8 Diodes and rectifiers

• Linear networks

• Very non-linear devices – semiconductors

• Diode

• Ideal diodes – model any other non-linear device

• Real diodes widely used

Outline

• Ideal diode characteristics

• Application: LR transient suppression

• Real and model diode characteristics

• Light emitting diodes

• Non-linear networks

• Load-line method

• Power supplies–half-wave rectifier, smoothing, ripple voltage

• Bridge rectifier
Learning outcomes

After completing this section you should be able to...

1. Calculate the voltage, current and power in a non-linear device (e.g. sili-
con diode, l.e.d.) by the load line method or by representing it as a simple
equivalent network.

2. Carry out peak, mean and ripple voltage calculations for capacitor-
smoothed and unsmoothed half-wave and bridge rectifiers.

3. Recognise and correctly interpret the following terms: anode, bridge,

bridge rectifier, cathode, diode, forward (voltage, current), LED (light-
emitting diode), load-line diagram/ method, operating point, rectifier, re-
verse (voltage or current) , smoothing, threshold voltage.
8.1 Ideal diode characteristics

• Ideal diode: infinite resistance in one direction ...

... zero resistance in the other

• Terminals not equivalent – ANODE, a ... CATHODE, k

• ‘arrow head’ – forward direction

ia
CIRCUIT ENVELOPE ZERO

(OFTEN OMITTED) RESISTANCE


SYMBOL: ia





a

INFINITE




vak RESISTANCE
6
FORWARD
A
A
CURRENT
k POWER
A

P = 0.
A
AU

REVERSE VOLTAGE FORWARD vak

 -

VOLTAGE
8.2 Application: LR transient suppression

A diode provides a simple solution:

R
+
E
8.3 Real and model diode characteristics

Hydraulic analogy: non-return valve

Q Q
p

- p
TO OVERCOME
SPRING

Analogous imperfections:

V
1. small threshold voltage ak0 [an operating pressure]

2. small internal resistance

Model a network with the same v=i characteristic

Three ideal elements in series:

1. an ideal diode

V
2. a constant e.m.f., ak0, acting against current

3. an internal resistance R

For silicon diodes (the most common type):

Vak0  0:7 V

Often R can be neglected

 Vak0 6= 0, a
ia R = 0; XXX
XXX
XXX
6




FIT CURVE
Forward current z
X 

l
MODEL:
AT ONE 



POINT 

+ 9




- WORK >
Vak0
+ HEAT>


>


=



>0
IF
i



>

a
>


>


;
R

l

HEAT

-

Vak0 6= 0,



Forward voltage vak vak = Vak0 + iaR

CO 

R 6= 0, FIT
C 
C 

Vak0 (ia > 0)

C 
C

CURVE AT TWO POINTS. k

8.4 Light emitting diodes

LEDs used extensively for display devices...

1. They emit light ( red ... green ... orange ... infra-red ) while conducting

V
2. ak0 is 1.2 to 2 V, compared to 0.7 V for a normal diode

Driven only from a high-resistance source

Example 8.1

An infra-red LED has a threshold voltage of 1.3 V, negligible internal resis-

tance and a maximum current rating of 25 mA. At what average percentage
of its rated power will it operate when connected forwards to a 600 Ò signal
generator providing a 0 V to +10 V square wave?

600 Ò E = 10 V:
WHILE
+ 10 600ia 1:3 = 0 V
+ KVL !10
10 V
E 1 3


:
@
@
'$

1.3V ∴i = = 14:5 mA
600

0V &% a

AVERAGE POWER INTO DIODE av P = 12  1:3  14:5  10 3

W
P
BUT MAX RATED POWER max = 1:3  25  10 3 W
Pav 1 14:5
=  = 30%
∴
Pmax 2 25
8.5 Non-linear networks

Thévenin’s theorem – analyse a network containing a single diode

Perfect diode: short circuit or open-circuit

V
More complicated diode model: include ak0, diode resistance in the loop
8.6 Load-line method

• Source port driving a load port

• Operating point – solve the ‘source’ and ‘load’ equations simultaneously

• Non-linear sources and loads: solve graphically

 For the general case of a non-linear device xy:

SOURCE a x LOAD
ib RS ix Z
Z ix, ib

Current
Z

x SOURCE LOAD
Z
6 6 Z
+
vab vxy
Z
Z
Z  

? 
Z

E
Z  

+
Z
  
Z 
y
Z 
Z
Z
CO Z
C Z
C Z
Z
b y
C Z
C Z
C Z

E ibRS vab = 0
KVL: C Z
Z
C Z

OPERATING
Z
Z
NON-LINEAR.
vxy, vab
Z
Z
POINT Z

TEST IT:
Z
Z
Z

Voltage
Z
ON CONNECTION:
Z

i i
Z

b= x
Z

KCL:
KVL: v
ab = xy v
8.7 Power supplies

A d.c. power supply converts a sinusoidal a.c. voltage to a constant d.c.

voltage.
Conversion usually consists of three stages.

1. The a.c. voltage is reduced, with minimal power loss, using a transformer.

2. This low-voltage a.c. is rectified (converted to a series of one-way current

pulses) using diodes.

3. The pulses are smoothed, usually using capacitors, to a nearly constant

d.c. voltage.

From now on, we will assume diodes to be ideal, in order to keep the princi-
ples clear.
8.7.1 Half-wave rectifier

This is the simplest rectifier.

Vm
vL

Voltage


e.g.
vac vL


6 6

Time
transformer Load




output
vac
 
*



Problem 3.3 showed that the average value of a rectified sinusoidal voltage
V = 2Vm=. Here Va = Vm=.
is a
 8.7.2 Smoothing

Most loads require smooth d.c. rather than the pulses delivered by a recti-
fier.
To achieve this a large reservoir or smoothing capacitor is connected across
the load.

(a) (c) (e)

A

Voltage
A
A A
A 6 AA
U 6
AAU
6

Time
vac C vL Load
6 6

RL (b) (d) (b)

etc.
(a) As the source voltage increases, current flows through the diode into both
v = Vm .
the capacitor and the load, until L

(b) The source voltage begins to decrease. As soon as it is decreasing more

quickly than C can discharge into the load, the diode stops conducting.
(c) The load is now supplied only by C , and as C discharges the load voltage
vL decays.
(d) As the source voltage increases again it meets and then exceeds vL, so
the diode starts to conduct again.

(e) The diode allows current to re-charge the capacitor as well as supplying
the load.

The cycle (b) to (e) is then repeated.

Calculation of mean d.c. voltage and ripple voltage

• If there is no load resistor, the output current from a rectified and smoothed
supply is zero, so that L v = Vm =const. whatever the value of C.
• If there is a load, vL has a mean value Vdc < Vm, and it varies periodically
with a peak-peak amplitude Vrpp, the ripple voltage.

• It is usually important to reduce Vrpp to a specified value so that the load

voltage never falls below a certain value.

V
The following approximate analysis assumes that rpp is small.
 p
Vm (= 2Vrms)
@
@
@
Voltage 1=f -
1 
dv
Vrpp  f dt

@
R
@ ?
av
Vdc 6

Vdc
6

AVERAGE i =
 R L
XX
= 0 AT
dv t =  = RL C
Xz
X

= C dt
av

Time, t

1. capacitor is discharging for almost the entire period 1=f between peaks,
2.  = RLC is much larger than 1=f , and
3. vL decreases linearly during discharge.
 V =RL and vL = vC,
Since the average load current is dc
dvL = dvC = 1 Vdc :
dt dt C R L
Thus, using assumption (3), the fall in voltage during phase (c) is:
vd C Vdc 1
Vrpp  t
Ét = R C
f :
d
(8.1)
L
Note also that, because of assumption (3),

Vdc = Vm 1V :
2 rpp (8.2)

Equations (8.1) and (8.2) are usually sufficient to design a power supply,
although for low output voltages the voltage drop across the diode must be
taken into account.
Example 8.2

A load of 3 kÒ is to be supplied with 20 mA with a ripple voltage of no more

than 2% of the d.c. voltage, using a half-wave rectifier. Determine the 50
Hz a.c. voltage input and the size of smoothing capacitor required to meet
these specifications.

From Eqn (8.1):

Ripple =
Vrpp
= 1 = 0:02, hence C = 1 = 333 F
Vdc f RLC 50  3000  0:02
Also Vdc = 3000  20  10 = 60 V
3

But allowed ripple = 2%, hence 0:99  Vm = Vdc, hence Vm =

60
1 1 0 :99
Hence Vrms = p  60  = 42:86 V rms FROM TRANSFORMER
2 0:99
 8.8 Bridge rectifier

A four-diode bridge rectifier uses both +ve and -ve half-cycles of the a.c.
voltage supply. When the supply voltage reverses, the load is re-connected
to it through a different diode pair.

P N vL P

Voltage


P N




Time

vL
6

vac
?

N P N P
AA
K
A
A