1.

1 Coulomb’s law

Coulomb’s law states

state that the force between two point charges Q and 4 at a distance 8 apart is
directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance OP .

34
1∝
89
R34
1=
89
S
where the constant of proportionality R =
EFGH

where the constant of proportionality R = 8.988 × 10V N m9 C X9

and the permittivity of free space 67 = 8.85 × 10XS9 F mXS.

34
1=
4567 8 9

If the charges are in an insulating medium, then

34
1=
45689
where 6 = 676I , 6I is a constant known as the relative permittivity of the medium.
1.2 Electric Field

An electric field is a region where electrostatic force acts on a charged body. It is a vector
quantity where its direction is the direction of the force on a positive test charge in the field.

Quantitative measure of electric field is described using the term electric field strength or
electric field intensity,
intensity >. The electric field strength at a point in an electric field is the force per
unit charge at that point.

1
>=
4

34 1
>= ×
4567 8 9 4

3
> = 456 89
7

Unit for electric field strength > is Newton per coulomb ] N CXS _ or volt per metre ] V mXS _.
1.3 Gauss’s Law

The strength of an electric field can be visualised by the number of lines through an area called
electric flux.
flux The electric flux  = >€ cos y, where y is the angle between the electric field and
the normal to the area.

Gauss’s law states that for a closed surface

∑4
=
67

where ∑ 4 is the algebraic sum of the charges enclosed in the closed surface.

To apply Gauss’s law;

Step 1 : choose a suitable Gaussian surface,

surface generally has the same geometry of the object.

Step 2 : ensure that electric flux is normal at every point of the surface
surface

Step 3 : evaluate ∑ „
∑@
Step 4 : deduce expression for … from >€ = , where † is surface area of Gaussian surface.
GH

Dr. Ley 11
016-8674543
Electric field due to a point charge

Step 1 – circular Gaussian surface of radius 8 is used

Step 2 – electric flux at every point is normal

Step 3 – ∑ 4 = +3
∑@
Step 4 – >€ = GH

+3
>]458 9 _ =
67

3
>=
4567 8 9

Electric field due to a charged conducting sphere

When a conducting sphere is charged, the charge is distributed uniformly on the surface of the
sphere. There is no charge inside the sphere because like charges repel one another which
cause the charges to be pushed to the surface.

Consider a charged sphere of radius ˆ, electric field at point P can be found using Gauss’s law

Step 1 – circular Gaussian surface of radius ]8 > ˆ_ is used

Step 2 – electric flux at every point is normal

Step 3 – ∑ 4 = +3
∑@
Step 4 – >€ = GH

+3
>]458 9 _ =
67
3
>=
4567 8 9
Use Gauss’s law to evaluate the electric field inside the charged sphere;

Step 1 – circular Gaussian surface of radius ]8 < ˆ_ is used

Step 2 – ∑ 4 = 0

Step 3 – > = 0

Variation of electric field strength for a charged

conducting sphere is shown below

Electric field due to a charged plate

Consider two oppositely charged metal parallel metal plates, the charge density of each plate is
‹. The electric field strength at point P is evaluated using Gaussian surface of area € as shown
above with point P located on one of its surface.
 ∑4
note that, ŒŽ‘ ’‘“”•–— ‹ =
€
Step 1 – rectangular Gaussian surface of area €

Step 2 – electric flux at every point is normal

Step 3 – ∑ 4 = ‹€
∑@
Step 4 – >€ = GH

‹€
>€ =
67
‹
>=
67

The expression for electric field above suggest that the field strength is independent of the
distance of the point P from the metal plate ˜. Hence, > is constant in the space between the
two metal plates.
1.4 Electric Potential

Electrical potential C at a point in an electric field is the work done per unit charge to bring a
unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
point Electrical potential C is a scalar and its unit is
Volt ]V_.

Electrical potential energy M at a point in an electric field is the work done to bring a unit
positive charge from infinity to that point.
point Electrical potential energy M is a scalar with a unit of
Joule ]¨_.

Recall that work done © = ª 1 d8

34
M = −« d8
4567 8 9

34
M=
4567 8

M
C=
4

34 1
C= ¬ ­
4567 8 4

3
C=
4567 8

Thus it follows that M = 4C.

Recall that there is no charge inside a conductor and thus no electric field. This imply that
electric potential inside a conductor is constant ]Not necessarily zero!_ .
From the expression of electrical potential C, all points at the same distance 8 from the point
charge +3 have the same electric potential. These points form the surface of a sphere with
radius 8 centred at the point charge +3.

An equipotential surface is a surface on which all points have the same electrical potential. No
work is done when a charge moves along on the same equipotential surface.

Electric field intensity > at a point in an electric field is related to the electrical potential C by
the equation

C = − « > d8

dC
= −>
d8
dC
>=− ]potential gradient_
d8
Hence;

C
>= ]in this case, > is usually denoted with unit V mXS _
d
2.1 Capacitance
A capacitor consists of two parallel metal plates separated by an insulator. Upon connected to
battery, electrons flow from negative terminal of battery to the plate of capacitor connected to
it. At the same rate, electrons flow from the other plate of the capacitor towards the positive
terminal of the battery.

Equal positive and negative charges thus appear on the plates, and oppose the flow of electrons
which causes them. As the charges accumulate, the potential difference between the plates
increases, the current falls to zero when the potential difference becomes equal to the battery
voltage ܸ. The charges on each plates are now +ܳ and – ܳ, and the capacitor is said to have
stored a charge ܳ.

Capacitance is the ability of a capacitor to store charge defined as the ratio of the charge ࡽ on
either plate of the capacitor to the potential difference ࢂ between the plates.

ܳ
‫=ܥ‬
ܸ
Unit for capacitance is Farad (F)
2.2 Parallel Plate Capacitor
Consider a parallel plate capacitor where the area of each plate is ‫ ܣ‬and the plate separation is
݀. When the potential difference across the plates is ܸ, the charge on each plate is ܳ.

The electric field strength between the plates is given by

ܸ
‫=ܧ‬
݀
Using Gauss’s law;

ܳ
߶=
ߝ
where ߝ is the permittivity of the dielectric between the plates.

ܳ
‫= ܣܧ‬
ߝ
ܸ ܳ
‫=ܣ‬
݀ ߝ
ܳ ߝ‫ܣ‬
=
ܸ ݀
Hence capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is

ߝ‫ܣ‬
‫=ܥ‬
݀
2.3 Dielectric

From the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor

ߝ‫ܣ‬
‫=ܥ‬
݀
ߝ଴ ߝ௥ ‫ܣ‬
‫=ܥ‬
݀
Since ߝ௥ > 1, when the material other than air is placed in between the plates of the capacitor,
it will increase the capacitance.

Diagram above shows the electric field between the plates of a capacitor before (left) and after
(right) the insertion of dielectric into the capacitor. When the dielectric material is inserted,
the molecules of the dielectric are polarised.
polarised

Each molecule is aligned such that the positive end of the molecule points to the negative plate
and vice-versa. A reverse electric field opposite in direction to the original electric field is
created This leads to a resultant electric field ࡱ where ࡱ < ࡱ૙ and thus the potential difference
created.
decreases.
decreases

If the capacitor is still connected to the same battery,

battery more charge flows into the capacitor until
the potential difference is back to ࢂ. Since the amount of charge on either plate of the capacitor
increases
increases for the same potential difference, the capacitance of the capacitor increases.
increases
2.4 Capacitors in Series and Parallel

Capacitor in series

When three capacitors of capacitance ‫ܥ‬ଵ , ‫ܥ‬ଶ and ‫ܥ‬ଷ are joined in series to a battery;

• Electrons from battery flow to plate F of capacitor ‫ܥ‬ଷ and charge the plate F negatively
(−ܳ).
• This in turn induces charge +ܳ on plate E while repelling electrons on plate E to plate
D of capacitor ‫ܥ‬ଶ .
• The same process continues until all the three capacitors have the same charges (ܳ).

Potential differences across the capacitors ‫ܥ‬ଵ , ‫ܥ‬ଶ , and ‫ܥ‬ଷ are

ܳ ܳ ܳ
ܸଵ = , ܸଶ = , and ܸଷ =
‫ܥ‬ଵ ‫ܥ‬ଶ ‫ܥ‬ଷ

If the potential difference provided by the battery is ܸ, then

ܸ = ܸଵ + ܸଶ + ܸଷ

ܳ ܳ ܳ
ܸ= + +
‫ܥ‬ଵ ‫ܥ‬ଶ ‫ܥ‬ଷ

ܸ 1 1 1
= + +
ܳ ‫ܥ‬ଵ ‫ܥ‬ଶ ‫ܥ‬ଷ

ܳ
Let the equivalent capacitance ‫= ܥ‬
ܸ
1 1 1 1
= + +
‫ܥ ܥ‬ଵ ‫ܥ‬ଶ ‫ܥ‬ଷ

Generally for any ݊ capacitors in series, the equivalent capacitance ‫ ܥ‬is given by

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+
‫ܥ ܥ‬ଵ ‫ܥ‬ଶ ‫ܥ‬ଷ ‫ܥ‬௡
Capacitors in parallel

When three capacitors are joined in parallel to a battery;

• All capacitors are charged until the potential across the capacitors are the same
• If not, charge will flow from capacitor of higher potential difference to the other
capacitors until they all have the same potential difference

The charges on each capacitor are

ܳଵ = ‫ܥ‬ଵ ܸ, ܳଶ = ‫ܥ‬ଶ ܸ, and ܳଷ = ‫ܥ‬ଷ ܸ

The total charge is

ܳ = ܳଵ + ܳଶ + ܳଷ

ܳ = ܸ(‫ܥ‬ଵ + ‫ܥ‬ଶ + ‫ܥ‬ଷ )

ܳ
= ‫ܥ‬ଵ + ‫ܥ‬ଶ + ‫ܥ‬ଷ
ܸ
ܳ
Let the equivalent capacitance ‫= ܥ‬
ܸ
‫ܥ = ܥ‬ଵ + ‫ܥ‬ଶ + ‫ܥ‬ଷ

Generally for any ݊ capacitors in parallel, the equivalent capacitance ‫ ܥ‬is given by

‫ܥ = ܥ‬ଵ + ‫ܥ‬ଶ + ‫ܥ‬ଷ + ⋯ + ‫ܥ‬௡

2.5 Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor
When a positive charge is transferred from negative plate to the positive plate, each plate is
said to increase its charge by the amount of ݀‫ݍ‬.

Work done to increase the charge on each plate of the capacitor by ݀‫ ݍ‬is

ܹ݀ = ܸ ݀‫ ݍ‬from ܷ = ‫ܸݍ‬
‫ݍ‬ ‫ݍ‬
ܸ= from ‫= ܥ‬
‫ܥ‬ ܸ
‫ݍ‬
ܹ݀ = ݀‫ݍ‬
‫ܥ‬
Total work done to charge a capacitor so that the charge on each plate is ܳ is expressed as
ொ
‫ݍ‬
ܹ=න ݀‫ݍ‬
଴ ‫ܥ‬

1 ܳଶ
ܹ=
2 ‫ܥ‬
The work done to charge the capacitor is stored as energy in the capacitor. The energy stored
in a charged capacitor is

1 ܳଶ 1 ଶ 1
Energy = = ‫ܸܳ = ܸܥ‬
2 ‫ܥ‬ 2 2
Consider a battery of e.m.f ܸ଴ connected to a capacitor. As the capacitor gains charge, the
potential difference across the capacitor increases. The capacitor stops charging when the
potential difference is equal to ܸ଴. Thus, the final charge in capacitor

ܳ = ‫ܸܥ‬଴
ଵ
Since the energy stored in the capacitor is given as = ଶ ܸܳ଴

ଵ
During the charging process, the other ଶ ܸܳ଴ loss is converted into heat in connecting wires.
2.6 Charging and Discharging of Capacitor

The diagram above shows a capacitor ‫ ܥ‬being charged by connecting it in series with a battery
of e.m.f ܸ଴ and a resistor of resistance ܴ. Suppose that at time ‫ ݐ‬after the switch S is closed, the
current in the circuit is ‫ܫ‬.

ܸ଴ = ܸோ + ܸ஼

Suppose the charge on the capacitor is ܳ, then

ܳ
ܸ஼ = and ܸோ = ‫ܴܫ‬
‫ܥ‬
Hence;

ܳ
ܸ଴ = + ‫( … ܴܫ‬1)
‫ܥ‬
At ‫ = ݐ‬0, ܳ = 0, the intial current ‫ܫ‬଴ is given by

ܸ଴ = 0 + ‫ܫ‬଴ ܴ

ܸ଴
‫ܫ‬଴ =
ܴ
Taking the derivative of equation (1) with respect to time ‫ݐ‬

ܸ݀଴ ݀ ܳ
= ൤ + ‫ܴܫ‬൨
݀‫ݐ‬ ݀‫ܥ ݐ‬
‫ܫ‬ ݀‫ܫ‬
0= +ܴ
‫ܥ‬ ݀‫ݐ‬
݀‫ܫ‬
݀‫ = ݐ‬−ܴ‫ܥ‬
‫ܫ‬
௧ ூ
1
න ݀‫ = ݐ‬−ܴ‫ ܥ‬න ݀‫ܫ‬
଴ ூబ ‫ܫ‬
 ‫ = ݐ‬−ܴ‫(ܥ‬ln ‫ ܫ‬− ln ‫ܫ‬଴ )

‫ܫ‬
‫ = ݐ‬−ܴ‫ ܥ‬ln ൬ ൰
‫ܫ‬଴

‫ܫ‬
= ݁ ି௧/ோ஼
‫ܫ‬଴

ܸ଴ ି௧/ோ஼
ࡵ = ࡵ૙ ࢋି࢚/ࡾ࡯ = ݁
ܴ
From equation (1),

ܳ
ܸ଴ = + ‫ܴܫ‬
‫ܥ‬

ܸ଴ = ܸ + ܸ଴ ݁ ି௧/ோ஼

ࢂ = ࢂ૙ ൫૚ − ࢋି࢚/ࡾ࡯ ൯

Variation of the charge ܳ with time ‫ ݐ‬is given by

ܳ
ܸ = ܸ଴ ൫1 − ݁ ି௧/ோ஼ ൯ substitute ܸ =
‫ܥ‬
ܳ ܳ଴
= ൫1 − ݁ ି௧/ோ஼ ൯
‫ܥ‬ ‫ܥ‬

ࡽ = ࡽ૙ ൫૚ − ࢋି࢚/ࡾ࡯ ൯

Variations of current, voltage and charge with time is shown in the graphs below.

Time constant ߬ = ܴ‫ ܥ‬of a charging circuit is the time taken for the current in the circuit to
decrease to 1/݁ of its initial value.
The figure above shows a capacitor that is initially charged. The initial potential difference
across the capacitor is ܸ଴, and its charge is ܳ଴ = ‫ܸܥ‬଴ . The charged capacitor is discharged
through a resistor of resistance ܴ.

At time ‫ ݐ‬after switch S is closed, the potential difference across the capacitor is ܸ. Hence, the
charge still on the capacitor is ܳ = ‫ܸܥ‬.

Current in the circuit is

݀ܳ
‫=ܫ‬−
݀‫ݐ‬
ܸ݀
‫ = ܫ‬−‫ܥ‬
݀‫ݐ‬
From ܸ = ‫ܴܫ‬

ܸ݀
ܸ = −‫ܴܥ‬
݀‫ݐ‬
ܸ݀
݀‫ = ݐ‬−‫ܴܥ‬
ܸ
௧ ௏
ܸ݀
න ݀‫ = ݐ‬−‫ ܴܥ‬න
଴ ௏బ ܸ

‫ = ݐ‬−‫(ܴܥ‬ln ܸ − ln ܸ଴ )

‫ݐ‬ ܸ
− = ln ൬ ൰
‫ܴܥ‬ ܸ଴

ࢂ = ࢂ૙ ࢋି࢚/࡯ࡾ

The charge at time ‫ ݐ‬after switch S is closed is expressed as

ܳ = ‫ܸܥ‬

ܳ = ‫ܸܥ‬଴ ݁ ି௧/஼ோ
 ࡽ = ࡽ૙ ࢋି࢚/࡯ࡾ

݀ܳ
‫=ܫ‬−
݀‫ݐ‬
ܳ଴ ି௧/஼ோ
‫=ܫ‬ ݁
‫ܴܥ‬
‫ܸܥ‬଴ ି௧/஼ோ
‫=ܫ‬ ݁
‫ܴܥ‬
ܸ଴ ି௧/஼ோ
‫=ܫ‬ ݁
ܴ

ࡵ = ࡵ૙ ࢋି࢚/࡯ࡾ

Variation of voltage, charge and current with time for discharging process is illustrated in the
following graphs.
3.1 Conduction of electricity
When a wire is connected to the positive and negative terminals of a cell, electric current flows
from the positive to negative terminal. Current flows from a point of higher electrical potential
to a point of lower potential (cconventional current).

Current in the wire is the rate of flow of charge through a cross section of the wire, expressed as

݀ܳ
‫=ܫ‬
݀‫ݐ‬
The unit for current is ampere (A), equivalent to C sିଵ .

Mechanism of electrical conduction in metals

• Electrical conduction is due to drift of free electrons which act as charge carriers.
• Free electrons drift towards the end of higher electrical potential.

Semiconductor has free electrons and positive ‘holes’ as charge carriers. When potential
difference is applied across the semiconductor, free electrons and positive holes will drift in
the opposite direction to one another, producing current.

Unlike metal, semiconductor has lower charge carriers per unit volume and thus having a
higher values of resistivity compared to metals. Hence, when the temperature increases,
number of charge carriers (holes and electrons) increases and leads to decrease of resistivity.

3.2 Drift Velocity

In metal, the free electrons are in random motion, constantly colliding with each other and
with the ions in the crystal lattice.

Since the motion is random, there is no net transfer of free electrons in any direction and the
mean velocity of the free electrons is said to be zero.

When a potential difference ܸ is applied to the metal of length ݈ and cross section ‫ܣ‬, an electric
field ‫ ܧ‬is set up in the metal. Free electrons in the metal then experience a force ‫ܧ݁ = ܨ‬. This
leads to the free electrons accelerated by the field.
Drift velocity ࢜ of the free electrons when a potential difference is applied is the mean velocity
of the free electrons in a direction parallel to the electric field.

Suppose the number of free electrons per unit volume of the metal is ݊, the number of free
electrons in the length ݈ is given as

݊ × (volume) = ݊‫݈ܣ‬

The time taken for a free electron to move across the length ݈ is

݈
‫=ݐ‬
‫ݒ‬
That is after time ‫ݐ‬, all the free electrons ݊‫ ݈ܣ‬between the boundary where the length ݈ is
defined, have moved through the cross section at Y. From the definition of electric current;

݀ܳ ܳ
‫=ܫ‬ =
݀‫ݐ‬ ‫ݐ‬
(݊‫݁)݈ܣ‬
‫=ܫ‬
݈
‫ݒ‬
‫݁ݒܣ݊ = ܫ‬
3.3 Current Density, Resistivity and Conductivity

Current density ࡶ is defined as the current per unit cross-sectional area.

‫ܫ‬
‫=ܬ‬
‫ܣ‬
݊‫݁ݒܣ‬
‫=ܬ‬
‫ܣ‬
‫݁ݒ݊ = ܬ‬

Resistance of a metal is directly proportional to the length ݈ and inversely proportional to its
cross-sectional area ‫ܣ‬.

݈
ܴ∝
‫ܣ‬
ߩ݈
ܴ=
‫ܣ‬
where ߩ is a constant depending on the type of material known as the resistivity of the material,
with the unit Ω m. Rearranging the above result yields

ܴ‫ܣ‬
ߩ=
݈
Electrical conductivity ߪ is the inverse of resistivity

1
ߪ=
ߩ

Conductivity has the unit Siemen ܵ.

To show the consistency with Ohm’s law

law;

1
ߪ=
ߩ

݈
ߪ= from Ohmᇱ s law, ܸ = ‫ܴܫ‬
ܴ‫ܣ‬
݈
ߪ=
ܸ
ቀ‫ ܫ‬ቁ ‫ܣ‬

‫݈ ܫ‬
ߪ = ൬ ൰൬ ൰
‫ܸ ܣ‬
‫ܬ‬
ߪ=
‫ܧ‬

‫ܧߪ = ܬ‬
Ohm’s law states that the stead current through a metallic conductor (not the emf site) is
directly proportional to the potential difference across the conductor, if the physical conditions
such as temperature remain constant.

Thus, the value of the ratio ܸ/‫ ܫ‬is constant for conductor that obeys Ohm’s law, known as
Ohmic conductor.

For non-Ohmic conductors, the ‫ܫ‬-ܸ graph shows a non-linear relationship

Resistors in series
When resistors are connected in series as shown in the following figure, the same current flows
through all the resistors.

The potential difference across the

resistors ܴଵ , ܴଶ and ܴଷ are respectively

ܸଵ = ‫ܴܫ‬ଵ , ܸଶ = ‫ܴܫ‬ଶ , ܸଷ = ‫ܴܫ‬ଷ

The total potential difference between

points P and Q is equal to the sum of ܸଵ ,
ܸଶ and ܸଷ.

ܸ = ܸଵ + ܸଶ + ܸଷ

‫ܴܫ = ܴܫ‬ଵ + ‫ܴܫ‬ଶ + ‫ܴܫ‬ଷ

ܴ = ܴଵ + ܴଶ + ܴଷ

Resistors in parallel

The following figure shows three resistors in parallel. Since the resistors are connected across
the same points P and Q, the potential difference across the three resistors is the same, ܸ.

The current ‫ ܫ‬that flows into the point P is equal

to the sum of the currents out of P.

‫ܫ = ܫ‬ଵ + ‫ܫ‬ଶ + ‫ܫ‬ଷ

The currents in each of the resistors are

ܸ ܸ ܸ
‫ܫ‬ଵ = , ‫ܫ‬ଶ = , ‫ܫ‬ଷ =
ܴଵ ܴଶ ܴଷ

ܸ ܸ ܸ ܸ
= + +
ܴ ܴଵ ܴଶ ܴଷ

1 1 1 1
= + +
ܴ ܴଵ ܴଶ ܴଷ
Electrical conductivity of a metal decreases with the increase of temperature. When a potential
difference ܸ applied across a metal of length ݈, the free electron accelerates where

‫ܨ‬
ܽ=
݉
݁‫ܧ‬
ܽ=
݉
Let the mean time between successive collisions of free electrons be ߬, initial and final mean
velocity of free electron be ‫ ݑ‬and ‫ ݒ‬respectively.

‫ ݑ = ݒ‬+ ܽ‫ݐ‬

݁‫ܧ‬
‫ = ݒ‬0 + ൬ ൰߬
݉
From ‫ܧߪ = ݁ݒ݊ = ܬ‬

݁‫ܧ‬
݊൬ ൰ ߬݁ = ߪ‫ܧ‬
݉

݊݁ ଶ ߬
ߪ=
݉

From the above result;

Metals are good conductor of electricity because;

Large number of ݊, eg 10ଶଽ for Copper

Conductivity of a metal decreases when temperature increases because metal ions vibrate
with greater amplitude. This leads to increase in the rate of collision between free
electrons and metal ions such that ߬ decreases.

For semiconductor;

݊ is small and thus low conductivity

Conductivity of semiconductor increases with temperature because more charge carrier

are available for conduction, ie ݊ increases.

Resistivity of superconductor varies with temperature as shown in the following figure.

At the temperature below ܶ஼ , known as the critical temperature, the resistivity drops to zero.
Mercury exhibit superconductivity at temperature ܶ = 4.2 K , first discovered by H.
Kamerlingh-Onnes in 1911.

Advantages of superconductivity

• Transmission of electrical power without any loss of power (no resistance = no heat
loss)
• Strong electromagnets can be used to levitate trains above the tracks
• Current in coil would continue to flow even after emf source is removed
4.1 Internal resistance

A source of e.m.f has internal resistance. A cell has an internal resistance due to the chemicals
in the cell, where as an electrical generator is due to the resistance of the wire used to form
coils in the generator.

Internal resistance ‫ ݎ‬of a cell of e.m.f ‫ ܧ‬can be thought of as a resistor of resistance ‫ ݎ‬connected
in series to the cell. Suppose this cell is then connected to a resistor of resistance ܴ.

The current in the circuit is

‫ܧ‬
‫=ܫ‬
ܴ+‫ݎ‬
The potential difference across the resistor is

ܸ = ‫ܴܫ‬

‫ܧ‬
ܸ=൬ ൰ܴ
ܴ+‫ݎ‬

The e.m.f is the sum of the potential difference across the resistor and the internal resistance

‫ ܴܫ = ܧ‬+ ‫ݎܫ‬

‫ ܸ = ܧ‬+ ‫ݎܫ‬

4.2 Kirchhoff’s Law

Kirchhoff’s 1st law – algebraic sum of the currents entering a point in a circuit is zero.

෍‫ = ܫ‬0

Current entering a point are assumed positive and currents leaving the point are assumed
negative. This law is based on principle of conservation of charge.

Kirchhoff’s 2nd law – the algebraic sum of the products of the current and resistance is equal to
the algebraic sum of the e.m.f in the loop.

෍ ‫ = ܴܫ‬෍ ‫ܧ‬
4.3 Potential Divider

A potential divider is used as a variable voltage supply by tapping a fraction of the voltage
supplied from an e.m.f source. The rheostat is connected to the voltage supply as shown

The voltage supply ܸ଴ is connected to the terminals 1 and 3 of the rheostat. The output voltage
between the points P and Q is

ܴଵ
ܸ=൬ ൰ܸ
ܴଵ + ܴଶ ଴

To increase the voltage ܸ, the slider is moved towards terminal 3.

Ammeters connected in series in a circuit. The resistance of ammeter would influence the actual
current to be measured. To reduce the error, resistance of ammeter should be as small as
possible.
possible

Voltmeters connected in parallel to the part of the circuit where the potential difference is to be
measured. Thus, resistance of voltmeter should be high so that the current through the
voltmeter is negligible.
negligible

Ammeter = galvanometer + shunt (low R, parallel)

Galvanometer can’t measure large currents. A resistor known as shunt is connected in parallel
to the galvanometer. Shunt has a much lower resistance compared to galvanometer so that
more current goes through the shunt and bypass the meter.

Voltmeter = galvanometer + multiplier (high R, series)

A multiplier is a resistor connected in series with the galvanometer which functions as a

voltmeter. Recall that a voltmeter must have a high resistance so that the current through it is
negligible.
4.4 Potentiometer and Wheatstone Bridge

A potentiometer measures the potential difference connected to its terminals X and Y. It

consists of a wire AB (commonly 1 m), a driver cell D connected across the wire. This gives a
uniform potential gradient along the wire AB.

‫ܧ‬
Potential gradient =
‫ܮ‬
‫ = ܧ‬emf of cell D

‫ = ܮ‬length of wire AB

When a potential difference V is connected to the terminals X and Y of the potentiometer, the
position of the slider J along the wire AB is adjusted until the centre-zero galvanometer G is
balanced (reads zero). This means that there is no current through the galvanometer.

ܸ ‫ܧ‬
=
݈ ‫ܮ‬
‫ܧ‬
ܸ = ൬ ൰݈
‫ܮ‬
ܸ∝݈

A potentiometer is used to

measure accurately the e.m.f of a cell

measure the internal resistance of a cell
•

comparing resistance
•
•
A wheatstone bridge is used to determine the resistance ܴ of an unknown resistor. It consists of
variable standard resistor ܵ whose resistance is known, two resistors ܲ and ܳ who ratio ܴ௉ /ܴொ
is known, and the unknown resistance ܴ connected to a centre zero galvanometer and battery.

Resistance of the variable resistor ܵ is adjusted until the galvanometer is balanced so that no
current flows in it. When the bridge is balanced, no current flow between points B and D.

Applying Kirchhoff’s 2nd law on loop

ABDA : ‫ܫ‬ଵ ܴ௉ − ‫ܫ‬ଶ ܴோ = 0 → ܸ௉ = ܸோ

BCDC : ‫ܫ‬ଵ ܴொ − ‫ܫ‬ଶ ܴௌ = 0 → ܸொ = ܸௌ

ܸ௉ ܸோ
=
ܸொ ܸௌ

ܴ௉
ܴோ = (ܴ )
ܴொ ௌ

Another variant of Wheatstone bridge is the metre bridge.

Resistor of unknown resistor ܴ is connected to a standard resistor ܵ across the other gap of the
metre bridge. A slider J is connected in series with a centre zero galvanometer to the terminal B.
A cell ‫ ܧ‬is connected across the terminals A and C.

Balanced position of slider J along the wire implies

ܴ௉ ܴோ
=
ܴொ ܴௌ

݈ଵ ‫ܴ ݎ‬ோ
=
݈ଶ ‫ܴ ݎ‬ௌ

݈ଵ
ܴோ = ൬ ൰ ܴௌ
݈ଶ
5.1 Concept of a magnetic field

Magnetic field is a region where a magnetic force acts on a magnetic pole or an electric current.

Direction of magnetic field points from the North to the South pole.

Magnetic field can be produced by a magnet or an electric current.

5.2 Force on Moving Charge

When a charge is moving in a magnetic field, it will experience a force. The magnitude of the
magnetic force depends on

• the magnitude of the charge

• the speed of the charge
• the direction of motion of the charge with respect to the direction of magnetic field
• the strength of the magnetic field

4 = 67 × 9

where 4, 7 and 9 are the force, velocity of the charge and the magnetic field strength
respectively, and 6 is the magnitude of the charge.

|7 × 9| = |7||9| sin >

The magnitude of the magnetic force is given by

; = 6<= sin >

where > is the angle between velocity and magnetic field.

Note that when \ = ]°, that is the direction of movement parallel to the direction of magnetic
field, there will be no force.

When > = 90°, the magnitude of magnetic force is maximum.

Maagnetic field strength (or magnetic flux density or magnetic field intensity) is the
magnitude of the magnetic field at a point, expressed as

;
==
6< sin >
SI unit for magnetic field strength is Tesla, T.
5..3 Force on a Current Carrying Conductor
Electric current consist of moving charge. Hence, a current carrying conductor in the
presence of magnetic field will also experiences magnetic force.

Direction of the magnetic force, magnetic field and

current are mutually perpendicular as shown by
Fleming’s left hand rule.

Consider a wire carrying current ?, placed perpendicular

to magnetic field = . An electron is shown drifting
downwards with a drift velocity <. Note that the direction
of the current ? is opposite to the drift direction of
electrons.

The force on each electron is determined by

; = n<= sin 90° = n<=

Suppose the wire has area o, length @ and total of p free electrons moving in the length, the
total force acting on this length of wire is

; = pn<=

where p = MX, M is the number of electrons per unit volume.

; = MXn<=

; = (Mo@)n<=

; = (Mo<n)@=

; = ?@=

If the wire makes an angle > with the magnetic field, the force is expressed as

; = ?@= sin > or ;q = ? @q × =

rq
5.4 Magnetic Fields Due to Current

Ampere’s law
Ampere’s law states that for any arbitrary closed loop (amperian loop), the sum of the product
of the length elements and magnetic field in the direction of the length element is equal to the
product of permeability and the electric current enclosed in the loop.

Mathematically Ampere’s law is expressed as

w = cos > xy = KL ?z{|

Deriving the magnetic field strength generated by a straight wire.

The amperian loop chosen in this case is circular shaped such that at any point, the angle
between magnetic field and displacement vector is parallel.

w = cos > xy = w = xy

For a complete circular loop, the length of the circumference is 2}~.

w = xy = =(2}~)

Hence

=(2}~) = KL ?z{|

KL ?
==
2}~
The following figure illustrates the magnetic field pattern produced by various shape of current
carrying wires.

For each of the configurations, the magnetic flux density is expressed as

KL ?
== (straight wire)
2}~
~ is the distance from the wire

KL p?
== (circular coil)
2~

~ is the radius of the coil and p is the number of turns

= = KLM? (solenoid)
M is the number of turns per unit length
5.5 Force Between Two Current-Carrying Conductors
Consider two parallel, straight wires, X and Y, each of infinite length, separated by a distance ~.
The magnetic flux density at a distance ~ from wire X due to current in X is

KL ?c
= =
2}~
Thus, the magnetic force on wire Y due to the magnetic field from X produces the force ;c .

;c = @?G =

KL ?c ?G @
;c =
2}~

Similarly the magnetic flux density at a distance ~ from wire Y due to the current in Y is

KL ?G
=‚ =
2}~
which in returns produces a magnetic force on the current in wire X with the same magnitude
but opposite in direction

;G = @?c =‚

KL ?c ?G @
;G = = ;c
2}~

Dr. Ley 14
016-8674543
This result leads to the definition of 1 Ampere

One ampere is the constant current which, flowing in two infinitely long, straight, parallel
conductors of negligible circular cross section, placed in a vacuum 1 metre apart, produces
between them a force of Š × ‹]bŒ  per metre of their length

Rearranging

KL ?c ?G @
;=
2}~
; KL ?c ?G
=
@ 2}~
?c = ?G = 1 A, ~ = 1 m;

; KL
=
@ 2}
; 4} × 10b†
= = 2 × 10b† N mbc
@ 2}
5.6 Determination of the Charge to Mass Ratio

’
Ratio of charge 6 of a particle to its mass j, ‘ “ is known as the specific charge of the particle.
S
J. J. Thompson determine the specific charge for electron in 1896 by deflecting the particle in a
magnetic and an electric field.

Magnetic field will only deflects the particle in the way that the particle will move in a circular
path. No work is done by the magnetic force since it is perpendicular to the velocity.

Electric field will exert a force on the charged particle and work done by the field. The particle
will gain or loss kinetic energy.

Consider a charge enters a region of uniform electric and magnetic field, which are
perpendicular to each other. Directions of the magnetic and electric force are such that they are
in the opposite direction.

Strength of each field is adjusted till the effects from both forces can be cancelled.

;– = ;—

6U = 6<=

U
<=
=
5.7 Hall Effect
Discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879, who experimentally shown that charges flowing in a solid
conductor can be deflected by a magnetic field.

The figure above shows a copper strip of width x carrying a current ? in the direction as shown.
The charge carrier is the electron. The electrons drift with drift velocity < in the direction
opposite to conventional current.

Figure (a) shows the direction of magnetic force on the electrons, repelling the electrons to the
right edge of the strip. As time passes, move electrons will collect along the right edge, causing
the left edge to become positive that results in an electric field U acting from left to right as
shown in Figure (b).

This electric force will acts in the opposite direction to the direction of magnetic force. As more
electron collects at the right edge, electric force will increase in strength. Eventually
equilibrium of forces is reached, 4 = 49 , and electrons will drift along the strip without any
deflection.
deflection
STPM Physics [Term 2]

At this point, the left and right strip will have a potential difference, known as the Hall voltage
XY .

;– = ;—

nU = n<=

For a conductor with the width of strip x,

XY = Ux

Hence

XY
= <=
x
XY = <x=

Other forms for expressing XY ;

From ? = Mo<n

?
<=
Mon
?x=
XY =
Mon
Suppose the thickness of the strip is ž, o = xž

?=
XY =
Mžn
From the above results, Hall voltage is larger for thin strips (small ž), and is independent of
strip width x. XY is inversely proportional to charge
charge carrier density.
density Conductors such as copper
will have small value of XY , whereas semiconductors such as silicon and germanium with small
M will exhibit larger XY .

Uses of Hall Effect

• determine the sign of charge carriers in conductor/semiconductor

• determine the density of charge carriers
• measure the strength of a magnetic field, known as a Hall probe
STPM Physics [Term 2]

6.1 Magnetic flux

Magnetic field can be describe as a line of force that flows in space. Magnetic flux refers to the
density of these lines ‫ ܤ‬through a particular area ‫ ܣ‬given as

߶୆ = ‫ ܣܤ‬cos ߠ

where ߠ is the angle between the magnetic field vector and the normal of the area.

Magnetic flux is maximum when the area is perpendicular to the field, and minimum (zero)
when parallel.
parallel

Unit for magnetic flux is T mଶ or Wb (Weber).

థా
Thus, magnetic field strength ‫ ܤ‬can be expressed as , that is the magnetic flux per unit area
஺
or also known as magnetic flux density
density.

If a coil has ܰ turns, each turn have a magnetic flux of ߶୆ = ‫ ܣܤ‬cos ߠ through it. The combined
amount of flux through all the turns is called the magnetic flux linkage.
linkage

Magnetic ϐlux linkage = ܰ߶୆

6.2 Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law

Faraday’s law

If the magnetic flux linkage through a coil changes

changes, an emf is induced in the coil and the
magnitude of the induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
linkage.
linkage

݀
ߝ∝ (ܰ߶୆ )
݀‫ݐ‬
݀
ߝ∝ (ܰ‫ ܣܤ‬cos ߠ)
݀‫ݐ‬

For a linear conductor of length ݈, moving with velocity ‫ ݒ‬perpendicular to the magnetic field ‫ܤ‬.
When the wire moves through a distance ∆‫ ݔ‬in a time ∆‫ݐ‬, the area covered by the wire is ݈∆‫ݔ‬.

Change in magnetic flux: ∆߶୆ = ‫ܣ∆ܤ‬

∆߶୆ = ‫ݔ∆݈ܤ‬

Induced emf is expressed as

∆߶୆
ߝ∝
∆‫ݐ‬
‫ݔ∆݈ܤ‬
‫∝ܧ‬
∆‫ݐ‬
‫ݒ݈ܤ ∝ ܧ‬

Lenz’s law

Direction of induced current will be such as to oppose the change in the magnetic flux that
causes it.

Electromagnetic Induction Equation

Combining Faraday’s and Lenz’s law gives

݀߶୆
ߝ=− (coil)
݀‫ݐ‬
ߝ = −‫ ݒ݈ܤ‬sin ߠ (linear)

Direction of current induced in linear conductor is determined from Fleming’s left hand rule.
6.3 Self Induction

Consider a circuit as shown

When the switch is closed

• The current does not reach the maximum value of ‫ܧ‬/ܴ immediately due to Faraday’s
and Lenz’s law
• When current increases, magnetic flux through the coil also increases
• Emf is then induced in the circuit to oppose the current
• Causes the current to slowly increase to its maximum value
• This effect is known as Self Induction because the change in ߶୆ causing induced emf
comes from the same coil

From Faraday’s law

݀߶୆
ߝ = −ܰ
݀‫ݐ‬
Since ߶୆ is proportional to the current ‫ܫ‬, then ߶୆ = ݇‫ܫ‬. Hence

݀(݇‫)ܫ‬
ߝ = −ܰ
݀‫ݐ‬
݀‫ܫ‬
‫ = ܧ‬−ܰ݇
݀‫ݐ‬
݀‫ܫ‬
‫ = ܧ‬−‫ܮ‬ where ‫݇ܰ = ܮ‬
݀‫ݐ‬
The constant of proportionality ‫ ܮ‬is known as the self inductance of the coil defined as

Self inductance – the ratio of self induced emf (back emf) to the rate of change of current in the
conductor.
 ݀߶୆ ݀‫ܫ‬
ܰ =‫ܮ‬
݀‫ݐ‬ ݀‫ݐ‬
ܰ݀߶୆ = ‫ܫ݀ܮ‬

ܰ߶୆ = ‫ܫܮ‬

Consider a solenoid, recall that the magnetic field strength is given as ‫ߤ = ܤ‬଴ ݊‫ܫ‬. Hence;

߶୆ = ‫ܣܤ‬

߶୆ = ߤ଴ ݊‫ܣܫ‬

For a solenoid of length ݈ then from ܰ߶୆ = ‫;ܫܮ‬

ܰ߶୆ = ‫ܫܮ‬

ܰ(ߤ଴ ݊‫ܫܮ = )ܣܫ‬

ܰ
ܰ(ߤ଴ ‫ܫܮ = )ܣܫ‬
݈
ߤ଴ ܰ ଶ ‫ܣܫ‬
‫=ܮ‬
‫݈ܫ‬
ߤ଴ ܰ ଶ ‫ܣ‬
‫=ܮ‬
݈
6.4 Energy Stored in an Inductor

Inductor is a coil used for its property of self-inductance.

Energy is stored in an inductor in the form of magnetic field in it.

When the switch is closed;

• Current begin to increase until its maximum value

ௗூ
During the increase of current at the rate of
ௗ௧
•
ௗூ
self inductance causes back emf of ߝ = −‫ܮ‬
ௗ௧
•
• current opposed by back emf. Power need to be done to overcome back emf
ௗூ
ܲ = ߝ‫ = ܫ‬−‫ܫܮ‬
ௗ௧
• work is done by the battery or source that provides the current
• this work is stored as magnetic field in the solenoid
ௗூ
when current reach max value, no more self induction as
ௗ௧
•

Energy stored in the coil

Energy = න ܲ ݀‫ݐ‬

݀‫ܫ‬
Energy = න −‫ܫܮ‬ ݀‫ݐ‬
݀‫ݐ‬
ூబ
Energy = න −‫ܫ݀ ܫܮ‬
଴

‫ܫ‬଴ ଶ
Energy = −‫ܮ‬
2
1
Energy = − ‫ܫܮ‬଴ ଶ
2
The negative sign means that work is done against the back emf and that is the energy stored in
the coil.
6.5 Mutual Induction

Mutual induction ‫ܯ‬, is the phenomenon when production of induced emf in a coil due to
change in current in a neighbouring coil.

Consider two coil placed side by side coaxially such that

• number of turns and area of cross section of the coils are ܰଵ , ‫ܣ‬ଵ , ܰଶ , and ‫ܣ‬ଶ
• when switch is closed, current flow in coil 1
• magnetic flux build up inside the coil
• this is experienced by coil 2
• thus, emf will be induced in coil 2

Rate of change of current in coil 1 is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux

݀߶ ݀‫ܫ‬ଵ
∝
݀‫ݐ‬ ݀‫ݐ‬
This magnetic flux felt by coil 2 induces emf

݀߶
ߝଶ ∝ ܰଶ
݀‫ݐ‬
݀‫ܫ‬ଵ
ߝଶ ∝ ܰଶ
݀‫ݐ‬
݀‫ܫ‬ଵ
ߝଶ = −‫ܯ‬
݀‫ݐ‬
Where ‫ ܯ‬is the constant of proportionality known as mutual inductance.
inductance If the current change
takes place in coil 2 and induction happens in coil 1, then

݀‫ܫ‬ଶ
ߝଵ = −‫ܯ‬
݀‫ݐ‬
From ‫ܧ‬ଵ and ‫ܧ‬ଶ the value of ‫ ܯ‬is the same, which means it does not depends which coil carries
the current (primary) and which coil get induced (secondary).

From Faraday’s and and Lenz’s law;

݀߶
ߝଶ = −ܰଶ
݀‫ݐ‬
݀‫ܫ‬ଵ ݀߶ଶ
−‫ܯ‬ = −ܰଶ
݀‫ݐ‬ ݀‫ݐ‬
‫ܫܯ‬ଵ = ܰଶ ߶ଶ

Unit for mutual inductance is also Henry,

Henry H.

If two coils are designed such that the magnetic flux from primary coil is experienced fully by
secondary coil;

݀߶ଶ ݀߶ଵ
ߝଶ = −ܰଶ = −ܰଶ
݀‫ݐ‬ ݀‫ݐ‬
݀
ߝଶ = −ܰଶ (‫) ܣ ܤ‬
݀‫ ݐ‬ଵ ଵ
݀
ߝଶ = −ܰଶ (ߤ ݊ ‫) ܣ ܫ‬
݀‫ ݐ‬଴ ଵ ଵ ଵ
݀‫ܫ‬ଵ
ߝଶ = −ܰଶ ߤ଴ ݊ଵ ‫ܣ‬ଵ
݀‫ݐ‬
ߝଶ
= −ܰଶ ߤ଴ ݊ଵ ‫ܣ‬ଵ
݀‫ܫ‬ଵ
݀‫ݐ‬
ܰଵ
‫ = ܯ‬−ܰଶ ߤ଴ ൬ ൰ ‫ܣ‬ଵ
݈ଵ

ܰ௣ ܰ௦ ߤ଴ ‫ܣ‬
‫=ܯ‬−
݈௣

Assumptions made in this derivation are

• all the flux from primary coil entered secondary coil

• ‫ܣ‬௦ ≥ ‫ܣ‬௣
• primary coil has infinite length
6.6 D.C. Motor

Working principle of D.C. motor

• DC current flows in the coil, produces magnetic field

• This magnetic field interacts with the permanent magnet fixed around the coil
• From Fleming’s left hand rule, torque will be produced that rotates the motor

However,

• when the motor rotates, the magnetic flux through the coil changes
• back emf is induced in the coil
• oppose the rotation of armature and the applied potential difference

Consider a motor rotate with an angular speed ߱. If the area of the coil of the armature is ‫ܣ‬,
the number of turns is ܰ and the strength of the magnetic field is ‫ܤ‬, then the rate of change of
magnetic flux is

݀߶஻ ݀
= ܰ‫ ܣܤ‬cos ߠ
݀‫ݐ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
݀߶஻ ݀
= ܰ‫ ܣܤ‬cos ߱‫ݐ‬
݀‫ݐ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
ߝ = − ܰ‫ ߱ܣܤ‬sin ߱‫ݐ‬

The back emf is proportional to the frequency of rotation.

Power in D.C. motor

Consider a motor supplied with voltage ܸ଴and the resistance of its armature be ܴ ߗ . When it is
switched on, the current in the coil is

ܸ଴
‫=ܫ‬
ܴ
When the speed of the coil increase, a back emf will be produced which leads to

• decrease in net potential difference across the coil

• decrease in current
• magnetic force will also decrease
• motor will rotate at constant speed

Under these conditions

 ܸ − ܸୠୟୡ୩ = ‫ܴܫ‬

ܸ = ܸୠୟୡ୩ + ‫ܴܫ‬

power ܲ = ‫ܸܫ‬

‫ܸ(ܫ = ܸܫ‬ୠୟୡ୩ + ‫)ܴܫ‬

ܲ = ‫ܸܫ‬ୠୟୡ୩ + ‫ ܫ‬ଶ ܴ

Input power = output power + dissipated power

7.1 Alternating Current through a Resistor
Root mean square GrmsI value of an a.c. is the value of the constant d.c. that dissipates power at
the same rate as the mean power dissipated by this a.c. when the two are allowed to flow in a
given resistor separately.

For a sinusoidal a.c., the peak current N8 is related to rms current as follows

N8
NOPQ =
√2

Similarly for an a.c. voltage,

68
6OPQ =
√2

Consider a circuit which consist of a resistor and an a.c. voltage supply as shown;

The voltage across the resistor at any instant is given by 6 = 68 sin 9:

where 9 is the angular frequency 9 = 2ST

Applying Ohm’s law, current in the resistor is found from

6
N=
D
68
N= sin 9:
D
N = N8 sin 9:

Current and voltage has the same pattern, they are said to be in phase.
The power across the resistor at any instant is

V = N6

V = GN8 sin 9:IG68 sin 9:I

V = N8 68 sinE 9:

The mean power in a resistor is

N8 68 1
<V >= , mean of sinE 9: =
2 2
7.2 Alternating Current through an Inductor
A circuit with an a.c. voltage and an inductor is shown below, the voltage across the inductor is
the back-emf caused by self-induction.

aN
` = −>
a:
Comparing to the magnitude of supply voltage

aN
6Qbccde = >
a:
aN
> = 68 sin 9:
a:
aN 68
= sin 9:
a: >
68
N=f sin 9: a:
>
68
N= f sin 9: a:
>
68 cos 9:
N= g− h
> 9
68
N=− cos 9:
9>
68 S
N=− sin i9: − j
9> 2
k
Current in the inductor lags the supply voltage by E .
 l
Maximum current is A=m .

l lm
Notice that N8 = A=m is identical to N8 = .
_

Unlike in resistor circuit, no power is dissipated in an inductor. This form of “resistance”

introduced by the inductor is known as reactance,
reactance p with the unit Ω.

For inductor, reactance <= = 9>.

<= directly proportional to frequency. That is, a.c. with higher frequency will experience larger
“resistance” from inductor.

Power variation of this circuit

V = N6

V = 68 sin 9: G−N8 cos 9:I

1
V = −68 N8 sin 9: cos 9: = − 68 N8 sin 29:
2
7.3 Alternating Current through a Capacitor

Consider a source of a.c. voltage connected to a capacitor as shown below.

The instantaneous voltage across the capacitor is

q
6=
K
Where q is the charge in the capacitor at that instant and K is the value of the capacitance of
the capacitor. Current in the circuit is given by

aq
N=
a:
For a.c. voltage of 6 = 68 sin 9:;

a
N= GK6I
a:
a
N=K G6 sin 9:I
a: 8
N = 9K68 cos 9:
S
N = 9K68 sin i9: + j
2
k k
In this case, voltage lags current by E radian, or current leads voltage by E radian.
 N8 = 9K68
lm
Comparing to N8 = ;
_

@
Reactance of capacitor is <? =
A?

<? is inversely proportional to frequency.

Power variation in this circuit

V = N6

V = 68 sin 9: GN8 cos 9:I

1
V = 68 N8 sin 9: cos 9: = 68 N8 sin 29:
2
7.4 R-C and R-L Circuits in Series

Consider a capacitor and a resistor connected in series to an a.c. power supply. In a series
circuit, current flowing through capacitor and resistor is the same.

Recall that the potential difference across the capacitor lags the current by phase difference by
90° or S/2 radian.

From the phasor diagram, the total potential difference across the R-C circuit is given by

6 = |6_ E + 6? E

NB = |N E D E + N E <? E

B = |D E + <? E

Where B is impedance,
impedance given by the ratio of the rms potential difference to the rms current;

6OPQ
B=
NOPQ

Hence, impedance also has the same unit as resistance Ω.

Phase angle of the total potential difference is given by

6?
tan } =
6_

N<?
tan } =
ND
1
tan } =
9KD
Consider an inductor and a resistor connected in series to an a.c. power supply. Similarly, the
current flowing through both inductor and resistor is the same.

For the case of inductor, the potential difference across it leads the current by 90° or S/2
radian.

Total potential difference across the R-L circuit is given by

6 = |6_ E + 6= E

NB = |N E D E + N E <= E

B = |D E + <= E

Phase angle of total potential difference

6=
tan } =
6_

N<=
tan } =
ND
9>
tan } =
D

Impedance of the circuit is expressed as

B = CD E + G<= − <? IE