The Yin-Yang Theorem:

Integrating squares of sines and cosines

A class handout for Kent Merryfield’s Calculus II class.

1. The Theorem Stated and Proved

π
Here’s the statement: Suppose that k > 0 and that both ka and kb are integer multiples of .
2
Then Z b Z b
b−a
sin2 (kx) dx = cos2 (kx) dx =
a a 2
Paraphrasing: if you’re integrating either sin2 or cos2 of a linear expression over an interval that
starts and stops at the ends of quadrants, then the integral is “half the box.” Alternatively, you
1
can phrase the result as either sin2 (kx) or cos2 (kx) having an average value of over any whole
2
number of quadrants.

We can prove this in many different ways, including the ordinary calculus-book method that
1 − cos 2x 1 + cos 2x
uses the “half-angle” identities sin2 x = and cos2 x = . But there’s another,
2 2
π
more pictorial and memorable proof. Start by drawing a box: 0 ≤ x ≤ and 0 ≤ y ≤ y. Draw the
2
graph of y = sin2 x within that box. We get the following picture:
1

y = sin2 x

0
π
0 Z π 2
2
The area inside the box and under the curve is sin2 x dx. But what is the area inside the
0
box and above the curve? The distance from the curve to the top of the box is 1 − sin2 x, and that
Z π
2
is cos2 x. Hence, the area inside the box and above the curve is cos2 x dx.
0
Now, how are those two areas related? It appears that the picture is symmetric (and  the
◦ π 1
appearance is correct). Rotate the box by 180 about its central point – that is, the point ,
4 2
– and the area below the curve becomes the area above the curve and the area above the curve
becomes the area below the curve.
π π
For another way to see that, make the substitution u = − x, which we can write as x = − u.
π  2 2
Note that sin − u = cos u. (Complementary angles.)
2
Z π Z 0 Z 0
2 π
2
 
2
sin x dx = sin − u (−du) = cos2 u(−du)
0 π 2 π
2 2
Z π Z π
2 2
= cos2 u du = cos2 x dx
0 0
 So, the area under the curve is the same as the area over the curve (and still inside the box).
Those areas add together to be the area of the whole box, so each area is half the box. That is,
Z π Z π
2 2 1 π π
sin2 x dx = cos2 x dx = · · 1 = .
0 0 2 2 4
If we change x to kx, that stretches or shrinks the picture horizontally, but the same argument
still works and we still get that the integral is half the box. If the integral covers several (a whole
number of) quadrants, we may simply quote this theorem on each quadrant and add them together.
If this theorem has an official name, I’m not aware of it. But as a handy descriptive shorthand,
I like to refer to the picture above and call this the “Yin-Yang Theorem.”

2. Examples of Using this Theorem

Z 2π
1
cos2 θ dθ = · 2π · 1 = π.
0 2
Z 6
1
5 sin2 (2πx) dx =
· (6 − 4) · 5 = 10.
4 2
As part of this example, we note that when x = 4, 2πx = 8π and when x = 6, 2πx = 12π, and
each of those points is the end of a quadrant.
Z π x
cos2 dx =?
0 3
x π
In this case, we note that when x = π, = , which is not the end of a quadrant, so the
3 3
Yin-Yang Theorem
√ does not apply. We must compute this integral by other means. If we do so,
π 3 3
we get + .
2 8
In an alternating current electrical circuit, the voltage, V (t), depends on time in a cyclical –
usually sinusoidal – fashion. For most purposes, the “effective voltage” is the root mean square
voltage. To define what this means, let [a, b] be an interval that consists of a whole number of
periods, and define:
 Z b  12
1 2
Vrms = (V (t)) dt .
b−a a
That is, the root mean square voltage is the square root of the average of the square of the voltage.
Now, suppose the voltage is sinusoidal: for instance, V (t) = V0 sin(120πt) for a 60 Hz (60 cycle per
second) current with voltage amplitude (peak voltage) equal to V0 . Take some length of time that
contains whole periods – one second will do – and compute the root mean square voltage”
Z 1  21
Vrms = V02 sin2 (120πt) dt
0
 1
1 2
= V02 · by “half the box”
2
V0
=√
2
As it turns out, for your “110 volt” household current, that 110 volts is √
(approximately) the
root mean square voltage. The peak voltage must be equal to V0 = 110 2 u 157 volts, so
V (t) = 157 sin(120πt).

2
3. Integrating All the Way Around
It is quite common to need to compute the integral from 0 to 2π (one whole period) of some
function of sines and cosines. In particular, this happens quite often in Calculus III when comput-
ing various double or triple integrals in polar, cylindrical, or spherical coordinates. Not all such
functions are polynomials, but enough are to make that an interesting case. Consider
Z 2π
cosm θ sinn θ dθ
0

for nonnegative integers m and n. Note that cos θ and sin θ each take on both positive and negative
values, and are negative exactly as much as they are positive. If either is raised to an odd power,
it stands to reason that the average value would be zero.
Z 2π
Claim: If either m or n is odd, then cosm θ sinn θ dθ = 0.
0

One way to prove that is to use the technique used to find the antiderivative. Suppose m is
odd. Then make the substitution u = sin θ, du = cos θ dθ, replacing the remaining powers of cos2 θ
by (1 − sin2 θ). The result is a polynomial integral in u, which gives us a polynomial in u, hence a
polynomial in sin u. But that polynomial in sin u is periodic of period 2π, so evaluating it at both
0 and 2π gives the same value, and those values subtract to zero. The case of n odd is similar.
If both m and n are even, then cosm x sinn x is positive, and the integral is positive. If both
m and n are zero, then we’re integrating a constant, and the value of the definite integral in the
“whole box.” If one exponent is 2 and the other zero, we have the situation covered by the Yin-
Yang Theorem: half the box. Other powers aren’t so simple, but we can still take advantage of our
knowledge. Here are two examples:

Z 2π Z 2π
3
(3 − 2 cos θ) dθ = 27 − 54 cos θ + 36 cos2 θ − 8 cos3 θ dθ
0 0
1
= 27 · 2π − 0 + · 36 · 2π − 0
2
= 54π + 36π = 90π
Z 2π
The second example is sin2 θ cos2 θ dθ. We note that sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ, so that
0
1
sin θ cos θ = sin 2θ. Use this:
2

2π
1 2π 2
Z Z
sin2 θ cos2 θ dθ = sin 2θ dθ
0 4 0
1 1 π
= · · 2π · 1 =
4 2 4