Chemistry Notes

1
Separation Techniques
Type of Mixture Scenarios Method of Separation

Insoluble Solid + Liquid Filtration

To obtain the solid (solute):

Solid - Liquid - Crystallisation

Solution (Solid dissolved in Liquid)
One solid is soluble in a solvent
and one is not.
Solid - Solid
One solid sublimes and one does
not.
- Evaporation to Dryness
To obtain the liquid (solvent):
- Distillation
Use a suitable solvent followed by
filtration.
Sublimation

Miscible liquids Fractional Distillation

Liquid – Liquid
Immiscible Liquids Seperating Funnel

Various components such as dyes dissolved in the same

Chromatography
solvent.

Bonding & Structure

Type of Bond Definition

Ionic bonds are strong electrostatic forces of attraction between

Ionic Bond
oppositely-charged ions.

Covalent bonds are generally formed between non-metal atoms by the

Covalent Bond
sharing of electrons.

A metallic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between the “sea”

Metallic Bond
of mobile valence electrons and the positive metal ions

2
Type of Structure Properties

- High Melting Point

- Large amounts of energy is required to overcome the
strong electrostatic forces of attraction between
oppositely- charged ions.
- Greater charges = More energy needed to
overcome stronger electrostatic forces of
attraction
- Conductor of Electricity in Molten / Aqueous State

Giant Ionic - In the solid state, the oppositely-charged ions are held
Structure in fixed positions by strong electrostatic forces of
attraction. Thus ions are not mobile and hence cannot
conduct electricity.
- In the molten or aqueous state, the strong electrostatic
forces of attraction between the oppositely-charged
ions have been overcome. The ions are mobile and
hence can conduct electricity.
- Soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvent.

- Low Melting Point and Boiling Point

- Small amount of energy is required to overcome the
weak intermolecular forces of attraction.
- Non-conductor of electricity in any states
- There are no free-moving valence electrons available
Simple Molecular
to conduct electricity.
Structure
- Exceptions: Hydrogen Chloride (HCl), Sulfur Dioxide
(SO2), Ammonia (NH3), react with water to form
solutions that conduct electricity.
- Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvent.

- High Melting Point

Giant Molecular - A large amount of energy is required to break the
Structure strong covalent bonds between the carbon atoms.
- Insoluble in water and organic solvent.

3
 - High Melting Point
- A large amount of energy is needed to overcome the strong
electrostatic forces of attraction between the metal cations
and the “sea” of mobile valence electrons.
- Exception: Mercury, which is a liquid at room temperature.
- Conductor of electricity in any states
- There is “sea” of mobile valence electrons present
Giant Metallic to conduct electricity.
Structure
- Insoluble in water and organic solvent.
- Ductile and Malleable
- Ductile: Metals can be stretched into wire without breaking
- Malleable: Metals can be hammered into different shapes
- Metals ions are arranged orderly in layers. When a force is
applied, the layers of metal ions can slide over one
another.

4
Kinetic Particle Theory
- All matter is made up of particles that are in constant random motion.

Properties Solid Liquid Gas

Arrangement of Very closely packed in a Closely packed in a Far apart and in a

Particles regular arrangement. random arrangement. random arrangement.

Free to move within the

Movement of Vibrate about fixed Move at high speed in
liquid by sliding over
Particles positions. all direction.
one another.

Forces between
Very strong. Strong. Negligible.
Particles

More kinetic energy

Kinetic Energy than in solid but less
Low. A lot of kinetic energy
of Particles than kinetic energy than
gas.

Changing Between States

State of Matter Transition State of Matter

→ Condensation →
Gas Liquid
← Boiling / Evaporation ←

→ Freezing →
Liquid Solid
← Melting ←

→ Sublimation →
Solid Gas
← Deposition ←

5
Melting and Heating Curve
1. Particles gain kinetic energy and vibrate faster.
2. Particles overcome electrostatic forces of attraction between them and move further apart.
3. Particles now slide over one another. Solid has melted to liquid.

Freezing and Cooling Curve

1. Particles lose kinetic energy and move more slowly.
2. Forces of attraction between particles become stronger and particles move closer to
one another.
3. All the particles vibrate about fixed and orderly positions. Liquid has frozen into solid.

Boiling Evaporation

Fast process Slow process

Bubbles are observed No visible change

Occurs throughout the liquid Occurs at the exposed surface of the liquid only

Occurs at a fixed temperature Occurs at all temperature

Source of energy needed Energy supplied by the surroundings

6
Acids, Bases and Salts
Acids
- An acid is a substance which dissociates in water / aqueous solution to give hydrogen ions.
- Basicity of an acid is the maximum number of hydrogen ions produced by one molecule of
the acid when the acid molecule dissociates in water.
1. Monobasic (1 Hydrogen Ion)
a. Hydrochloric Acid
b. Nitric Acid
c. Ethanoic Acid
2. Dibasic (2 Hydrogen Ions)
a. Sulfuric Acid
b. Carbonic Acid
3. Tribasic (3 Hydrogen Ions)
a. Phosphoric Acid
- The strength of an acid depends on the extent of dissociation of the acid molecules in water
/ aqueous solution.

Strong Acids Weak Acids

Most acid molecules remain unchanged; few

All acid molecules form ions.
ions are formed.

Complete dissociation. Partial dissociation.

- The concentration of a solution is a measure of how much solute has dissolved in 1

dm3 of solution.

Bases & Alkalis

- A base is a substance that reacts with an acid to form salt and water only.
- Alkalis are bases that dissolve in water to produce hydroxide ions.
- All alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis.

Strong Alkalis Weak Alkalis

Most alkali molecules remain unchanged; few

All alkali molecules form ions.
ions are formed.

Complete dissociation. Partial dissociation.

7
Uses of Acids and Bases

Uses of Acids Uses of Bases

Manufacture of Fertilizers Neutralize Acids

- Sulfuric Acid - Magnesium Hydroxide (Toothpaste)
- Nitric Acid - Calcium Oxide (For Acid in Soil)
Battery Acid in Cars - Solid Calcium Hydroxide (For Acid in
Soil)
- Dilute Sulfuric Acid

Pickling of Metals (Rust Removal) Dissolve Dirt & Grease

- Hydrochloric Acid - Sodium Hydroxide (Floor Cleaners)
Food Production - Ammonia (Window Cleaners)

- Phosphoric Acid - Mild Alkalis (Soap & Detergents)

8
Solubility Table
Salts Soluble Insoluble

Group I Metals ✓ No Exceptions

Ammonium Salts ✓ No Exceptions

Nitrate Salts ✓ No Exceptions

Exceptions:
- BaSO4 (Barium Sulfate)
- CaSO4 (Calcium Sulfate)
Sulfate Salts ✓ - PbSO4 (Lead(II) Sulfate)
- Ag2SO4 (Silver Sulfate)
*Note that Silver Sulfate is
sparingly soluble

Exceptions:
Chloride Salts ✓ - AgCl (Silver Chloride)
- PbCl2 (Lead(II) Chloride)

Exceptions:
- Carbonates of Group I Metals
Carbonate Salts - (NH4)2CO3 ✓
(Ammonium
Carbonate)

Bases Soluble Insoluble

Exceptions:
- Oxides of Group I Metals
- BaO (Barium Oxide)
Oxides ✓
- CaO (Calcium Oxide)
*Note that Calcium Oxide is
slightly soluble

Exceptions:
- Hydroxides of Group I Metals
Hydroxides ✓
- Ba(OH)2 (Barium Hydroxide)
- Ca(OH)2 (Calcium Hydroxide)

9
Chemical Reactions
Acid + Metal ➝ Salt + Hydrogen

Metal Carbonate /
Carbon Dioxide &
Acid + Metal Hydrogen ➝ Salt +
Water
Carbonate

Water
Acid + Bases ➝ Salt +
(Neutralisation)

Ammonia Gas +
Alkali + Ammonium Salt ➝ Salt +
Water

pH Scale
- pH is a measure of acidity or alkalinity in aqueous solution
- pH measures the concentrations of hydrogen ions in the aqueous solution
- pH scale is numbered between 0 – 14

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

← Increasing Acidity ← ➝ Neutral ← ➝ Increasing Alkalinity ➝

pH Range Type Examples

Hydrochloric Acid
0–2 Strongly Acidic Nitric Acid
Sulfuric Acid

Carbonic Acid
4–6 Weakly Acid Ethanoic Acid
Phosphoric Acid

Water
7 Neutral
Aqueous Sodium Chloride

Aqueous Sodium Carbonate

8 – 10 Weakly Alkaline Aqueous Sodium Bicarbonate
Aqueous Ammonia

Aqueous Sodium Hydroxide

12 – 14 Strongly Alkaline
Aqueous Potassium Hydroxide

10
Indicators
- An indicator is an organic compound which changes in colour in accordance with the pH
of a solution.

Colour in Acidic Colour in Alkaline pH at which Colour

Indicator
Solution Solution changes

Litmus Red Blue 7

Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink 9

Methyl Orange Red Yellow 4 (Turns Orange)

Screened Methyl
Purple Green 4 (Turns Grey)
Orange

Bromothymol Blue Yellow Blue 7 (Turns Green)

- pH meter is an electrical method of measuring the pH of a solution. It consists of a pH

electrode connected to a meter. The pH electrode is dipped into the solution and pH
value is then shown on the meter.
- Advantages of using a pH meter over indicators
1. More reliable and accurate
2. Can be used in data logging to record rapid changes in pH

11
Oxides
Types of
Characteristics Examples
Oxides

Usually oxides of non-metals Sulfur Dioxide

React with water to form acids Carbon Dioxide

Acidic Oxide
React with alkalis to produce salts and Nitrogen Dioxide
water only Phosphorus(V) Oxide

Usually oxides of metals

Sodium Oxide
If soluble, will react with water to
Basic Oxide form alkalis Calcium Oxide
React with acids to produce salts and Copper(Ii) Oxide
water only

Usually oxide of metals

Zinc Oxide
Amphoteric Do not dissolve in water
Aluminium Oxide
Oxide React with acids to produce salts
Lead(Ii) Oxide
React with alkalis to produce salts

Water
Oxides of non-metals
Carbon Monoxide
Neutral Do not react with acids or alkalis
Dinitrogen Monoxide
Do not dissolve in water
Nitrogen Monoxide

12
Salts
- A salt is formed when the hydrogen ion, H+, of the acid is fully or partially replaced by a
metal ion or an ammonium ion.
Water of Crystallisation
- Many salts have water molecules loosely associated with them. These water molecules are
known as water of crystallisation.
- Salts that do not contain water of crystallisation are called anhydrous salts.
- Salts that contain water of crystallisation are called hydrated salts.
Preparation of Salts

Reaction of Acids with

Excess Insoluble
Method Precipitation Titration
Carbonates, Bases or
Metals

Soluble (Except group 1

Solubility of Salt Soluble (Group 1 salts or
Insoluble salts or ammonium
to be prepared ammonium salts)
salts)

Aqueous Sodium
Aqueous Copper(II) Chloride
Solid Barium Sulfate Sulfate
Aqueous Potassium
Examples Solid Silver Chloride Aqueous Zinc Nitrate Nitrate
Solid Lead(II) Iodide Aqueous Magnesium
Chloride Aqueous Ammonium
Sulfate

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
Reaction 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

State of Reactants 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 + 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 + 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 + 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

Salt obtained as /
Precipitate Solution Solution
from...

13
Qualitative Analysis
Colour of Substances

Colour Solids Solutions

- Compounds of Group 1 and

2 Metals - Salts of Group 1 and 2 Metals
White Solid / - Zn and
2+
NH4+ compounds - NH4+ salts
Colourless
- Some metal oxides (powder) - Dilute acids and alkalis
Solution
- E.g. Na2O, K2O, CaO, MgO, ZnO - Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
(when cold), etc.

Blue - (Hydrated) Cu2+ salts - Cu2+ salts, e.g. CuSO4, Cu(NO3)2

- Fe2+ salts (pale green)

Green - Fe2+ salts (pale green)
- CuCO3

- Fe3+ Salts
- AgI (pale yellow)
Yellow - PbI2 (bright yellow ppt or crystals) - Fe3+ salts (dilute solution)
- PbO, ZnO (when hot)
- Sulfur Powder

- Fe2O3 (Red-Brown)
Brown / Red- - Fe3+ salts (concentrated solution)
- Fe(OH)3
Brown - I2 (aq) (aqueous iodine)
- Cu metal (can be pink)

- KMnO4 (aq)
Purple - KMnO4 (crystals)
- I2 dissolved inorganic solvent

- Metals, e.g. Zn, Fe, Al, etc.

Grey / Silver -
except Cu, Au

- Cuo, MnO2 (powder)

Black - I2 (shiny crystals) -
- Carbon Powder

14
Test for Cations

Cations present Observations on adding aqueous Observations on adding aqueous

in the solution sodium hydroxide ammonia

Sodium (Na+) /
No visible change. No visible change.
Potassium (K+)

On warming, colourless, pungent

Ammonium (NH4+) gas is evolved which turns damp red Not applicable.
litmus paper blue. Gas is ammonia.

White precipitate seen.

Precipitate insoluble in
Calcium (Ca2+) No precipitate seen.
excess aqueous sodium
hydroxide.

White precipitate seen.

White precipitate seen.
Aluminium (Al ) 3+ Precipitate soluble in excess aqueous Precipitate insoluble in
sodium hydroxide to give a colourless excess aqueous ammonia.
solution.

White precipitate seen.

White precipitate seen.
Lead(II) (Pb )
2+ Precipitate soluble in excess aqueous Precipitate insoluble in
sodium hydroxide to give a colourless excess aqueous ammonia.
solution.

White precipitate seen. White precipitate seen.

Zinc (Zn2+) Precipitate soluble in excess aqueous Precipitate soluble in excess aqueous
sodium hydroxide to give a colourless ammonia to give a colourless
solution. solution.

Blue precipitate seen. Blue precipitate seen.

Precipitate insoluble in Precipitate soluble in excess
Copper(II) (Cu2+)
excess aqueous sodium aqueous ammonia to give a dark
hydroxide. blue solution

Green precipitate seen.

Green precipitate seen.
Precipitate insoluble in
Precipitate insoluble in
excess aqueous sodium
Iron(II) (Fe2+) excess aqueous ammonia.
hydroxide.
(Precipitate turns reddish-brown
(Precipitate turns reddish-brown
on standing).
on standing).

Reddish-brown precipitate
Reddish-brown precipitate
seen. Precipitate insoluble in
Iron(III) (Fe3+) seen. Precipitate insoluble in
excess aqueous sodium
excess aqueous ammonia.
hydroxide.

15
Test for Anion

Anion Test Observations

Add dilute nitric acid followed by

aqueous barium nitrate.

OR
White precipitate is seen.

Add dilute hydrocholoric acid

followed by aqueous barium
Sulfate chloride.
SO42- Alternative procedure:
in solution
Add aqueous barium nitrate, then
White precipitate is seen.
dilute nitric acid.

White precipitate remains insoluble

OR
in dilute HNO3 (aq) / dilute HCℓ (aq).

Add barium chloride, then dilute

hydrocholoric acid.
Add dilute nitric acid followed by
White precipitate is seen.
aqueous silver nitrate.
Chloride
Alternative procedure: White precipitate is seen.
Cℓ-
in solution
Add aqueous silver nitrate, then White precipitate remains insoluble
dilute nitric acid. in dilute HNO3 (aq).
Iodine
Add dilute nitric acid, then add
Pale / bright yellow precipitate is
I -
aqueous silver nitrate / aqueous
seen.
lead(II) nitrate.
in solution

Effervescence of colourless,
odourless gas (carbon dioxide) seen.
Carbonate
Add dilute acids, e.g. HNO3 (aq).
CO32-
Gas forms white precipitate in
limewater.
Add aqueous sodium hydroxide Effervescence of colourless,
followed by aluminium foil and odourless gas (hydrogen) seen
Nitrate
warm. initially.
NO3-
in solution
Test the gas evolved with damp red On further heating, another
litmus paper. colourless, pungent gas is evolved

16
Stoichiometry and Mole Concept
Relative Atomic Mass, AR
- The relative atomic mass (AR) of an element is the average mass of one atom of the element
1
when compared with 12 the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
- Relative atomic mass is a ratio and has no unit.
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
- 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀, 𝐴𝐴𝑅𝑅 = 1
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶−12
12

Relative Molecular Mass and Relative Formula Mass, MR

- The relative molecular mass (MR) of a molecule is the average mass of one molecule of a
1
substance when compared with the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
12
- Relative molecular mass is a ratio and has no unit.
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑂𝑂𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
- 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀, 𝑀𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 1
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶−12
12

Percentage Composition of Compounds by Mass

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁.𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 × 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
- 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = × 100%
𝑀𝑀𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

Mass of Element / Water of Crystallisation in a Compound

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁.𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 × 𝐴𝐴𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
- 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = × 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑀𝑀𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

The Mole and Avogadro’s Number

- One mole of a substance contains the same number of particles as the number of atoms in 12
grams of carbon-12.
- The number of atoms in 12g of the carbon-12 isotopes is known as Avogadro’s constant /
number.
- Its value is 6.02 × 1023 .
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
- Number of Moles =
6.02 ×103

17
Molar Mass
- Molar mass is the mass of one mole of any substance.
- For substances consisting of atoms, molar mass is the relative atomic mass of the element in
grams per mole (g/mol).
- For substances consisting of molecules, molar mass is the relative molecular mass of the
element in grams per mole (g/mol).
- For substances consisting of ions, molad mass is the relative formula mass of the substance in
grams per mole (g/mol).
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 (𝑔𝑔)
- 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 (𝑔𝑔/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)

Molar Volume of Gases

- Avogadro’s Law states that equal volumes of all gases, under the same temperature and
pressure contain the same number of particles.
- Molar volume of a gas is the volume occupied by one mole of any gas.
- At room conditions, one mole of any gas at r.t.p has a volume of 24.0 dm3. This volume is
called the molar volume of a gas at r.t.p.
- If temperature decreases, molar volume decreases.
- At 0 °C, the molar volume of a gas is 22.7 dm3.
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
- 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 =
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺

Empirical and Molecular Formulae

- Molecular formula shows the exact number of each element in a compound.
- Empirical formula shows the simplest ratio of the different types of atoms in a compound.
- Structural formula shows how the atoms are joined together in a compound.

Element 𝛼𝛼 𝛽𝛽 …

Mass of …
Mass of Element 𝛼𝛼 Mass of Element 𝛽𝛽
Element (g)

Molad Mass …
Molar Mass of Element 𝛼𝛼 Molar Mass of Element 𝛽𝛽
(g/mol)

Number of …
Moles (mol) 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 α 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸β
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 =
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 α 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 β
Assume 𝒙𝒙 < 𝒚𝒚

Simplest Ratio 𝑥𝑥 ÷ 𝑥𝑥 = 1 𝑦𝑦 ÷ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛 …
- The empirical formula of the compound is αβn.
- The molecular formula can be calculated from the empirical formula and relative molecular
mass.

18
Limiting Reactant
- The limiting reactant is the reactant that is completely used up in a reaction and it limits the
amount of products formed.
- 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑋𝑋 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑌𝑌 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
- If 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑋𝑋 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 > 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑌𝑌 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛, X is in excess and Y is the limiting
reactant.
- If 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑋𝑋 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 < 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑌𝑌 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛, X is the limitng reactant and Y is in
excess.

Concentration of Solutions
- The concentration of a solution tells us the amount of solute in a unit volume of a solution.
- There are two ways of measuring the concentration:
• The mass of solute in 1 dm3 of solution.
𝑔𝑔 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑔𝑔
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 3
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑3
• The moles of solute in 1 dm3 of solution is known as the molar concentration nor molarity.
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑3 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑3
- The two ways are interchangeable.
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑔𝑔/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑3
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑3 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑔𝑔/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Percentage Yield
- The amount of product formed in a reaction is known as the yield.
- The theorectical yield is the amount of product calculated from the equation.
- The experimental yield is the amount of product that is actually obtained in the experiment.
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌
- 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 = × 100%
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌

Percentage Purity
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
- 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = × 100%
𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

19
Energy Changes
Enthalpy Change
- The overall heat change in a reaction is known as enthalpy change. The symbol is 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 and it is
measured in kJ.
- 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 − 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

Exothermic and Endothermic Changes

Properties Exothermic Change Endothermic Change

Direction of
Heat is given out to the surroundings. Heat is taken in from the surroundings.
Heat Travel

Temperature There is an increase in the There is a decrease in the

Change temperature of the mixture. temperature of the mixture.

Energy level of products is lower than Energy level of reactants is lower

Energy Level
energy level of reactants. than energy level of products.

Energy taken in to break bonds in

Bond Breaking Energy taken in to break bonds in
reactants is higher than energy
and Bond reactants is lower than energy given
given out to form bonds in
Forming out to form bonds in products.
products.

Enthalpy
Enthalpy change (𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥) is negative. Enthalpy change (𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥) is positive.
Change

Energy Profile
Diagram

Notes By:
Lee Sin Yang
2018

20