Vertebra

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For other uses, see Vertebra (disambiguation).
Vertebra
Vertebra Superior View-en.svg
A typical vertebra, superior view
Vertebra Posterolateral-en.svg
A section of the human vertebral column, showing multiple vertebrae in a left
posterolateral view.
Details
Part of Spinal column
Identifiers
Latin Vertebrae
TA A02.2.01.001
FMA 9914
Anatomical terms of bone
[edit on Wikidata]
In the vertebrate spinal column, each vertebra is an irregular bone with a complex
structure composed of bone and some hyaline cartilage, the proportions of which
vary according to the segment of the backbone and the species of vertebrate.

The basic configuration of a vertebra varies; the large part is the body, and the
central part is the centrum. The upper and lower surfaces of the vertebra body give
attachment to the intervertebral discs. The posterior part of a vertebra forms a
vertebral arch, in eleven parts, consisting of two pedicles, two laminae, and seven
processes. The laminae give attachment to the ligamenta flava (ligaments of the
spine). There are vertebral notches formed from the shape of the pedicles, which
form the intervertebral foramina when the vertebrae articulate. These foramina are
the entry and exit conduits for the spinal nerves. The body of the vertebra and the
vertebral arch form the vertebral foramen, the larger, central opening that
accommodates the spinal canal, which encloses and protects the spinal cord.

Vertebrae articulate with each other to give strength and flexibility to the spinal
column, and the shape at their back and front aspects determines the range of
movement. Structurally, vertebrae are essentially alike across the vertebrate
species, with the greatest difference seen between an aquatic animal and other
vertebrate animals. As such, vertebrates take their name from the vertebrae that
compose the vertebral column.

Contents
1 Structure
1.1 Regional variation
1.1.1 Cervical vertebrae
1.1.2 Thoracic vertebrae
1.1.3 Lumbar vertebrae
1.1.4 Sacrum
1.1.5 Coccyx
1.2 Development
2 Function
3 Clinical significance
4 Other animals
5 Additional images
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Structure
In the human vertebral column the size of the vertebrae varies according to
placement in the vertebral column, spinal loading, posture and pathology. Along the
length of the spine the vertebrae change to accommodate different needs related to
stress and mobility.[1] Each vertebra is an irregular bone.

Side view of vertebrae

Anatomy of a vertebra
Every vertebra has a body, which consists of a large anterior middle portion called
the centrum (plural centra) and a posterior vertebral arch,[2] also called a neural
arch.[3] The body is composed of cancellous bone, which is the spongy type of
osseous tissue, whose micro-anatomy has been specifically studied within the
pedicle bones.[4] This cancellous bone is in turn, covered by a thin coating of
cortical bone (or compact bone), the hard and dense type of osseous tissue. The
vertebral arch and processes have thicker coverings of cortical bone. The upper and
lower surfaces of the body of the vertebra are flattened and rough in order to give
attachment to the intervertebral discs. These surfaces are the vertebral endplates
which are in direct contact with the intervertebral discs and form the joint. The
endplates are formed from a thickened layer of the cancellous bone of the vertebral
body, the top layer being more dense. The endplates function to contain the
adjacent discs, to evenly spread the applied loads, and to provide anchorage for
the collagen fibers of the disc. They also act as a semi-permeable interface for
the exchange of water and solutes.[5]

The vertebral arch is formed by pedicles and laminae. Two pedicles extend from the
sides of the vertebral body to join the body to the arch. The pedicles are short
thick processes that extend, one from each side, posteriorly, from the junctions of
the posteriolateral surfaces of the centrum, on its upper surface. From each
pedicle a broad plate, a lamina, projects backwards and medialwards to join and
complete the vertebral arch and form the posterior border of the vertebral foramen,
which completes the triangle of the vertebral foramen.[6] The upper surfaces of the
laminae are rough to give attachment to the ligamenta flava. These ligaments
connect the laminae of adjacent vertebra along the length of the spine from the
level of the second cervical vertebra. Above and below the pedicles are shallow
depressions called vertebral notches (superior and inferior). When the vertebrae
articulate the notches align with those on adjacent vertebrae and these form the
openings of the intervertebral foramina. The foramina allow the entry and exit of
the spinal nerves from each vertebra, together with associated blood vessels. The
articulating vertebrae provide a strong pillar of support for the body.

There are seven processes projecting from the vertebra; a spinous process, two
transverse processes, and four articular processes. A major part of a vertebra is a
backward extending spinous process (sometimes called the neural spine) which
projects centrally. This process points dorsally and caudally from the junction of
the laminae. The spinous process serves to attach muscles and ligaments.

The two transverse processes, one on each side of the vertebral body, project from
either side at the point where the lamina joins the pedicle, between the superior
and inferior articular processes. They also serve for the attachment of muscles and
ligaments, in particular the intertransverse ligaments. There is a facet on each of
the transverse processes of thoracic vertebrae which articulates with the tubercle
of the rib.[7] A facet on each side of the thoracic vertebral body articulates with
the head of the rib. There are superior and inferior articular facet joints on each
side of the vertebra, which serve to restrict the range of movement possible. These
facets are joined by a thin portion of the vertebral arch called the pars
interarticularis.

The transverse process of a lumbar vertebra is also sometimes called the costal[8]
[9] or costiform process[10] because it corresponds to a rudimentary rib (costa)
which, as opposed to the thorax, is not developed in the lumbar region.[10][11]

Regional variation
Vertebrae take their names from the regions of the vertebral column that they
occupy. There are thirty-three vertebrae in the human vertebral column�seven
cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae, five lumbar vertebrae, five fused
sacral vertebrae forming the sacrum and three to five coccygeal vertebrae, forming
the coccyx. The regional vertebrae increase in size as they progress downwards but
become smaller in the coccyx.

Cervical vertebrae
Main article: Cervical vertebrae

A typical cervical vertebra

There are seven cervical vertebrae (but eight cervical spinal nerves), designated
C1 through C7. These bones are, in general, small and delicate. Their spinous
processes are short (with the exception of C2 and C7, which have palpable spinous
processes). C1 is also called the atlas, and C2 is also called the axis. The
structure of these vertebrae is the reason why the neck and head have a large range
of motion. The atlanto-occipital joint allows the skull to move up and down, while
the atlanto-axial joint allows the upper neck to twist left and right. The axis
also sits upon the first intervertebral disc of the spinal column.

Cervical vertebrae possess transverse foramina to allow for the vertebral arteries
to pass through on their way to the foramen magnum to end in the circle of Willis.
These are the smallest, lightest vertebrae and the vertebral foramina are
triangular in shape. The spinous processes are short and often bifurcated (the
spinous process of C7, however, is not bifurcated, and is substantially longer than
that of the other cervical spinous processes).

The atlas differs from the other vertebrae in that it has no body and no spinous
process. It has instead a ring-like form, having an anterior and a posterior arch
and two lateral masses. At the outside centre points of both arches there is a
tubercle, an anterior tubercle and a posterior tubercle, for the attachment of
muscles. The front surface of the anterior arch is convex and its anterior tubercle
gives attachment to the longus colli muscle. The posterior tubercle is a
rudimentary spinous process and gives attachment to the rectus capitis posterior
minor muscle. The spinous process is small so as not to interfere with the movement
between the atlas and the skull. On the under surface is a facet for articulation
with the dens of the axis.

Specific to the cervical vertebra is the transverse foramen (also known as foramen
transversarium). This is an opening on each of the transverse processes which gives
passage to the vertebral artery and vein and a sympathetic nerve plexus. On the
cervical vertebrae other than the atlas, the anterior and posterior tubercles are
on either side of the transverse foramen on each transverse process. The anterior
tubercle on the sixth cervical vertebra is called the carotid tubercle because it
separates the carotid artery from the vertebral artery.

There is a hook-shaped uncinate process on the side edges of the top surface of the
bodies of the third to the seventh cervical vertebrae and of the first thoracic
vertebra. Together with the vertebral disc, this uncinate process prevents a
vertebra from sliding backwards off the vertebra below it and limits lateral
flexion (side-bending). Luschka's joints involve the vertebral uncinate processes.

The spinous process on C7 is distinctively long and gives the name vertebra
prominens to this vertebra. Also a cervical rib can develop from C7 as an
anatomical variation.
The term cervicothoracic is often used to refer to the cervical and thoracic
vertebrae together, and sometimes also their surrounding areas.

Thoracic vertebrae
Main article: Thoracic vertebrae

A typical thoracic vertebra

The twelve thoracic vertebrae and their transverse processes have surfaces that
articulate with the ribs. Some rotation can occur between the thoracic vertebrae,
but their connection with the rib cage prevents much flexion or other movement.
They may also be known as "dorsal vertebrae" in the human context.

The vertebral bodies are roughly heart-shaped and are about as wide anterio-
posteriorly as they are in the transverse dimension. Vertebral foramina are roughly
circular in shape.

The top surface of the first thoracic vertebra has a hook-shaped uncinate process,
just like the cervical vertebrae.

The thoracolumbar division refers to the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae together,
and sometimes also their surrounding areas.

The thoracic vertebrae attach to ribs and so have articular facets specific to
them; these are the superior, transverse and inferior costal facets. As the
vertebrae progress down the spine they increase in size to match up with the
adjoining lumbar section.

Lumbar vertebrae
Main article: Lumbar vertebrae

Lumbar vertebra showing mammillary processes

A typical lumbar vertebra

The five lumbar vertebrae are the largest of the vertebrae, their robust
construction being necessary for supporting greater weight than the other
vertebrae. They allow significant flexion, extension and moderate lateral flexion
(side-bending). The discs between these vertebrae create a natural lumbar lordosis
(a spinal curvature that is concave posteriorly).[citation needed] This is due to
the difference in thickness between the front and back parts of the intervertebral
discs.

The lumbar vertebrae are located between the ribcage and the pelvis and are the
largest of the vertebrae. The pedicles are strong, as are the laminae, and the
spinous process is thick and broad. The vertebral foramen is large and triangular.
The transverse processes are long and narrow and three tubercles can be seen on
them. These are a lateral cosiform process, a mammillary process and an accessory
process.[12] The superior, or upper tubercle is the mammillary process which
connects with the superior articular process. The multifidus muscle attaches to the
mammillary process and this muscle extends through the length of the vertebral
column, giving support. The inferior, or lower tubercle is the accessory process
and this is found at the back part of the base of the transverse process. The term
lumbosacral is often used to refer to the lumbar and sacral vertebrae together, and
sometimes includes their surrounding areas.

Sacrum

Sacrum
Main article: Sacrum
There are five sacral vertebrae (S1�S5) which are fused in maturity, into one large
bone, the sacrum, with no intervertebral discs.[13] The sacrum with the ilium forms
a sacroiliac joint on each side of the pelvis, which articulates with the hips.

Coccyx
Main article: Coccyx
The last three to five coccygeal vertebrae (but usually four) (Co1�Co5) make up the
tailbone or coccyx. There are no intervertebral discs.

Development
Development of vertebrae
Somites form in the early embryo and some of these develop into sclerotomes. The
sclerotomes form the vertebrae as well as the rib cartilage and part of the
occipital bone. From their initial location within the somite, the sclerotome cells
migrate medially towards the notochord. These cells meet the sclerotome cells from
the other side of the paraxial mesoderm. The lower half of one sclerotome fuses
with the upper half of the adjacent one to form each vertebral body.[14] From this
vertebral body, sclerotome cells move dorsally and surround the developing spinal
cord, forming the vertebral arch. Other cells move distally to the costal processes
of thoracic vertebrae to form the ribs.[14]

Function
Functions of vertebrae include:

Support of the vertebrae function in the skeletomuscular system by forming the

vertebral column to support the body
Protection. Vertebrae contain a vertebral foramen for the passage of the spinal
canal and its enclosed spinal cord and covering meninges. They also afford sturdy
protection for the spinal cord. The upper and lower surfaces of the centrum are
flattened and rough in order to give attachment to the intervertebral discs.
Movement. The vertebrae also provide the openings, the intervertebral foramina
which allow the entry and exit of the spinal nerves. Similarly to the surfaces of
the centrum, the upper and lower surfaces of the fronts of the laminae are
flattened and rough to give attachment to the ligamenta flava. Working together in
the vertebral column their sections provide controlled movement and flexibility.
Feeding of the intervertebral discs through the reflex (hyaline ligament) plate
that separates the cancellous bone of the vertebral body from each disk

The spinal cord nested in the vertebral column.

Vertebral joint

Costovertebral joint

A facet joint between the superior and inferior articular processes (labeled at top
and bottom).

Clinical significance
There are a number of congenital vertebral anomalies, mostly involving variations
in the shape or number of vertebrae, and many of which are unproblematic. Others
though can cause compression of the spinal cord. Wedge-shaped vertebrae, called
hemivertebrae can cause an angle to form in the spine which can result in the
spinal curvature diseases of kyphosis, scoliosis and lordosis. Severe cases can
cause spinal cord compression. Block vertebrae where some vertebrae have become
fused can cause problems. Spina bifida can result from the incomplete formation of
the vertebral arch.

Spondylolysis is a defect in the pars interarticularis of the vertebral arch. In

most cases this occurs in the lowest of the lumbar vertebrae (L5), but may also
occur in the other lumbar vertebrae, as well as in the thoracic vertebrae.

Spinal disc herniation, more commonly called a slipped disc, is the result of a
tear in the outer ring (anulus fibrosus) of the intervertebral disc, which lets
some of the soft gel-like material, the nucleus pulposus, bulge out in a hernia.
This may be treated by a minimally-invasive endoscopic procedure called Tessys
method.

A laminectomy is a surgical operation to remove the laminae in order to access the

spinal canal.[15] The removal of just part of a lamina is called a laminotomy.

A pinched nerve caused by pressure from a disc, vertebra or scar tissue might be
remedied by a foraminotomy to broaden the intervertebral foramina and relieve
pressure. It can also be caused by a foramina stenosis, a narrowing of the nerve
opening, as a result of arthritis.

Another condition is spondylolisthesis when one vertebra slips forward onto

another. The reverse of this condition is retrolisthesis where one vertebra slips
backwards onto another.

The vertebral pedicle is often used as a radiographic marker and entry point in
vertebroplasty, kyphoplasty, and spinal fusion procedures.

The arcuate foramen is a common anatomical variation more frequently seen in

females. It is a bony bridge found on the first cervical vertebra, the atlas where
it covers the groove for the vertebral artery.[16]

Degenerative disc disease is a condition usually associated with ageing in which

one or more discs degenerate. This can often be a painfree condition but can also
be very painful.

Other animals

Regions of vertebrae in the goat

In other animals the vertebrae take the same regional names except for the
coccygeal � in animals with tails the separate vertebrae are usually called the
caudal vertebrae. Because of the different types of locomotion and support needed
between the aquatic and other vertebrates, the vertebrae between them show the most
variation, though basic features are shared. The spinous processes which are
backward extending are directed upwards in animals without an erect stance. These
processes can be very large in the larger animals since they attach to the muscles
and ligaments of the body. In the elephant the vertebrae are connected by tight
joints, which limit the backbone's flexibility. Spinous processes are exaggerated
in some animals, such as the extinct Dimetrodon and Spinosaurus, where they form a
sailback or finback.

Vertebrae with saddle-shaped articular surfaces on their bodies, called

"heterocoelous", allow vertebrae to flex both vertically and horizontally while
preventing twisting motions. Such vertebrae are found in the necks of birds and
some turtles.[17]

An example of procoelous vertebrae dissected from a rattlesnake.

"Procoelous" vertebrae feature a spherical protrusion extending from the caudal end
of the centrum of one vertebra that fits into a concave socket on the cranial end
of the centrum of an adjacent vertebra.[18] These vertebrae are most often found in
reptiles[19][20], but are found in some amphibians such as frogs.[21] The vertebrae
fit together in a ball-and-socket articulation, in which the convex articular
feature of an anterior vertebra acts as the ball to the socket of a caudal
vertebra.[19] This type of connection permits a wide range of motion in most
directions, while still protecting the underlying nerve cord. The central point of
rotation is located at the midline of each centrum, and therefore flexion of the
muscle surrounding the vertebral column does not lead to an opening between
vertebrae.[21]

In many species, though not in mammals, the cervical vertebrae bear ribs. In many
groups, such as lizards and saurischian dinosaurs, the cervical ribs are large; in
birds, they are small and completely fused to the vertebrae. The transverse
processes of mammals are homologous to the cervical ribs of other amniotes. In the
whale the cervical vertebrae are typically fused, an adaptation trading flexibility
for stability during swimming.[22][23] All mammals except manatees and sloths have
seven cervical vertebrae, whatever the length of the neck.[24] This includes
seemingly unlikely animals such as the giraffe, the camel, and the blue whale, for
example. Birds usually have more cervical vertebrae with most having a highly
flexible neck consisting of 13�25 vertebrae.

In all mammals, the thoracic vertebrae are connected to ribs and their bodies
differ from the other regional vertebrae due to the presence of facets. Each
vertebra has a facet on each side of the vertebral body, which articulates with the
head of a rib. There is also a facet on each of the transverse processes which
articulates with the tubercle of a rib. The number of thoracic vertebrae varies
considerably across the species.[25] Most marsupials have thirteen, but koalas only
have eleven.[26] The norm is twelve to fifteen in mammals, (twelve in the human),
though there are from eighteen to twenty in the horse, tapir, rhinoceros and
elephant. In certain sloths there is an extreme number of twenty-five and at the
other end only nine in the cetacean.[27]

There are fewer lumbar vertebrae in chimpanzees and gorillas, which have three in
contrast to the five in the genus Homo. This reduction in number gives an inability
of the lumbar spine to lordose but gives an anatomy that favours vertical climbing,
and hanging ability more suited to feeding locations in high-canopied regions.[28]
The bonobo differs by having four lumbar vertebrae.

Caudal vertebrae are the bones that make up the tails of vertebrates.[29] They
range in number from a few to fifty, depending on the length of the animal's tail.
In humans and other tailless primates, they are called the coccygeal vertebrae,
number from three to five and are fused into the coccyx.[30]