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Partial Load Behavior of Gas Turbines – A Theoretical Analysis on Micro

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Conference Paper · September 2010

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 Heat Transfer and Renewable Sources of Energy 2010
J. Mikielewicz, W. Nowak and A.A. Stachel (Editors)

PARTIAL LOAD BEHAVIOR OF GAS TURBINES – A THEORETICAL ANALYSIS

ON MICRO TURBINES

BORCHERT, U.*, SZYMCZYK, J. A.**

Stralsund University of Applied Sciences, Institute for Renewable Energy Systems (IRES)
Zur Schwedenschanze 15, D-18435 Stralsund, Germany
*)
e-mail: Uwe.Borchert@fh-stralsund.de, **) e-mail: Janusz.Szymczyk@fh-stralsund.de

ABSTRACT: Gas turbines are used in many different applications. They are used in
power and heat generation and for driving aircrafts, water and land vehicles. They are
always used when the application requires a fast availability, a small size or a high
performance. In the last years gas turbines are increasingly applied for distributed power
generation with combined cycle with a power range of a few tens of kilowatts. The
presented paper announces a researching project in which the partial load behaviour of
gas turbines is to be analysed on different types of gas turbines. The research is to be
based on idealized thermodynamic cycles and on experimental data. In different gas
turbines for different applications also different power setting methods are used. The
applied principle has a direct effect on distribution of the partial load efficiency.

NOMENCLATURE

be – specific fuel consumption, g / kWh

n – rotation speed
p – absolute pressure
pe – mean effective pressure
s – specific entropy
v – specific volume
M – torque
T – absolute temperature
Greek symbols
Π – pressure ratio
Subscripts
1 – before the compressor
2 – after compressor and before heat supply
3 – after heat supply and before expansion in turbines and thrust nozzle
4' – before the last turbine or before the thrust nozzle
4 – after expansion (after last turbines or thrust nozzle)
2 Uwe Borchert, Janusz A. Szymczyk

1. INTRODUCTION

Gas turbines belong to the thermal engines. These exist alongside the internal
combustion engines as well as Stirling engines and steam power facilities. Gas turbines as
such are power machines like water turbines, windmills and steam turbines. In contrast, a gas
turbine facility generally consists of turbine, compressor, driven by the turbine, and heater
(mostly a combustion chamber). The gas turbine facility also comprises a technical apparatus
for the power output. This might be a transmission or an electrical generator, another turbine
or a thrust nozzle. These elements allow a self-sufficient operation like in petrol and diesel
engines. [1]

2. APPLICATIONS FOR GAS TURBINES

Gas turbines are used stationary in power plants or to drive power machines. Gas
turbines are also used in mobile generators and in all kinds of vehicles. In case of vehicle
drives gas turbines are used to drive air planes, helicopters and ships. [2]
Despite low full and partial load efficiency and a high unit price the use of gas turbines
is more economical than the use of piston engines in specific fields of applications. Some
requirements like high power density, low requirements to the periphery and the short
duration of the starting process from standstill to the full power output can be economically
best fulfilled by gas turbines. [2]
In other fields like for example in automotive technology sectors, today's gas turbines
are at a disadvantage in comparison to other propulsion systems. It is not necessary to install
propulsion systems in cars which have a high power density for the reason that cars usually
are being driven in low partial load from 10 % to 65 % [2]. The low partial load efficiency
reduces the economic efficiency for this application. In addition to this the unit price of gas
turbines can quickly increase up to a four-digit euro amount per installed kilowatt of
maximum power [1], [2], [3].
In other drive tasks the use of highly efficient propulsion systems such as modern diesel
engines is technically seen not appropriate, although light automotive diesel engines achieve
an efficiency of up to 43 % [4]. In contrast, equally powerful gas turbines in the kilowatt
range achieve a maximum efficiency of 25 % at full load and 21 % to 22 % at continuous
power of 90 % [5]. These applications include helicopters requiring a high continuous power.
The power density of a gas turbine in a high kilowatt range is up to eight times the
power density of petrol engines [1], [6]. Helicopters driven by gas turbines have a high
performance propulsion system and can even hover in lower air density in altitude of more
than 3000 m without ground effect. Today this is impossible with a diesel engine driven
helicopter. In general none of the thermal engines and other propulsion systems is ideal for
every drive application. As a consequence, the gas turbine with its low maximum and partial
load efficiency has great significance for specific fields and is being improved constantly.

3. PARTIAL LOAD BEHAVIOUR OF THERMAL ENGINES

It is well known that compared with internal combustion engines gas turbines work with
lower efficiency. Small gas turbines of the first generation with power output up to
200 kilowatts, turbine inlet temperature of less than 900 °C and without regeneration can
operate with an efficiency of 0.15. A petrol engine of similar power can achieve an efficiency
of 0.3 and more [7] and a diesel engine more than 0.4 [4]. Modern gas turbines having higher
 Partial Load Behaviour of Gas Turbines – A Theoretical Analysis on Micro Turbines 3

pressure ratios of more than 30 [8] and a turbine inlet temperature of up to 1500 °C can
operate with an efficiency of 0.3 and more [6]. As with all energy converters the gas turbine
achieves its highest efficiency with optimal load. In general it can be said that the higher the
partial load relating to the maximum power, the higher the efficiency is.
3.1. PARTIAL LOAD BEHAVIOUR OF GAS TURBINES

The partial load of gas turbines depends on the general facility design. Gas turbines may
consist of just one shaft or of a group of shafts. Multi-shaft gas turbines can achieve better
partial load efficiency behaviour than single-shaft gas turbines. However, the technical
complexity becomes higher [6], [9]. The efficiency characteristic curve over partial load also
depends on the power characteristic curve of the machine to be driven [9]. The general types
of power characteristic curves are:
• power characteristics according to the propeller law (blowers and fans, rigid
propellers, non-adjustable type thrust nozzles, separate power turbine)
• constant speed (generators, constant speed propellers, rotor systems of helicopters)
• optimal variable speed (multiple ratio transmission or variable-ratio transmission,
diesel-electric, variable nozzles for aviation jet engines)
3.1.1. POWER CHARACTERISTICS ACCORDING TO THE PROPELLER LAW

Gas turbines extracting their power by a non-adjustable type thrust nozzle or by a

separate power turbine operate with this principle [9], [10], [11].
In such gas turbines a so called gas generator (compressor, heater and turbine driven
compressor) provides a workable pressured gas stream to the following apparatus. The
pressure ratio p 4 ' / p 4 being expanded in the nozzle or last turbine stages, and thereby the
compressor pressure ratio Π = p 2 / p1 of the gas generator rises exponentially with the power
output.

Fig. 1. p, v and T , s diagram as well as efficiency characteristic curve [9] of a gas turbine ( Π = 5 ),
power characteristics according to the propeller law, with regeneration,
maximum power, partial load 50 %

The power setting will be achieved by the variation of heat supply. This causes a
reduction of the turbine inlet temperature T3 . As a result the volume flow rate of the working
fluid through the turbine is reduced and the torque of the turbine decreases. By decreasing the
turbine torque the rotation speed of the compressor-turbine shaft is reduced. The mass flow
rate of the working fluid and the pressure ratio fall rapidly with the result that the turbine inlet
temperature rises again, but to a lower value than before the reduction of heat supply. [12]
4 Uwe Borchert, Janusz A. Szymczyk

In partial load there is set a lower pressure ratio and a lower turbine inlet temperature.
According to that the thermal efficiency decreases strongly with decreasing power output
(Fig. 1).
3.1.2. CONSTANT SPEED IN OPEN CYCLE

With a machine to be driven at constant rotation speed the power can only changed by
the torque. For the gas turbine this means a reduction of the turbine inlet temperature for
reduction of power. By reduction of heat supply the turbine inlet temperature decreases and
thereby the volume flow rate through the turbine. The torque generated in the turbine
decreases while the rotation speed remains constant. [12]
The pressure ratio remains almost constant. This decreases by a small amount while the
air mass flow rate (working fluid) increases insignificant [12]. The efficiency decreases
rapidly with decreasing partial load (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. p, v and T , s diagram as well as efficiency characteristic curve [9] of a gas turbine ( Π = 5 ),
power characteristics at constant speed and variable turbine inlet temperature, with and without
regeneration, maximum power, partial load 50 %

3.1.3. CONSTANT SPEED IN OPEN CYCLE WITH CONSTANT TURBINE INLET

TEMPERATURE

Fig. 3. p, v and T , s diagram as well as efficiency characteristic curve [9] of a gas turbine ( Π = 5 ),
power characteristics at constant speed and constant turbine outlet temperature, with and without
regeneration, maximum power, partial load 50 %
 Partial Load Behaviour of Gas Turbines – A Theoretical Analysis on Micro Turbines 5

In this operating mode the power setting is also achieved by decreasing the torque
realized by reduction of heat supply. However, the compressor stator is to be adjusted, so that
the compressor pressure ratio is changed. The aim is to ensure that the turbine outlet
temperature T4 remains constant, although the turbine inlet temperature T3 is changed. [14]
This behaviour is important for the optimal operating with a steam power plant, which
is connected downstream. The decrease of the efficiency characteristic curve is flatter than
that of the simple constant speed mode (Fig. 3).
3.1.4. CONSTANT SPEED IN CLOSED CYCLE

On a trial basis, gas turbine facilities in closed cycle were built by Escher-Wyss, BBC
and Sulzer [14]. The advantage, compared with other conventional operating modes of gas
turbines is the theoretically almost constant efficiency over the full power range, because the
pressure ratio and the cycle temperatures can be remained constant (Fig.4). The power setting
is achieved by varying the heat supply and the mass flow rate of the working fluid.

Fig. 4. p, v and T , s diagram as well as efficiency characteristic curve [9] of a gas turbine ( Π = 5 ),
with closed cycle (with regeneration) and at constant speed, with variable mass flow rate of the
working fluid, maximum power, partial load 50 %

3.1.5. OPTIMAL VARIABLE SPEED

Fig. 5. p, v and T , s diagram as well as efficiency characteristic curve of a gas turbine ( Π = 5 ),

with optimal rotation speed, combined with optimal turbine inlet temperature, with and without
regeneration, maximum power, partial load 50 %
6 Uwe Borchert, Janusz A. Szymczyk

Gas turbines have one optimal pressure ratio for each turbine inlet temperature, one for
the maximum power and one for the maximum efficiency. The optimal pressure ratio
increases with the turbine inlet temperature and it depends on the losses. [9], [10]
In gas turbines with optimal variable speed the reduction of power output is also
realized by reduction of the heat supply reducing the turbine inlet temperature and thereby the
volume flow rate through the turbine. This causes a decrease of the torque of the turbine.
The braking torque of the driven machine has to be controlled with the aim to ensure the
optimal rotation speed of the turbine with which the gas turbine achieves a maximum
efficiency for the delivered power. The efficiency characteristic curve over partial load is
relatively flat with relatively low technical complexity (Fig. 5):
3.2. PARTIAL LOAD BEHAVIOUR OF PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINES

In Fig. 6 the efficiency characteristic curves of petrol (a) and diesel engines (b) will be
presented for comparison with gas turbines. Thereby the different operating modes from
chapter 3.1 are used. In the diagrams curves of the different operating modes are shown.
According to this graphs the efficiency for each delivered power can be read. This results the
efficiency characteristic curve over partial load for each operating mode.

Fig. 6. Power characteristics diagrams with specific fuel consumption be ( g / kWh ) of a) petrol
engine [7] with torque M , b) diesel engine [4] with mean effective pressure p e depending on
rotation speed n , with power characteristic curves: propeller curve, constant speed and optimal
variable speed

These characteristic curves are shown in Fig. 7. They are shown together with the
comparable curves of a gas turbine. With all operating modes the efficiency curves of petrol
and diesel engines are on a higher level than those of the gas turbine. Also the curve shapes of
the piston engines are flatter than those of the gas turbine. It can be said the maximum and the
partial load efficiency of conventional gas turbines is lower than those of petrol and diesel
engines in each operating mode.
 Partial Load Behaviour of Gas Turbines – A Theoretical Analysis on Micro Turbines 7

Fig. 7. Efficiency characteristic curves of petrol engine, diesel engine and gas turbine ( Π = 5 ),
a) propeller curve, b) constant speed and c) optimal variable rotation speed

4. THE TESTING GAS TURBINE FACILITY

In the literature about gas turbines data only for full load are often available. Very
comprehensive but general information can be found in [9]. As part of the research work a
special testing gas turbine facility will be developed. This gas turbine will be able to deliver
experimental data for the different gas turbine principles and different operating modes
described in chapter 3.1. The power range is limited to 60 kilowatts (so called microturbine
[2], [3]). The investigation on the testing gas turbine facility is to be answered the question
about the optimal operating mode to reach the highest possible partial load efficiency and the
flattest possible efficiency curve over partial load. [2]
The testing device is to simulate the operating modes described in chapter 3.1. For this a
gas turbine with full adjustable impellers and stators are set up. The operation mode according
to the propeller law will achieved by an adjustable throttle, but fixed during operation. The
operation modes with constant speed are realizable without special arrangements by the
electrical power extraction. The same applies to the mode with optimal variable rotation
speed. The full adjustability of the impellers and the stators simulates the operating mode with
closed cycle with constant pressure ratio and cycle temperatures and variable mass flow rate.
An air breathing gas turbine with these properties has not yet been used.

5. CONCLUSIONS

In comparison to those of piston engines the full-load and the partial load efficiency of
gas turbines are lower. The efficiency characteristic curve over partial load decisively depends
on the power characteristic curves of the machine to be driven. A constant rotation speed
characteristic curve always causes a strongly decreasing thermal efficiency with decreasing
power output. A power characteristic curve according to the propeller law correlates with the
power characteristics of a typical gas turbine. The operating mode with optimal variable
rotation speed will provide a good compromise between the efficiency curve and technical
complexity. The theoretically highest efficiency and its best characteristic curve are achieved
by a gas turbine with closed cycle and by a hypothetical gas turbine remaining the pressure
ratio and the cycle temperatures a varying the mass flow rate only. The authors are developing
a testing gas turbine facility. This gas turbine will allow to simulate different operation modes
of gas turbines in a power range up to 60 kilowatts. With this testing device the known
theoretical statements will be verified experimentally.
 8 Uwe Borchert, Janusz A. Szymczyk

REFERENCES

[1] Szymczyk, J. A., Borchert, U.: Verfahren zur Herstellung von Gasturbinen und
Gasturbinenanordnung, Patent DE 10141717 A1, Stralsund, 2001
[2] Borchert, U., Szymczyk, J. A.: Development of a Novel Small Gas Turbine with Variable Air
Mass Flow and Constant Pressure Ratio and Constant Temperature, GAMM, Gdańsk,
February 9th – 13th 2009, Proceedings in Applied Mathematics and Mechanics (PAMM), Vol. 9,
Issue 1, Pages 683 – 684, 2009
[3] Borchert, U., Delgado, A., Szymczyk, J. A.: Gasturbinen in der dezentralen Energieversorgung,
2nd International Conference "Low Temperature and Waste Heat Use in Communal and
Industrial Energy Supply Systems", September 25th 2009, Conference Proceedings, S. 202 – 206
[4] Mollenhauer, K.: Handbuch Dieselmotoren, 2. Auflage, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
2002, ISBN 3-540-41239-5
[5] Rolls-Royce Corp.: RR300 – Lightweight Turbine Power for a New Era of Aircraft,
GTP 9082 (01/07), 2007
[6] Engmann, K: Technologie des Flugzeuges, Leuchtturm-Verlag, Alsbach, 1994,
ISBN 3-88064-159-5
[7] Lechner, G., Naunheimer, H.: Fahrzeuggetriebe – Grundlagen, Auswahl, Auslegung und
Konstruktion, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1994, ISBN 3-540-57423-9
[8] Boyce, M. P.: Gasturbinen Handbuch, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1999, ISBN 3-540-63216-6
[9] Kruschik, J.: Die Gasturbine, 2., vollkommen neubearbeitete und erweiterte Auflage unter
Mitarb. von Hüttner, E., Springer-Verlag Wien, 1960
[10] Bräunling, W. J. G: Flugzeugtriebwerke, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2000, 2004, 2009,
ISBN 978-3-540-76368-0
[11] Urlaub, A.: Flugtriebwerke, Grundlagen, Systeme, Komponenten, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
1991, ISBN 3-540-53864-X
[12] Borchert, U., Kujawski, H., Zöhner, R., Szymczyk, J. A.: Development of a new Micro Gas
Turbine of 100 kW of Power, International Symposium Research – Education – Technology,
20th – 22th May 2005, Gdańsk University of Technology, ISBN 83-88579-16-9, pp. 57 – 64,
2005
[13] Szymczyk, J. A., Borchert, U., Duddek, K: Gasturbinenprüfstand zur Leistungsmessung für die
Pirna-Kleingasturbine GT 027-1, XVI. Internationale Tagung, 11. – 12.10.2007, Tagungsband,
„Forschung, Praxis und Didaktik im modernen Maschinenbau“, Stralsund, 2007,
ISBN 3-9809953-5-6
[14] Bitterlich. W., Ausmeier, S., Lohmann, U.: Gasturbinen und Gasturbinenanlagen, Darstellung
und Berechnung, B. G. Teubner GmbH, Stuttgart, Leipzig, Wiesbaden, 2002,
ISBN 3-519-00384-8

TEILLASTVERHALTEN VON GASTURBINEN – EINE THEORETISCHE

BETRACHTUNG FÜR MIKROGASTURBINEN
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: Volllast- und der Teillastwirkungsgrad von Gasturbinen sind geringer im
Vergleich zu denen der Kolbenmaschinen und hängen maßgeblich von der Leistungskennlinie der
anzutreibenden Maschine ab. Eine Kennlinie mit konstanter Drehzahl bewirkt einen starken
Wirkungsgradverlust mit geringer werdender Teilleistung. Eine Leistungskennlinie nach dem
Propellergesetz korreliert gut mit der Leistungskennlinie der Gasturbine. Die Betriebsweise mit
optimaler Drehzahl verspricht einen guten Kompromiss zwischen dem Wirkungsgradverlauf und dem
Anlagenaufwand. Der theoretisch höchste und günstigste Wirkungsgradverlauf kann mit Gasturbinen
mit geschlossenem Kreisprozess erreicht werden. Die Autoren entwickeln eine Versuchsgasturbine
mit einer Leistung von bis zu 60 kW, die es ermöglicht, verschiedene Betriebsarten zu simulieren und
mit der die theoretischen Aussagen experimentell verifiziert werden sollen.

This work was sponsored by the Institute for Renewable Energy Systems (IRES). The authors would
like to thank the reviewers for their constructive criticism.

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