HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER

DESIGNING & IMPLEMENTATION

Ga
WITH PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
USING SIMULATION &
MATHEMATICAL MODEL

Submitted By

Syed Naveed Ahmed BSET01143023

M Ali Aftab BSET01143004
Shahzad Ashraf BSET01143037

Engineer Usman Zahid

Supervisor’s Designation

DEPARTMENT OF TECHNOLOGY

THE UNIVERSITY OF LAHORE

W/17-Year
IN THE NAME OF ALLAH
THE MOST GRACIOUS
THE MOST MERCIFUL
 HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER
DESIGNING & IMPLEMENTATION WITH
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS USING
SIMULATION & MATHEMATICAL MODEL

Syed Naveed Ahmed BSET01143023

M Ali Aftab BSET01143004
Shahzad Ashraf BSET01143037

A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree
of
B.S Technology (Civil/ Mechanical/ Electrical)

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Name: Name:
Signature: Signature:

Head of Department Name

Name:
Signature:

Department of Technology, University of Lahore, Lahore

DEPARTMENT OF TECHNOLOGY

THE UNIVERSITY OF LAHORE

W/F-Year
 DECLARATION

We certify that our project titled “HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER

DESIGNING & IMPLEMENTATION WITH PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
USING SIMULATION & MATHEMATICAL MODEL” is our own work and it
is not presented elsewhere for the degree requirement of BS Technology. All
sources used and any help received in the preparation of this dissertation have
been acknowledge. We hereby declare that we have not submitted this material,
either in whole or in part, for any other degree at this or any other institution.

Syed Naveed Ahmed BSET01143023

M Ali Aftab BSET01143004

Shahzad Ashraf BSET01143037

DEDICATION

Every challenge needs selfless efforts as well as guidance of elders, especially those who
are very close to our heart. We dedicate it to our parents and grandparents for their
endless love, support and encouragement throughout our life.

i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All praises to Almighty Allah who bestowed upon us his blessing, which enable us to
accomplish this scientific assignment objectively and successfully.

We owe sincere gratitude to our supervisor who extended every possible cooperation,
guidance and advice during the completion of this work, without whose cooperation this
project can never been materialized.

Thanks are also to our teacher of department for their encouragement and co-operation.

We shall always keep on record the nice company provided to us by our friends and the
cherished happy moments spent with them.

We pay our deepest gratitude with deepest sense of respect to our parent whose love and
affection kept us steadfast and enables us to attain target and goal of academic life. We
are extremely indebted to our loving brothers and sisters whose constant encouragement
provided us with the impetus that was necessary for attaining academic initiatives.

ii
ABSTRACT

Our Aim was to design a transformer for AC voltage regulation having

range of 80 to 300 Volts AC. To improve the efficiency and the size of the transformer, it
is designed to operate at a high frequency of up to 10 KHz. We have done simulation and
mathematical modeling of the transformer for performance analysis and comparison of
results using 20 SIM..

iii
LITERATURE REVIEW

High-frequency transformers operate using the same basic principles as standard

transformers. The primary difference is that, as their name implies, they operate at much
higher frequencies — while most line voltage transformers operate at 50 or 60 Hz, high-
frequency transformers use frequencies from 20 Khz to over 1MHz. Operating at a higher
frequency has many benefits, the first of which is size. For any given power rating, the
higher the frequency, the smaller the transformer can be. Second, because the transformer
is smaller, less copper wire is needed, thus reducing the losses and helping to make the
transformer more efficient. Also, since the core is typically ferrite, a wide variety of
geometries are available, so the transformer can be tailor-made for the application.
Whether additional shielding or a specific form factor is required, the chances are good
that a ferrite core exists to meet the requirement. However, the benefits brought about by
light weight, small size, and higher power density, pose a number of challenges.
Minimizing the issues such as skin and proximity effects are a serious concern when
designing hi Skin effects are caused by the tendency of high frequency currents to flow
on the surface of conductors. The losses due to the skin effect can be reduced through the
use of Litz wire. Litz wire is constructed by “weaving” multiple smaller conductors
together to make an equivalent larger wire gauge. For example, using 108 strands of
#40AWG is equivalent to a #20AWG. The size of each individual strand is determined
by the intended operating frequency, with small strands being used for higher
frequencies. The weaving process enables each strand to occupy a space near the outside
(or skin) of the Litz wire at some point in the length of wire, allowing current to flow
more evenly through all strands.
Proximity effects are also known as eddy current losses are caused by the magnetic fields
from adjacent conductors either in adjacent windings, or of more serious concern, in
adjacent layers, which causes current to flow in unintended patterns or in eddy currents.
This effect creates excessive resistance within the wire and unintentional power loss.
There are a number of design considerations that will minimize proximity effects,
selecting a core allowing an increased number of turns/layers is one method. The use of

iv
foil winding layers rather than round wire is another, as is interleaving the winding.gh
frequency transformers. Since proximity effects are a result of magnetic field induced
eddy currents, it should be noted that core gaps can result in losses as well. Wherever
there is an air gap in the core, stray flux lines (magnetic field) extend in an arc, and as a
result proximity effects can have an impact on the transformer winding closest to the air
gap. Again, there are a number of construction techniques that can be used to minimize
this, such as using multiple gaps on the core leg so each gap is smaller, or using a
physical barrier such as tape to keep the winding away from the gap.
As transformers become smaller, power density increases, and despite higher efficiency,
heat dissipation can become a major design hurdle. In many cases active cooling is
needed either with a fan to increase airflow, or by mounting the transformer on a cooling
plate. Potting in a thermally conductive material is also common.

SMPS Topology
The efficiency delivered by an SMPS is critical for modern electronics and has facilitated
the development of a large number of topologies to meet many design requirements.
Below are basic details of some of the most common.
Buck
Buck is a common type of topology; it is also the simplest and cheapest to manufacture.
It is non isolating and ideally suited to step down voltages as a DC to DC converter. This
is a relatively simple circuit with the inductor current controlled by a transistor and diode.
The downside is that to reduce the voltage ripple, output filters typically need to be
added.
Boost
This topology is similar to Buck, as it is also non-isolating, but unlike Buck, Boost steps
up the voltage, rather down. In continuous conduction mode, it draws current relatively
evenly. It is also highly customizable so that it can be applied in may applications such as
power factor correction circuits.

Buck-Boost

v
Buck-Boost topology is designed to both step down and step up voltages and is very
prevalent in battery powered applications that provide varying input voltages. However
there are several disadvantages, the output voltage polarity is opposite the input, and
input filters are needed to reduce EMI from current ripple resulting from switching.
Flyback Fa Flyback provides isolation through the use of a transformer that acts as the
storage inductor. The transformer provides isolation, facilitates multiple outputs, and
allows for voltage adjustment by varying the turns ratio. This topology is widely used for
low power applications, and can also be designed for higher output voltages, but, it
should not be used for anything above 10 amps. With simple circuitry and no need for a
separate inductor, Flyback is one of the most common topologies.

Forward
Forward topology is, in essence, a transformer isolated Buck converter and is also
designed for low voltage applications. Although it offers better efficiency than a Flyback,
it does use an extra inductor, making it slightly unattractive for higher output currents.
However, when higher output is required, its non-pulsating output current makes it ideal
for some applications of 15 amps or more.
Push-Pull
This topology is a forward converter and uses two primary windings that form a dual
drive winding. In this design, the transformer core operates very efficiently, and unlike
Forward and Flyback topology, it lends itself well to being scaled up and requires

Contents
DEDICATION....................................................................................................................I

vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...............................................................................................II

ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................III

LITERATURE REVIEW...............................................................................................IV

LIST OF FIGURES..........................................................................................................X

LIST OF TABLES.........................................................................................................XII

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS......................................................................................XIII

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................14

1.1 CORE SELECTION.......................................................................................................14

1.2 WINDING AND MATERIAL TYPE.................................................................................16

CHAPTER- 2 DYNAMICS OF TRANSFORMER....................................................17

2.1 CONSTRUCTION.................................................................................................17
2.1.1 CORE....................................................................................................................17
2.1.1.1Material selection............................................................................................17
2.1.1.2 CORE DIMENSIONS.....................................................................................18
2.1.1.3 BOBIN DIMENSIONS....................................................................................19
2.1.2 WINDING................................................................................................................19
2.1.2.1 Disk Winding..................................................................................................20
2.1.2.2 Packet winding................................................................................................21
2.1.2.3 Layer winding.................................................................................................21

CHAPTER-3 DESIGN , CALCULATION AND BOND GRAPH BASED POWER

FLOW ANALYSIS..........................................................................................................24

3.1 BASIC DESIGN EQUATION.........................................................................................24

3.2 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER.................................................................25
3.2.1 Equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary......................................25
3.2.2 APPROXIMATE Equivalent Circuit of Transformer........................................26
3.2.3 ACTUAL CALCULATION AND MEASUREMENTS OF WINDING PARAMETERS...........27
For Secondary winding...............................................................................................28
Measured parameters.................................................................................................28

vii
 3.3 BOND GRAPH BASED POWER FLOW ANALYSIS ..........................................................29
3.3.1 BOND GRAPH MODEL OF OUR TRANSFORMER........................................................29

CHAPTER-4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS................................................................32

BODE PLOT..................................................................................................................32
STEP FUNCTION.........................................................................................................33
STATE SPACE..............................................................................................................34
TRANSFER FUNCTION..............................................................................................34

CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE WORK..........................................................................36

REFERENCES................................................................................................................38

ANNEXURE A.................................................................................................................39

viii
LIST OF FIGURE

ix
Fig 1 1 Toroidial core......................................................................................................13
Fig 1 2 ETD ferrite core.....................................................................................................13
Fig 1 3 EE type ferrite core ( used in our transformer )...................................................13
Fig 1 4 Winding Of Single Phase Transformer.................................................................14

Fig 2 1 Core Dimensions..................................................................................................16

Fig 2 2 transformer Bobbin................................................................................................17
Fig 2 3 continuous disk winding........................................................................................18
Fig 2 4 packet winding.....................................................................................................19
Fig 2 5 Transformer Winding On Bobbin.........................................................................20

Fig 3 1 basic structure of transformer…………………………………………………...25

Fig 3 2 Equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary...........................................26
Fig 3 3 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer referred to primary...................27
Fig 3 4 bond graph.............................................................................................................29

Fig 4 1 bode plot................................................................................................................32

Fig 4 2 step function..........................................................................................................33
Fig 4 3 state space..............................................................................................................34
Fig 4 4 Transfer function...................................................................................................36
Fig 4 5 Zeros and poles......................................................................................................37
Fig 4 6 voltage across primary winding inductor..............................................................38
Fig 4 7 voltage across primary winding resistance............................................................38
Fig 4 8 voltage across secondary winding inductor...........................................................39
Fig 4 9 voltage across secondary winding resistance........................................................39

x
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1Table Caption..........................................................................................................2

xi
LIST of Abbreviations

MTTP: M Sc Thesis Topic Proposal

BoPGS: Board of Postgraduate Studies
EED: Electrical Engineering Department
SMPS: Switch Mode Power Supply
MMF: Magneto Motive Force

xii
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

Moving towards high power density in power conversion and power stabilization
units has been receiving high attention over the past decay. Particularly in highly
restricted applications such as SMPS (switch mode power supply) and stabilizers.
Operating higher up in frequency is the most common solution to achieve higher power
density since the weight and volume of component is decreased with the increase in
frequency. So, our task is to design high frequency step up transformer for converting 80
VAC to 300 VAC at a frequency of 10KHz.The transformer which we are designing was
a center tapped at primary side, which means that it has two coils with same specific
number of turns on the primary side in series and a single coil with a specific number of
turns on the secondary side. Also known as SMPS transformer.

1.1 core selection

We selected a ferrite core for our transformer design as a properties of the ferrite core are
rather versatile then the normal grain oriented silicon steel as it can handle a lot higher
frequencies then normal operating frequency (50-60Hz). Magnetic ferrite cores are an
oxide made from Iron, Manganese, and Zinc which are commonly referred to as
manganese zinc ferrites. They have a low coercivity and are also known as magnetic
ferrites. Because of their comparatively low losses at high frequencies, they are
extensively used in switched-mode power supply (SMPS). The materials range in
permeability from 900µ to 15,000µ and are available in a variety of geometries including
toroid’s, shapes and pot cores.

13
 Fig 1 1 Toroidial core

Fig 1 2 ETD ferrite core

Fig 1 3 EE type ferrite core ( used in our transformer )

14
1.2 winding and material type
There are different types of windings used for different kinds of applications and
arrangements. Windings are the conductors wrapped in various forms like helical, disc,
cylindrical, crossover which generates mmf that is carried by the core to other windings
for having the different level of voltages.
We use layer winding for our transformer using the enameled copper wire as showed in
fig 1.4. To compensate the power rating of transformer relative to the size of the core ,
we use a bunch of wire for winding coils rather then a single conductor, as a single
conductor would have been of larger size and would have been difficult for us to wind .

Fig 1 4 Winding Of Single Phase Transformer

15
CHAPTER- 2 DYNAMICS OF TRANSFORMER

2.1 CONSTRUCTION
The transformer mainly consist of two parts

i. CORE

ii. WINDING

The construction of this transformer varies from the normal transformer as the core
material of this transformer is made out of ferrite material
However, the winding does not differs for any other transformer in sense of
winding type.

2.1.1 CORE

2.1.1.1Material selection
Various materials can be found in the market for transformer production, these are
classified as below

 Air – these least conductivity material ; air provide the least magnetic coupling for
the transformer windings

 Iron – A most common and cheap material used for low frequency transformer.
Iron core is made mainly from steel; additives are required for the steel to improve
the magnetic performance of the core.

 Compressed iron powder – The iron magnetic particles are found to a bit under
process of high compressed pressure and temperature. This material target at
medium to high frequency application range. The permeability compress iron
powder which can be achieved is lower then ferrite material.

 Ferrite – ferrite is light and highly permeable magnetic ceramic material; ferritr has
an excellent magnetic performance at high frequency ranges.

We selected the ferrite material as it has high permeable magnetic structure and can
withstand high frequencies without saturating.

16
2.1.1.2 CORE DIMENSIONS
The transformer core used in the project is an uncut and almost rectangular one,
apart from the corners which are rounded. Geometric dimensions and shape of the core
provided by the manufacturer as shows in figure 2.1

Fig 2 1 Core Dimensions

Measurements on the real core sample give following values: core height, 66mm; outer
core width, 71mm; core depth, 31mm; core cross section, 680mm 2. The composition of
the core is ferrite. The effective parameters for the core would be the same as the core is
not laminated by any kind of material

A small number of modifications have also been made to the core throughout the
construction process. These consist of layer of electromagnetic conductive silicon
between the two EE type cores as a binding adhesive. Then core is also covered with
electrical tape. These measures were taken due to small particles breaking off the core.

17
2.1.1.3 BOBIN DIMENSIONS
At the heart of a transformer is the bobbin or coil former that serves as its winding
and termination platform. The bobbin or coil former supports the winding, aligns the
cores, channels the winding and provides a termination and connection method. Each
bobbin is designed for use with a specific core shape as shows in figure 2,, whether that
core is ferrite, stacked laminations, or tape wound. There are many ways to design a
transformer, so it is important to make the best bobbin and core combination selection.
Product cost, availability, material limitations, safety agency requirements and, ease of
production are all important considerations.

Fig 2 2 transformer Bobbin

The bobbin used by us was made out of PVC plastic and had the following dimensions.
Height = 43mm, Width = 41mm , Depth = 26mm.

2.1.2 Winding

Types of windings
• Disc winding
• Packet winding
• Layer winding
• Foil winding

18
2.1.2.1 Disk Winding
The disc coils as the name suggest, consist of number of flat coils or discs connected in
series or parallel. The coils are formed with rectangular strips wound spirally from centre
outwards in the radial 15direction. The conductor used is in such length as are sufficient
for complete winding or section of winding between tappings. The conductor can be
single strip or number of strips in parallel, wound on the flat side. This gives robust
construction for each of the discs. The discs are wound on an insulating cylinder spaced
from it by strips along the length of cylinder .The discs are separated from each other
with press board sectors attached to vertical strips. The vertical and horizontal spacers
provide radial and axial ducts for free circulation of oil which comes in contact with
every turn. Continuous discs winding are reliable and strong and, therefore, they are
widely employed both as lv and hv windings in large rating transformers.

Fig 2 3 continuous disk winding

The discs are wound on an insulating cylinder spaced from it by strips along the length of
cylinder .The discs are separated from each other with press board sectors attached to
vertical strips as shows in figure 2.2. The vertical and horizontal spacers provide radial
and axial ducts for free circulation of oil which comes in contact with every turn.
Continuous discs winding are reliable and strong and, therefore, they are widely
employed both as lv and hv windings in large rating transformers.

19
2.1.2.2 Packet winding
These are made of circular conductors not exceeding 5 to 6 sq mm in cross section. These
are used for HV 16
These are windings of relatively small transformers. These turns are wound in several
layers. The length and thickness of each packet is made in line with replaceable
requirement. A number of such packets can be connected in series, leaving cooling ducts
in between the packet, as required by design.
There are total six packets in which two middle packets have tapings for controlling or
adjusting the voltage rating as required. These tapings are controlled by tape changer
according to the voltage requirement.

Fig 2 4 packet winding

2.1.2.3 Layer winding

Primary winding consists of two coils with 18 turns each, connected in parallel. Each of
the coils are wound around the long sides of the core. Naturally, the coils are wound in
same directions resulting in a high total flux ΦB, when a varying voltage is applied over
the primary coil. The material used for primary windings is copper wire with dimensions
of 19 AWG. The main physical property, apart from the wire bending qualities, is its
conductivity, which is considered to be the same as for copper film. It should be noted
that this parameter varies with temperature, which in general could imply design
constraints due to Joule heating of the wire. The permittivity of metals is a non-trivial
parameter and can be said to equal 1 without introducing significant errors, for the sake of
simplicity.

20
Secondary winding of the transformer is composed of 68 turns of enameled copper wire
The conductive diameter of the wire is 21 AWG and its total length is 8.16m. While the
primary winding length is approximately 2.16m.

Fig 2 5 Transformer Winding On Bobbin

: American Wire Gauge (AWG) Cable / Conductor Sizes and Properties
Max
 Diameter  Resistance Resistance  Max
 Diameter  Area Frequency
AWG  [Ohms /  [Ohms / Current 
[inches] [mm2]  for 100%
[mm] 1000 ft]  km]  [Amperes]
skin depth 
 0000
0.46 11.684 107 0.049 0.16072 302 125 Hz
(4/0) 
000
0.4096 10.40384 85 0.0618 0.202704 239 160 Hz
(3/0)
00
0.3648 9.26592 67.4 0.0779 0.255512 190 200 Hz
(2/0)
0 (1/0) 0.3249 8.25246 53.5 0.0983 0.322424 150 250 Hz
1 0.2893 7.34822 42.4 0.1239 0.406392 119 325 Hz
2 0.2576 6.54304 33.6 0.1563 0.512664 94 410 Hz
3 0.2294 5.82676 26.7 0.197 0.64616 75 500 Hz
4 0.2043 5.18922 21.2 0.2485 0.81508 60 650 Hz
5 0.1819 4.62026 16.8 0.3133 1.027624 47 810 Hz
6 0.162 4.1148 13.3 0.3951 1.295928 37 1100 Hz
7 0.1443 3.66522 10.5 0.4982 1.634096 30 1300 Hz

21
8 0.1285 3.2639 8.37 0.6282 2.060496 24 1650 Hz
9 0.1144 2.90576 6.63 0.7921 2.598088 19 2050 Hz
10 0.1019 2.58826 5.26 0.9989 3.276392 15 2600 Hz
11 0.0907 2.30378 4.17 1.26 4.1328 12 3200 Hz
12 0.0808 2.05232 3.31 1.588 5.20864 9.3 4150 Hz
13 0.072 1.8288 2.62 2.003 6.56984 7.4 5300 Hz
14 0.0641 1.62814 2.08 2.525 8.282 5.9 6700 Hz
15 0.0571 1.45034 1.65 3.184 10.44352 4.7 8250 Hz
16 0.0508 1.29032 1.31 4.016 13.17248 3.7 11 k Hz
17 0.0453 1.15062 1.04 5.064 16.60992 2.9 13 k Hz
18 0.0403 1.02362 0.823 6.385 20.9428 2.3 17 kHz
19 0.0359 0.91186 0.653 8.051 26.40728 1.8 21 kHz
20 0.032 0.8128 0.518 10.15 33.292 1.5 27 kHz
21 0.0285 0.7239 0.41 12.8 41.984 1.2 33 kHz
22 0.0254 0.64516 0.326 16.14 52.9392 0.92 42 kHz
23 0.0226 0.57404 0.258 20.36 66.7808 0.729 53 kHz
24 0.0201 0.51054 0.205 25.67 84.1976 0.577 68 kHz
25 0.0179 0.45466 0.162 32.37 106.1736 0.457 85 kHz
26 0.0159 0.40386 0.129 40.81 133.8568 0.361 107 kHz
27 0.0142 0.36068 0.102 51.47 168.8216 0.288 130 kHz
28 0.0126 0.32004 0.081 64.9 212.872 0.226 170 kHz
29 0.0113 0.28702 0.0642 81.83 268.4024 0.182 210 kHz
30 0.01 0.254 0.0509 103.2 338.496 0.142 270 kHz
31 0.0089 0.22606 0.0404 130.1 426.728 0.113 340 kHz
32 0.008 0.2032 0.032 164.1 538.248 0.091 430 kHz
33 0.0071 0.18034 0.0254 206.9 678.632 0.072 540 kHz
34 0.0063 0.16002 0.0201 260.9 855.752 0.056 690 kHz
35 0.0056 0.14224 0.016 329 1079.12 0.044 870 kHz
36 0.005 0.127 0.0127 414.8 1360 0.035 1100 kHz
37 0.0045 0.1143 0.01 523.1 1715 0.0289 1350 kHz
38 0.004 0.1016 0.00797 659.6 2163 0.0228 1750 kHz
39 0.0035 0.0889 0.00632 831.8 2728 0.0175 2250 kHz
40 0.0031 0.07874  0.00501  1049 3440 0.0137 2900 kHz

22
 CHAPTER-3 DESIGN , CALCULATION AND BOND GRAPH
BASED POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

3.1 Basic Design Equation

The relation of the transformer with the turn’s ratio to the voltage and current is given by

V 1 I2 N1
= =
V 2 I1 N2

The following equation shows how the various design variables canbe manipulated to
achieve the desired outputs.

Vp∗10 8
Np=
4 BAcf

If B increases, the turns would decrease, reducing copper losses. However, increasing B
increases core losses resulting in higher core temperatures. If N increases, B would
decrease, reducing core losses. Increasing N leads to higher copper losses and requires
extra room for more windings. Higher copper losses means higher winding temperatures
and reduced efficiencies. Extra room for windings means a larger component.

If Ac increases, B would be decreased yielding lower core loss per unit weight; however,
the weight would increase offsetting some of that gain. An increased area means longer
lengths of wire, increasing copper losses. This would result in a larger and heavier
transformer. Excessive core heating may reduce the B value thus reducing the efficiency.

If ƒ increases, B would decrease, possibly resulting in lower core losses. However,

moving to higher frequencies, core losses could become more significant. A switch to
ferrite will minimize these losses but at a cost of decreased B.

However, the efficiency gains from a higher frequency will more than offset the lower B.
The higher frequency would also allow for a smaller transformer, N and/or Ac would
decrease.

23
 Fig 3 1 basic structure of transformer

3.2 Equivalent circuit of transformer

The equivalent circuit of the transformer is slightly different from the actual circuit of the
transformer, in equivalent circuit of the transformer we either refer the secondary side of
the transformer on the primary side or referred primary side on the secondary of the
transformer. But in this particular transformer that we worked on we have Equivalent
circuit of this transformer referred to the primary side.

3.2.1 Equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary

For drawing equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary, first we have to
establish general equivalent circuit of transformer then, we will modify it for referring
from primary side. the applied voltage to the primary is V1 and voltage across the
primary winding is E1. Total current supplied to primary is I1. So the voltage V1 applied
to the primary is partly dropped by I1Z1 or I1R1 + j.I1X1 before it appears across
primary winding. it is found that the total primary current I1 has two components, one is
no - load component Io and the other is load component I2′. As this primary current has
two components or branches, so there must be a parallel path with primary winding of
transformer. This parallel path of current is known as excitation branch of equivalent
circuit of transformer. The resistive and reactive branches of the excitation circuit can be
represented as
E1
R ₒ=
Iw

24
 E1
Xₒ=
Iս

The load component I2′ flows through the primary winding of transformer and induced
voltage across the winding is E1 as shown in the figure right. This induced voltage E1
transforms to secondary and it is E2 and load component of primary current I2′ is
transformed to secondary as secondary current I2. Current of secondary is I2. So the
voltage E2 across secondary winding is partly dropped by I2Z2 or I2R2 + j.I2X2 before it
appears across load.

Fig 3 2 Equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary

3.2.2 APPROXIMATE Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

Since Io is very small compared to I1, it is less than 5% of full load primary current, Io
changes the voltage drop insignificantly. Hence, it is good approximation to ignore the
excitation circuit in approximate equivalent circuit of transformer. The winding resistance
and reactance being in series can now be combined into equivalent resistance and
reactance of transformer, referred to any particular side. In this case it is side 1 or primary
side.

25
 Fig 3 3 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer referred to primary

3.2.3 Actual calculation and measurements of Winding parameters

For primary winding
Vin∗1 08
Npri=
4∗f∗Bmax∗Ac
Npri = no of primary turns
Vin = input voltage
F = frequency
Bmax = flux density of ferrite core
Ac = Area cross section

Vin = 80 v
F = 10kHz
Bmax = 1600 Gauss
Ac = 6.8 cm2
80∗10 8
Npri=
4∗103∗1600∗6.8 c m 2

26
 Npri =18.38 turns

For Secondary winding

As we know
Np Vp
=
Ns Vs
So

Ns= ( VpVs )∗Np

Np = primary turns
Ns = secondary turns
Vp = primary voltage
Vs = secondary voltage

Np = 18turns
Vp = 80v
Vs = 300 v

300
Ns= ∗18=67.5 turns
80
Ns = 68 turns

Measured parameters
Primary winding resistance = Rp = 0.2282 ohm
Primary winding inductance = XLp = 1.21mH

Secondary winding resistance = Rs = 0.1940 ohm

Secondary winding inductance = XLs =14.38mH

27
3.3 bond graph based power flow analysis
Bond graph is an explicit graphical tool for capturing the common energy structure of
systems as shown in Fig 3.4. It increases one's insight into systems behavior. In the vector
form, they give concise description of complex systems. Moreover, the notations of
causality provides a tool not only for formulation of system equations, but also for
intuition based discussion of system behavior, viz. controllability, observability, fault
diagnosis, etc.

28
enr

Fig 3 4 bond graph

3.3.1 Bond graph model of our transformer

For attaining the bond graph of our model, we have used the “20 sim” software.

29
For the input signal we have used a square wave generator with a frequency of 10kHz,
coupled with “MSe”, where as “MSe” represents an ideal modulated effort source. The
effort can be set to a fluctuating value given by an input signal. Further the MSe is
connected to “1” in the model, for “1” is a energy flow/dividing point for connecting
more than one components. in our case we have used two “1” one at the primary side of
the transformer and other at the secondary side each assigned to a specific winding.
At both “1” inductor and resistor are connected showing the inductance and resistance of
the primary and secondary side. All the parameters were then set to the real
measurements taken using the LCR meter.

After setting all the parameters the following type of results were taken

 Bode plot

 Step function

 State space

 Transfer function

 Zeros and poles

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31
CHAPTER-4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

After the designing and assembling of the Transformer we needed to check weather if the
designed unit was stable or not. To do so, we measured its impedance using the LCR
meter. All readings were taken after setting the LCR meter to a frequency of 10 KHz.
After gathering the relative data and noting it down. All this data was placed in a
simulation software using a proper model which helped in calculating and checking
weather if the designed transformer was stable or not.
Transfer function, bode plot, zeros and poles and other relative information was collected
using the simulation software 20 Sim.

BODE PLOT
A Bode plot /ˈboʊdi/ is a graph of the frequency response of a system. It is usually a
combination of a Bode magnitude plot, expressing the magnitude (usually in decibels) of
the frequency response, and a Bode phase plot, expressing the phase shift

Fig 4 1 bode plot

32
The following image shows the bode plots of our transformer w.r.t frequency, magnitude
(dB) and phase (deg). These results are for the secondary side current of transformer.
And it can be seen in the graph of frequency and magnitude that it shows a linear
behavior.
Similarly in the graph between frequency and phase we can see that there is no
such effect on the phases angle if the transformer is operated in the 10 KHz range.

STEP FUNCTION
Step response is the time behavior of the outputs of a general system when its inputs
change from zero to one in a very short time. The step response of a dynamical system
gives information on the stability of such a system, and on its ability to reach one
stationary state when starting from another. From a practical standpoint, knowing how the
system responds to a sudden input is important because large and possibly fast deviations
from the long term steady state may have extreme effects on the component itself and on
other portions of the overall system dependent on this component. In addition, the overall
system cannot act until the component's output settles down to some vicinity of its final
state, delaying the overall system response. Formally, knowing the step response of a
dynamical system gives information on the stability of such a system, and on its ability to
reach one stationary state when starting from another.

Fig 4 2 step function

33
The following image shows the step response of the transformer and it can be seen that it
has a very small settling time of almost 0.03s having an over shoot value of 0.08544.

STATE SPACE
A state space system is represented by just two equations. First, the state equation gives
the relationship between the system’s current state and input to its future state. The output
equation gives the relationship between the system’s current state and input to its output.

Fig 4 3 state space

The following image represents the state space of our transformer

34
TRANSFER FUNCTION
In engineering, a transfer function (also known as system function or network function)
of an electronic or control system component gives the device's output for each possible
input.
The units of the transfer function depend on the device. For example, the transfer function
of a two-port electronic circuit like an amplifier might be a graph of the voltage at the
output as a function of the voltage applied to the input; the transfer function of an
electromechanical actuator might be the displacement of the moveable arm as a function
of current applied to the device; the transfer function of a photo detector might be the
output voltage as a function of the luminous intensity of incident light of a given
wavelength.

The term "transfer function" is also used in the frequency domain analysis of
systems using transform methods such as the Laplace transform; here it means the
amplitude of the output as a function of the frequency of the input signal. For example,
the transfer function of an electronic filter is the voltage amplitude at the output as a
function of the frequency of a constant amplitude sine wave applied to the input.

35
Fig 4 4 Transfer function

36
ZEROS AND POLES

Poles and Zeros of a transfer function are the frequencies for which the value of the
denominator and numerator of transfer function becomes zero respectively. The values of
the poles and the zeros of a system determine whether the system is stable, and how well
the system performs. Control systems, in the simplest sense, can be designed simply by
assigning specific values to the poles and zeros of the system.

Fig 4 5 Zeros and poles

As we can see from the above image that the zero is positive and pole is negative so the
system is partially stable.

37
INPUT AND OUT PUT VOLTAGE GRAPHS

Fig 4 6 voltage across primary winding inductor

Fig 4 7 voltage across primary winding resistance

38
Fig 4 8 voltage across secondary winding inductor

Fig 4 9 voltage across secondary winding resistance

39
CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE WORK
Write conclusion and recommendation of your project here.

40
The notation convention for references

Typeface: Times new roman

Fonts: Times new roman Italic
Point Size: 12
Line Spacing: Single spaced
Use a blank line between references.

A numbered list of references must be provided at the end of the project report, before
any appendices. The list should be numbered in the order of citation in the text, not in
alphabetical order. List only one reference per reference number.
Each reference number should be enclosed in square brackets. In text, citation of
references may be given simply as "in [1]..."; rather than "in reference [1]... ". Similarly,
it is not necessary to mention the author of a reference unless it is relevant to the text.
Be careful to use accepted abbreviations for names of journals. Avoid abbreviating names
of conferences. Use the same abbreviation for a given item throughout the reference list.
Footnotes or other words and phrases that are not part of the reference format do not
belong on the reference list. Sample correct formats for various types of references are on
the page that follows.

41
REFERENCES

Books:
[1] G. O. Young, “Synthetic structure of industrial plastics,” in Plastics, vol. 3, Polymers
of Hexadromicon, J. Peters, Ed. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp.15-64, 1964.

Periodicals:
[2] M. A. McHenry and D.C. Chang, “Coupled-mode theory of two non-parallel
dielectric waveguides,” IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. MTT-32, pp. 1469-
1475, Nov. 1984.

Articles from published conference proceedings:

[3] M. A. Nichols, H .J. Siegel, H .G. Dietz, R. W. Quong, and W. G. Nation,
“Minimizing memory requirements for partitionable SIMD/SPMD machines,” in 1990
International Conference on Parallel Processing, New York: Vol. I, pp. 84-91, Aug.
1990.

Papers presented at conferences (unpublished):

[4] D. Ebehard and E. Voges, “Digital single sideband detection for inter ferometric
sensors,” presented at 2nd Int. Conf. Optical Fiber Sensors, Stuttgart, F.R.G. Vol. I, pp.
86-90, Sep. 1984.

Technical Reports:
[5] E. E. Reber, R. L. Mitchell, and C. J. Carter, “Oxygen absorption in the earth's
atmosphere,” Aerospace Corp., Los Angeles, CA, Tech. Rep. TR-0200 (4230-46)-3, Nov.
1968.
Thesis:
[6] W. G. Nation, The Network Interface Unit: An Enhancement to the PASM Parallet
Processing System, Master's Thesis, School of Electrical Engineering, Purdue University,
1986.

42
ANNEXURE A
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