)
Figure 22. AE signals obtained during the diagnostics of shafts of roller bearings being in operation
Figure 22. AE signals obtained during the diagnostics of shafts of roller bearings being in operation for
for (a) 2 and (b) 9 years. The corresponding RMS amplitudes are 0.9 mV and 2.2 mV.
(a) 2 and (b) 9 years. The corresponding RMS amplitudes are 0.9 mV and 2.2 mV.
The appearance of individual pulses of large amplitude (up to 81 dBAE) against the background
The appearancesignal
of a continuous may indicate
of individual the beginning
pulses of the destruction
of large amplitude (up to of
81the
dBsurface of the shaft in the
AE ) against the background
support block during frictional contact (Figure 23).
of a continuous signal may indicate the beginning of the destruction of the surface of the shaft in the
support block during frictional contact (Figure 23).
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 19 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 19 of 26

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 19 of 26

Figure 23. AE signals received during the diagnosis of shafts. The beginning of the destruction of the
Figure 23. AE signals received during the diagnosis of shafts. The beginning of the destruction of the
shaft surface during frictional contact.
shaft surface during frictional contact.
Figure 23. AE
Acoustic signals received
emission during the
that is caused by diagnosis of shafts.
the formation andThe beginning
growth of the destruction
of cracks of the
has a fundamentally
shaft surface during frictional contact.
discrete and aperiodic nature. When the crack grows, as a rule, high-amplitude signals are
Acoustic emission that is caused by the formation and growth of cracks has a fundamentally
generated,
discrete and with a nature.
aperiodic certain characteristic distribution of athe parameters of the AE data stream. AE
Acoustic emission that When
is causedthe by
crack
the grows,
formation as rule,
and high-amplitude
growth of cracks hassignals are generated,
a fundamentally
testing of the support blocks on 2 shafts being in operation for 11 and 13 years revealed AE sources
with discrete
a certainand characteristic distribution
aperiodic nature. When of thethe parameters
crack grows, as of athe AE high-amplitude
rule, data stream. AE testing
signals areof the
with amplitudes up to 78 dBAE and activity of about 10–20 s−1 (Figure 24), which, judging from the
support blocks on
generated, with2 shafts being
a certain in operation
characteristic for 11 and
distribution of 13
theyears revealed
parameters of AE
the sources
AE datawith
stream.amplitudes
AE
waveforms and the distribution of the AE parameters, correspond to active fatigue cracks. Analysis
−1 (Figure
up totesting
78 dB of the support blocks on 2 shafts being in operation for 11 and 13 years revealed
linear location showed that the sources of AE are located in the region of the fillets, that isand
of the AE and activity of about 10–20 s 24), which, judging from the AE
waveforms sources
in the
with amplitudes
distribution of the AEupparameters,
to 78 dBAE and activity oftoabout
correspond active 10–20 s−1 (Figure
fatigue cracks. 24), which, judging
Analysis of the from location
linear the
places with the greatest concentration of stresses. The identified sources of AE turned out to belong
showedwaveforms theand
thatI and the distribution
sources of the AEinparameters, correspond to that
activeisfatigue cracks.
withAnalysis
to the II hazardof AE are
classes andlocated the region
for this reason did notofundergo
the fillets, in places
the confirmation procedure. the greatest
of the linear location showed that the sources of AE are located in the region of the fillets, that is in
concentration of stresses.
At present, Theofidentified
the design SHM-system sources
for theofroller
AE turned
bearingsout to belong
testing is underto the I and II hazard
consideration.
places with the greatest concentration of stresses. The identified sources of AE turned out to belong
classes and for this reason did not undergo the confirmation procedure.
to the I and II hazard classes and for this reason did not undergo the confirmation procedure.
At present, the the
At present, design of of
design SHM-system
SHM-systemfor forthe
the roller bearingstesting
roller bearings testing is under
is under consideration.
consideration.

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 24. Waveforms of AE signals recorded on shafts of 2 roller bearings (a,b) and linear location
results (c,d). (c) (d)
Figure 24.Excavator
3.6. Dragline Waveforms of AE signals recorded on shafts of 2 roller bearings (a,b) and linear location
Figure 24. Waveforms of AE signals recorded on shafts of 2 roller bearings (a,b) and linear location
results (c,d).
resultsOn
(c,d).
the territory of Russia, handling equipment is often used in difficult climatic conditions.
Fluctuations
3.6. of the temperature, cyclic operating loads lead to the nucleation and propagation of the
Dragline Excavator
3.6. Dragline Excavator
On the territory of Russia, handling equipment is often used in difficult climatic conditions.
Fluctuations
On of the of
the territory temperature, cyclic operating
Russia, handling loads lead
equipment to theused
is often nucleation and propagation
in difficult of the
climatic conditions.
Fluctuations of the temperature, cyclic operating loads lead to the nucleation and propagation of the
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 20 of 26

defects in a load-carrying structure component, which reduces its residual life and, as a result, can lead
to an emergency destruction of the structure.
Using AE monitoring can prevent a sudden occurrence of an accident, reduce economic damage
and prevent human casualties. Despite the fact that the operation of the lifting equipment is
accompanied by a high level of acoustic noise, AE monitoring is possible by optimizing the location of
the sensors and applying special methods of data processing [25,26].
Studies were conducted to assess the feasibility of developing an AE monitoring of metal structural
elements of a walking dragline excavator. The work of such dragline excavator is carried out all year
round, continuously in 3 shifts. Most of the dragline excavators on the mine where the studies were
conducted worked out their normal service life; however, it continues to be actively used.
The most stressed and, as a consequence, the most susceptible to the formation of defects are the
struts. Emergency situations with dragline excavator lead to downtime, whose duration, for example,
in 2016 at one mine was 812 h. Currently, in accordance with the recommendations of manufacturers
two times a year periodic diagnostic tests of dragline excavator by ultrasonic method are performed.
Research work was carried out on booms and struts of dragline with bucket capacity—20 m3 and
boom length—90 m, which previously had damage at the left strut near the weld (Figure 25). The work
was carried out without dragline excavator decommissioning. A 30-channel A-Line DDM AE system
and GT200 AE sensors with a working frequency range of 130–200 kHz were used. A-Line DDM
system provides the principle of digital data transmission. The system consists of several sequentially
connected measuring lines. The amplification of AE signals, filtering, AD conversion and threshold
impulse detection and calculation of AE parameters are carried out in the AE module, which is located
next to the AE sensor directly in the tested structure. AE sensors were installed on the main structural
elements of the dragline: 3 on the left and right struts, 8 on the upper boom belt and 4 on the lower
boom belt, 4 on the lower struts and 3 on the column. The distances between the AE sensors were
from 5 to 15 m. In addition, 5 AE sensors were mounted on the anchor links where the zone location
was carried out, since they consist of structural elements between which there is no acoustic contact.
AE monitoring of a rope was not carried out, as the damage to the rope does not lead to prolonged
downtime. In addition, the rope is a movable part, that greatly complicates its AE testing. Data was
collected directly during the work of the dragline.
At the first stage, the frequency range and threshold were selected and the acoustic properties of
the monitored object were determined. Two frequency ranges were tested: 30–500 and 150–500 kHz.
When using a wide frequency range (30–500 kHz), an extremely high AE activity was observed, which
did not have a visible dependence on the operating mode of the dragline excavator, that is, on the
value of the load. Such noise is associated with the continuous operation of the equipment (working
winch, loose structural elements, engine operation, vibration, etc.).
Therefore, a filter of 150–500 kHz was used. Complete noise detuning by the threshold method
was still impossible, since the noise reached 100 dBAE . As a compromise, a threshold value of 50
dBAE was chosen. With such settings, the nature of AE activity became synchronized with the cycle of
operation of the dragline excavator (Figure 26). The greatest activity was observed with excavation of
the ground and with unloading the bucket, that is at the loading of the structure, when cracks could
grow and at structure unloading, when the crack edges can rub each other.
 Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 21 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 21 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 21 of 26

Figure 25. Tested dragline excavator.

Figure 25. Tested dragline excavator.
Figure 25. Tested dragline excavator.

(a)

(a)

Figure 26. Cont.

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 22 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 22 of 26

(b)

(c)
Figure 26. AE activity when using 30–500 kHz (a) and 150–500 kHz (b) frequency filters. Correlation
Figure 26. AE activity when using 30–500 kHz (a) and 150–500 kHz (b) frequency filters. Correlation of
of AE hit count with the cycle of operation of the dragline excavator when using 150–500 kHz
AE hit count with the cycle of operation of the dragline excavator when using 150–500 kHz frequency
frequency range (c).
range (c).
Measurement of the acoustic properties of the monitored excavator was carried out using the
Measurement source.
Hsu-Nielsen The following
of the acoustic values
properties weremonitored
of the obtained: excavator
velocity was was3200–3700
carried out m/susing
and the
attenuation was 1.5–2.8 dB/s. The recommended maximum distances between
Hsu-Nielsen source. The following values were obtained: velocity was 3200–3700 m/s and attenuation AE sensors that
ensure a linear location are from 4.5 to 9 m.
was 1.5–2.8 dB/s. The recommended maximum distances between AE sensors that ensure a linear
At the second stage, within 2 days, the AE data was collected directly for subsequent detailed
location are from 4.5 to 9 m.
analysis. The distribution of the AE signal amplitudes was analyzed. For all structural elements
Atexcept
the second
for thestage,
struts,within 2 days, thedistribution
the differential AE data was collected
of the directly
amplitudes wasfor subsequentthat
exponential, detailed
is
analysis. The distribution of the AE signal amplitudes was analyzed. For all structural
corresponding to a random noise process. On the left and right struts in the range of amplitude elements except
for thevalues
struts, of
the80–85
differential
dBAE, thedistribution of the
distribution wasamplitudes
significantlywas exponential,
different from thethatexponential,
is corresponding
which to a
random noise process.
indirectly indicated Onthethe left and
presence of right struts in the range of amplitude values of 80–85 dBAE , the
a defect.
distribution The
wasresults of linear location
significantly differentanalysis wereexponential,
from the as follows (Figure
which 27). On the lower
indirectly boom belt,
indicated there
the presence
were
of a defect. no sources of AE. Several sources were found on the column and the upper boom belt, which
turned
The out of
results to be noise,
linear since they
location were localized
analysis were as near the winch
follows (Figure attachment
27). On the points,
loweror were
boominactive.
belt, there
On the left and right struts, a linear location revealed 3 sources of AE on each, near which there were
were no sources of AE. Several sources were found on the column and the upper boom belt, which
no potential sources of noise. Signals appeared at the stages of loading and unloading. The
turned out to be noise, since they were localized near the winch attachment points, or were inactive.
amplitude distributions presented above also make it possible to classify these sources as defects.
On the left and right struts, a linear location revealed 3 sources of AE on each, near which there were
no potential sources of noise. Signals appeared at the stages of loading and unloading. The amplitude
distributions presented above also make it possible to classify these sources as defects.
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 23 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 23 of 26

Figure 27. Results of acoustic emission location.

Figure 27. Results of acoustic emission location.

In addition, the spectrograms of the signals on the struts were analyzed, which made it possible
In addition, thethe
to determine spectrograms
arrival times of
of the signals
different on the struts
frequency were analyzed,
components (Figure 28).which
It was made it possible
confirmed that
to determine the arrival
the signals times of
were emitted bydifferent
impulsivefrequency
sources andcomponents
propagated(Figure 28).
along the It was
walls confirmed
of the that the
object as Lamb
waves.
signals were With the
emitted by help of the sources
impulsive spectrogram analysis, thealong
and propagated distances between
the walls the object
of the AE sources
as Lambandwaves.
AE
sensors were obtained, which coincided with the results of the usual linear location
With the help of the spectrogram analysis, the distances between the AE sources and AE sensors were based on the
analysis
obtained, whichofcoincided
the arrival times
with difference
the results[27,28].
of the usual linear location based on the analysis of the
arrival times difference [27,28].
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 24 of 26
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, x 24 of 26

(a) (b)
Figure 28. Dispersion curves for channel 29 (a); and for channel 30 (b).
Figure 28. Dispersion curves for channel 29 (a); and for channel 30 (b).
At the points on the struts revealed as defective by the AE testing, an additional ultrasonic
testing
At was carried
the points on theout. On revealed
struts the left strut, 1 crack was
as defective byfound with
the AE the size
testing, an of 20 mm, on
additional the right—1
ultrasonic testing
crack with
was carried out.the
Onsize
the30 mm.
left strut, 1 crack was found with the size of 20 mm, on the right—1 crack with
the size 30At
mm.present, the question of the SHM-system design for the testing of draglines is under
consideration.
At present, the question of the SHM-system design for the testing of draglines is
under4.consideration.
Conclusions
1. Based on our improved AE system, structural AE monitoring scheme is developed as
4. Conclusions
SHM-system. Examples of its successful application are given.
1. Based
2. Oilon our improved
refinery: OverheatingAE system,
induced structural
the formation AE monitoring
of defects scheme
at the hydrotreater is oil
at the developed
refinery as
SHM-system.
plant. The Examples of its successful
use of SHM-system allowed application
to extend theare given.of the hydrotreater by 6 months
lifetime
2. Oil refinery: Overheating
and to prevent induced
the destruction of the formation ofduring
the hydrotreater defects at the hydrotreater
operation. Cluster analysisat the oil refinery
method of
the AE data was developed and carried out.
plant. The use of SHM-system allowed to extend the lifetime of the hydrotreater by 6 months and
3. prevent
to Bridges: theAs a result ofofathe
destruction series of experimental
hydrotreater duringstudies,
operation. the Cluster
basic principles
analysis havemethod been
of the
formulated, which make
AE data was developed and carried out. it possible to improve the efficiency of AE method as applied to the
SHM of bridge structures. The solutions for their implementation have been suggested. The
3. Bridges: As a result of a series of experimental studies, the basic principles have been formulated,
acoustic noises arising in monitoring of bridge structures have been analyzed and the causes of
which make
noise it possible
such to improve
as vibrations the efficiency
and friction due to theofpassing
AE methodvehiclesas applied
and windtoguststhe SHMhave of bridge
been
structures.
revealed. TheThesolutions
multi-stage foralgorithm
their implementation
of noise filtering have been
has been suggested.
offered The acoustic
that includes selection bynoises
arisingAEin monitoring of bridge structures have been analyzed and the causes of noise such as
parameters.
vibrations
4. Pipelines: andExperimental
friction duework to thewaspassing
carried vehicles
out on theandAE wind gustsofhave
monitoring been revealed. The
the high-temperature
process algorithm
multi-stage pipeline. The most filtering
of noise suitable washas the
been use of the that
offered frequency
includes range 150–500
selection bykHz
AE and the
parameters.
4. threshold in the region of 40–55 dB AE. It was found that the activity and amplitudes of noise
Pipelines: Experimental work was carried out on the AE monitoring of the high-temperature
increase significantly when the rate of pipeline temperature change exceeds 1°C/min. It is
process pipeline. The most suitable was the use of the frequency range 150–500 kHz and the
revealed that the attenuation coefficient essentially increases with the accumulation of
threshold in the region of 40–55 dBAE . It was found that the activity and amplitudes of noise
sediments in the internal volume of the pipeline. The possibility of detecting melt leakage
increase significantly
through flange joints when the rate
is shown, evenof pipeline
if it temperature
is invisible under a layer change exceeds
of thermal 1◦ C/min.
insulation and is It is
revealed that the
not noticeable. attenuation coefficient essentially increases with the accumulation of sediments
in
5. theGas
internal volume
adsorbers: In theof upper
the pipeline.
part of theThegas possibility
adsorber of at detecting
the refinery, melt leakage through
non-permissible flange
defects
jointswere
is shown,
found. even if it is was
A decision invisible
madeunder
to installa layer of thermal
a system for SHM insulation and ispart
for the upper notofnoticeable.
the gas
5. adsorber. The
Gas adsorbers: mainupper
In the task of the of
part installed
the gasmonitoring
adsorber at system was to ensure
the refinery, safe operation
non-permissible of thewere
defects
gas adsorber until it can be replaced in a year.
found. A decision was made to install a system for SHM for the upper part of the gas adsorber.
6. Support rollers of rotary kiln: The possibility to conduct AE testing of support rollers of rotary
The main task of the installed monitoring system was to ensure safe operation of the gas adsorber
kilns in operating mode has been investigated. It was found that in the range above 30 kHz the
until it can be replaced in a year.
acoustic noises generally are no more than 32 dBAE. For full testing of all 3 bearings it is
6. Support rollers
necessary toof rotary
mount kiln:
3 AE The possibility
sensors on each of 2to conduct
bearing AE testing
enclosures. of support
To perform full AErollers of of
testing rotary
kilnsshaft
in operating mode
it is sufficient tohas beenaccess
provide investigated.
to the shaftIt was found that
by removing in the range
protective caps andabove 30 kHz
to mount 2 the
acoustic noises generally
AE sensors: one on the areside
no ofmore than
thrust 32 dBAE
bearing and. For
onefull testing
on the of allside.
opposite 3 bearings it is necessary
The signals with
amplitude
to mount 3 AEofsensors
about 100 on dB
eachAE, duration
of 2 bearingof more than 100,000
enclosures. To µs allows us
perform toAE
full estimate
testingtheofneeded
shaft it is
lubrication intervals. The higher values of AE signal RMS are observed
sufficient to provide access to the shaft by removing protective caps and to mount 2 AE sensors: on the shafts of support
one on the side of thrust bearing and one on the opposite side. The signals with amplitude of
about 100 dBAE , duration of more than 100,000 µs allows us to estimate the needed lubrication
intervals. The higher values of AE signal RMS are observed on the shafts of support rollers with
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8, 1228 25 of 26

long lifetime. While testing the support rollers, the AE sources activity was registered on 2 shafts
in the area of fillet. They presumably correspond to active fatigue cracks.
7. Dragline excavator: Work was carried out on AE monitoring of boom, column and struts of a
walking dragline excavator. To remove noise, the use of a frequency range of 150–500 kHz and
a threshold of 50 dBAE was most appropriate. With these settings, the AE activity acquires a
cyclic character synchronized with the excavator operation cycle. By the results of attenuation
measuring the recommended distance between the AE sensors is from 4.5 to 9 m. The AE data
was collected for 2 days. Six sources of AE have been detected on the left and right struts. When
performing ultrasound testing, 2 of them were classified as 20 and 30 mm cracks.

Author Contributions: S.A.E. managed the project and developed the software for the SHM-system. V.A.B. carried
out the data acquisition and provided data filtering and clusterization. D.A.T. wrote the text of the article,
participated in the data processing and verification of the obtained results. P.P.K. wrote the text of the article,
and took part in the data analysis and verification of the results. V.V.B. carried out the data acquisition and the
analytical research for all described applications. P.N.T. and A.L.A. created the original concept of the SHM-system
and developed its hardware. V.G.K. took part in the design of the hardware of the SHM-system and developed
the design of all units.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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