Chapter 3 Empowerment in Relation to Power

CHAPTER 3
EMPOWERMENT IN RELATION TO POWER

3.1 Introduction

In the previous chapter a literature study has been undertaken with regard to
the definition and conceptualization of empowerment. For the purpose of this
study “empowerment” has been defined in terms of meaning, self-
determination, competence, impact along with an additional dimension of
workplace spirituality.

Power and empowerment are related (Hopfl, 1994).This chapter includes view
points of some researchers as to how concepts of power and empowerment
are related. It also throws light on how empowerment can be understood in
relation to power in organisations. Power can be looked at as an individual
and collective force that can either undermine or empower employees and
their organisations. Power is required to be able to influence an individual or
group (Manojlovich, 2007). It is a force that can facilitate, exhilarate or impede
the process of change.

3.2 Understanding Power - Page and Czuba (1999)

At the core of the concept of empowerment is the idea of power. The

possibility of empowerment depends on two things. First, empowerment
requires that power can change. If power cannot change and it is inherent in
position-holders, then empowerment is not possible, and empowerment is not
conceivable in any meaningful way. In other words, if power can change, then
empowerment is possible.

Second, the concept of empowerment depends upon the idea that power can
expand. In other words, power is not zero-sum game. If an individual is
gaining power it does not necessarily mean that the other person is losing it.

63
Chapter 3 Empowerment in Relation to Power

Power is often related to one’s ability to make others do what he wants,

regardless of their own wishes or interests. Traditional social science
emphasizes power as influence and control, often treating power as a
commodity or structure separate from human action (Lips, 1981). Understood
in this way, power can be inferred as unchangeable. Power exists within the
context of a relationship between people or things. Power does not exist in
isolation nor is it inherent in individuals. By implication, since power is created
in relationships, power and power relationships can change.

The concept of empowerment also depends upon power that can expand,
second stated requirement. Understanding power as zero-sum, as something
that one gets at other’s expense, impede the possibility of empowerment. A
zero-sum conception of power means that power will remain in the hands of
the powerful unless they give it up.

Contemporary research on power has opened new perspectives that reflect

aspects of power that are not zero-sum, but are shared. It brings into focus
another aspect of power, one that is characterized by collaboration, sharing,
and mutuality. It is this definition of power, as a process that occurs in
relationships, that makes the empowerment possible.

3.3 Understanding Empowerment - Page and Czuba (1999)

Empowerment is a construct shared by many disciplines and arenas:

community development, psychology, education, economics, and studies of
social movements and organizations, among others. How empowerment is
understood varies among these perspectives. In recent empowerment
literature, the meaning of the term empowerment is often assumed rather than
explained or defined. Empowerment can be defined differently in different
contexts. A common understanding of empowerment is necessary, however,
how to precisely define empowerment within the projects and programmes will
depend upon the specific people and context involved.

64
Chapter 3 Empowerment in Relation to Power

Empowerment is a multi-dimensional process that helps people gain control

over their own lives. It is a process that fosters power in people, for use in
their own lives, their communities, and in their society, by acting on issues
that they define as important. Empowerment also occurs at various levels,
such as individual, group, and community.

Empowerment is a social process, since it occurs in relationship to others.

One important implication of this definition of empowerment is that the
individual and community are fundamentally connected. Empowerment is a
process that is similar to a journey, that develops as one works through it.
Aspects of empowerment may vary according to the specific context and
people involved.

3.4 Relationship between Power and Empowerment-

(Oudshoorn, 2005)
Different definitions and sources of power have been identified. If power is the
ability to act or produce a change in the way one desires, empowerment is the
facilitation of this power. A number of definitions of empowerment have been
identified.

Empowerment can simply be defined as the gaining of power. However, like

the concept of power, a simple definition of empowerment helps a little to
understand it. Like power, there are many different definitions of the concept.

1. If power is perceived as 'power over', then empowerment is the ability to

have an influence upon others (Bernstein et al.1994).
2. If it is perceived as 'power to', and power being an ability to act, then
empowerment can be conceptualized as gaining the ability to act or
create, change in the way that one wants (Bernstein et al.1994).
3. If power may be gained, then it can be seen as an attribute (Gibson1991).
4. If power is simply an expression of relationships, then it is not an attribute
inherently possessed (Bernstein et al.1994).

65
Chapter 3 Empowerment in Relation to Power

As in the case of power, empowerment may also be conceptualized on the

macro and the micro levels, with empowerment beginning at the macro level
and 'trickling down' into the micro level (Bernstein, 1994; McWilliam et al.,
2001). In this way power is an intricate web that exists throughout society and
social relationships. Because power is non-zero sum, when empowerment
occurs, all those who are involved, gain from the process (Bernstein et al.
1994) and there is a collective gain of power (Cohen, 1998).

3.5 Empowerment as an Outcome – Oudshoorn (2005)

Empowerment as an outcome is seen as producing a positive self-concept,
personal satisfaction, self-efficacy, self-esteem, mastery, control, a sense of
connectedness, a feeling of hope, an improved quality of life, well-being, and,
not least of all, health (Gibson 1991; Crawford Shearer and Reed, 2004).

As a process, empowerment is a collaboration with individuals that

strengthens rather than weakens (Gibson 1991) and that helps individuals
gain control. Empowerment is helpful in creating a more equitable distribution
in the forms of power (Bernstein et al. 1994), helps people to assert control
(Gibson 1991), and assists them in gaining a sense of mastery (Rappapport,
1981). It is a participatory process (Crawford Shearer and Reed, 2004) that
involves collaboration, interaction and the sharing of resources.

Empowerment is most often understood as being contextual (Bernstein et al.

1994). It is, therefore, grounded in an individual's or group's understanding of
their reality (Freire, 1972), and must be defined by those involved in the
process (Gibson, 1991). Depending on the perspective taken, empowerment
may be the imparting of power or sharing of power, but overall it should be
enabling. Empowerment is often perceived as valuing power as shared rather
than having power over others (Bernstein et al., 1994), and it should be
recognized that there is a difference between these two perspectives (Cohen,
1998). 'Power over' leads to further disempowerment, whereas 'shared power'
leads to power being gained by both the parties. This shared power implies

66
Chapter 3 Empowerment in Relation to Power

consensus, participation, shared decision-making, openness, reciprocity and

collaboration (Bernstein et al. 1994; Henderson 2003).

Though empowerment can occur in the context of relationships, for people to

be truly empowered there is a need for it to take place at all levels, macro and
micro (Gutierrez, DeLois, and GlenMaye 1995). If power is an attribute, those
who hold the objective sources of power must be willing to let them go
(Bernstein et al. 1994) and a subsequent redistribution of power must occur
(Gutierrez, DeLois, and GlenMaye 1995).

3.6 Process of Empowerment - Lord and Hutchison (1993)

Empowerment can be understood by examining the concepts of power. There
are many sources of power like personality, wealth, and influential organizations
(Galbraith, 1983).

At the individual level, powerlessness can be seen as the expectation of the

person that his own actions will be ineffective in influencing the outcomes
(Keiffer, 1984).

Keiffer's (1984) work on empowerment examined personal empowerment as a

process. He explained empowerment as a developmental process which
consists of four stages: entry, advancement, incorporation, and commitment.
The entry stage appears to be motivated by the participant's experience of
some event or condition threatening to the self or family, what Keiffer (1984)
refered to as an act of 'provocation'. In the advancement stage, there are three
major aspects which are important to continuing the empowerment process: a
mentoring relationship; supportive peer relationships with a collective
organization; and the development of a more critical understanding of social
and political relations. The central focus of the third stage appears to be the
development of a growing political consciousness. Commitment is the final
stage - one in which the participants apply the new participatory competence to
ever expanding areas of their lives. Empowerment can exist at three levels: at
the personal level, where empowerment is the experience of gaining increasing

67
Chapter 3 Empowerment in Relation to Power

control and influence in daily life and community participation (Keiffer, 1984), at
the small group level, where empowerment involves the shared experience,
analysis, and influence of groups on their own efforts (Presby et al., 1990), and
at the community level, where empowerment revolves around the utilization of
resources and strategies to enhance community control (Labonte, 1989).

3.7 The Power Behind Empowerment - Hardy and O’Sullivan,

(1998)
According to Hardy and O’ Sullivan (1998), although power and
empowerment are inextricably linked, much of the work on empowerment in
the business literature has been devoid of any discussion of power. They
suggested a four-dimensional model which shows the multifaceted way in
which power works.

Model of Understanding Power

Power is a complex, multidimensional concept. This model indicates that

power is exercised, in the first dimension, by using various resources to
influence the outcome of decision-making processes, in the second
dimension, by controlling access to those processes, and, in the third
dimension, through the process of legitimizing power through cultural and
normative assumptions. The first two dimensions are based on the
assumption that power is mobilized only in the face of conflict and opposition,
whereas the third dimension acknowledges that power can be used to ensure
that such conflict never arises. The fourth dimension draws from recent
developments in the study of power, those of Foucault (1977, 1980, 1985). It
draws attention to the limits of power and its inclusion enables to explore
aspects of power that do not normally appear in the mainstream literature on
power. The focus of the model is on the different ways in which power works
and their implications for empowerment.

The model also explains the conditions necessary for empowerment.

Resources must be acquired to influence decision outcomes (first dimension);
access to decision-making processes must be secured (second dimension);

68
Chapter 3 Empowerment in Relation to Power

and political consciousness must be heightened so that the subordinate is

aware of any political actions, such as the management of meaning, on the
part of others (third dimension). In this way, subordinate is both cognizant of
any domination and, in the event of a decision to resist, is able to do so. The
fourth dimension indicates that the prospects for empowerment, in the sense
of freedom from power effects, are limited for both manager and subordinate.
It suggests that while some actors may derive certain advantages from the
power relations embedded in the system, they can neither control them nor
escape them. Empowerment in real terms will not be achieved without a
radical transformation of the system.

Business Empowerment Practices

The purpose of implementing empowerment programmes may include to

improve productivity, lower costs, etc. Empowerment works, according to
theorists, in two ways. The relational approach to empowerment (Conger and
Kanungo, 1988) aims at reducing the dependencies that make it difficult to get
the job done by delegating authority. Such practices decentralize power by
permitting employees to take part in decision making (Bowen and Lawler,
1992). For example, self-managing teams may be formed to allow workers to
set performance standards and monitor performance, schedule the work,
select their own equipment, participate in recruitment decisions, and deal with
co-worker discipline and absenteeism (Sherwood, 1988).

In contrast to the above, the motivational approach to empowerment

advocated by other management theorists (Conger & Kanungo, 1988;
Thomas & Velthouse, 1990) focuses on empowerment practices that involve
considerably less delegation of power; instead, the emphasis is on open
communication and inspirational goal setting to increase commitment and
involvement of employees (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). For instance,
advocates of the motivational approach recommend setting attainable
objectives that employees can achieve in order to provide opportunities for
enactive attainment, using exemplary co-worker and supervisory role models
as a form of learning, giving words of encouragement and feedback to

69
Chapter 3 Empowerment in Relation to Power

persuade individuals verbally that they are capable, and providing emotional
support to counter stress and anxiety, thereby securing positive forms of
emotional arousal (Thomas & Velthouse, 1990). The primary aim of the
motivational approach is to provide feelings of ownership, responsibility,
capability, association, and involvement to employees (Eccles, 1993).

By helping employees feel that they have power over significant aspects of
their work, and by enabling them to develop a sense of pride and ownership in
their work and in the organization, empowerment is thought to make
employees optimistic, involved, committed, able to cope with adversity, and
willing to perform independently and responsibly (e.g., Conger & Kanungo,
1988, Thomas & Velthouse, 1990).

It is perceived that the motivational approach to empowerment will improve self-

efficacy (Bandura, 1986), the individual’s belief that she or he can do the job.
Self-efficacy has been repeatedly linked to effective performance (Conger &
Kanungo, 1988). The intent is to negate feelings of powerlessness, which are
viewed as the major impediment to efficient performance, irrespective of
whether or not the management practices involve any significant delegation of
power and authority. Empowerment programmes represent a complex set of
organisational changes, which are not necessarily all implemented within the
context of an individual programme (Brown, 1990). The changes may include
enhancing feelings of self-efficacy through motivational techniques or improving
and changing the broader working environment to decentralize power or
incorporating elements of both, depending on the approach being followed.

Business Empowerment Practices: The First Dimension of Power

In relation to the first dimension of power, business empowerment practices

transfer some resources (first dimension) to employees. But, senior managers
often retain control of many important resources, particularly the right to hire,
sack, and promote the subordinates, give rewards, and control budgets rather
than handing such resources over to employees. Thus, the control of at least

70
Chapter 3 Empowerment in Relation to Power

some of the resources associated with the first dimension of power remains
with existing power holders.

Business Empowerment Practices: The Second Dimension of Power

Empowered employees may secure access to some decision-making

processes (second dimension) from which they were previously excluded.
However, ultimate control of these processes generally rests with senior
managers, who decide the arena within which subordinates may operate.
Senior management also continues to set the agenda, usually of improved
performance and profitability. So while some elements of the first and second
dimensions of power are given to employees, managers continue to control
other aspects of these dimensions.

Business Empowerment Practices: The Third Dimension of Power

Empowerment practices appear to depend on the increased use of the third

dimension of power by management, such as an emphasis on selection, and
socializing to legitimate organizational goals (Barker, 1993). Increased
communication promotes organizational priorities by instilling shared
conceptions of these goals among subordinates (Roberts, 1991). The use of
terms like ‘associates’, ‘team members’, helps in reducing conflict by
emphasizing consensus and cooperation. Managerial control is reinforced
through the language of the team effort (Barker, 1993). Peer pressure is often
more effective than managerial threats.

Empowerment can be viewed as an exercise in the management of meaning

to enhance the legitimacy of organizational goals and to influence behavior.
By managing meaning and using power to help employees to perceive that
organisational and employees interest converge, empowerment programmes
reduce the necessity of using visible or coercive forms of power to ensure
that organizational goals are met. Managers are able to provide employees
with greater access to resources, yet still avoid opposition by reducing will of
employees to use their new-found power. The power of senior level

71
Chapter 3 Empowerment in Relation to Power

management, who usually dictate the form and timing of the overall
empowerment initiative, remains untouched.

In a nutshell, this three-dimensional view lends an idea that although business

empowerment programmes promise power to employees, they do not always
deliver on these promises.

Business Empowerment Practices: The Fourth Dimension of Power

The fourth dimension of empowerment acknowledges that practices that

constitute business empowerment could result in some positive experiences
for some individuals. This dimension draws the attention to the complexity and
ambiguity of empowerment as it is experienced by those being empowered.

While empowerment may contain a risk of exploitation, it also encompasses

changes in the organizational environment that may improve the experience
of working life for some, if not ,all employees.

From the mainstream management perspective, power is legitimate and

functional, and can be shared, ostensibly to everyone’s benefit. Empowerment
can thus be used as a tool to motivate employees to achieve organizational
goals. For critical theorists, power is domination, and so, empowerment must
provide the means to combat the sources of domination. Power stands as a
zero-sum game, to gain it, somebody else has to relinquish (give up) it.

3.8 Chapter Summary

This chapter discussed the literature study with regard to power in organisational
context. It also discussed relationship between power and empowerment in
organisations. The next chapter deals with the research methodology used for
the purpose of the present study.

72