Applied Radiation and Isotopes 57 (2002) 121–130

Application of thorium-normalized airborne radio-

spectrometric survey data of Wadi Araba area, North-eastern
Desert, Egypt, as a guide to the recognition of probable
subsurface petroleum accumulations
Mohamed A. El-Sadek
Nuclear Materials Authority, P.O. Box 530 Maadi, Cairo, Egypt
Received 17 July 2001; received in revised form 31 January 2002; accepted 2 February 2002

Abstract

A new exploration method has been developed by Saunders et al. (Geophysics 58(10) (1993) 1417) using surface and
aerial gamma-ray spectral measurements in prospecting for petroleum in stratigraphic and structural traps. Wadi Araba
area, North-eastern Desert, Egypt, was selected to apply this method on its recorded aerial gamma-ray spectrometric
survey data, due to its distinct stratigraphic and structural setting as well as its situation in close connection with the
Gulf of Suez, which represents one of the important sites of oil production in Egypt.
The three variables (eU, eTh, and K) registered for the whole study area, in the form of three contour maps, were
digitized along the flight paths every 1.0 km. The DRAD arithmetic means plus three standard deviations for the data
set were computed. Any single profile value greater than this quantity should have a probability of 99.87% that it
represents a valid anomaly and is not caused by random variations in the background values.
The use of these criteria has identified one flight line which has a valid anomaly that is not caused by random
variations in the background values. This might indicate a prospective possibility for petroleum accumulation in the
Wadi Araba area, North-eastern Desert, Egypt. r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction to Quaternary (Fig. 2). They comprise Rod El-Hamal

Wadi Araba area is located in the North-eastern
Desert of Egypt. The study area is approximately
2800 km2 and is delimited by Latitude 281490 N and
291100 N and Longitude 311500 E and 321300 E (Fig. 1).
The area under study is one of the remarkable
geomorphological, lithological and structural segments
of the North-eastern Desert of Egypt. It is represented
by a large and elongated topographic depression
bounded on the north and south by the El-Galala El-
Bahariya and El-Galala El-Qibliya escarpments, respec-
tively (Fig. 2).
The exposed rock units in the study area are various
lithologic associations ranging in age from late Paleozoic
E-mail address: elsadek eg@yahoo.com (M.A. El-Sadek).
formation, Qiscib formation, Malha formation, El-
Galala formation, Duwi formation, Sudr formation,
Wadi Irkas formation, Mokattam formation and
Quaternary Sediments. They are briefly described in
the following starting from the oldest (El-Aassy, 1981;
Conoco, 1987):
1. Rod El-Hamal formation: It is formed from carbo-
naceous sandstones, limestones, fossiliferous marls
and shales.
2. Qiseib formation: It is composed of silt and clay
intercalations and thin bands of sandstones near the
top.
3. Malha formation: It is formed from kaolinitic
sandstones, gravels and mudstones.
4. El-Galala formation: It is made up of fossiliferous
limestones, dolomites and marls with minor shales.

0969-8043/02/$ - see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 6 9 - 8 0 4 3 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 8 2 - 9
122 M.A. El-Sadek / Applied Radiation and Isotopes 57 (2002) 121–130
Fig. 1. A location map of the Wadi Araba area, North-eastern
Desert, Egypt. The study area is marked in block.
5. Duwi formation: It is formed from phosphate-
bearing sediments.
6. Sudr formation: It is made up of chalky limestones.
7. Wadi Irkas formation: It is formed from sandstones,
conglomeratic sandstones, limestones and marls.
8. Mokattam formation: It is made up of crystalline
limestones and hard thickly bedded limestones.
9. Quaternary Sediments: It is made up of clastic
sediments ranging from silt to boulder.
Petroleum explorationists have been experimenting
with gamma-radiation measurements as a petroleum
prospecting method since the early 1950s (Armstrong
and Heemstra, 1973). Much of the work involved total-
count (TC) gamma-ray measurements that did not
identify the gamma-emitting radioelements. Data inter-
pretation involved little or no compensation for such
variables as surface lithology, soil moisture content,
vegetation shielding, or counting geometry.
An early TC gamma-ray airborne radiometric survey
of the El-Alamein area in the Western Desert, Egypt,
was carried out by the Egyptian Atomic Energy
Establishment in 1961. The aerial TC radioactivity of
El-Alamein oil field was described and correlated with
some reported radiometric characteristics of other oil-
bearing structures. The distribution of the TC aero-
radiometric measurements over El-Alamein oil field and
its environment has been found to be lognormal (El-
Shazly et al., 1969).
An early form of thorium normalization of potassium
and uranium measurements of aerial gamma-ray spec-
tral data was developed to eliminate the effects of the
uncontrolled variables for the National Uranium
Resource Evaluation (NURE) program (Saunders
et al., 1987).
Saunders et al. (1987), used the thorium content as a
lithologic control to define ‘‘ideal’’ potassium and
uranium values for each sample. The basic assumption
was that whatever happens to influence the apparent
concentration of thorium also affects uranium and
potassium in similar and predictable ways. For example,
Table 1 shows that change in lithology result in roughly
parallel increases or decreases in all three radioelements
simultaneously. Soil moisture or masses of vegetation
cause absorption of gamma-rays and the relative
amounts of absorption are reasonably similar for
gamma radiation from thorium, uranium and potas-
sium. Similarly, differences in counting geometry
because of topographic irregularities will cause parallel
variations in all the three elements (Ward, 1981).
Since 1987, improved methods have been developed
for aerial gamma-ray spectrometric data processing and
presentation, and a program of follow-up surface
gamma-ray spectral data collection has been in use
since 1988.
2. Aerial gamma-ray survey data
A recent airborne geophysical survey for the Eastern
Desert of Egypt including the area under consideration
was carried out by Aero-Service Division, Western
Geophysical Company of America, USA in 1984. It
involved an aeroradiospectrometric as well as an
aeromagnetic survey. Both surveys were conducted
simultaneously along parallel flight lines that were
oriented in a NE–SW direction at a 0.93 mile (1.5 km)
spacing, while the tie lines were flown perpendicularly in
a NW–SE direction at 6.21 mile (10 km) intervals. A
high-sensitivity 256-channel airborne gamma-ray spec-
trometer and a Varian V-85 proton precession magnet-
ometer mounted in a tail-stinger configuration were the
primary sensor elements in the Aero Service CODAS/
AGRS 3000-F computer-based digital data acquisition
system. Total intensity magnetic and multi-channel
radiospectrometric measurements were made at 304 ft
(92.65 m) intervals at a nominal sensor altitude of 400 ft
(122 m) terrain clearance (Aero-Service, 1984).
3. Simplified normalization method and relation of
radioactivity to petroleum
The history of radioactivity measurements associated
with produced oil dates back to Bogoyavlenskiy (1929),
who pointed out the inverse relationship of ash activity
to ash content in the oil. The inverse relationship was
shown to exist between the uranium and ash contents of
petroleum (Alekperov and Efendiev, 1959). The pre-
 M.A. El-Sadek / Applied Radiation and Isotopes 57 (2002) 121–130 123

Fig. 2. Compiled geological map of Wadi Araba Area, North-eastern desert, Egypt (after El-Aassy, 1981; Conoco Coral, 1987).

Table 1
Mean natural radioelement content of sedimentary rocks (Galbraith and Saunders, 1983)

Rock type Th (ppm) U (ppm) K (%) U/Th U/K Th/K

Evaporites 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.25 1.00 4.00

Carbonates 1.6 1.6 0.3 1.00 5.33 5.33
Sandstones 5.7 1.9 1.2 0.33 1.58 4.75
Shales 11.2 3.7 2.7 0.33 1.37 4.15

sence of uranium is also shown to be genetically related
to the content of organic matter in uranium-rich shales,
and uranium enrichment is enhanced by a low rate of
sedimentation which allows more organic material to
accumulate (Alekseev and Gottikh, 1966; Serikov,
1964).
Hydrocarbon deposits, especially those which are
highly oxidizing in nature, tend to accumulate heavy
metals (Ball et al., 1960; Dunning, 1957; Erickson et al.,
1954; Lisitsin, 1960). Fossil bones that contained large
amounts of organic matter accumulated unusually high
concentrations of uranium from percolating ground-
waters (Jaworowski and Pensko, 1967). The high
uranium concentrations in peat is not derived from
plants growing in uranium-bearing soils; instead, the
humus tends to absorb uranium by direct contact with
water (Lopatkina et al., 1970).
As hydrocarbons rise towards the surface, they may
react chemically with sulfates in groundwaters to
produce hydrogen sulphide (H2S), carbon dioxide
124 M.A. El-Sadek / Applied Radiation and Isotopes 57 (2002) 121–130
(CO2) and secondary carbonate mineralization (CaCO3)
(Kartsev et al., 1959). For example,
Cn Hm þ3CaSO4 3CaCO3 þH2 O þ 3H2 S þ CO2 :
Sulphate-reducing bacteria in groundwaters can also
accomplish this (Krauskopf, 1967; Sassen, 1980). They
obtain oxygen from sulphate ions and hydrogen
sulphide byproducts:
2Hþ þSO2
4 þCH4 ¼ CO2 þH2 S þ 2H2 O:
High carbon dioxide concentrations in groundwater
form carbonic acid that can react with minerals (calcium
silicates, for example) to create secondary pore-filling
calcium carbonate mineralization and silicification
(SiO2) (Kartsev et al., 1959; Donovan et al., 1974;
Donovan and Palziel, 1977). For example,
CaAl2 Si6 O16 þCO2 ¼ CaCO3 þ6SiO2 þAl2 O3 :
This can result in rendering the near-surface materials
more dense and resistant to erosion. The effects may be
(1) increased seismic velocity over the petroleum
accumulation,
(2) erosional topographic highs and consequent geo-
morphic anomalies, or
(3) dilution of the normal radioactive element concen-
trations with resultant low-thorium gamma-ray
activities over production.
The destruction of clay minerals by carbonic and
organic acids can release potassium and uranium for
removal by groundwater leaching (Price, 1986).
Potassium in sediments is contained primarily in the
clay mineral, illite, and occupies spaces between layers in
the clay structure (Rankama and Sahama, 1950). When
exposed to concentrations of other cations, possibly
Ca2+, Mg2+ or H+, the potassium ions in illite may be
replaced by them (Grim, 1953). Goldschmidt (1954)
states: ‘‘In soil and hydrolysate sediments (clays), a most
important process in equilibria of adsorption and cation
exchange is the competition between potassium ions and
what are commonly called hydrogen ions.’’ In water
solution, the hydrogen ion H+ combines with a water
molecule to form H3O+, hydronium ion, which has an
ionic radius, 1.54 A,( close to that of the potassium ion,
(
1.33 A. Mutual exchange in an acidic solution seems
quite feasible. The microbial oxidation of microseeping
hydrocarbons produces hydronium ions
CH4 þ2O2 ¼ H2 CO3 þH2 O;
H2 CO3 þH2 O ¼ H3 Oþ þHCO
3:
These are believed to replace potassium ions in illite and
release them to be removed in groundwater solution.
Observations to date are, in general, in agreement with
this model as it pertains to potassium. Thorium should
remain relatively fixed in its original distribution in the
heavy insoluble minerals and observations generally
confirm this (Saunders et al., 1993).
There is some evidence that low-potassium anomalies
may ‘‘fade’’ after fields are depleted. The loss of pressure
is thought to cause microseepage to cease along with its
alteration (Horvitz, 1969). This might allow potassium
to build up again through groundwater influx. Thus, the
potassium concentration at any given time could be the
result of a dynamic equilibrium between rates of influx
and removal. The situation with respect to uranium is
more complex than that for potassium (Saunders et al.,
1993).
Microbially produced, hydrogen-sulphide-related,
chemically reducing environments can result in a
build-up of uranium concentrations with time (Adler,
1974). Uranium has two valence states. The oxidized
form, the uranyl ion (UO2+ 2 ) is soluble in groundwaters.
When it is reduced, it converts to UO2, uraninite, which
is relatively insoluble and precipitates. Thus, uranium
will tend to migrate from an oxidizing environment to a
reducing one, where its concentration will build up over
time. If conditions are right, a sedimentary uranium
deposit may be formed. Thus, lesser build-ups of
uranium in surface sediments may be useful clues to
petroleum at depth (Saunders et al., 1993).
According to Saunders et al. (1993), the hydrocarbon
microseepage involves vertical ascent of ultra-small
(colloidal size) gas bubbles of light hydrocarbon
(methane through the butanes) through a network of
interconnected, groundwater-filled joints and bedding
planes as suggested by MacElvain (1969) and Saunders
et al. (1991). When the bubbles reach the surface of the
water table, first they enter the interstitial soil gases,
where they may be sampled and detected by sensitive gas
chromatography, and then they escape into the atmo-
sphere where they may be detected by airborne
microwave spectrometry.
Normalizing to thorium will also suppress these
effects. This similarity in behaviour allows use of
thorium values to roughly predict uranium and potas-
sium by determining their general relationships. Sig-
nificant differences between predicted (or ‘‘ideal’’)
uranium and potassium amounts, and actual (measured)
values must be due to factors other than lithology, soil
moisture, vegetation, shielding, or counting geometry.
By measuring these secondary effects, one can define
possible petroleum prospects (Saunders et al., 1993).
The three variables (eU, eTh, and K) for the whole
study area are in the form of three contour maps, scale
1:50,000. These variables were digitized along the flight
paths, every 1.0 km.
Equivalent uranium and potassium data for aerial
gamma-ray spectral profiles were normalized to equiva-
lent thorium data, using the procedure of Saunders et al.
(1993). Plots were made for the field-measured Ks versus
eThs and eUs versus eThs values for all stations
 M.A. El-Sadek / Applied Radiation and Isotopes 57 (2002) 121–130
(readings). Various linear, logarithmic, and second-
order curve fitting procedures were tried, and the
simplest effective Eqs. (1) and (2) relating these variables
were determined to be linear and pass through the
origin. The slopes of the lines were determined by the
ratios of mean Ks to mean eThs ; or mean eUs to mean
eThs : The equations are (Saunders et al., 1993):
Ki ¼ ðmean Ks =mean eThs ÞeThs ;
eUi ¼ ðmean eUs =mean eThs ÞeThs ;
where Ki is the ideal (calculated) equivalent thorium-
defined potassium value for the station with a real
equivalent thorium value of eThs, and eUi is the ideal
(calculated) equivalent thorium-defined equivalent ur-
anium value for that station.
Using this approach, the equations were calculated
directly from the data, and quick field evaluations may
be made without preparing the plots and resorting to
curve fitting. Deviations of the real values from the
calculated ideal values for each station were obtained
using equations of the form (Saunders et al., 1993)
KD% ¼ ðKs  Ki Þ=Ks ;
eUD% ¼ ðeUs  eUi Þ=eUs ;
Fig. 3. Flight lines map, Wadi Araba area, North-eastern Desert, Egypt.
125
where Ks and eUs are the measured (real) values at the
station, and KD% and eUD% are the relative devia-
tions expressed as a fraction of the station values.
Experience has shown that KD% yields small (negative)
values and eUD% yields smaller (negative) or some-
times positive values over petroleum accumulations
(Saunders et al., 1993).
KD% and eUD% variations can be combined as a
ð1Þ
single positive number, DRAD, which is the difference
between both of them (Saunders et al., 1993):
ð2Þ
DRAD ¼ eUD%  KD%;
where positive DRAD values are favourable indications
of petroleum accumulation.
4. Results and interpretation
Comparative profiles of Ks ; eUs ; eThs ; KD%; eUD%;
and DRAD were plotted for 22 flight lines, to illustrate
typical crossover. The following discussion is devoted
only to three flight lines out of the 22, as examples.
Plots of the unprocessed and processed airborne
ð3Þ
radiospectrometric survey data over the flight line (No.
10130, Fig. 3) are presented in Fig. 4A and B. This flight
ð4Þ
line is located in the extreme eastern part of the area
126 M.A. El-Sadek / Applied Radiation and Isotopes 57 (2002) 121–130
Fig. 4. Flight line (No. 10130) profiles: the unprocessed Ks ; eUs
and eThs data (A), and the processed KD%; eUD% and
DRAD data (B), Wadi Araba area, North-eastern Desert,
Egypt.
under consideration. The unprocessed (measured or
real) data for potassium (Ks ) and equivalent thorium
(eThs ) show a well-defined relation, at a distance ranging
from 3.5 to 6.5 km. Meanwhile, the unprocessed
(measured or real) equivalent uranium (eUs ) data do
not show any well-defined relation to those of eThs and
Ks ; especially in the distance ranging between 3.0 and
6.0 km, and between 6.0 and 8.0 km. The plot of KD%
in (Fig. 4B) shows a sharp negative between 3.5 and
6.5 km. This zone is accompanied by a positive eUD%;
producing a crossover of eUD% and KD%; and
positive DRAD values. Relatively high values of
equivalent uranium in this zone may be the result of
the gaseous uranium daughter, radon, leaking up and
concentrating in an unmapped fault zone(s). The surface
is mainly composed of Quaternary Sediments. So, this
zone extending from 3.5 until 6.5 km discloses favour-
able indications of possible petroleum accumulations.
Fig. 5 shows the data from the flight line No. 10220
(Fig. 3). The unprocessed (measured or real) aerora-
diospectrometric survey data of the profiles of Fig. 5A
all show relatively high concentrations of Ks ; eUs ; and
eThs : The plot of KD% (Fig. 5B) shows three sharp
Fig. 5. Flight line (No. 10220) profiles: the unprocessed Ks ; eUs
and eThs data (A), and the procesed KD%; eUD% and DRAD
data (B), Wadi Araba area, North-eastern Desert, Egypt.
negative (low) zones, which are accompanied by
relatively higher (positive) eUD% and DRAD values.
They produce a crossover of eUD% and KD%; creating
three positive DRAD zones. The three KD% lows, at
17–27.5 km, 32–39.5 km and at 41–47 km, which show
three eUD% and DRAD high (positive) zones suggest
prospective possibilities in the study area for petroleum
accumulation.
Plots of the aeroradiospectrometric survey data over
flight line No. 10230 (Fig. 3) are presented in Figs. 6A
and B. The unprocessed (measured or real) data of the
three profiles of Fig. 6A are correlated with lithologic
changes in the study area. The field-measured eUs profile
shows relatively lower values than the field-measured
eThs profile. After applying thorium normalization to
suppress the effect of lithologic changes, KD% shows
four negative zones displayed in Fig. 6B, two of them
are prominent at 13.5–16 km and from 39 to 48 km.
Corresponding eUD% high or positive zones are
displayed with consequent positive DRAD zones, where
crossovers occur and are indicated by hatched patterns.
These zones may define possible petroleum prospects.
 M.A. El-Sadek / Applied Radiation and Isotopes 57 (2002) 121–130 127

Fig. 6. Flight line (No. 10230) profiles: the unprocessed Ks ; eUs Fig. 7. Flight line (No. 10161) profiles: the unprocessed Ks, eUs
and eThs data (A), and the processed KD%; eUD% and DRAD and eThs data (A), and the processed KD%; eUD% and DRAD
data (B), Wadi Araba area, North-eastern Desert, Egypt. data (B), Wadi Araba area, North-eastern Desert, Egypt.

Table 2
Statistical parameters computed for ‘‘DRAD’’ for the studied flight lines, Wadi Araba area, North-eastern Desert, Egypt

Flight line no. (Fig. 3) Min. value Max. value Arithmetic mean (X ) Standard deviation (SD) X þ 3SD

10130 0.690 0.790 0.028 0.532 1.568

10140 0.457 0.326 0.032 0.264 0.76
10150 0.859 0.960 0.086 0.48 1.526
10161 1.670 1.140 0.015 0.668 1.989
10171 0.155 0.470 0.062 0.488 1.402
10180 0.648 0.355 0.070 0.244 0.662
10190 0.840 0.290 0.059 0.291 0.814
10200 0.910 0.770 0.039 0.380 1.101
10210 1.760 0.790 0.039 0.471 1.374
10220 1.110 0.670 0.074 0.378 1.208
10230 0.940 0.500 0.011 0.326 0.967
10240 0.700 0.450 0.006 0.303 0.903
10250 0.900 0.630 0.003 0.327 0.984
10260 1.810 0.450 0.058 0.362 1.028
10270 4.000 0.440 0.082 0.569 1.625
10280 0.900 0.640 0.022 0.300 0.878
10290 1.030 0.460 0.036 0.338 0.978
10300 0.440 0.690 0.080 0.254 0.842
10311 1.310 0.460 0.075 0.336 0.933
10321 0.730 0.770 0.031 0.325 0.944
10330 1.280 0.720 0.076 0.390 1.094
10350 1.440 0.380 0.088 0.363 1.177
Grand mean 0.026 0.381 1.117
128 M.A. El-Sadek / Applied Radiation and Isotopes 57 (2002) 121–130
Fig. 8. DRAD anomaly map, Wadi Araba area, North-eastern Desert, Egypt.
5. Statistical evaluation of the profile data
The characteristics and fluctuations of DRAD in
areas not situated over identified oil or gas-producing
fields may be estimated by examining the profiles in
those areas. Table 2 lists profile ‘‘background’’ stations
located over areas not known to produce oil or gas,
arithmetic means and standard deviations for each flight
line are treated as representing one population. A
conservative estimate of background statistical para-
meters is based on the population. The DRAD
arithmetic mean plus three standard deviations reach
1.117 for this data set (Table 2). Any single profile value
greater than this quantity has a probability of 99.87%
that it represents a valid anomaly that is not caused by
random variations in the background values (Elkins,
1940; Saunders, 1989). It is improbable for adjacent
points on a profile to be simultaneously anomalous
because of radon fluctuations. The presence of a
statistically valid DRAD anomaly can enhance the
probability of wildcat success, but it does not eliminate
the possibility of a dry hole. Experience has demon-
strated that DRAD anomalies may be found only over
portions of fields, and cannot be used to determine
production boundaries accurately (Saunders et al.,
1993). The application of these criteria has led to the
identification of one station along one flight line over the
study area that is statistically valid (Flight line No.
10161) and which shows a valid anomaly that might
indicate a prospective petroleum accumulation in the
study area.
Flight line No. (10161)
Plots of the aeroradiospectrometric survey data over
flight line No. 10161 (Fig. 3) located in the eastern part
of the study area are presented in Fig. 7. The field-
measured data for potassium (Ks ), equivalent uranium
(eUs ) and equivalent thorium (eThs ) are all shown in
Fig. 7A. After thorium normalization, to suppress the
lithologic effect, KD% shows negative values between
15 and 25 km. The corresponding eUD% values are
shown with a consequent positive DRAD anomaly
reaching more than 1.117, where a crossover occurs at a
distance oscillating from 15 to 25 km (indicated by
hatched pattern). This might indicate a prospective
petroleum accumulation in the study area.
The examination of the DRAD anomaly map (Fig. 8)
shows that some of the delineated high DRAD
anomalies are circular in shape and others are elongated
 M.A. El-Sadek / Applied Radiation and Isotopes 57 (2002) 121–130
either in the N–S or in the NE–SW direction. The
highest levels are located in the central part of the Wadi
Araba and are associated with Quaternary Sediments
(reaching 1.14 along flight line No. 10161 at station 16).
The lowest values are located in the extreme north-
eastern corner of the study area, and associated with the
Rod El-Hamal formation (the minimum value reach-
ing—4.0 along flight line No.10270 at station 5).
6. Summary and conclusions
The three variables (eU; eTh; and K) for the Wadi
Araba area North-eastern Desert, Egypt were digitized
along the flight paths, every 1.0 km. Comparative
profiles of Ks ; eUs ; eThs ; KD%; eUD% and DRAD
were plotted for 22 flight lines to illustrate typical
‘‘crossover’’ anomalies over the areas or zones which
may indicate petroleum accumulations.
The characteristics and fluctuations of DRAD in
areas not situated over identified oil- or gas-producing
fields may be estimated by examining the profiles in the
area. The DRAD arithmetic mean plus three standard
deviations reached 1.117 for this data set. Any single
profile value greater than this quantity has a probability
of 99.87% that it is a valid anomaly and is not caused by
random variations in the background values. The
application of these criteria has led to identify one
location along one flight line over the study area (flight
line No. 10161) which has valid anomalies, and might
indicate a prospective petroleum accumulation in the
study area.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to express his thanks to the
Egyptian Geological Survey and Mining Authority
(EGSMA) and the Egyptian General Petroleum Cor-
poration (EGPC) for providing the airborne gamma-ray
spectrometric maps and profiles used in the present
study.
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