EAST DELTA UNIVERSITY

Assignment No.: 01
Assignment Name: Principles of Protective Relays and Different
Types of Functional Relay

SUBMITTED BY SUBMITTED TO

NAME : Shirajul Islam LECTURER NAME: Dr. Md. Shahidul Alam

COURSE NAME : Power System Assistant Professor

Protection & Control Department of EEE

ID : 173005520E

SEMESTER : 8DEEE2

DEPT : EEE

Submission Date : 13.04.2020

Introduction to Relay:
Relays are the primary protection as well as switching devices in most of the control processes or
equipments. All the relays respond to one or more electrical quantities like voltage or current such
that they open or close the contacts or circuits. A relay is a switching device as it works to isolate
or change the state of an electric circuit from one state to another.

Fig: Different Types of Relays

Different Types of Basic Relays

Depending on the operating principle and structural features relays are of different types such as
electromagnetic relays, thermal relays, power varied relays, multi-dimensional relays, and so on,
with varied ratings, sizes and applications.

Electromagnetic Relays

These relays are constructed with electrical, mechanical and magnetic components, and have
operating coil and mechanical contacts. Therefore, when the coil gets activated by a supply
system, these mechanical contacts gets opened or closed. The type of supply can be AC or DC.

DC vs AC Relays

Both AC and DC relays work on the same principle as electromagnetic induction, but the
construction is somewhat differentiated and also depends on the application for which these
relays are selected. DC relays are employed with a freewheeling diode to de-energize the coil,
and the AC relays uses laminated cores to prevent eddy current losses.
 Fig: DC vs AC Relays

The very interesting aspect of an AC is that for every half cycle, the direction of the current supply
changes; therefore, for every cycle the coil loses its magnetism since the zero current in every
half cycle makes the relay continuously make and break the circuit. So, to prevent this –
additionally one shaded coil or another electronic circuit is placed in the AC relay to provide
magnetism in the zero current position.

Most of the relays in service on electric power system today are of electro-mechanical type.
They work on the following two main operating principles:

(a) Electromagnetic attraction

(b) Electromagnetic induction

a) Attraction Type Electromagnetic Relays

Fig: Attraction Type Relays

These relays can work with both AC and DC supply and attract a metal bar or a piece of metal
when power is supplied to the coil. These relays don’t have any time delays so these are used for
instantaneous operation

In Electromagnetic Attraction Relays, there is a coil which energises an electromagnet. When

the operating current becomes large, the magnetic field produced by an electromagnet is so high
that it attracts the armature or plunger, making contact with the trip circuit contacts. These are
the simplest type of relays.
The various types of electromagnetic attraction type relays are :
1. Attracted armature relay
2. Solenoid and plunger type relay
3. Balanced beam type relay

Attracted Armature Type Relay:

There are two types of structures available for attracted armature type relay which are,
i) Hinged armature type
ii) Plunger type electromagnetic attraction relay
iii) Polarised moving iron type

Fig: Attracted Armature Relay

These types of attracted armature type relays are shown in the Figure. In attracted armature
type, there exists a laminated electromagnet which carries a coil. The coil is energised by the
operating quantity which is proportional to the circuit voltage or current. The armature or a
moving iron is subjected to the magnetic force produced by the operating quantity. The force
produced is proportional to the square of current hence Electromagnetic Attraction Relays relays
can be used for a.c. as well as d.c.
The spring is used to produce restraining force. When the current through coil increases beyond
the limit under fault conditions, armature gets attracted. Due to this, it makes contact with
contacts of a trip circuit, which results in an opening of a circuit breaker.The minimum current at
which the armature gets attracted to close the trip circuit is called pickup current.
Generally, the number of tappings are provided on the relay coil with which its turns can be
selected as per the requirement. This is used to adjust the set value of an operating quantity at
which relay should operate.

An important advantage of such relays is their high operating speed. In modern relays an
operating time as small as 0.5ms is possible.The current-time characteristics of such relays is
hyperbolic, as shown in the figure below.

Solenoid and Plunger Type Relay:

The below figure is Solenoid and Plunger Type Relay which works on the principle
of electromagnetic attraction.
It consists of a solenoid which is nothing but an electromagnet. It also consists a movable iron
plunger. Under normal working conditions, the spring holds the plunger in the position such that
it cannot make contact with trip circuit contacts.

Under fault conditions, when the current through relay coil increases, the solenoid draws the
plunger upwards. Due to this, it makes contact with the trip circuit contacts, which results in an
opening of a circuit breaker.
Balanced beam relay:

Fig: Balanced Beam Relay

It consists of a beam carrying two electromagnets at its ends. One electromagnet produces
operating torque while the other produces restraining torque. The beam is supported at the
middle.
Under normal operating conditions, the two torques are equal and beam remains horizontal. The
construction is shown in the above figure. When there is a fault, the operating current is high and
produces high operating torque. Thus the beam gets deflected more on operating side.
Due to this, armature fitted at end of the beam gets pulled and makes contact with the contacts
of trip circuit. Thus the trip circuit operates. It is robust and fast in operation. Generally only one
cycle is enough for the operation. But due to the d.c. transients, it is not accurate. Now a days,
this type of relay is not used.

Operating Principle of Electromagnetic Attraction Relays:

The electromagnetic force produced due to the operating quantity which is exerted on the
armature, moving iron or plunger is proportional to the square of the flux in the air gap.Thus
neglecting the saturation effect, the force is proportional to the square of the operating current.
Hence such relays are useful for a.c. and d.c. both.
For d.c. operation:
In d.c. operation, the electromagnetic force is constant. When this force exceeds the restraining
force, the relay operates.
Now Fe = K1 I²

where Fe = Electromagnetic force

K1 = Constant
I = Operating current in a coil

And Fr = K2
Where Fr = Restraining force due to spring including friction
K2 = Constant

On the verge of relay operating, the electromagnetic force is just equal to the restraining force.

This is the current at which relay operates in case of d.c. operation.

For a.c. operation:
In a.c. electromagnetic relays, the electromagnetic for proportional to square of the current
but it is not constant. It is given by,

where Im = Maximum value of the operating current

K = Constant
It shows that the electromagnetic force consists of two components,
i) Constant, independent of time.
ii) Pulsating at double the frequency of applied voltage.

The total force thus pulsates at double the frequency. If the restraining force Fr which is produced
by the spring is constant then the armature of relay will be picked up at time t1 and it drops off
at time t2 as shown in the below figure.

Thus relay armature pulsates at double frequency. This causes the relay to hum and produces a
noise. It may cause damage to the relay contacts. To overcome this difficulty, the air gap flux
producing an electromagnetic force is divided into two fluxes acting simultaneously but differing
in time phase. This causes resulting electromagnetic force to be always positive. If this is always
greater than restraining force Fr then armature will not vibrate. The phase lag between the two
components of flux can be easily produced using shading in a relay. The flux through the shaded
pole lags behind the flux through the unshaded part.

(b) Induction Type Relays

These are used as protective relays in AC systems alone. The actuating force for contacts
movement is developed by a moving conductor that may be a disc or a cup, through the
interaction of electromagnetic fluxes due to fault currents.

The initial force is developed on the moving element that may be disc or another form of the
rotor of the non-magnetic moving element. The actuating force for contacts movement is
developed by a moving conductor that may be a disc or a cup, through the interaction of
electromagnetic fluxes due to fault currents.

Fig: Induction Type Relays

 Fig: Production of torque in an induction relay

Figure illustrates how force is developed in a section of a rotor that is pierced by two adjacent
ac fluxes. Various quantities are shown at an instant when both fluxes are directed downward
and are increasing in magnitude. Each flux induces voltage around itself in the rotor, and
currents flow in the rotor under the influence of the two voltages. The current produced by one
flux reacts with the other flux, and vice versa, to produce forces that act on the rotor.

The quantities shown in figure may be expressed as –

ɸ1 = ɸ1max sin ωt
ɸ2 = ɸ2max sin (ωt + θ)
where, θ is the angle by which ɸ2 leads ɸ1
It may be assumed with negligible error that the paths in which the rotor currents flow have
negligible self-inductance, and therefore rotor currents are in phase with their respective
induced voltages.

Now-
i1 ∝ e1 ∝ d ɸ1/dt ∝ ɸ1max cos ωt
i2 ∝ e2 ∝ d ɸ2/dt ∝ ɸ2max cos (ωt + θ)
Since the two forces (F1 and F2) developed are in opposition, as illustrated in Fig. 2.6, therefore
net force acting on the movable element is given as –
F = (F2 – F1) ∝ ɸ2 i1 – ɸ1 i2
∝ ɸ1max ɸ2max [cos ωt sin (ωt + θ) – sin ωt cos (ωt + θ)]
or F ∝ ɸ1max ɸ2max sin θ …(i)

The following points may be noted from Eq. (i):

(i) The net force is same at every instant as the term to r is not involved in the expression for the
force developed. It is most significant. This fact does not depend upon the assumptions made in
arriving at Eq. (i). The action of a relay under the influence of such a force is positive and free from
vibration.

(ii) The greater the phase angle 0 between the two fluxes, the greater is the net force applicable to
the movable element. Obviously the force developed will be maximum when phase angle θ is 90°.

(iii) Also the force developed will be more when the resistance R of the annular ring is low because i
∝ v/R i.e., the movable element must be of low resistance material such as copper or aluminium.
From torque-weight ratio point of view the movable element should be of aluminium alone.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

(iv) The direction of net force and hence the direction of motion of movable element depends upon
which flux is leading.

The different type of structure has been used for obtaining the phase difference in the fluxes.
These structures are:

a. Shaded pole structure

b. Watt-hour meter or double winding structure
c. Induction cup structure.

a. Shaded pole structure

This coil is usually energised by current flowing in the single coil wound on a magnetic structure
containing an air gap. The air-gap fluxes produce by the initializing current is split into two flux
displace in time-space and by a shaded ring. The shaded ring is made up of the copper ring that
encircles the part of the pole face of each pole.
 Fig: Shaded pole structure
The disc is made up of aluminium. The inertia of the aluminium disc is very less. Hence they
need less deflecting torque for its movement. The two rings have the current induced in them
by the alternating flux of the electromagnetic. The magnetic field develops from the current
produces the flux in the portion of the iron ring surrounded by the ring to lag in phase by 40° to
50° behind the flux in the unshaded portion of the pole.

b. Watt-hour Meter Structure

This structure consists E shape electromagnet and a U shape electromagnet with a disc-free to
rotate in between them. The phase displacement between the fluxes produced by the
electromagnet is obtained by the flux generated by the two magnets having different resistance
and inductance for the two circuits.

Fig: Watt-hour Meter type induction disc relay

The E-shaped electromagnet carries the two windings the primary and the secondary. The
primary current was carrying the relay current I1 while the secondary winding is connected to
the windings of the U-shaped electromagnet.

The primary winding carries relay current I1 while the secondary current induces the emf in the
secondary and so circulate the current I2 in it. The flux φ1 induces in the E shed magnet, and
the flux φ induces in the U-shaped magnet. These fluxes induced in the upper and lower
magnetic differs in phase by angle θ which will develop a driving torque on the disc proportional
to φ1φ sinθ.

The most important feature of the relay is that opening can control their operation or close the
secondary winding circuit. If the secondary winding is opened, then no torque will be
developed, and thus relay can be made inoperative.

c. Induction Cup Relay

The relay which works on the principle of electromagnetic induction is known as the induction
cup relay. The relay has two or more electromagnet which is energized by the relay coil. The
static iron core is placed between the electromagnet as shown in the figure below.

Fig: Induction Cup Relay

The coil which is wound on the electromagnet generates the rotating magnetic field. Because of the
rotating magnetic field, the current induces inside the cup. Thus, the cup starts rotating. The
direction of rotation of the cup is same as that of the current.
The more torque is produced in the induction cup relay as compared to the shaded and watt meter
type relay. The relay is fast in operation and their operating time is very less approximately 0.01
sec.
Induction Type Directional Power Relay:
This Induction Type Directional Power Relay operates when power in the circuit flows in a specific
direction unlike a non-directional overcurrent relay, a directional power relay is so designed that
it obtains its operating torque by the interaction of magnetic fields derived from both voltage and
current source of the circuit it protects. Thus this type of relay is essentially a wattmeter and the
direction of the torque set up in the relay depends upon the direction of the current relative to
the voltage, with which it is associated.

Fig: Induction Type Directional Power Relay

Construction:
Figure illustrates the essential parts of a typical induction type directional power relay. It consists
of an aluminum disc which is free to rotate in between the poles of two electromagnets. The
upper electromagnet carries a winding (called potential coil) on the central limb which is
connected through a potential transformer (P.T.) to the circuit voltage source. The lower
electromagnet has a separate winding (called current coil) connected to the secondary of C.T. in
the line to be protected. The current coil is provided with a number of tappings connected to the
plug-setting Midge (not shown for clarity). This permits to have any desired current setting. The
restraining torque is provided by a spiral spring.
The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges two fixed contacts when the disc
has rotated through a pre-set angle. By adjusting this angle, the travel of the moving disc can be
adjusted and hence any desired time-setting can be given to the relay.
Operation:
The flux Φ1 due to current in the potential coil will be nearly 90° lagging behind the applied
voltage V. The flux Φ2 due to current coil will be nearly in phase with the operating current
I.
The interaction of fluxes Φ1 and Φ2 with the eddy currents induced in the disc produces a driving
torque given by:

It is clear that the direction of driving torque on the disc depends upon the direction of power
flow in the circuit to which the relay is associated. When the power in the circuit flows in the
normal direction, the driving torque and the restraining torque (due to spring) help each other to
turn away the moving contact from the fixed contacts. Consequently, the relay remains
inoperative. However, the reversal of current in the circuit reverses the direction of
driving torque on the disc. When the reversed driving torque is large enough, the disc rotates in
the reverse direction and the moving contact closes the trip circuit. This causes the operation of
the circuit breaker which disconnects the faulty section.

Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay:

The directional power relay is unsuitable for use as a directional protective relay under
short-circuit conditions. When a short-circuit occurs, the system voltage falls to a low value
and there may be insufficient torque developed in the relay to cause its operation. This
difficulty is overcome in the Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay which is
designed to be almost independent of system voltage and power factor
 Fig: Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay
Construction:
Figure illustrates the constructional details of a typical Induction Type Directional Overcurrent
Relay. It consists of two relay elements mounted on a common case:
1. Directional element and
2. Non-directional element.

1. Directional element: It is essentially a directional power relay which operates when power
flows in a specific direction. The potential coil of this element is connected through a potential
transformer (P.T.) to the system voltage. The current coil of the element is energised through a
C.T. by the circuit current. This winding is carried over the upper magnet of the non-directional
element. The trip contacts (1 and 2) of the directional element are connected in series with the
secondary circuit of the overcurrent element. Therefore, the latter element cannot start to operate
until its secondary circuit is completed. In other words, the directional element must operate first
(i.e. contacts I and 2 should close) in order to operate the overcurrent element.
2. Non-directional element: It is an overcurrent element similar in all respects to a non-direc-
tional overcurrent relay. The spindle of the disc of this element carries a moving contact which
closes the fixed contacts (trip circuit contacts) after the operation of directional element.
 It may be noted that plug-setting bridge is also provided in the relay for current setting but
has been omitted in the figure for clarity and simplicity. The tappings are provided on the
upper magnet of overcurrent element and are connected to the bridge.
Operation: Under normal operating conditions, power flows in the normal direction in the
circuit protected by the relay. Therefore, Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay
(upper element) does not operate, thereby keeping the overcurrent element (lower
element) unenergised. However, when a short-circuit occurs, there is a tendency for the
current or power to flow in the reverse direction. Should this happen, the disc of the upper
element rotates to bridge the fixed contacts 1 and 2. This completes the circuit for
overcurrent element.
The disc of this element rotates and the moving contact attached to it closes the trip circuit.
This operates the circuit breaker which isolates the faulty section. The two relay elements
are so arranged that final tripping of the current controlled by them is not made till the
following conditions are satisfied:
1. Current flows in a direction such as to operate the directional element.
2. Current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre-set value.
3. Excessive current persists for a period corresponding to the time setting of overcurrent
element.
Distance or Impedance Relay

The working rule of distance relay or resistivity relay is extremely easy. There’s one voltage
component from potential transformer and a current component fed from current transformer
of the system. The deflecting torque is created by secondary current of CT and restoring torque
is created by voltage of potential transformer.

In normal operational condition, restoring torsion is quite deflecting torque. Therefore relay
won’t operate. However in faulty condition, this becomes quite giant whereas voltage becomes
less. Consequently, deflecting torque becomes quite restoring torque and dynamic parts of the
relay starts moving that ultimately shut the No contact of relay.

Hence clearly operation or working principle of distance relay depends upon the ratio of system
voltage and current. Because the ratio of voltage to current is nothing however impedance
therefore a distance relay is additionally referred to as resistivity relay. The operation of such
relay depends upon the preset worth of voltage to current ratio. This ratio is nothing however
resistivity. The relay can solely operate once this voltage to current ratio becomes but its preset
worth. Hence, it are often same that the relay can only operate once the resistivity of the road
becomes but preset resistivity (voltage/current). Because the resistivity of a transmission line is
directly proportional to its length, it will simply be all over that a distance relay will only operate
if fault is occurred among a preset distance or length of line.

There are mainly two types of distance relay–

1. Definite distance relay.

2. Time distance relay.

Definite Distance Relay

Construction:
This is simply a spread of balance beam relay. Here one beam is placed horizontally and
supported by depend upon the center. One finish of the beam is force downward by the
magnetic force of voltage coil, fed from potential electrical device hooked up to the road.
alternative finish of the beam is force downward by the magnetic attraction of current coil fed
from current electrical device connected asynchronous with line. Due to torque created by these
2 downward forces, the beam stays at an equilibrium position. The torsion thanks to voltage
coil, is restraining torsion and torque due to current coil, is deflecting torque.
 Fig: Definite – Distance Type Impedance Relay

Operation:
Under traditional in operation condition restraining torque is bigger than deflecting torsion.
Thence contacts of this distance relay stay open. Once any fault happens within the feeder,
under protected zone, voltage of feeder decreases and at identical time current will increase.
The ratio of voltage to current i.e. impedance falls below the pre-determined price. During this
scenario, current coil pulls the beam additional powerfully than voltage coil, thence beam tilts to
shut the relay contacts and consequently the circuit breaker related to this impedance relay can
trip.

The pull of the current element is proportional to I2 and that of voltage element to V2.
Consequently, the relay will operate when

The value of the constants k1 and k2 depends upon the ampere-turns of the two electromagnets.
By providing tappings on the coils, the setting value of the relay can be changed.

Time Distance Impedance Relay

This delay automatically adjusts its operational time in step with the gap of the relay from the
fault purpose. The time distance resistance relay won’t only be operated relying upon voltage to
current ratio, its operational time additionally depends upon the worth of this ratio. That means,
it automatically adjusts its operating time according to the distance of the relay from the
fault point i.e.
 Fig: Time Distance Impedance Relay

Construction:

The relay mainly consists of a current driven component like double winding sort induction over
current relay. The spindle carrying the disc of this component is connected by means that of a
spring coupling to a second spindle that carries the bridging piece of the relay contacts. The
bridge is generally control within the open position by a coil control against the pole face of a
magnet excited by the voltage of the circuit to be protected.
Operating Principle:
During normal operational condition the attraction force of coil fed from PT is over force
generated by induction component, thus relay contacts stay in open position once a brief circuit
fault happens within the line, this within the induction component will increase. Then the
induction within the induction component will increase. Then the induction component starts
rotating. The speed of rotation of induction parts depends upon the amount of fault i.e. amount
of current within the induction component. Because the rotation of the disc take, the spring
coupling is wound up until the tension of the spring is ample to pull the armature away from the
pole face of the voltage excited magnet.

The angle through that the disc travels the disc travel before relay operate depends upon the
pull of the voltage excited magnet. The bigger the pull, the bigger are going to be the travel of
the disc. The pull of this magnet depends upon the voltage.

The bigger the voltage the bigger the pull thus longer are going to be the travel of the disc i.e.
operational time is proportional to V. Again, speed of rotation of induction component more or
less proportional to current during this component. Hence, time of operation is reciprocally
proportional to current. Hence, operating time proportional to 1 ratio I.

Therefore time of operation of relay, T proportional to V ratio I or T proportional to Z.

Translay System:
This system is the modified form of voltage-balance system. Although the principle of
balanced (opposed) voltages is retained, it differs from the above voltage-balance system
in that the balance or opposition is between voltages induced in the secondary coils wound
on the relay magnets and not between the secondary voltages of the line current
transformers. Since the current transformers used with Translay System have only to
supply to a relay coil, they can be made of normal design without any air gaps. This permits
the scheme to be used for feeders of any voltage.
 Figure 14.1: Simplified connections of Translay System
Construction:
Figure illustrates the simplified diagram the principle of Translay System. It consists of two
identical double winding induction type relays fitted at either end of the feeder to be
protected. The primary circuits (11, 11a) of these relays are supplied through a pair of
current transformers. The secondary windings (12, 13 and 12a, 13a) of the two relays are
connected in series by pilot wires in such a way that voltages induced in the former
opposes the other. The compensating devices (18, 18a) neutralize the effects of pilot-wire
capacitance currents and of inherent lack of balance between the two current
transformers.
Operation:
Whilst the feeder is healthy, the line CTs at each end carry equal currents. Equal and opposite
voltages are induced in the secondary windings 12 and 12a and no current flows in the pilots.
No magnetic flux is set up in the bottom magnets 16 and 16a so the relays do not operate.

Under heavy through-fault conditions there may be a small circulating current due to line CT
mismatch. A restraint torque is produced by bias loop 18, which also stabilizes the relay against
pilot capacitance currents. A fault fed from one end causes current to circulate in the pilots and
the relay at that end will operate to trip. A fault fed from both ends will cause a current reversal
in the remote CTs, making the circulating current additive so that both ends operate to trip.
References
1. Principles of Power Systems- VK Mehta
2. Switchgear and Protection - Sunil S. Rao
3. https://www.electricalengineeringinfo.com
4. https://circuitglobe.com
5. http://www.engineeringenotes.com
6. https://www.eeeguide.com
7. http://technitab.in
8. https://www.globalspec.com