SPE 142713

Tight Gas Reservoirs: Geological Evaluation of the Building Blocks

Chandramani Shrivastava, Schlumberger Oman; Redha Lawatia, Schlumberger Oman

Copyright 2011, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Middle East Unconventional Gas Conference and Exhibition held in Muscat, Oman, 31 January–2 February 2011.

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Abstract

Tight Gas Reservoirs (TGR) is attracting the attention of Oil & Gas industry from all quarters. Optimum exploitation depends
upon the petrophysical evaluation and geological understanding. An insight into geological complexities of TGR is imperative to
have a better evaluation of such reservoirs. This study details the tight gas sands (TGS) only as most of the TGR activities around
the world are focused mainly on the clastics. It aims at explaining the different geological events that give rise to the tightness in
the sandstone reservoirs and also presents a methodology to properly evaluate the geological complexities introduced. The TGS
carry the imprint of both the primary depositional factors and secondary post-depositional ones. Grain size, sorting and distribution
of detrital clay within a sequence stratigraphic framework govern the reservoir properties as depositional factors. Diagenesis is the
key factor to control the tightness of the reservoirs after the deposition depending upon the compaction and cementation. Fractures
are the post-depositional factors; the tectonic fractures along with the drilling induced ones provide an understanding of the stress
regime and a clue towards planning the stimulation program. Conventional and sidewall cores with conventional open hole logs
provide a larger understanding in terms of depositional environment and lithology variations. Detailed petrography with the help of
XRD and SEM aids to understand the cementation pattern. Elemental capture spectroscopy and Spectral gamma logging can help
correlating the cementation/ clay distribution within wells. Borehole images are quite helpful in capturing the textural variations
which govern the differential diagenesis and also the drilling and natural fractures orientation and their association with rock
facies. The study attempts to establish the need of proper geological evaluation which provides the building blocks for
petrophysical and reservoir engineering evaluation to optimize the exploitation strategy.

Introduction

Tight gas reservoirs are increasingly being talked about as the unconventional reservoirs with a huge potential to boost the reserves
and production. The widening gap between demand and supply of the fossil fuel with repect to the estimated reserves has brought
many of the unconventional energy sources to the fore. Tight gas reservoirs are one of these nconventional reservoirs which
occupy the central position in the resource triange for natural gas (Figure 1). There are different views regarding the definition of
tight gas reservoirs…the most talked one defines the reservoirs which have permeability less than 0.1mD (miili Darcies) as Tight.
A generally accepted industry definition is reservoirs that do not produce economic volumes of natural gas without assistance from
massive stimulation treatments or special recovery processes and technologies, such as horizontal wells.

A detailed insight into the geological evolution of such reservoirs is of utmost importance since it plays the controlling role in the
understanding and evaluation of the reservoirs. Holditch (2006) also advocated its need by stating that the analysis of a tight gas
reservoir should always begin with a thorough understanding of the geologic characteristics of the formation. There are many
studies across the globe describing the tight gas reservoirs and their development strategies. Most of the tight gas reservoirs
attracting attention are in the clastics, and the present work discusses the geological evaluation of tight gas sandstones. Some of the
most extensively studied reservoirs from the geological evaluation angle are from USA, such as the Upper Jurassic Cotton Valley
Sandstone in the Gulf of Mexcio, Cretaceous Travis Peak formation in East texas basin and Cretaceous Almond & Frontier Sands
in Gretaer Green River basin.
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Figure 1: Resource Triangle for natural gas (Modified after Holditch, 2006)

Geological Building blocks

What makes the reservoir tight is the paramount question. Based on studies of tight-gas sandstones from the Frontier, Mesaverde,
and Travis Peak formations, Soeder and Chowdiah (1990) concluded that tight-gas sandstones are distinguished petrographically
from sandstones of higher permeability by (1) loss of primary porosity through diagenesis, (2) occurrence of most porosity in
secondary (dissolved) pore space, and (3) the existence of slot pores between adjoining quartz overgrowths on sand grains that
form the interconnected pathways for fluid flow. In summary, secondary-solution pores comprise the storage porosity and the
width of slot pores sets the permeability to flow. The tight gas sands would have lesser voids and connections as shown in Figure
2, where the left hand side representative volume shows conventional sandstone with 39% porosity and the right hand side volume
shows the tight sand with 5% porosity (Pores are dark, quartz is gray, and calcite is white).

Figure 2: Representative volumes for conventional sandstone reservoirs and tight gas sandstones. (Source:
http://www.ingrainrocks.com/porosity/

Nelson (2009) suggests that for measures of central tendency (mean, mode, and median), conventional reservoir sandstones
generally have pore sizes greater than 20 µmand pore-throat sizes greater than 2 µm. Tight-gas sandstones have pore-throat sizes
ranging from about 2 to 0.03 µm. The low permeabilities (and porosities) associated with tight gas sands can be attributed directly
to a large distribution of small to very small pores and/or a very tortuous system of pore throats connecting those pores. Further,
both small pores and tortuous pore throat systems can result from several processes — including initial deposition of fine to very
fine grained sediments, the presence of various types of dispersed shales and clays in the pores and/or post-depositional diagenesis
that alter the original pore structure. Therefore, successful exploitation of a tight gas sand reservoir requires a basic understanding
of the rock pore structure and properties as well as the processes affecting those properties.
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The different geological processes and events responsible for the tightening of sandstones and also their reservoir properties
development are discussed here as the building blocks of the reservoir. The geological building blocks can be grouped grossly in
two classes, the Primary factors and the Secondary factors (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Building blocks for Tight Sandstone Reservoirs.

The primary building blocks of a tight sandstone reservoir are the depositional factors, such as grain size, sorting, provenance,
mineralogy, flow regime and the sedimentary depsotional environment. These geological aspects become even more important
during the onset of secondary processes since a trend can be established between the sequence stratigraphy and diagenesis in many
cases. The framework grains, matrix and the cement constitute the mineralogy of sandstone, going through the saga of
transportation from the provenance, sedimentation and lithification. The reservoir properties developed during primary processes
depend a lot on the provenance, grain size, their packing, sorting and the geological agencies responsible for all these textural and
mineralogical manifestation. Depending upon the energy conditions and the flow regime of the depositional environment, different
sedimentary structures are formed which govern the flow properties through them in the sandstone reservoirs. Bio-turbation also
affects the sandstone fabric selectively. In general, the high energy conditions provide opportunity for coarser grained rocks with
better sorting to account for good porosity and permeability; compared to the finer, ill-sorted sediments with lesser porosity and
permeability in low energy conditions. However, the fate of these properties by modification of secondary processes gets governed
to a larger extent by the primary factors responsible. The sequence stratigraphic framework for understanding the distribution of
sand bodies in the exploration phase is quite helpful not for conventional reservoirs, but also in understanding the diagenetic
processes responsible for tightness of the reservoirs.

The regional and local tectonics plays a very important role in the evolution of tight gas sands. The pressure and thermal gradients
are affected by these factors in a very important way. The regional structural grains of the basin control the basic framework of the
pressure distribution in the sub-surface. The stress regime is a direct function of the tectonic setup and must be understood propely
to decipher the complexities aring from the over-pressured and basin-centred gases. The igneous implacents, salt tectonics etc
alongwith the tectonic evolution exercise controls over the tightness of the sandstones. Structural elements of fractures can provide
the sweet spots in exploration for tight sands, and also the conduit for fluid flow leading to post-structural diagenetic alteration. In
some cases, the diagenetically altered rock is more prone to the brittle fracturing thereby giving rise to post-diagenetic structural
changes. It can be said that tectonics and structural framework go hand-in-hand with diagenetic changes as well to affect the
tightness of the sands.

Diagenesis — defined as any post-depositional process causing changes in the initial rock properties — is very important since it is
the principal cause of both low permeability and low porosity in tight gas sands. Diagenesis may be either a physical or a chemical
process, or it might be a combination of several different types of processes. In fact, diagenesis is frequently caused by very
complex interactions between the sediment minerals and pore fluids at elevated reservoir pressure and temperature conditions.
Initial diagenetic events are linked directly to the prevailing local depositional environment as well as the sediment composition.
Subsequent diagenesis is typically more widespread, often crossing multiple facies boundaries as a result of regional fluid
migration patterns. The most common tight sand generally consist of highly altered primary porosity, extensively occluded with
authigenic quartz growth, coupled with significant secondary pore development (Rushing).

The diagenesis can roughly be grouped as Eogensesis (Early diagenesis), Mesogenesis (Burial diagenesis) and Teleogenesis (Late
diagenesis, often associated with post-burial structural changes in rocks). Compaction and cementation are two main processes
during burial diagenesis which cause the tightness of sands. The compaction could be mechanical and chemical whereas
cementation is always a chemical process of mineral precipitation and dissolution. The most common cement compositions in tight
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gas sands are silica and carbonate. Authigenic clay minerals may also act as cements by helping to bind rock particles together.
Most cement tends to reduce both permeability and porosity. However, the presence of authigenic grain coats and rims retards
quartz cementation and the associated reduction in permeability and porosity by blocking potential nucleation sites for quartz
overgrowths on detrital quartz grains (Rushing).

Geological Eavluation of the building Blocks

The geological evaluation of the building blocks of tight gas sands can be attempted with direct and indirect measurements (Figure
4).

Figure 4: Geological Evaluation of Tight sands building blocks

Direct Evaluation

The conventiona core is the nearest to the truth and the early exploration wells for tight gas sands must give due importance to
acquisition of the full core in the zone of interest in key wells. All the geological facies and their association can be described in a
sequence stratigraphic framework to understand the depositional environment, sands texture, diagenetic alteration, probable
reservoir morphology, sands distribution and their orientation. The different sedimentary structures control the tightness and flow
behavior of the sands not only as primary controls, but also with the subsequent diagenesis associated with them. Sidewall cores
help in the uncored intervals, mostly to understand the lithology complexity and texture for clay distribution and cementation
patterns, other than the petrophysical analysis.

The rotary sidewall core is recommened due to its superiority over percussion coring in terms of preserving the rock texture and
petrophysical properties in the tight reservoirs. A core of 1m is shown in Figure 5 from tight gas sandstone.

Figure 5: 1m of core from a tight gas sandstone reservoir, with permeability nowhere exceeding 0.025 mD and porosity
varying between 1-2%. (Source: http://www.npd.no/en/)

The first step towards understanding the detailed mineralogy and texture could be thin section analysis. Thin section analyses helps
assess the rock composition including the type and quantity of framework grains, matrix, and cementing materials with the types
of porosity in the rocks including both primary and secondary porosity.

X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis helps to establiash the clay mineralogy in detail, though it also details the gross rock
composition. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) provides additional information on the pore-system geometry, authigenic
mineralogy, and paragenetic relationships. SEM can also provide information on mineralogy, clay content, and both pore-filling
and pore-lining cements and clays (Figure 6). The quartz overgrowths or chlorite linings developed can affect the reservoir
qualities differently. The resultant effect can be seen in the thin section (Figure 7) where similar petrophysical properties are
exhibited by different composition in tight sandstones, however with way different resistivity due to the mineralogical variation
(Hansen 2010).
SPE 142713 5

Figure: Figure 6: SEM photograph of Quartz and the overgrowths.Source: http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/

Figure 7: Two tight sandstone reservoirs with similarly low permeability (< 1mD) exhibit contrasting mineralogy and
texture. Left – Quartzite (98% quartz grains & overgrowth) with ρma = 2.65 g/cc and Rt = 500 Ω.m; Right – Chlorite-
lined quartz with ρma = 2.82 g/cc and Rt = 2 Ω.m. (Hansen, 2010)

Mercury-Injection Capillary Pressure Measurements (MICP) is an effective technique to quantify pore geometry, particularly the
size and distribution of pore bodies and throats (Rushing). All these direct measurements with Conventional, Routine and Special
core analysis provide a detailed description and geological evaluation of the tight sands. However, some direct measurements are
cost-intesive and it takes a long time to analyse the data for a decent understanding.

Indirect Evaluation:

The indirect methods for geological evaluation are based primarlily on the outcrop studies, well log measurements and simulated
models. Geophysical well logging methods provide convenient means of acquiring and analyzing the continuous record of well
logs in a time and cost effective manner. The outcrop studies and modern-day analogues help in understanding the processes
associated with the evolution of tight sands and help a great deal in evaluating them.

Different simulated models can be prepared with sophisticated softwares computational capabilities to understand the effects of
changes in the geological processes on the effective tightness of the reservoirs. Mousavi et al (2007) and Tobin presented very
good account of diagenetic modeling.

The plethora of information available for the tight gas sandstones is based on the outcrop studies by many geologists. Hall (1997)
presented an excellent account of outcrop study in the Ainsa basin where the diagenetic changes and the depositional history were
explained in a sequence stratigraphic framework. Such field studies provide an indirect means to understand the geological
evaluation of tight sands sub-surface.

Geophysical well logging provides a continuous record of different responses from the sub-surface. The most important
measurement for evalution of tight sands are borehole imaging, spectral gamma ray logging, elemental capture spectroscopy
(ECS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) alongwith the conventional measurements of resistivity, porosity and density.
6 SPE 142713

Spectral gamma logging is a requisite for clay-typing continius record. Different clay minerals affect the reservoir properties
differently and also are instrumental in decicing the stimulation program.

The borehole images provide the highest resolution measurements (0.2 inches with Formation Micro-resistivity Imager). This
measurement provides a plethora of information for tight sands evaluation, and it should be a standard logging run for the
geological evaluation of tight sands. The borehole images not only detail the sedimentological evaluation, textural characterization
and depositional environment, but also capture various diagenetic alterations. The advanced application modules provide high
resolution mineralogical variations which helps a lot in identification of calcitic cements in the tight sandstones. The high
resolution synthetic resistivity curve derived form the borehole images is coupled with the ECS data to pin-point calcite
responsible for cemnentation in many sand intervals (Figure 8).

Figure 8: The blue streaks here represent the calcite cement in a siliciclastic sequence, interpreted with the ECS and
image logs advanced applicatiom module.

The diagenetic changes, nodules can be observed with their dimensions and relationship with primary texture on the image logs.
Figure 9 illustrates an example where the cementation is observes in the corss-bedded sandstone interval as very white patches on
the image.

Figure 9: White patches showing the diagenetic cements affecting the cross-bedded sandstone, dips shown with red
sinusoids.

Structural features, such as faults and fractures can be interpreted for their orientation, genetic relationship and morphology on the
images. The drilling induced fractures (Figure 10) and the breakouts observed on the borehole images provide vital information on
the stress regime which is key to successful hydro-fracturing of the tight gas reservoirs.

Figure 10: The static and dynamically normalized borehole images showing induced fracture

The NMR methods have vast applications in petrophysical evaluation of reservoirs. However, their application in geological
evaluation can not be undermined. The sand size and pore size distribution can be inferred from the NMR log (Figure 11).
SPE 142713 7

Figure 11: Borehole Image and NMR response in an interval of medium-fine grained sands of a fluvial reservoir

Need of Geological Evaluation

The need of developing a proper geological understanding is imperative for optimal exploitation of such reservoirs. The sequence
straugraphic concepts provide an insight into possible sites for diagenetic changes and destruction of porosity and permeability to
lend tightness to the reservoir rocks. The stress regime can be understood with the borehole image logs and the sonic logs which
would help in formulating the hydro-fracturing strategy.

The classic clastic sedimentology provides key concepts in understanding the reservoir properties in the tight gas sandstones. The
original porosity and permeability of the channel sands can be reduced by preferential silica cementation in the clean and mud-
deficient deeply buried channel bars. However, the intergranular mud in associated splay sands could minimize silica cementation
during burial, preserving the reservoir properties better than the bars. Similarly, many times the otherwise very good permeability
cross-bedded sands can become very tight with the cementation around the re-activation surfaces rendering them tight and lesser
prospect compared to other architectural elements.

The concepts of sequence stratigraphy suggest a link between some diagenetic reactions and system tracts. Fluvial deposits of
Lowstand System Tract (LST) may contain abundant grain dissolution of silicate to kaolinite owing to effective meteoric water
circulation, compared to the estuarine or marine deposits of transgressive system tract (TST) or Highstand System Tract (HST).
Ketzer (2002) suggested that the TST and early HST paralic sandstones have higher potential to be cemented by carbonates
(notably calcite) than, for instance, late HST and LST deposits because marine transgression causes trapping of coarse-grained
sediments in estuaries, reducing the sediment flux to the shelf which will lead to a higher degree of wave reworking of sands on
the shelf. Wave reworking results in effective incorporation of carbonate bioclatics that act as potential sources and nuclei for later
carbonate cementation.

The integration of diagenesis and sequence stratigraphy as suggested by Ketzer (2002) can provide a general, predictive model for
evolution of reservoir quality in sandstones and distribution of fluid flow baffles and barriers in siliciclastic sequences (Figure 12).
This model comprises preferential sites for cementation, thus porosity and presumably permeability destruction, or for dissolution,
thus porosity and possibly permeability enhancement.

Figure 12: Diagenetic changes in a sequence stratigraphic framework (Ketzer, 2002)

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While preparing the stimulation program, an attempt could be made to target the sweeter zones. The heterogeneity in the tightness
of the reservoirs does prvide an opportunity to identify the location and intervals which would offer least resistance to stimulation.
This could be understood by mapping the diagenetic changes and understanding the structural complexities. Also, the sand body
orientation for different depositional architectural elements should be honored while preparing the frac design. Braid bars in a
fluvial system with different orientation (Figure 13) would need different frac half-length, honoring the stress regime present
(Hansen, 2009).

Figure 13: Fracture orientation honoring the stress regime, fracture length needs to honor the sand body orientation
though (From Hansen, 2009)

Understanding of the building blocks for the tight gas sands and their geological evaluation provide detailed information not only
towards identifyting the best intervals, but also helps in their exploitation program.

Conclusion

The building blocks of the tight sandstone reservoirs evolution are discussed as primary and secondary factors. A decent
understanding of these factors like depositional, structural and diagenetic changes is imperative since the interplay of these factors
govern the evolution of the sands as unconventional and tight. The direct and indirect evaluation methods were suggested for
evaluating the tight sands. Conventiona core analysis to advanced wireline logging, integration of measurements across different
scale should be undertaken to evaluate the tight gas sands. The best sands can be selected for development in a sequence
stratigraphic framework, their orientation and stress regime computation can be performed with the evaluation methods. Based on
the understanding developed, optimal exploitation program could be planned.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the Schlumberger management for their approval to present this work. They also acknowledge the
support of their colleagues and professors for their help in developing the concepts.

References:

1. Hall, MT (1997) Sequence Stratigraphy and Early Diagenesis: the Sobrarbe Formation, Ainsa basin, Spain; PhD thesis
submitted at University of Manchester

2. Hansen, SM (2009) Formation Evaluation in Tight Gas Reservoirs; EAGE TG-19

3. Holditch, SA (2006) Tight Gas Sands; SPE 103356

4. Ketzer, J. (2002); Diagenesis and Sequence Stratigraphy: An integrated approach to constrain evolution of reservoir
quality in sandstones. ISBN 91-554-5439-9

5. Mousavi, MA; Bryant, SL (2007) Geometric models of Porosity Reduction Mechanism in Tight Gas Sands; SPE 107693
SPE 142713 9

6. Nelson, PH (2009) Pore-throat sizes in sandstones, tight sandstones, and shales: AAPG Bulletin, v. 93, no. 3 (March
2009), pp. 329–340

7. Rushing, JA (2008) Rock Typing — Keys to Understanding Productivity in Tight Gas Sands; SPE 114164

8. Soeder, DJ; Chowdiah, P (1990) Pore geometry in highandlow-permeability sandstones, Travis Peak Formation, East
Texas; SPE 17729

9. Tobin, RC; McClain, t; Lieber, RB; Ozkan, A; Banfield, LA; Marchand, AME; McRae, LE (2010) Reservoir quality
modeling of tight-gas sands in Wamsutter field: Integration of diagenesis, petroleum systems, and production data; AAPG
Bulletin, v. 94, no. 8 (August 2010), pp. 1229–1266

WWW Resources:

http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/ Courtesy: Debra Higley

http://www.npd.no/en/