Learn Better

Game Writing
In a Day

Evan Skolnick All characters and works in this presentation are

trademarks of and/or copyrighted by their respective
Producer and Editorial Director owners.

Vicarious Visions Except where noted, they are used without permission
for educational purposes only, under the Fair Use
evan@vvisions.com provision of the United States Copyright Act.
 Tutorial Overview
– What This Tutorial Is About
• Overview of fiction writing as it applies to most game
Intro writing situations
• 80% general fiction writing theory
– Story structure and plotting
– Characters and characterization
– Dialogue writing
– Editing
• 20% video game application

– Whom This Tutorial Is For

• Game designers unfamiliar/uncomfortable with fiction
writing
• Game designers with limited writing experience who want
to improve their craft
• Aspiring or beginning game writers
 Tutorial Overview
– What This Tutorial Is Not About
• A debate on or vision of the future of video game narrative
Intro • Advanced fiction writing techniques
• A planning session for how to make players actually cry
like they do in the movies

– Whom This Tutorial Is Not For

• Professional writers who want to work in the games
industry
• Game designers who consider themselves professional-
level writers
• Holders of Creative Writing degrees
 Tutorial Overview

Intro
 Tutorial Overview

Intro
 Tutorial Overview

Intro
 Tutorial Overview
• Introductions
• Getting Over Yourself! The Game Writer’s Role
• General Theories of Story
Intro
– Three-Act Structure
– Monomyth
– Dramatica
• Storytelling Rules and Tools
– Exposition
– Believability
– Impact
• Characters and Characterization
– Focus on Hero and Villain
– Character Arcs
• Dialogue
– Dialogue’s Main Function
– Elements of Dialogue
 Getting Over Yourself
• You’re not the next Hemingway
Intro
Getting Over
• Write tight, effective, serviceable story content
Yourself
• Attempting anything beyond that is a distraction
and a disservice
• Gameplay is king
– Story should always support it, never supplant it
 Amount of Story
How much story does your game actually need?
Intro
Getting Over
Yourself

Chart adapted from Andrew Rollings and Ernest Adams

on Game Design, Rollings & Adams, 2003
 Amount of Story
Opening Cutscene(s)
Intro
• How much is enough?
Getting Over
Yourself Example 1: Grand Theft Auto III
 Amount of Story
Opening Cutscene(s)
Intro
• How much is enough?
Getting Over
Yourself Example 1: Grand Theft Auto III
 Amount of Story
Opening Cutscene(s)
Intro
• How much is enough?
Getting Over
Yourself Example 1: Grand Theft Auto III

Total required viewing time: 2:55

 Amount of Story
Opening Cutscene(s)
Intro
• How much is too much?
Getting Over
Yourself
 Amount of Story
Opening Cutscene(s)
Intro
Example 2: Grand Theft Auto IV
Getting Over
Yourself
 Amount of Story
Opening Cutscene(s)
Intro
Example 2: Grand Theft Auto IV
Getting Over
Yourself

Total required viewing time: 4:22

 Amount of Story
Opening Cutscene(s)
Intro
Example 3: Left 4 Dead
Getting Over
Yourself
 Amount of Story
Opening Cutscene(s)
Intro
Example 3: Left 4 Dead
Getting Over
Yourself

Total required viewing time: 4:20

 Amount of Story
Opening Cutscene(s)
Intro
• How much is too much?
Getting Over
Yourself Example 2: Metal Gear Solid 2
 Amount of Story
Opening Cutscene(s)
Intro
• How much is too much?
Getting Over
Yourself Example 2: Metal Gear Solid 2

Total required viewing time: 12:48

 Amount of Story
Opening Cutscene(s)
Intro
• How much is too much?
Getting Over
Yourself Example 2: Metal Gear Solid 2

Total required viewing time: 12:48

 Theories of Story

Intro
• Three-Act Structure
Getting Over
Yourself
• Aristotle, Syd Field
Theories
of Story

• Monomyth (Hero’s Journey)

• Joseph Campbell, Christopher Vogler

• Dramatica
• Theory plus software-based checking tool
 Three-Act Structure

Intro • First described by Aristotle in Poetics

Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story

• Posits that all stories share a

common underlying core structure
 Three-Act Structure

Intro • Beginning
• Setup
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story

• Middle
• Confrontation

• End
• Resolution
 Three-Act Structure

Intro
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
 Three-Act Structure

Intro
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
 Three-Act Structure

Intro
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
 Three-Act Structure
• Syd Field et al. expansions on Three-Act Structure
Intro
– Act 1
Getting Over
Yourself • Opening Image
Theories • Inciting Incident
of Story
• Turning Point 1
– Act 2a
• Pinch 1
• Midpoint
– Act 2b
• Pinch 2
• Turning Point 2
– Act 3
• Showdown
• Resolution
• Tag
 Three-Act Structure

Intro • Beginning
• Setup
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story

• Middle
• Confrontation

• End
• Resolution
 Three-Act Structure

Intro • Still applies to nearly all successful

Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
fictional stories today
of Story

• Universal, and therefore almost

overly simplistic
 Monomyth

Intro
• First described by Joseph Campbell in The Hero
Getting Over With a Thousand Faces (1949)
Yourself
Theories
of Story

• Partially based on work of psychologist Carl Jung

and his concept of archetypes

• Refined and elaborated on by Christopher Vogler

in The Writer’s Journey (1992)
 Monomyth

Intro
• Like Three-Act Structure, posits that all successful
Getting Over stories share common structure
Yourself
Theories
of Story

• Suggests also that these stories share common

character types... archetypes

• Archetypes represent various aspects of human

personality, personified
 Monomyth ¾ Archetypes

Intro
• Each archetype is a character or energy
Getting Over embodied by multiple characters
Yourself
Theories
of Story

• Together, they represent a complete human

psychological profile

• By meeting and learning from the various

archetypical characters, the Hero learns and
borrows along the way, becoming a stronger,
more complete person
 Monomyth ¾ Archetypes

Intro
• Hero
Getting Over
Yourself
• Mentor
Theories
of Story • Threshold Guardian (Henchman)
• Herald
• Shapeshifter
• Shadow (Villain)
• Trickster
 Monomyth ¾ Archetypes

Intro
• Hero
Getting Over – Dramatic Functions
Yourself
Theories • Audience Identification
of Story
• Growth
– Usually character who grows or changes most
• Action
• Sacrifice
• Risk

– Gaming Equivalent: Player

 Monomyth ¾ Archetypes

Intro
• Mentor
Getting Over – Dramatic Functions
Yourself
Theories • Teaching
of Story
• Gift-giving
• Motivation
• Conscience

– Gaming Equivalent: UI or a character

 Monomyth ¾ Archetypes

Intro
• Threshold Guardian (Henchman)
Getting Over – Dramatic Function
Yourself
Theories • Testing
of Story

– Gaming Equivalent: Generic enemies, Sub-Bosses

 Monomyth ¾ Archetypes

Intro
• Herald
Getting Over – Dramatic Functions
Yourself
Theories • Announce the Conflict (or its potential)
of Story
• Motivation
• Offer Hero the Challenge

– Gaming Equivalent: Marketing

 Monomyth ¾ Archetypes

Intro
• Shapeshifter
Getting Over – Dramatic Functions
Yourself
Theories • Sow suspicion and doubt
of Story

– Gaming Equivalent: Executive Producers

 Monomyth ¾ Archetypes

Intro
• Shadow (Villain)
Getting Over – Dramatic Functions
Yourself
Theories • Challenge the Hero
of Story

– Gaming Equivalent: Final Boss

 Monomyth ¾ Archetypes

Intro
• Trickster
Getting Over – Dramatic Functions
Yourself
Theories • Comic relief
of Story

– Gaming Equivalent: Sidekick (e.g. Daxter)

 Monomyth ¾ Structure
1. Ordinary World
Intro
Getting Over
2. Call to Adventure
Yourself
Theories
3. Refusal of the Call
of Story
4. Meeting the Mentor
5. Crossing the First Threshold
6. Tests, Allies, Enemies
7. Approach to the Inmost Cave
8. Supreme Ordeal
9. Reward
10. The Road Back
11. Resurrection
12. Return with the Elixir
 Monomyth ¾ Structure

Intro
1. Ordinary World
Getting Over – Depiction of the hero’s normal world
Yourself
Theories – Possibly idyllic
of Story
– More likely unbalanced but livable

– Gaming Equivalent:
• Often first few seconds of the opening cutscene
 Monomyth ¾ Structure

Intro
2. Call to Adventure
Getting Over – First indication that trouble is brewing
Yourself
Theories – Problem presented to Hero
of Story
– Hero can no longer stay in comfort of Ordinary World

– Gaming Equivalent:
• Often first middle part of the opening cutscene
 Monomyth ¾ Structure

Intro
3. Refusal of the Call
Getting Over – Hero initially refuses to confront the problem
Yourself
Theories
of Story

– Gaming Equivalent:
• Rarely seen in video games, for brevity’s sake
 Monomyth ¾ Structure

Intro
4. Meeting with the Mentor
Getting Over – Mentor provides motivation, gifts and encouragement
Yourself
Theories
of Story

– Gaming Equivalent:
• Superior officers, Narrators or other characters designed
to provide player with briefings and objectives
 Monomyth ¾ Structure

Intro
5. Crossing the First Threshold
Getting Over – Hero fully commits to the adventure
Yourself
Theories – Enters the Special World
of Story
– No turning back

– Gaming Equivalent:
• First or early gameplay level
 Monomyth ¾ Structure

Intro
6. Tests, Allies, Enemies
Getting Over – Series of sub-adventures related to the overall conflict
Yourself
Theories – Challenges increase in drama and stakes
of Story

– Gaming Equivalent:
• Levels!
 Monomyth ¾ Structure

Intro
7. Approach to the Inmost Cave
Getting Over – Danger-filled approach to site of final conflict
Yourself
Theories
of Story

– Gaming Equivalent:
• Late levels
 Monomyth ¾ Structure

Intro
8. The Supreme Ordeal
Getting Over – In the “belly of the beast”
Yourself
Theories – Death faced
of Story

– Gaming Equivalent:
• Levels and/or cutscenes leading to a “false” final boss
battle
 Monomyth ¾ Structure

Intro
9. Reward
Getting Over – Hero survives Supreme Ordeal and “seizes the sword”
Yourself
Theories – Reward received for victory
of Story

– Gaming Equivalent:
• Cutscene following “false” final boss battle
 Monomyth ¾ Structure

Intro
10. The Road Back
Getting Over – Hero tries to return to Ordinary World with the Reward,
Yourself
Theories
but dark forces are in pursuit
of Story

– Gaming Equivalent:
• Late levels or a cutscene following a “false” final boss
battle
 Monomyth ¾ Structure

Intro
11. Resurrection
Getting Over – Hero (or hero’s main goal) seemingly dies but
Yourself
Theories
somehow survives
of Story
– Transformed by the experience
– Gains final victory

– Gaming Equivalent:
• Final boss battle
 Monomyth ¾ Structure

Intro
12. Return with the Elixir
Getting Over – Hero returns to Ordinary World with a boon to benefit
Yourself
Theories
it
of Story
– Can be a Circular or Open-Ended return
– Final rewards and punishments doled out

– Gaming Equivalent:
• Final cutscene
 Monomyth ¾ Structure

Intro
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
 Monomyth ¾ Structure
Example: Star Wars

1. Ordinary World – Luke’s life on Tatooine as a farmboy

Intro 2. Call to Adventure – Leia’s message on R2-D2
Getting Over
Yourself 3. Refusal of the Call – Luke refuses Ben’s request to accompany him to
Theories Alderaan
of Story
4. Meeting the Mentor – Luke meets Obi-Wan Kenobi; is given lightsaber
5. Crossing the First Threshold – Luke’s foster parents killed; he commits
to fighting the Empire
6. Tests, Allies, Enemies – Blasting out of Mos Eisley, getting to know Han
& Chewbacca
7. Approach to the Inmost Cave – Sucked into the Death Star
8. Supreme Ordeal – Rescue of Princess Leia
9. Reward – Escape with Princess Leia and the plans
10. The Road Back – Defeating TIE fighters and preparing for assault on
Death Star
11. Resurrection – Luke’s X-Wing about to be destroyed by Darth Vader
12. Return with the Elixir – Luke returns to hangar; closing honor
ceremonies
 Monomyth ¾ Structure
Example: The Matrix

1. Ordinary World – Neo squeaking by as a corporate drone

Intro 2. Call to Adventure – The cell phone call
Getting Over
Yourself 3. Refusal of the Call – Neo chickens out on the ledge
Theories 4. Meeting the Mentor – Neo meets Morpheus
of Story
5. Crossing the First Threshold – Neo takes the red pill, is detached from
the Matrix and rescued by the rebels
6. Tests, Allies, Enemies – Training with Morpheus, first excursion back
into Matrix, meeting with Oracle, first battle with Agent Smith
7. Approach to the Inmost Cave – Invasion against Agents HQ
8. Supreme Ordeal – Rescue of Morpheus
9. Reward – Escape with Morpheus
10. The Road Back – Final battle with Agent Smith
11. Resurrection – Neo shot, seems dead, but comes back
12. Return with the Elixir – Neo masters his powers and obliterates
enemies; ready to continue fight against the AI
 Monomyth ¾ Structure
Example: Pee-Wee’s Big Adventure

1. Ordinary World – A typical day for Pee-Wee

Intro 2. Call to Adventure – Pee-Wee’s bike is stolen!
Getting Over 3. Refusal of the Call – Pee Wee passes out (questionable)
Yourself
4. Meeting the Mentor – Pee-Wee meets with police, Dotty and the Palm Reader
Theories
of Story 5. Crossing the First Threshold – Pee-Wee sets off for Texas
6. Tests, Allies, Enemies – Mickey the escaped convict, Large Marge, Simone, Andy,
bucking bronco, biker gang
7. Approach to the Inmost Cave – Pee-Wee sneaks onto Paramount Studios lot to get
his bike
8. Supreme Ordeal – Pee-Wee poses as actress playing a nun and must stare at his
bike without revealing himself
9. Reward – Pee-Wee grabs his bike and pedals for it
10. The Road Back – Pee-Wee chased by rent-a-cops on the Paramount lot; he stops
to save animals in burning pet store, passes out from fright and is captured by
police
11. Resurrection – Charges are dropped and Pee-Wee’s story is bought by Paramount
and turned into a major motion picture
12. Return with the Elixir – Pee-Wee and everyone he met during his journey attend
the movie’s world premiere
 Monomyth ¾ Structure
Example: The Lion King

1. Ordinary World – Young Simba growing up within the pride; father is killed and
Intro uncle takes over; he is exiled but grows up in a new, if unbalanced, Ordinary World
(with Timon and Pumbaa)
Getting Over
Yourself 2. Call to Adventure – Nala runs across Simba while hunting and urges him to return
Theories to Pride Rock to depose Scar
of Story
3. Refusal of the Call – Simba refuses, mainly due to his erroneous belief he was
responsible for his father’s death
4. Meeting the Mentor – Simba is visited by Rafiki and the ghost of Mufasa
5. Crossing the First Threshold – Simba sets off for Pride Rock
6. Tests, Allies, Enemies – Timon, Pumbaa and Nala join Simba and devise a plan of
attack
7. Approach to the Inmost Cave – Simba literally approaches a cave here; Pride Rock
8. Supreme Ordeal – Simba verbally confronts Scar
9. Reward – Scar seems to acquiesce...
10. The Road Back – Scar turns on Simba, hyenas attack; Scar gets Simba hanging
over the abyss
11. Resurrection – Simba somehow escapes falling and Scar is killed by hyenas
12. Return with the Elixir – Simba emerges as new lion king; produces an heir,
continuing circle of life
 Monomyth ¾ Structure
Example: Pulp Fiction

1. Ordinary World – Jules lives his life as an enforcer for Marsellus Wallace
Intro 2. Call to Adventure – Jules’ life seems miraculously spared during a routine
Getting Over shakedown
Yourself
3. Refusal of the Call – N/A (Vincent fulfills this role)
Theories
of Story 4. Meeting the Mentor – N/A (Jules’ mentor is his vague knowledge of the Bible)
5. Crossing the First Threshold – Jules tells Vincent he plans to change his life
6. Tests, Allies, Enemies – Vincent accidentally shoots Marvin in the car; Jimmie and
the Wolf assist in clean-up
7. Approach to the Inmost Cave – Jules and Vincent go to diner before returning
briefcase to Marsellus
8. Supreme Ordeal – Diner is robbed and Jules refuses to give up the briefcase;
Jules is able to turn tables on robber
9. Reward – Jules shows restraint in not killing robber
10. The Road Back – Vincent returns and threatens to escalate situation, resulting in
multiple deaths
11. Resurrection – Jules talks everyone down and resolves situation non-violently
12. Return with the Elixir – Jules leaves the diner as a confirmed practioner of what he
now preaches
 Monomyth

Intro
• The monomyth represents a pattern seen in
Getting Over many, many stories, but...
Yourself
Theories
of Story
• Don’t follow it slavishly!

• Use as a general guide only – take from it what

you can use
 Dramatica

Intro
• First developed in 1996 by Melanie Anne Phillips
Getting Over and Chris Huntley
Yourself
Theories
of Story

• Builds on Three-Act Structure and Monomyth

theories

• Comes with software checking tool to aid in

writing analysis, billed as “The Ultimate Writing
Partner”
 Dramatica

Intro
• Main concept: The Story Mind
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories – Every complete story is a model of the mind’s problem-
of Story
solving process
– To fully explore an issue, author has to examine all
possible solutions to the problem
– Make an argument to prove to an audience that author’s
way is best
 Dramatica

Intro
• Concepts and software best utilized by
Getting Over intermediate to advanced writers
Yourself
Theories
of Story

• Can feel restrictive and in some cases, forced

• May have limited application to game story

development
 Story ¾ Common Themes

Intro
• Beginning, Middle, End
Getting Over
Intro
– (Setup, Confrontation, Resolution)
Yourself
Theories
of Story

• Conflict-driven plot

• Into trouble, back out of trouble

• Main character action, change and growth

 Storytelling Rules & Tools

Intro
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
& Tools
 Rules & Tools
• Exposition
Intro – Show, don’t tell
Getting Over
Yourself
– Seeding, planting and foreshadowing
Theories
of Story • Believability
Rules
& Tools – Removing/masking/downplaying coincidences and
contrivances
– Avoiding deus ex machina
– Internal world consistency
– Character consistency
• Impact
– Setting appropriate scope of conflict
– The element of surprise
 Exposition ¾ Show, Don’t Tell
• Exposition ≠ Dialogue!
Intro • Talk is cheap
Getting Over
Yourself – Think of how your voting process works – do you base it
Theories
of Story
on words, or actions?
Rules
& Tools • Show, don’t tell
– The villain is evil? Show him being evil
– The hero is brave? Show her being brave
– The weapon is dangerous? Show it being dangerous
– That lady is forgetful? Show her being forgetful
– Etc.
• Whenever telling the audience something, ask
yourself if you could be showing it instead
 Exposition ¾ Seeding
• Exposition is something you “seed” throughout the
Intro story
Getting Over
Yourself • Not all dumped on the audience at the beginning
Theories
of Story
Rules
& Tools

“A beginning is a very delicate time.”

Frank Herbert, Dune

 Exposition ¾ Seeding
• In games, first cutscene is often the longest
Intro
Getting Over
• Writer struggles to establish world, characters and
Yourself
Theories
conflict all at once
of Story
Rules • Common area of overwriting
& Tools
• Generally the viewer needs much less exposition
at the outset than you’d think
• Focus on providing only “need to know” info,
especially up front
• Providing barely enough information can actually
increase drama and viewer interest
 Exposition ¾ Seeding

Intro
Plot Exposition:
Getting Over
Yourself • It’s OK to delay
Theories
of Story
Rules
• Focus on “Need to Know”
& Tools
 Exposition ¾ Planting

Intro
• If seeding is like spreading seed evenly to
Getting Over
Yourself
grow a lawn...
Theories
of Story
Rules
& Tools
• Planting is choosing a spot for a shrub,
and placing it right there, for a reason

• It grows slowly and provides its benefit

much later in the story
 Exposition ¾ Planting

Intro
Chekhov’s Law
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
• If Act One opens by mentioning a shotgun
& Tools
hanging over the mantel, that gun must be
fired by the end of the story.
 Exposition ¾ Planting

Intro
• If you plant it, it must grow
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
• In fiction writing, planning ahead is key
& Tools

• This is why most writers create the

opening of their stories last
 Exposition ¾ Planting
• Planting is establishing something specific that will
Intro
Getting Over
be important later in the story
Yourself
Theories
– A machine or gadget
– Knowledge or expertise
of Story
Rules
& Tools
– A skill, gift or power
– An object or item’s properties
• It is often established in as innocuous a way as
possible, so that later on it:
– Does not telegraph what’s to come
– Is half-forgotten later and so still surprises the
audience
 Exposition ¾ Planting

Intro
• Memorable movie plants
Getting Over
Yourself
– James Bond’s weapons, vehicles and
Theories
of Story
gadgets (planted by Q)
Rules
& Tools – RoboCop’s interface spike
– Woody’s matchstick in Toy Story
– Hannibal Lecter’s paper clip
– Bud’s wedding ring in The Abyss
 Exposition ¾ Planting

Intro
• Planting opportunities in games
Getting Over
Yourself
– Show item in cutscene that player later can
Theories
of Story
find/acquire
Rules
& Tools – Establish character’s ability in gameplay that
affects outcome of a cutscene
– Establish enemy’s ability in cutscene that
player must contend with in gameplay
 Exposition ¾ Foreshadowing

Intro
• Related to planting but wider focus
Getting Over
Yourself • Hints at what may come ahead
Theories
of Story
Rules
• Like planting, can lay the groundwork and
& Tools
increase believability
• Often delivered as warnings, theories,
images, dreams, feelings
• Usually delivered subtly as possible to
avoid complete telegraphing
• Often only make sense or seem relevant
later
 Exposition ¾ Foreshadowing

Intro
• Memorable movie foreshadowing
Getting Over
Yourself
– RoboCop’s secret fourth directive
Theories
of Story – Doc Brown’s warnings to Marty McFly about
Rules
& Tools his actions possibly impacting the future
– Incredi-Boy sequence in The Incredibles
– Sam Lowry’s dream sequences in Brazil
– Rex’s “Have you been replaced?” line in Toy
Story
– T-1000 staring oddly at silver mannequin in
shopping mall, in T2
 Exposition ¾ Foreshadowing

Intro
• Foreshadowing usage in games
Getting Over
Yourself
– Dialogue or imagery in cutscene
Theories
of Story
foreshadows what’s coming next in
Rules
& Tools
gameplay, or vice versa
 Rules & Tools ¾ Believability

Intro
• Suspension of disbelief
Getting Over
Yourself • Your job: keep the fictional world feeling as
Theories
of Story real as possible
Rules
& Tools
• Audience expects and wants:
– A world that is fully realized and internally
consistent
– Events that don’t test their gullibility
– Characters that determine outcome of story
– Characters that are consistent
 Believability ¾ Coincidences
• Coincidences hurt your story’s credibility and
Intro
Getting Over
believability
Yourself
Theories • Many story coincidences are due to the writer
of Story
Rules trying to solve other problems
& Tools
– Ex. hero’s love interest is the one who gets kidnapped
– Ex. hero must be resurrected in Act 3 and so
someone/something comes out of left field to do so
 Believability ¾ Coincidences
• Two different types
Intro
Getting Over – Seemingly small coincidences or
Yourself
Theories contrivances that ultimately have huge and
of Story
Rules necessary story impact (“way-homer”)
& Tools
• Ex. Star Wars (droid blows up)
• Ex. Star Wars (Leia and the battle plans)
– Blatant, giant coincidences at which the
audience immediately rolls its eyes (deus ex
machina)
• Ex. Jurassic Park movie version (climax resolution)
 Believability ¾ Coincidences

Intro
• Three tactics to deal with coincidences
Getting Over
Yourself
– Change plot
Theories
of Story – Retrofit
– Mask or downplay
Rules
& Tools
 Believability ¾ Coincidences

Intro
• Change plot to remove coincidence
Getting Over
Yourself
– Can something different happen here that
Theories
of Story
flows more organically?
Rules
& Tools – Can the character’s actions, position,
relationships or role help justify/cause
situation?
 Believability ¾ Coincidences

Intro
• Retrofit
Getting Over
Yourself
– While retaining the action, can you do what
Theories
of Story
is necessary to make this no longer a
Rules
& Tools
coincidence?
• Planting
• Foreshadowing
• Establishing
• Linking
 Believability ¾ Coincidences

Intro
• Mask or downplay the coincidence
Getting Over
Yourself
– Will people really notice this coincidence at
Theories
of Story
the time if it is glossed over?
Rules
& Tools – Can you distract audience with something
else during coincidence?
– Can you get away with it as is? Is it a “way-
homer”?
 Believability ¾ Consistency

Intro
• Story and all elements within it must be
Getting Over
Yourself
internally consistent
Theories
of Story – World (physics, technology, etc.)
– Characters
Rules
& Tools

• Any changes to the established “norm”

must be explained or otherwise set up
 Believability ¾ Consistency

Intro
• World Consistency
Getting Over
Yourself
– Rules of the world are established
Theories
of Story
• Physics
Rules
& Tools
• Technology
– Audience expects realism (where
appropriate) and consistency
• Ex. Independence Day
• Ex. Roger Rabbit and toon physics
 Believability ¾ Consistency

Intro
• World Consistency
Getting Over
Yourself
– In games, this is taken a step further
Theories
of Story – Actions and abilities seen in cutscenes must
Rules
& Tools be consistent with gameplay
• A character in a cutscene with abilities they can’t
exhibit in gameplay will cause player frustration
• A character in a cutscene without abilities that do
exist in gameplay will cause player derision
– Gameplay abilities, physics, etc. expected to
remain internally consistent
 Believability ¾ Consistency

Intro
• Character Consistency
Getting Over
Yourself
– Character motivations and actions must
Theories
of Story
remain consistent within story
Rules
& Tools
• Exception: character growth which has been
properly established
– In games, character motivations and actions
must also be consistent between:
– Cutscenes
– Mission objectives
– In-game abilities
 Rules & Tools ¾ Impact

Intro
• Scope of conflict
Getting Over
Yourself • Element of surprise
Theories
of Story
Rules
& Tools
 Impact ¾ Scope of Conflict

Intro
• Scope of conflict
Getting Over
Yourself
– What is at stake?
Theories
of Story – Too easy to make this overly large
Rules
& Tools • The USA
• All life on Earth
• Our galaxy
• The entire universe
– Any conflict can feel huge if it means a lot to
a sympathetic character
• Ex. Fatal Attraction
– Make scope of conflict only as large as it
needs to be
 Impact ¾ Scope of Conflict

Intro
• Good game examples
Getting Over
Yourself
– Grand Theft Auto series (one thug’s criminal
Theories
of Story
career)
Rules
& Tools – Sly Cooper (family birthright)
– Diner Dash (keeping one’s job)
– Mr. Mosquito (keeping a mosquito fed)
 Impact ¾ Surprise

Intro
• Best stories regularly surprise audience
Getting Over
Yourself • Best games regularly surprise players
Theories
of Story
Rules
• Avoid a plodding series of missions that
& Tools
lead to a long-expected showdown
– Audiences are well-versed in story
– Able to anticipate even more than you’d
expect
 Impact ¾ Surprise

Intro
• Plot twists
Getting Over
Yourself
– Vital to maintaining interest
Theories
of Story – Easy to do badly, unless properly set up
Rules
& Tools (can also feel like deus ex machina)
– In a game, poorly set up plot twist can feel
unfair to player
– Seed subtle exposition that increases
believability of your twists
– Include red herrings to throw clever viewers
off the path
 Characters ¾ Overview

Intro
• Most important characters
Getting Over
Yourself
– Hero
Theories
of Story – Villain
Rules
& Tools
Characters
• Creating non-generic characters
• Character arcs
 Characters ¾ Hero

Intro
• Hero starts in a stable if not balanced state
Getting Over
Yourself • Often:
Theories
of Story – Wrong career
Rules
& Tools
Characters
– Wrong position
– Divorced
– Single/lonely
– In a rut
– Trapped
– Underachieving
– Otherwise incomplete/unfulfilled
 Characters ¾ Hero

Intro
• Hero starts in a stable if not balanced state
Getting Over
Yourself • Often:
Theories
of Story – Wrong career – Changes to right career
Rules
& Tools
Characters
– Wrong position – Changes to right position
– Divorced – Reunites with ex, or finds someone new
– Single/lonely – Finds true love
– In a rut – Gets out of rut
– Trapped – Breaks free
– Underachieving - Overachieves
– Otherwise incomplete/unfulfilled – Becomes
complete and fulfilled
 Characters ¾ Hero

Intro
• Hero changes/grows the most
Getting Over
Yourself
– In well-constructed story, this is its most
Theories
of Story
dramatic aspect
Rules
& Tools – Can be difficult to establish in a game story
– Can be almost impossible to accomplish in a
Characters

licensed game story

 Characters ¾ Hero

Intro
• Stakes of conflict must be intensely
Getting Over
Yourself
personal to Hero
Theories
of Story • Not enough to save world – must save
someone with emotional bond
Rules
& Tools
Characters

• Otherwise audience indifference will result

– Superman 1 and 2
– Spider-Man 1 and 2
 Characters ¾ Hero

Intro
• What drives the hero to overcome the
Getting Over
Yourself
conflict?
Theories
of Story • How badly do they want it? And why?
Rules
& Tools
Characters
– Ex. Fatal Attraction (Oscar-nominated
screenplay)
• Dan Gallagher driven by happiness in his marriage
and love for his young daughter
• That’s all that’s at stake through most of the story
• Love for his wife and daughter emphasized again
and again to reinforce his personal stakes
 Characters ¾ Hero

Intro
• Being the Hero must include:
Getting Over
Yourself
– Risk
Theories
of Story – Sacrifice
– Reward
Rules
& Tools
Characters

• In stories, these can be physical or

emotional elements
• In games, they are most likely physical
 Characters ¾ Hero

Intro
• Hero must be active driver of the story
Getting Over
Yourself
– Decision
Theories
of Story – Action
Rules
& Tools
Characters
• Hero must not be forced or “have no
choice”
• Hero must actively and directly resolve
conflict
– No deus ex machina
 Characters ¾ Villain

Intro
• Villain is the source of the main conflict
Getting Over
Yourself • Must be more than a match for Hero
Theories
of Story – Viable threat
Rules
& Tools
Characters
– Shown, not told
• Cannot be approached without getting past
henchmen
 Characters ¾ Villain

Intro
• Doesn’t consider himself a Villain
Getting Over
Yourself
– Thinks he’s right
Theories
of Story – Is the Hero in his version of the story
Rules
& Tools
Characters
• Has clear, believable motivation
– Can be understood/appreciated by audience
at some level
– No black and white; shades of gray
– Answer to “why’s he doing that?” cannot be
“because he’s evil”.
 Characters ¾ Villain

Intro
• May or may not grow/change
Getting Over
Yourself • Must be directly confronted by Hero
Theories
of Story – Otherwise resolution is unsatisfying
Rules
& Tools
Characters
– Memorable exception: Star Trek II
• Kirk and Khan never physically meet
– Final boss battle!
• In non-adventure stories, villain may be:
– Boss, supervisor or work rival
– Hero’s own destructive personality
– Nature/The World
 Characters ¾ Arcs

Intro
• Character arc
Getting Over
Yourself
– Each significant character has his own arc,
Theories
of Story
with:
Rules
& Tools
• Its own conflict
Characters • Its own three-act structure (beginning, middle, end)
 Characters ¾ Arcs

Intro
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
& Tools
Characters
 Characters ¾ Arcs

Intro
• Simpler than overall story structure
Getting Over
Yourself • Should be expressed in three-act terms:
Theories
of Story – Setup
Rules
& Tools
Characters
– Confrontation
– Resolution
 Characters ¾ Arcs

Intro
• Movie Example: Star Trek II
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
• Kirk (Hero)
1. Feels old
& Tools
Characters

2. Gets back in action, defeats Khan

3. Feels young
 Characters ¾ Arcs

Intro
• Movie Example: Star Trek II
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
• Spock (Mentor/Hero)
1. Tasked with training next generation on his
& Tools
Characters

ship
2. Sees ship is going to be destroyed
3. Sacrifices himself to save them
 Characters ¾ Arcs

Intro
• Movie Example: Star Trek II
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
• McCoy (Mentor/Trickster)
1. Friend (Kirk) feels old
& Tools
Characters

2. Tries to advise/help
3. Friend feels young
 Characters ¾ Arcs

Intro
• Movie Example: Star Trek II
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
• Saavik (N/A)
1. Inexperienced, prickly and overly literal
& Tools
Characters

2. Learns from Kirk and Spock

3. Becomes more seasoned, balanced and
flexible
 Characters ¾ Arcs

Intro
• Movie Example: Star Trek II
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
• Khan (Villain)
1. Thirsts for revenge
& Tools
Characters

2. Attacks Kirk
3. Dies but kills Kirk’s best friend
 Characters ¾ Arcs

Intro
• Movie Example: Star Trek II
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
• Joachim (Henchman)
1. Sees Khan’s need for revenge is reckless
& Tools
Characters

2. Advises Khan to restrain himself

3. Fails to convince Khan and dies
 Characters ¾ Arcs

Intro
• Movie Example: Star Trek II
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
• Terrell (Shapeshifter)
1. Captured/brainwashed by Khan
& Tools
Characters

2. Fights the influence

3. Overcomes influence and commits suicide
before murdering Kirk
 Characters ¾ Arcs

Intro
• Movie Example: Star Trek II
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
• Chekov (Shapeshifter)
1. Captured/brainwashed by Khan
& Tools
Characters

2. Fights the influence

3. Overcomes influence and returns to duty
 Characters ¾ Arcs

Intro
• Movie Example: Star Trek II
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
• Carol Marcus (Herald)
1. Creates Genesis, hides David from
& Tools
Characters

knowledge that Kirk is his father

2. Genesis stolen, Kirk and David meet and
do not mix well
3. Genesis proven successful, Kirk and David
reconcile
 Characters ¾ Arcs

Intro
• Movie Example: Star Trek II
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
• David Marcus (N/A)
1. Hates Starfleet (including Kirk)
& Tools
Characters

2. Meets Kirk, does not get along with him,

discovers Kirk is his father
3. Grows to understand Kirk and be proud to
be his son
 Dialogue

Intro
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
& Tools
Characters

Dialogue
 Dialogue’s Main Function

Intro Exposition
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story • Plot
Rules
& Tools
Characters • Character
Dialogue
• Emotion
 Exposition ¾ Plot
• Dialogue is a tool the writer can use to provide
Intro
plot exposition, but...
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
• Always better to show than tell
of Story
Rules • It’s possible to convey a complete story with no
dialogue at all
& Tools
Characters

Dialogue
 Exposition ¾ Plot
• If art/animation is already providing adequate plot
Intro information, don’t duplicate that effort
Getting Over
Yourself • Instead, use dialogue to support the ancillary functions:
Theories
of Story
– Character
Rules
& Tools
– Emotion
Characters – Humor
Dialogue • However, when necessary, you’ll need to convey plot
exposition via dialogue
– Don’t explain what is obvious or irrelevant
– Try to subtly weave exposition into your dialogue
 Exposition ¾ Character

Intro
• What your characters do can drive
Getting Over
Yourself
plot and character exposition
• What your characters say often
Theories
of Story
Rules

drives plot exposition

& Tools
Characters

Dialogue
• How your characters say it drives
character exposition
 Character ¾ Voice
• Each important character must have a unique
Intro
voice
Getting Over
Yourself Affected by:
Theories
of Story • Intelligence
Rules
& Tools
• Vocabulary
Characters • Ethnicity/Accent
Dialogue • Economic Background
• General attitude toward life
• Specific attitude toward the recipient
– Can change depending on:
• Current situation
• Current emotional state
• Current goals
• A change due to character growth or new information
 Character ¾ Voice
• In all cases, characters’ voices should
Intro
differentiate them from each other
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story • A line that could be spoken by any character
Rules
& Tools could probably be improved
Characters

Dialogue
• (Or your characters may just be too bland)
 Character ¾ Voice
Finding each character’s voice
Intro • Licensed characters: research
Getting Over
Yourself – Find out everything you can about the character
Theories
of Story – Read the prior dialogue
Rules
& Tools • Transcribe if necessary
Characters
• Note sentence structure, dialect, etc.
Dialogue – Write, then read out loud (or “out loud in head”)
• Check for authenticity vs. established character voice
• Original characters: over-develop
– Create detailed background upon which to draw
 Character ¾ Voice
• Some things to know about your original characters
– Where was I born?
Intro – How old am I?
Getting Over – Where did I grow up?
Yourself
– What’s my educational background?
Theories
of Story – Do I have an accent?
Rules – Do I have a speech impediment?
& Tools
– Do I have any pet phrases?
Characters
– What do I do for a living?
Dialogue – What are my hobbies?
– What do I love?
– What do I hate?
– Am I personality type A, B, or C?
– Am I married? Have I ever been?
– How do I feel about the other characters in this story?
– Who is my best friend and why?
– Who is my worst enemy and why?
– What makes me special and unique?
 Exposition ¾ Emotion
• Emotion mainly conveyed through character
Intro
action
Getting Over
Yourself
– Again, show don’t tell
Theories
of Story • Dialogue usually reinforces emotional states
• Emotion increases stakes and adds weight to
Rules
& Tools

gameplay situations
Characters

Dialogue
– Resolution of conflicts must personally matter to the
playable characters to add weight
– Direct investment in the outcome of the overall conflict
– Pepper sub-conflicts which tie into main conflict
 Exposition ¾ Emotion
A simple turn of phrase can move the characters’ emotional
state all over the place
Intro
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
& Tools
Characters

Dialogue
 Exposition ¾ Emotion
A simple turn of phrase can move the characters’ emotional
state all over the place
Intro
Getting Over APARTMENT, DAY. JANET, a 35-year-old woman, slumps in her chair
Yourself at the kitchen table smoking a cigarette. She glances at the
Theories CLOCK on the wall, then takes another drag, looking unhappy.
of Story
Rules
& Tools The front door opens and BRAD enters carrying a brown paper bag.
Characters

Dialogue
JANET looks up.

JANET
I’m not happy, Brad. You’re late.
 Exposition ¾ Emotion

Intro
Getting Over APARTMENT, DAY. JANET, a 35-year-old woman, slumps in her chair
Yourself at the kitchen table smoking a cigarette. She glances at the
Theories CLOCK on the wall, then takes another drag, looking unhappy.
of Story
Rules
& Tools The front door opens and BRAD enters carrying a brown paper bag.
Characters

Dialogue
JANET looks up.

JANICE
Where the hell have you been?
 Exposition ¾ Emotion

Intro
Getting Over APARTMENT, DAY. JANET, a 35-year-old woman, slumps in her chair
Yourself at the kitchen table smoking a cigarette. She glances at the
Theories CLOCK on the wall, then takes another drag, looking unhappy.
of Story
Rules
& Tools The front door opens and BRAD enters carrying a brown paper bag.
Characters

Dialogue
JANET looks up.

JANET
“Half an hour,” huh?
 Exposition ¾ Emotion

Intro
Getting Over APARTMENT, DAY. JANET, a 35-year-old woman, slumps in her chair
Yourself at the kitchen table smoking a cigarette. She glances at the
Theories CLOCK on the wall, then takes another drag, looking unhappy.
of Story
Rules
& Tools The front door opens and BRAD enters carrying a brown paper bag.
Characters

Dialogue
JANET looks up.

JANET
Thank God you’re back! I was worried about you.
 Exposition ¾ Emotion

Intro
Getting Over APARTMENT, DAY. JANET , a 35-year-old woman, slumps in her chair
Yourself at the kitchen table smoking a cigarette. She glances at the
Theories CLOCK on the wall, then takes another drag, looking unhappy.
of Story
Rules
& Tools The front door opens and BRAD enters carrying a brown paper bag.
Characters

Dialogue
JANET doesn’t even look up.

JANET
You know, Brad, my last husband was late once. Once.
 Exposition ¾ Emotion

Intro
Getting Over APARTMENT, DAY. JANET , a 35-year-old woman, slumps in her chair
Yourself at the kitchen table smoking a cigarette. She glances at the
Theories CLOCK on the wall, then takes another drag, looking unhappy.
of Story
Rules
& Tools The front door opens and BRAD enters carrying a brown paper bag.
Characters

Dialogue
JANET looks at her watch then glares furiously at BRAD.
 Other Considerations
• Humor
Intro
Getting Over
Yourself
• Naturalness vs. Compression
Theories
of Story • Audience
Rules
& Tools
Characters

Dialogue
 Other Considerations

Intro
• Humor
Getting Over
– Even the most intense story experience needs the occasional
Yourself stress-relieving laugh
Theories
of Story
Rules
& Tools
Characters

Dialogue

“Maybe you haven't been keeping up on current

events, but we just got our asses kicked, pal!”
 Other Considerations

Intro
• Humor
Getting Over
– Even the most intense story experience needs the occasional
Yourself stress-relieving laugh
Theories
of Story
Rules
& Tools
Characters

Dialogue

“I’ll be back.”
 Other Considerations

Intro
• Humor
Getting Over
– Even the most intense story experience needs the occasional
Yourself stress-relieving laugh
Theories
of Story
Rules
& Tools
Characters

Dialogue

“You’re gonna need a bigger boat.”

 Other Considerations

Intro
• Humor
Getting Over
– Even the most intense story experience needs the occasional
Yourself stress-relieving laugh
Theories
of Story – Many properties require a significant amount of comedy writing
Rules
& Tools – Few things are as subjective as comedy
Characters
– Test your material
Dialogue – Humor extends length
 Other Considerations

Intro
• Naturalness vs. Compression
Getting Over
– Writing natural-sounding dialogue comes easily to some, but
Yourself most writers need to work at it
Theories
of Story – Real-world dialogue vs. effective, natural-sounding story
Rules
& Tools
dialogue
Characters – Exercise
Dialogue • Record people talking and transcribe it
• Rewrite the conversation for clarity and brevity
 Other Considerations

Intro
• Audience
Getting Over – What is your target audience?
Yourself
Theories
• Age
of Story
• Sex
Rules
& Tools • Interests
Characters
• Pop culture knowledge
– ESRB
Dialogue

• Are you writing at a level appropriate for the target ESRB

rating (E, E10+, T, M?)
– Research and read entertainment experiences targeted
at the same audience
 Your Writing and Editing Process

Intro
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
& Tools
Characters

Dialogue

Process
 Process ¾ Cutscenes

Intro
• Blocking Out
Getting Over – Work with designers to determine what each cutscene
Yourself
Theories
MUST convey in order to:
of Story
• Pay off previous game experience
Rules
& Tools • Set up / support next game experience
Characters
• Continue to move the overall game plot forward
Dialogue
• Establish important character and relationship info
Process • Otherwise support design or storytelling goals
– Do a rough first pass on all cutscenes in the game
before beginning to edit or polish any of them
 Process ¾ Cutscenes

Intro
• Second pass
Getting Over – After first pass, evaluate to make sure all requirements
Yourself
Theories
of each cutscene are being met
of Story
• Pay off previous game experience
Rules
& Tools • Set up / support next game experience
Characters
• Continue to move the overall game plot forward
Dialogue
• Establish important character and relationship info
Process • Otherwise support design or storytelling goals
– Flesh it out
– Your second pass might be longer than the first!
– Before you start to cut the fat, make sure all the muscle
is there
 Process ¾ Cutscenes

Intro
• Editing
Getting Over – Now it’s time to pare dialogue down to its essence
Yourself
Theories – Look at every sentence and challenge it to justify its
of Story
Rules
existence
& Tools
• What purpose do you serve?
Characters
• Could you be replaced by a shorter or better phrase?
Dialogue
• Are you being spoken by the best choice of character?
Process
• Are you trying to communicate too many things all at
once?
• Do you sound natural?
• Are you surrounded by sentences of similar length?
– Shorten, replace, remove wherever possible. Cut until it
starts to hurt!
 Process ¾ Cutscenes

Intro
• Editing – Second Round
Getting Over – After challenging sentences, move onto challenging the
Yourself
Theories
individual words
of Story
Rules
– Shorten, replace, remove wherever you can
– More words = more likelihood player hits “skip” button
& Tools
Characters

Dialogue

Process
 Process ¾ In-Game Dialogue

Intro
• In-Game Dialogue
Getting Over – Same rules as Cutscene dialogue apply
Yourself
Theories – Emphasis on providing very specific direction
of Story
Rules • Objectives
& Tools
Characters
• Hints
• Means to the end
Dialogue
– Use the “challenge each word” process here, too
Process
– Shorten, replace, remove wherever you can
– However, “timeout idle” and similar throwaway lines are
fun to write and pure gravy for a writer. Have fun!
 Your Writing and Editing Process

Intro
• Getting Feedback
Getting Over – Don’t do all edits yourself
Yourself
Theories – If your company has no editors, find another writer to
of Story
Rules
read your work
– Don’t prep them any more than you must
& Tools
Characters
• The “colder” they read it, the better
Dialogue
– They can help you check:
Process
• Is your work confusing or clear?
• Is exposition coming across?
• Is your writing entertaining?
 Your Writing and Editing Process

Intro
• Becoming a better dialogue editor
Getting Over – Look at how other writers handle their dialogue
Yourself
Theories – Movie scripts are generally tight: read lots of them
of Story
Rules • In particular, look to good movie adaptations of novels to
& Tools
see how the masters cut something big down to size
Characters

Dialogue

Process
 Case Study: Lord of the Rings: ROTK

Intro
Getting Over
Yourself
Theories
of Story
Rules
& Tools
Characters

Dialogue

Process

Novel by J.R.R. Tolkien

Screenplay by
Fran Walsh & Philippa Boyens & Peter Jackson
 Case Study: Lord of the Rings: ROTK
Sam: Where are you going, Master? Sam: What does he mean?

Frodo: To the Havens, Sam. Frodo: We set out to save the Shire, Sam, and it has
been saved ... but not for me . . .
Sam: And I can’t come.
Intro Sam: You don’t mean that - you can’t leave.
Frodo: No, Sam. Not yet, anyway, not further than the
Getting Over Havens. Though you too were a Ring-Bearer, if only Frodo (handing him the Red Book):
Yourself for a little while. Your time may come. Do not be too The last pages are for you, Sam.
sad, Sam. You cannot always be torn in two. You will
Theories
have to be one and whole, for many years. You have Frodo V/O: My dear Sam. You cannot always be torn in two.
of Story
so much to enjoy and to be, and to do. You will have to be one and whole for many years.
Rules You have so much enjoy and to be and to do.
& Tools Sam: But I thought you were going to enjoy the Shire, too, Your part in the Story will go on.
for years and years, after all you have done.
Characters
Frodo: So I thought too, once. But I have been too deeply
Dialogue hurt, Sam. I tried to save the Shire, and it has been Scene time: 4:35
saved, but not for me. It must often be so, Sam, when
things are in danger: someone has to give them up,
Process
lose them, so that others may keep them. But you are
my heir: all that I have and might have had I leave to
you. And also you have Rose, and Elanor; and Frodo-
lad will come, and Rosie-lass, and Merry, and
Goldilocks, and Pippin; and perhaps more than I
cannot see. Your hands and your wits will be needed
everywhere. You will be the Mayor, of course, as long
as you want to be, and the most famous gardener in
history; and you will read things out of the Red Book,
and keep alive the memory of the age that is gone, so
that people will remember the Great Danger and so
love their beloved land all the more. And that will
keep you as busy and as happy as anyone can be, as
long as your part of the Story goes on.
 Reference / Reading
• Aristotle. Poetics
– Public domain
Intro • Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces
Getting Over – Princeton University Press (reprint), 1972
Yourself
• Field, Syd. Screenplay: The Foundations of Screenwriting
Theories
– Dell Books, 1987
of Story
Rules • Franklin, Jon. Writing For Story
& Tools – Atheneum, 1986
Characters • McKee, Robert. Story
– Regan Books, 1997
Dialogue
• Phillips, Melanie and Chris Huntley. Dramatica: A New Theory of Story
Process – Write Brothers, 2004
• Rollings, Andrew and Ernest Adams. Andrew Rollings and Ernest Adams on Game Design
Case
Study – New Rider Games, 2003
• Strunk, William and E.B. White. The Elements of Style
– Longman (4th edition), 1999
• Vogler, Christopher. The Writer’s Journey: Mythic Structure for Writers
– Michael Wiese Productions, 1998