BUILD AMODEL

'■/(/ SOLAR
SYSTEM

TlUJLU

APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY
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HOW YOUR

Limited-edition, silver-plated ^
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M & COLLECTION BUILDS

There are three stages in the
« i n f tn e detail
^eature?a;,°thr^*'
and
newly da !^^n
’^‘
ets
construction of your solar system
model. Assembly instructions a r e
Iprovided for each sub-stage.
^genuine, this h

♦ tage two is the principal construction

Sphase,
which
in all
the
gear
wheels
and working parts are added to the
model. Unveil the glory of the solar
system with all the planets and moons.

S TA G E 3
Your solar system model is
manufactured using quality ;
materials and to high specifications.

The gears are solid brass, precision-

engineered to high tolerance. Non-
Iworking parts are brass plate; the
planets come in silver plate, and
the moons are solid silver.

Electrically powered, this attractive I*

and completely individual piece

Va r i a b l e will last for ever and could become
speed . afamily heirloom.
!!

ring your model to life in stage

B three with the addition of the

variable-speed motor and gearbox.

YOUR SOLAR
SYSTEM MODEL
Every element of your orrery
is the result of meticulous research
and design, fine craftsmanship
and precision engineering.
DATE-STAMPED BASE PLATE

Every
limited-edition
solar
system
model
comes
with
adate
stamp on the base plate. The engraving work allows you to
track the progress of the planets through the constellations of
the night sky. A“slip ring” also lets you compensate for Earth’s
shifting position against the background stars.

E N G R AV E D G E A R

he centrepiece of your solar system model is adecorative,

T engraved gear plate. The hard-working design is packed
with useful features and allows you to set up your orrery to
track the positions of the planets in real time.

DRIVE SHAFT
special 55-tooth gear attached to the
A top of the central axis drives the model’s
planets and moons around the solar system.
The drive shaft runs from the Sun at the top
of the solar system model, down the centre
of the column, to the motor in the base unit.

M E R C U R Y V E N U S E A R T H M A R S

THE PLANETS M o a n P h o b o s
□e i m o s

p[ashioned
from
silver-plate,
your
planets
a r e hand painted to capture the nature and

defining characteristics of the real planets.

They slot easily on to afixed pin at the top
of each support arm. The major moons of
each planet are made from solid silver and
mounted on acollar that slips over the pin.
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 MAGE GALLERY
urn to the Image Gallery
T for jaw-dropping space
photography and photo¬
realistic artworks. Future

issues include spectacular liUSIDE iIMFO: The tnside scoop on

all those puzzling questions.^
images from the Hubble
Space Telescope as well as BREAKTHHOUGHS: Theories
the biggest and best of the
that have changed the world.
Earth-based observatories.

HOW IT WORKS: Explanations of

ISSUE 5Views along the cliffs of Mercury
the working parts of the orrery.

SCI-FI: Highlights factual scientific

HE STORY connections with popular culture.
!F ASTRONOMY
TECHNOLOGY: Focus on the
race the history and equipment used to explore the
T development of solar system.
astronomy from its birth
HOW TO FIWO IT: Accompanying
in prehistoric monuments
locator maps, explaining how to
to the high-tech science of
find constellations in the sky.
space probes and satellites
Find out about the life and
SPACE STARS: People who have
works of the greatest changed the face of astronomy.
astronomers from

Copernicus to Hawking. ISSUE 2Learn about how the ancients tracked the Sur
MYTHS AND LEGENDS:

Explains the mythical stories

behind the constellations.

V.SCJrJKii,;.;.

aR map
new constellation with every
A issue, including information on
all the most fascinating celestial
objects found within it and practical
tips on how best to observe it.
Explore the night skies with specially
commissioned star maps, which
build into acomplete collection of
IbSUE 2Adetailed star map for Cassiopeia all 88 constellations.

S PA C E S C I E N C E
-CODE
i n t h e; S K Y SUNEXPLAINED
asy-to-understand guides to the
Emost
vital
theories
and
concepts
in
astronomy and cosmology. Learn where

I the Sun gets its energy

from and how we

know how far away

the stars are. Also,
fi n d o u t a b o u t t h e

strangest space
ISSUE 2Does the Sun mysteriously phenomena and
i n fl u e n c e events on Earth?
unexplained
mysteries.
ISSUE 3Hans Bethe -the man

who discovered how stars shine

 SPECIAL SUBSCRIPTION OFFER
Take out asubscription to Build AModel Solar System
LIMITED-EDITION
and in addition to delivery-to-your-door service and
never missing out on any components, you'll receive PRINTS
three tremendous free gifts. Three poster-sized, glossy prints
reveal the wonders of the
universe. They take you on a
MAGAZINE BINDER journey from the solar system
Keep your collectable magazines stored (Jupiter) into the wider galaxy
neatly and safe from harm with this [Eagle Nebula) and beyond
monogrammed, hardback binder. [Milky Way).

Eagle Nebula

r-f*

TOOLKIT
All the specialised tools and ^v
equipment you need to build and Jupiter
care for your solar system model.
These free gifts pack away into a
practical and sfylish holder.

www.build-soiar-system.com
et online for an in-depth look at the BuUd
G Model Solar System collection. Find an
ITO ORDER PLEASE CALL^DUR introduction and endorsement from Sir Patrick

Moore, avideo guide to constructing the model

H O T L I N E O N 0 8 7 1 2 7 7 0 11 3
There arefwo ways to ensure you don*t miss
an issue of~^ rife/ A/Model Solar System:
and interactive links to other astronomical sites.
You can also subscribe and buy missing issues
online -simply and securely.
BUILD AMODEL

i. Taxe out aregwanDT 1th your newsagent. Sf)LAR SUBSCRIBE TODAY!

To reserve your co^, si Ill in the regular
a SYSTEM : ::
orUir card inside the magazlife and hand it to AUNIQUE COLLECTION

your newsagent.

2 . TA K E O U T A S U B S C R I P T I O N
M o d e l
When you take out asubscription to Bm
Solar System every issue will be sent direct to your
door for no extra charge and you will receive free
subscription gifts while stocks last. SEE THE
SUBSCRIPTION CARD INSIDE THE MAGAZINE.
 ( An Eaglemoss Publication -Every week
(N)

BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM ^
#v

APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY

NTRODUCING the ! t

1 m :

Uncover the SECRETS

of the PLANETS -> !
/ j

m
m

■WITH THIS ISSUE: DATE-STAMPED BASE PLATE, CALIBRATION RING AND FEET '
BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
^TURES
AY O U R S O L A R S Y S T E M M O D E L
3 )
^Learn all about the design and construction
of your solar system model and its special featu

SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE

Your journey through the solar system starts
here, at the very centre, with the Sun.

MISSIONS
16
Find out about the Voyager space probes, the most
well-travelled machines in our solar system.

IMAGE GALLERY
181
Captured by numerous space probes, these images
show our neighbouring planets close up. I M P O RTA N T
!The omry is apredsion-^sgineered
THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY kit. it niwt be assembled and handled
20 with can^ to prevent damage to its
Sir Patrick Moore discusses what he considers to be parts, and stored or displayi^ safely to
ensure nd parts are lost.
the major astronomical milestones of our time. !Never liquids or solvents to dean
the parts.,For best care, use die
polishing dqth and dusting bmshes
S TA R M A P supplied vi^ the toolkit (free to
24 subscriptions customers).
■We focus on Orion -one of the night sky's most !When asslWTJbting parts, lay on
recognisable and impressive constellations. flat table artd keep screws an4ell small
Itemsonatihgiysotheycan't-m^away
and get lost: Unpack alt pari ii nmefutly.
A S PA C E S C I E N C E !The publisher reserves the to
2 6 alter parts and their design at any time.
!Parts not to be sold separately.
!Hie publisher cannot replace any
parts that are damaged or test by the
customer without charge.
!The publisher cannot be responsible
for any damage that may occur as a
result of incorrect assembly or
mishandling of the orrery. Please ensure
»ad all the instructions thoroughly
y
when assembling the parts.
a !All tools must be used with care,
following any safety guidelines provided
by the manufacturer.
!The publisher cannot be responsible
for any injuries caused by any tools or
materials.

Discover the story behind Kepler's amazing

breakthroughs in the laws of planetary motion
C O N S U LTA N T E D I T O R : G I L E S S PA R R O W CREDITS ■
E N D O R S E D B Y : S I R PAT R I C K M O O R E C B E F R S
E N C O U R A G E D B Y; T H E I N T E R N AT I O N A L A S T R O N O M I C A L U N I O N MAGAZINE IMAGES: FQtr) Eaglemoss/Simon
Anning, (b) NASA/JPL; 2-11 (orrery photographs)
Eaglemoss/Simon Anning, (orrery illustrations)
Eaglemoss/Julian Ftetdier, (backgrounds) NASA/
HST; 4-5 (t,b) Pikaia Imaging, (cr) Science &
Society Picture Library; 12-13(d) NASA/JPL-
Caltech, (c) NASA/JPL-Caltech/T Pyle, (br)
Science Photo Library/Detlev van Ravenswaay;
14-15(d) Science Photo Library/George Bernard,
(tr) NASA/Walt Fernier, (er) NASA, (b) Pikaia
I m a g i n g ; 1 6 - 1 7 ( t l , d , c , t r. b r ) N A S A / J P L , ( b l )
Science Phot
Library/Science
Science Photo Library/Peter Ryan; 18(tl) NASA/
JPL/SSI; 19(tl) NASA/NSSDC, (tr) NASA/JPUU
Ariz a, (cl) NASA/JPL, (bl) NASA/JPUSSI, (br)
■I I I
Library/A Barrington Br< ,(br) Sci Photo ^
Ubrary: 24(cl.tr) NASA/HST (br) Pikaia Imaging;
25(d) NASA/A Dupree(CfA)/R Gilland(STScl),
(tr,bl) Pikaia Imaging, (far) NASA; 26-27(bl,tr)
Eaglemoss/Paul Montague, (c) Alamy/The Print
Collector, (be) Alamy/North Wind Picture
■Archives, (br) Alamy/Visual Arts Library, London
BOOST ^FLET IMAGES: FC Science Photo
Library/Julian Baum; 2-3(tl) Rex Featurea/Nib
Jorgensen, (bi,c,r) Eagetmoss/Siifion Arming^
,(ter)
(background) NASA/4PL-Ca!tech/J Stauffer/SSC; ‘
4-5 Eaglemoss/Simon Anning, (badkground)
NASA/ESA/Hubble 6-7(bl,cr) Ptitaia Imaging, (tc)
NASA/Hubble; (be) NASA, (br) LANU (bru) Rex

NASA/GSFC; 20(tl) Rex Features/Nils Jorgensen, Features, 8(tl) Eaglemoss/Simon Anning, (tr) TA
[cr) Alamy/ Richard Wainscoat, (be) Bridgeman Rector/BA Wolpa/NRAO/AUI/NSF &N0A0/._._^
Art Library/Philip Mould Ltd, London; 21 (t) AURA/NSF,
(c)
Pikaia
Imaging,
(cr)
NASA/JPfaffl^|
Robert Gendler (robgendlerastropics.com), (br) (background) NASA/ESA/Hubble. ■’'-
Science Photo Library/Sandford Roth; 22(tru)
Getty Images/Blank Archives, (bl) NASA/CXC/ R E P R O D U C T I O N :

CfA/M Markevitch et al/STS /Magellan/ Stormcreative PublisI ig Limited

UArizona/D Clowe et al, (br) NASA/JSC; 23(tr)
Courtesy of Patrick Moore, (bl) Science Photo PRINTING: Century Litho (Truro) Limitei

Eaglemoss Publications Ltd, 5Cromwell Road, London SW7 ^HR

WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
Keep out of reach of children. Keep this information for reference.
Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.
©Eaglemoss Publications (2008). All rights reserved.
 AUNIVERSE in 0

M I N I AT U R E IS

Bring the solar system

ill''

into your home with this

l[b;
accurate working model
of the worlds beyond our
M %
■fi planet's borders.
Mi

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' ! ;

e ; .
[ m
m
tfV
.
«
3 ^

-.:\-

■A '
" B E A U T I F U L LY “if?
CRAFTED IN BRASS
rand PRECISION-
E N G I N E E R E D

for accuracy,
-each orrery is a^ I'^'j
limited-edition :
collector's piece.

.%i

II you need to do to

A assemble your solar

system model is collect
Build AModel Solar System -
we"ll take you through all the *
construction steps and reveal
the solar system’s marvels
and mysteries along the way.
 MODELLING the
OLAR SYSTEM
Labouring over intricate combinations of gears, the
instrument makers of the eighteenth century created
the world's first replicas of the solar system. Constructing
your model will connect you to this illustrious tradition.

he tradition of building working models of the solar system P L A N E TA RY LINE-UP

stretches back to the early eighteenth century. Based on Your solar system
model includes all
the heliocentric model and constructed around aclock-
the most up-to-date
mechanism, Enlightenment instrument makers created the world’s members of our
home system
first functioning representations of the solar system and some of
the most beautiful and elegant scientific equipment.
r '

THE HEAVENLY BOD IE S

Using carefully calculated gear ratios, the movements of a
mechanical solar system closely match the motions of the real
planets. These models, which are also called o r r e r i e s ,were

essential teaching apparatus for natural philosophy (science)^

o INSIDE INFO
4 )

he distances between planets in the solar system J

T are unimaginably vast and their sizes range from J
minuscule rocks to the gigantic gas planets. These huge \
differences are best summed up with comparisons: If
Earth was the size of apea, the Sun would be as big as
an exercise ball and it would be about half acity block away
With this In mind, your solar system model has had
these differences evened out -the planets are enlarged,
but still correct In their relative sizes, and they have been
brought closer to each other and the Sun. This gives you
ascaled representation of the solar system that is both
practical and desirable.

SUN: 1.4 IMERCURY: 4880km diameter; 58 million km from Sun

million km
VENUS: 12,100km diameter; 108 million km from Sun
: V diameter
EARTH: 12,800km diameter; 150 million km from Sun JUPITER: 143,000km SATURN:
diameter; 778 million km 120,500km
MARS: 6800km diameter;
from Sun diameter; 1427
228 million km from Sun
million km from Sun

■^ ■ V

! ! t m :

CERES: 950km diameter (approx.);

i
419 million km from Sun

f
 <
teachers of the time. Watching the planets m o v e

around an orrery is amuch more satisfying way O

c
to understand the relationships of the heavenly
bodies to one another than complex series of
CO
mathematical formulas describing their movement.
Once the mechanical solar system is set in O
motion, the stately procession of planets around
>
the Sun begins, with each revolution marking
one year in the life of that world. At aglance, it’s
CO
obvious that all the planets orbit the central Sun
and that they all move in the same plane. Orreries CO
can also be used to model night and day and the
m
D W A R F S seasons, as well as lunar and solar eclipses.

PLAIVIETS B R E E D I N G A N D C U LT U R E
The orrery’s capacity to explain so many
A S T E R O I D
astronomical phenomena with graceful simplicity
O
appealed to the eighteenth-century appetite for
a
m
rationalising the delicate workings of n a t u r e .
Models of the solar system quickly became
uber-fashionable -not just for teachers and men
of learn but an essential o f u
0
 i

YOUR
.JM’

f
I m

EXPLAINED# L<J

The mesmerising movement of your %

orrery will bring the solar system !S

to life right in your front room. O

he gear ratios on your solar system model

have been meticulously calculated so
that they combine to give the best
possible match to the movements of the real
planets of the solar system. You’ll notice that the
i n n e r planets move very
Ifast, while the progress of
4 the middle planets is
Mmore stately, and the
1
outer ones hardly appear
to move at all. Leave the

orrery for ashort time

however, and you’ll see
'i Vi/ that, of course, they do.
>4
In the time it takes the

*^‘farthermost object from

the Sun, the dwarf planet
> HOW IT WORKS
. f
Eris, to complete one
4

circuit of the Sun, Earth MOTOR UNIT

%

Vi.svv*?'’
' t
4
i
vJA will have gone around n e l e c t r i c m o t o r fi t t e d i n t h e
ft
#■ !I
i557 times. In contrast.
A base unit drives your solar system
the closest planet to the model. It is connected to aprecision
Sun, Mercury, will have gearbox that steps down the speed
orbited it approximately of rotation to amanageable 0-12 rpm.
J2320 times. The gear box is clutched to comply
with safety regulations.
BRISTLING WITH
TEETH Every set of
VA R I A B L E S P E E D 1 /
gears steps down the Your solar system
speed of the next model has avariable
planet's rotation.
speed setting that runs
between 0-12 rpm. Later in the magazine series
you wil be shown how to calibrate this so that
it runs at 6.8 rpm. This speed sets the Earth’s
orbit around the Sun to 36.5 seconds, giving
a
straightforward comparison for the orrery of
1second being equal to 10 Earth days
 m m .
HOW IT WORKS

4 ■‘^,-
^A DATE-STAMPED ORIGINAL
M l

□ ur knowledge of the solar system is constantly -pj

■■ expanding as new discoveries come to light. CO
To our eyes, the orreries of yesteryear are out of
m . date, reflecting the limited knowledge of their day. O
With this in mind, your solar system model has been
dated August 24, 2006 -the date the International >
Astronomical Union issued their resolution on the P 3
r e d e fi n i t i o n o f t h e
CO
solar system’s
planets. This date CO
stamp acts as aseal H
of modernity and
authenticity.

O
u
m
VHOW IT WORKS

DEARTH MECHANISM
0

K f

ifej'

F c m

how it works

STORING YOUR ORRERY

ormally, the planet arms are

N firmly attached to the large
gear sets, so that they rotate
around the solar system model
with the gears. However, each
planet arm can be loosened off
and manually rotated so that they
line up neatly for safe storage.
lYE-CATCHING and REALISTIC
Each silver planet on your solar ach of the worlds of our solar system has its own unique
and individual character, which reflects its size, its
system model has been hand
chemical composition and the conditions on its surface.
painted to capture something To achieve an eye-catching and beautiful finish, each of the
of the nature of the planet. silver planets has been hand painted.

S U N MERCURY VENUS EARTH

iky

4 5 m m 6 m m 1 0 m m

DESCRIPTION OESCRIPTiOhl DESCRiPTtOlU DESCRIPnOM

The centrepiece of the solar system, Asmall, heavily pitted, rocky sphere, The thick clouds of Venus’ yellow The oasis of lif
and your orrery, is the Sun. its coppery in colour and flat toned. Little atmosphere are apoisonous shroud The socailed ^
bright, shining disk is made in brass is known about this weathered and of deadly gases, which keeps its inviting pl»^
plate and polished to ahigh finish. scarred world. surface hidden from view. white ctBD^

M A R S

DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION OESCRIRTIOAI

The Red Planet. Adry, dusty place Arocky world, adrift in the The king of the solar system. Acool and unapproachable ringed
home to deep scars of canyons and asteroid belt. This small and silent Its cloudy smoothness and planet with abenign appearance.
arid plateaux, across which whip world hides its secrets and doesn’t beauty mask its turbulent It is gently banded, with the lines
dust devils. reflect much light. atmospheric storms. merging softly.

URANUS NEPTUNE PLUTO ERIS

1 6 m m 6 m m 6 m m
1 6 m m

DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION

DESCRIPTION

The methane in the atmosphere The deep, rich cobalt blue of Amysterious and remote dwarf The newest dwarf planet’s surface
of Uranus gives it acold, ghostly Neptune makes it look unperturbed, planet with an outsize moon. has never been directly observed,
turquoise hue. Its depth and when in fact its skies are ruled Far from the Sun’s warmth, it but it must be an old, rocky and
glossiness make It inscrutable. by strong winds and violent storms. remains icy, remote and unexplored. cold kingdom.
c
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 BUILDING theORRERY
RAM
STAGE 1: COLLECT ALL The first phase in the construction
THE COMPONENTS YOU
N E E D T O B U I L D S TA G E O N E of your solar system model assembles
IN ISSUES ONE TO FOUR.
the core upon which the orrery is built.

The column support (66) fixes to the underside of the

base plate (65) and holds the central column to which 6 4 2 Slot the central column (64)
into the column support so
that it is flush with the underside,
working parts of the orrery are attached. Locate the three
larger holes in the column support with those in the base then insert and tighten the large
plate. Fix with three large- ™, __ grub screw (M4G) using a
headed screws (M3A) 2.0mm alien key (hex wrench)
until the column cannot rotate.
using a2.5mm alien
key (hex wrench).
Push the black nylon
feet (NF) into
the larger
holes.

6 6

,M3A

No Part N o Part Qty

0 1 S U N 1 7 0 GEAR AXLE 1 1

0 2 MERCURY PLANET ARM 1 7 1 GEAR AXLE 2 1

2 2 65-TOOTH GEAR 1 N F NYLON FEET 3

2 3 55-TOOTH DRIVING GEAR 1 M 3 A ALLEN-KEY SCREW 4mm 3

24 VENUS GEAR ARM 1 M 3 G GRUB SCREW 5mm 3

2 5 TO P - H AT BUSH 1
M 4 G GRUB SCREW 4mm 1

2 7 DRIVE SHAFT 1 M 2 . 3 S S E L F - TA P P I N G S C R E W 6 m m 1

3 0 19-TOOTH GEAR 1
M 2 . 3 S S E L F - TA P P I N G S C R E W 8 m m 1

6 4 CENTRAL COLUMN 1
ZODIAC C A L I B R AT I O N
Z C R 1
6 5 BASE P L AT E 1 RING (“SLIP RING”)

1 M E R PLANET MERCURY 1
6 6 COLUMN SUPPORT
 CO

3 Screw the Sun (01) on to

the threaded end of the
m
I

drive shaft (27). Then slide the " U

55-tooth driving gear (23) -a CD
buttressed cog -up the drive
shaft from the base upward as c n
shown (with cogs at the base). H
Push it snugly up to the Sun m
" D
and tighten it to the shaft
with asmall grub screw
(M3G), using a1.5mm
CD
alien key (hex wrench). c z

2 7
a

CD
0 1

2 5 m
MER
^Theplanetarm(02)that o
^iholds Mercury slots directly 7 D
M2.3S' into the buttress of the driving
6mm j
i
fi
gear (23). Lock it in position with
another small grub screw (M3G), <

V 2 2
ensuring the shorter arm points
upwards. Place planet Mercury >

7 0
0 2 (MER) into the pin hole at the top
of the planet arm.
o
A 2 4

7 \

This stage shows you how to

5 7 Attach the gear arm to the
7 1

build up the first small gear set. central column. Fit the column
3 0 This set drives planet Venus around through the large hole in the arm,
the solar system. First, take the two with the 65-tooth gear on top, and
M 2 . 3 S gear axles (70 &71) and feed them tighten with asmall grub screw
^8mm .
through either side of the small hole (M3G). Make sure that the top of the
in the end of the Venus gear arm (24). column is flush with the top side of
Push them together hard. Ensure gear the gear arm. Push the top-hat bush
axle 70 goes on top. (25) into the column. Now slide the
drive shaft, with the Sun and Mercury
. M2.3S
f
6 m m
attached, down the middle of the

6 the 19-tooth gear (30) with the four

Locate the 65-tooth gear (22) and column. The gears should mesh.
Finally, place the zodiac calibration
pegs on the top of each connector on to ring (ZCR) over the rim of the base
either side and fix them using crosshead
self-tapping screws -use the shorter
/
(M2.3S 6mm) for the top and the longer
(M2.3S8mm) for
t h e b o t t o m . Ta k e

care not to tighten

these screws too

much or the gears

won’t rotate.

I
 KINGDOM the
SUN
Over the course of the magazine series, we'll
take you on avoyage of discovery across the
solar system. Our journey begins here... I

stronomers sometimes describe the Sun these existential questions boils down to

A as abelow-average-sized star of only

average brightness, located in the
backwaters of adecidedly ordinary galaxy. But this
everything about our star, our planet and
its position being so average.

does our local neighbourhood aterrible injustice. YOU ARE HERE

The solar system is an incredibly rich and diverse The solar system sits on the outer edges of the
region. In arelatively small patch of space you Milky Way galaxy. The Milky Way is aspiral galaxy
can find an upside down planet, worlds with -looking abit like aCatherine wheel or aspinning
submerged lakes of methane, bodies which starfish -that is approximately 100,000 light-years
suffered impacts large enough to throw up hills on across. The solar system lies within the Orion Arm,
the far side, frozen moons, planets so diffuse that which is an offshoot, or spur, of .the Sagittarius ’‘
they could float in water, satellites with geysers
that spew sulphur and fields of yellow snow.
DARK INTERLOPER
OASIS OF LIFE
Lurking at the outer
reaches of the solar It is also our home. This may sound rather obvious,
system, far from the yet it really Is absolutely extraordinary since -as
warmth of the Sun's
far as we know -our solar system is the only place
rays, lies the dwarf
planet, Erls. in the universe that harbours life. As yet, top space
scientists cannot calculate accurately the chances
of conditions hospitable for life being found
elsewhere. They cannot even say whether fate or
chance conspired to create life in our solar system.
Perhaps the very fact that we exist on Earth and
are able to look out over the solar system, explore
it with telescopes and space probes, and ponder

1
 CO
Arm -one of the galaxy’s major spiral arms -and In 2006, the International Astonomical Union
is between 25,000 and 28,000 light-years from (lAU) demoted Pluto from its status as afull planet. o
the centre of the Milky Way. The whole galaxy
spins around its central axis and it takes the Orion
They placed it in afreshly minted “dwarf planet”
classification along with Ceres in the asteroid belt
5
Arm (carrying our solar system) about 225-250 and Eris, anewly discovered object from way out (/)
million years to complete one full revolution. This beyond Pluto. -<
is aprocess no different from the Earth travelling Adwarf planet is defined as being in orbit CO
around the Sun, so it is called agalactic year. around the Sun, large enough for its gravity to H
Q L O S S A R Y

pull it into aspherical shape, yet not so big that it Light-year: The distance
T H E WA N D E R E R S that light travels in one
has cleared the surrounding year. This is equivalent
The solar system CC
OUR
SOLAR
SYSTEM
CONSISTS region of rubble. Also, it must to about 9.5 X10^^

making it aconvenient
O
consists of acentral star, not be asatellite of aplanet.
OF ONE STAR AND SOME DEBRIS! 39
scale for the huge distances d
the Sun, orbited by eight The five planets closest to found in space. Earth lies
recognised planets,
Carl Sagan
Earth can all be seen with about eight light-minutes a
away from the Sun. m
three so-called “dwarf the naked eye -the fleet-of-
planets” and avast amount of smaller bodies. foot Mercury; Venus, the evening star; Mars, the
Near Earth Objects (NEOs), for example, a r e warlike Red Planet; the king of the solar system, IN THE BEGINNING 0
As anew solar system
asteroids and meteors that pose .a threat to Earth Jupiter; and Saturn, with its beguiling rings. They forms its mass is
7 \

and need to be monitored; comets swoop in from were all known to the ancients ancf were called concentrated in the
o
the outer regions of‘the solar system; and there planets, meaning “wanderers” in Greek. The young star at its
D
centre. The dust and
are 162 known moons or-bitmg the planets. discovery of Uranus and Neptune had to wait until o
gas that form the
Some of these moons are actually bigger than the development of high-power telescopes, in the planets are nothing
the smallest of the planets. . . eighteenth and nineteenth centuries respectively. more than debris. o

t n

w e r e

across space to investigate,

tlie conditions on aplanet’s
surface were anyone’s guess.
Venus for example, with its thick.
obscuring Cloud cover, yvas thought
t o b e a Wa r m a n d w e t w o r l d , o v e r r u n MARTIANS
with plant life. In 1877,* the Italian astronomer Giovanni BUILD TWO
MORE CANALS!
Schiaparelli cautiously reported seeing "canals” on the martian
surface, hjis report inspired. Percival Lowell to dedicate-his life The story made
for sensational
to studying them. In his opinion, "IrHgation, and upon as vast a headlines in the
scale as possible, must be the all-engrossing Martian pursuit.” N e w Yo r k T i m e s .
 Because they are so much closer to Earth than
any stars, the planets appear to move against the
backdrop of the stars -hence their name -but
strangely they all move (more or less) along the
same line in the sky. Early astronomers were quick
to realise that this meant that, although different
distances away, all the planets are orbiting in the
same plane -an imaginary flat surface that extends
across the solar system.
THE sun’s family
There are other interesting patterns in the solar
system. The planets divide neatly into two groups.
The first four (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars)
are small, dense and rocky worlds -the so-called
"terrestrial” planets. The next four (Jupiter, Saturn,
SPACE STARS (1749 -1827)
^PIERRE-SIMONLAPLACE
Pierre-Simon Laplacewas
gifted mathematician extraordinarily
an
who is often called the
“French Newton”. He developed the theory that
the solar system was formed from acollapsing
nebula of gas and dust. Laplace picked up the
ideas of Immanuel Kant, aGerman philosopher,
and expanded upon them.
This theory is now accepted as the explanation
of the solar system’s origin. Laplace also
I N S P I R AT I O N A L investigated the balance of the solar system as
Born the son of a
awhole, factoring in the complex interactions
cottager, Laplace
ended his life a
and gravitational attractions between each
count of the Empire planet -adevilishly complicate system. He
and aMarquis. concluded (thankfully) that it is inherently stable.
INSIDE INFO
SOLAR SYSTEM EXPLORERS
S AT U R N
September 1979 _
cting as our emissaries to the worlds of the
A outer solar system, space probes leave the
comfort of the home environment and send back
unparalleled views of our neighbouring planets.
Every flight path is precisely calculated many years
before the launch date to ensure that each billion- S AT U R N
Novemller 1980
dollar package makes best use of the journey to its
ultimate destination. /
We owe much of our knowledge of the solar
system to this fleet of space probes. As well
as optical cameras, they bristle with high-tech
equipment -infrared and ultraviolet sensors,
sensitive gyroscopes to detect the effect of a
planet’s gravity, interferometers to analyse the
composition of atmospheres and radio equipment
to pick up the solar system’s crackles and pops
and transmit the data back to Earth.
14
Uranus and Neptune) are large, sparse and
atmospheric worlds -the gas giants. Separating
the two is the asteroid belt, aloose jumble of rocks
and the home of Ceres. Farther out are the strange
worlds of Pluto, its moon Charon, and Eris. Even
farther still, is the Oort Cloud, aspherical shell
located around the solar system.
The manner in which the solar system is divided
reflects the history of its formation. It was born out
of acollapsing cloud of dust and gas (a nebula)
4.6 billion years ago. As the nebula collapsed
under its own gravity, the dust cloud began to spin,
flattening and stretching into a"proto-planetary”
disk girdling the young Sun’s equator. The planets
would eventually form from this disk, which
explains why they all orbit in the same plane.
As the young Sun began to shine, its heat and
intense solar wind (a stream of charged particles
from nuclear reactions inside the Sun) melted ice
and drove the lighter elements and gases away
from the inner solar system. This left the inner
planets dense and rocky. Farther out, it was cold
enough for the gases to condense, forming the
enormous gas-giant planets.
DISCOVERING THE SOLAR SYSTEM
For many centuries, astronomers studied the
planets using earthbound instruments, discovering
Jupiter’s moons (Galileo, 1610) and the planets’
elliptical orbits (Kepler, 1609-1615), as wef a s
Uranus (Herschel, 1781), Neptune (Galle &Le
Verrier, 1846) and Pluto (Tombaugh, 1930).
In addition to using visible light, different
F LY- B Y:
l J U P I T E R F LY: B Y;
J U P I T E R
FlY^:
I
D e c e m b e r
F LY- B Y: 2 0 0 0
J U P I T E R
F LY- B Y:
March 1979
>> ■
S AT U R N F LY- B Y: JUPITER ORBIT
August 1981 INSERTION:
December 1995
 CO
I t
O

Bow Shock 7D
he answer is -rather is buffetsd
CO
T annoyingly ~it depends on winds of cjth^ -^ie .,, -<
what you consider to be the V Vo y a g e r 1 "heiiopsuse” is t a l c ? N > ta CO
V
e x t e n t o f t h e i n fl u e n c e o f t h e Te r m i n a t i o l
be the edge of
S h o c k
Sun. Whichever measure you It is where our Suh-s
choose, the solar system Voyager 2 is halted by oncormt^g;i^5i^
extends far, far beyond the orbit \ This lies somewhere
of the most remote planet. Heliopause Heliosphere
15,000-20.000
NEW WAVE Deep o
The solar system exists in a away. Farther out mth^ "1idw Impact, NASA's 2005
shell called the “heliosphere”. shock” ahuge ^ mission, brought
PROTECTIVE BUBBLE The
This is abubble created by our Voyager probes have penetrated the ^
caused by the solar wimi
. . . .^, new insights into the a
Sun’s solar wind. Outside the
"termination shock” (see page 17).Sun’s
gravitation^
mfRienee formation of the solar
sphere, the interstellar medium but have not left the solar system. e x t e n d s e v e n f a r t ^ i e r. system by colliding
with comet Tempel 1.

wavelengths, such as radio waves and ultraviolet

light, have been used to survey the solar system.
However, the greatest leap forward, without
question, has been the advent of satellites, which
allow scientists to escape the distorting influence
of the Earth’s atmosphere and see things close up.
Much of what we know about our solar system
has been learned in an incredibly productive half-
century since the space age began in 1957, but we
are still just scratching the surface. You can be sure
that in the coming decades, our solar system will
reveal many more of its mysteries and marvels.

KEY
PIONEER 10

JUPITER F LY- B Y: Launch: March 1972

JUPITER F LY- B Y:
T]ecemher1973

PIONEER 11

Launch: April 1973

V O YA G E R 1

Launch: September 1971

V O YA G E R 2

S AT U R N ORBIT Launch: August 1977

INSERTION^

July 2004
G A L I L E O

Launch; October 1989

URANUS F LY- B Y:

January 1986

C A S s i n i i
NEPTUNE F LY- B Y: Launch: October 1997
August 1989
 In 1965, Gary Flandro of NASA's Jet
Propulsion Laboratory developed what
became known as "The Grand Tour".
The intention: to send apair of
probes on an all-encompassing
sweep of the outer planets
of our solar system.

oyagers 1and 2have, approximately 58,000 km/h.

Imbmen them, traveifed Voyager 2went on to use the same
billions of mites through method to reach Neptune (passing
space. Launched in 1977, each
h^ vas^ outlived its short life
Saturn and Uranus along the way).
The decision td use gravity-assisted a
expectancy of five years. Piohg
the way they have sent^iCfe <^er
%-b^reduced the total trip time by
i l l
80,0<X)!rri^ m: to Earth, (HI
■' . ' ' S

them the rr^ succe^futiS^liy;

1 1
pdbes to date; I i
:qfej^tees v\^^^o gather valuable
data from the outer planets.
Arare planetary alignment occurring Primarily NASA was interested
in the late 1970s opened up the in the provision of more accurate
possibilities of using gravity to assist data for each planets mass,
with the Voyager mission. The vast size and shape, geology, the
gravity field surrounding Jupiter composition and dynamj^,
would be used to propel each of each planet satmospfiM
probe forward to Saturn, increasini and magnetic field, as vs4
the speed (relative to the Sun) by as any moons and rings,

CARL SAGAN (1934-1996)

Carl
Sagan, an
American-born
astrobiologist and astronomer,
worked closely with NASA on the
Voyager missions, helping develop
the Voyager golden records. His
input in answering questions about
the seasonal changes on Mars and the
high temperatures of Venus won him IN MOTION

amongst others, the NASA medal for Sagan explains

the movements
Exceptional Scientific Achievement. Along of the planets in
with these awards Sagan has been awarded the solar system.
aPulitzer Prize for The Dragons of Eden
and an Emmy for the TV series Cosmos.

16,

m expectations. Images from
Initially things looked good for
Voyager 2, but that didn’t last. The
probes run on three interconnected
computers, but me of these ~the
Altitude and Articulation Control
Subsystem (ACCS) -was not
functioning correctly. This made it
increasingly difficult for the team to
F-:
establish whether the science boom
i ; was fully deployed. The launch of
IVoyager 1was delayed by four days Saturn, the camera platform seized
mto rectify this problem.
IThroughouttheirmissionsboth
^toyagers
have
surpassed
scientists'
Even though it was
launched after Voyager
' 2, Voyager 1reached
^Jupiter first and, by the
end of 1977, was farther
Kfrom the Sun.
GROUND CONTROL When Voyager 2's primary radio
failed to function, the back up kicked in and promptly
short-circuited! Engineers at NASA were able to work
around the problems and the signals, although weak.
continued to be received about ten hours later!
c :
angle. The motor used tor the up
Voyager 2is and down movement was now
Voyager 1picked up plumes of gas
currently the
emanating from Jupiter’s moon, lo, only spacecraft successfully used for panning.
suggesting volcanic activity. This to have visited
was the first time^that active Neptune. It took
10,000 images
volcanoes had been detected
of the planet. By the time Voyager 2completed
elsewhere in the solar system. the Neptune phase of its mission,
Once Voyager 1had completed in excess of five trillion bits of
its fly-by of Saturn, NASA scientists scientific data had been sent to
redirected Voyager 2towards Earth. But it doesn’t end there.
Uranus and Neptune. On leaving The plutonium-powered probes
are heading for the boundary of
up, jeopardising the mission. The our solar system. Voyagers 1and 2
cause of the seizure was put down have anew mission: to locate
to overuse and alack of lubrication and study the termination shock,
and the problem was rectified by heliosheath and heliopause.
turning the probe through aright
IachVoyagerprobecarriedagold-plated
copper 12-inch disk containing sounds
and images from Earth. The records were
designed to act as agreeting to any form
of life Voyager encountered. Images varied
from complex mathematical formulae
to detailed drawings and photographs
of the human body. There were musical
selections from Bach to Chuck Berry all
designed to offer an insight
into all aspects of human life BESTSELLER Each golden record
on planet Earth. comes with easy-to-use instructions.
17
 [2] VENUSIAN
VOLCANISM The

Magellan space probe

was able to image
t h e s u r f a c e o f Ve n u s
beneath its thick shroud
of choking gases, it
revealed adramatic

Ivolcanic landscape.

[1]

The VIEW FROM OUT THERE

The fleet of space probes leaving Earth to explore the
solar system has sent back some breathtaking views of our
planetary neighbours.

[1] SATURN'S RINGS This he first ever space probe was launched on 2January 1959 from
magnificent image from the Soviet Union. It was called Lunik 1and its destination was the
the Cassini space probe
shows ablue tinge at lunar surface. It missed by nearly 6000 km. Once its Russian flight
Saturn's north pole. controllers calculated their error, they changed the little probe’s name to
This is caused by its Mechta, meaning “The Dream”. The Dream entered orbit around the Sun,
atmosphere diffracting in between the Earth and Mars.
the Sun's light -asimilar
effect makes our sky blue. Since that time, unmanned space vehicles have visited Mercury, Venus,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and its moons, Uranus and Neptune. Robotic rovers have
explored the surface of Mars and anew mission is en route to Pluto. These
emissaries from Earth have wowed and fascinated scientists and the public
alike with their views of the strange and beautiful worlds of our solar system.
1
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PATRICK MOORE'S
STONES
here are anumber of vitally
important milestones in
astronomy. The first two
date back far into the past.
There was the initial discovery
that the Earth is not aflat plane;
it is aglobe and the Greek
philosopher Eratosthenes,
made agallant and remarkably
successful attempt to measure its
size in around 230bc. Milestone
number two was the revelation that
/0\_\ my personal "SPACE STAR
WEDMUND HALLEY
must go for Edmund Hailey.
Unfortunately Inever met
him ~he died In 1742!
iam sure that he and Iwould
have “got on". He accomplished
s o m u c h . H e w a s t h e fi r s t
to catalogue the southern
stars; he made long
voyages to map the Earth’s
magnetic field; he became
Astronomer Royal; he
was responsible for the
publication of Newton’s
great book; he predicted
the return of the comet
Alegend in his corner of the cosmos.
Sir Patrick Moore guides us through his
highlights of the history of astronomy..,
with the publication of Isaac
Newton’s immortal Principia in
1687. But let us turn now to the
great milestones of modern times.
APLACE IN THE COSMOS
Probably the most important came
in 1923. There had been aheated
argument about the nature of
objects then known as spiral
nebulae, such as M31 -the Great
-but
HALLEY’S COMET that bears his name; and he
i ■ T^ t^ular visitor to our even experimented with asort
:part of'the solar system of primitive submarine! He was
\(above) Minays returns
ajovial person, liked by all. His
.righft on cue every 75-76
'^years, as predicted by last act on Earth was to call for
^EdrnundHafleyaeft). aglass of wine -and drink it!
a
 X
m
CO

O
PD

o
n

>
CO
H
7D
o

-<

o
m
u i

C O

Spiral in Andromeda. Were they
minor features of our galaxy or
were they independent galaxies -
“island universes”, immensely
remote? Edwin Hubble, using what
was then much the most powerful
telescope in the world, the Mount
Wilson 100-inch reflector, found
the answer. In M31 he detected
stars known as Cepheid variables,
which give away their distances by
the way they behave.
The Cepheids were so far
away that they could not possibly
belong to the Milky Way. M31
is now known to be over two
ANDROMEDA work in 1932 by an American than aquarter of acentury later, the
2.5 million light- experimenter, Karl Jansky, who was 250-foot Lovell telescope at Jodrell
years away M31,
the Andromeda employed by the Bell Telephone Bank began its work. Today, of
Galaxy, is the Company to investigate the causes course, radio astronomy is of
Milky Way's of static. Using an improvised aerial paramount importance.
n e a r e s t
-made partly from bits of a
n e i g h b o u r.
dismantled Ford car! -Jansky found M Y S T E RY M AT T E R
SUPERMAN
that he was picking up radio signals Just about the same time came an
Edwin Hubble
from the Milky Way. He never announcement by the Swiss
-Kappa Sigma's
Man of the Year, followed up the discovery as he
1948 -was an might have been expected to, but
athletic and
he had taken the first step and, less
domineering
fellow, who also
discovered that
the universe is
expanding.

million light-years away and, even

so, it is one of the closest of the
external systems. The universe is
incomparably larger than had been
thought, and our galaxy is avery
minor feature.

TUNING IN

Next the beginning of radio

astronomy, with some casual

€
astronomer Fritz Zwicky, which
ranks as amilestone, though at the
time it was not immediately
recognised as such. Zwicky had
been studying the movements of
the systems in the Coma cluster of
galaxies, 80 million light-years
away, and realised that there was
something very strange about
them. They were flying around so
quickly that they ought to separate
from each others’ pull -but this did
not happen. The cluster of galaxies
was not dispersing; something was
“gluing” it together.
T h e r e w a s a v a s t amount of
invisible “dark matter”, which we
cannot see at all, but which makes
its presence felt because of its
gravitational pull. Zwicky’s idea
was right; we now accept that
visible matter accounts for only
asmall fraction of the universe.
In astronomy, it is of paramount
importance, even though we have
as yet no idea of its nature.
INTO THE SPACE AGE
Space research is now in the S/.OVJFTHOIDRAKfTA
forefront of research -yet only a
few decades ago, the whole idea
of interplanetary flight was
widely ridiculed and the chances
of sending men to the Moon (.1 Ol l/IKAI IV
were dismissed as pure science
fiction. During World War 2, the
main research was carried out for
aMY
ENTIRE
CAREER
DEPENDS
UPDN
WHAT
IDD IN THE NEXT TWENTY MINUTES...
Sir Patrick Moore remembers the first episode of The Sky at Night
s
military purposes, but rockets GLOBAL the solar system. Progress has been
S E N S AT I O N
subsequently became serious quick, but it dates back to the flight
Sputnik 1
scientific tools. The real milestone of Sputnik 1.
marked the
was the launch of Russia’s artificial beginning of
satellite. Sputnik 1, on October 4, the space race BEGINNINGS OF TIME
between the
1957. It was only football-sized and USSR and USA. How did the universe begin? We
carried little apart from asimple have to confess that we really do
radio transmitter, but it ushered in not know, but the favoured theory
INVISIBLE Dark
the Space Age. matter can be today is that everything -space,
Adozen years later, Neil mapped by time, matter... everything there is-
Armstrong stepped out on to observing the came into existence at the same
 ®BREAMY
KTHROUGHS
PERSONAL MILESTONES
^NOVEMeER 1934. Being elected
amember of the British Astronomical
Association. Iwas only eleven years
old when Iwas taken to the meeting ^APRIL 24, 2007. The 50th anniversary
at Sion College in London. When
my name was called Iwalked up
to shake hands with the President
(the Astronomer Royal) and
was admitted as amember. Exactly
50 years later, Ibecame President...
>APRIL 24. 1957. My first BBC
television Sky at Night broadcast.
It was In the Lime Grove studio, and it
was live (in those days everything was
live). The camera was switched on and;
Iremember thinking, “My entire career
could at least look for proof that
the Big Bang really did mark the
start of the universe we know,
and we believe that this proof
has been obtained.
At the time of the Big Bang,
the temperature was unbelievably
N AY S AY E R
high. The universe began to expand Fred Hoyle
and the overall temperature (left), agifted
dropped, aprocess that is still astrophysicist,
refused to accept
presumably going on. In 1964,
the Big Bang
two radio astronomers, Penzias theory. The tracks
and Wilson, were using aspecial of fundamental
particles (right)
antenna for acompletely different
give us aglimpse
investigation when they recorded a of conditions at
strange “hiss” which they could not the dawn of time.
depends upon what Ido during the next
twenty minutes’ Isuppose It did.
of the Sky at Night, At my home we had
agreat celebration, organised by the
BBC and masterminded by the producer,
Jane Fletcher. Ahuge marquee was set
up in the garden. Over 300 people came,
not only close friends, and eminent
astronomers from far and wide, but also |
people famous in other fields -MPs and
also the British astronaut Piers Sellers.
Iam sure Idid not deserve the tributes
paid to me. but for one of the few times
in my life Iwas overwhelmed. Nothing
in the future can ever match it.
identify -for atime they thought
that it might be caused by pigeon
droppings in the antenna!
LOOKING BACK
Quite independently, R.H.Dicke
had been predicting that it might
be possible to pick up the last
remnant of the Big Bang, and
this was what Penzias and Wilson
had found. It indicated an overall
temperature of 2.7 degrees above
absolute zero. Iwould maintain
that the detection of the CMB, or
Cosmic Microwave Background, is
the most important astronomical
milestone of the second half of
the twentieth century. It does not
m
CD
O
-<
O
>
c n
H
O
SINK OR SWIM? A younger O
Patrick contemplates the future
on the inaugural Sky at Night.
explain how the universe came
0
into being, but it did kill off the rival
“steady state” theory, according m
C O
to which there was no Big Bang,
o
so that the universe had always
existed, and will exist forever. z
m
This theory was championed C O
by Hoyle, among others, but it
involved picturing aperiod of
time which had no beginning -
and our brains are hopelessly
unequal to understanding a
concept of this kind. After the
discovery of the CMB, there could
no longer be any serious challenge
to the Big Bang.
Well -these are my milestones.
Iwonder what the next one will be?
 OR ON the
nu NI t

The constellation Orion, representing

ahunter with his weapons, is one of the
most distinctive in the northern sky. i ■A-*:.-

\ ■■■ ■■

one of the most spectacular constellations, full

o
;^ti
non IS

of incredible sights. The distinctive pattern of stars

straddles the celestial equator, so it can be seen from .
both hemispheres -from the north it is usually most obvious in
evening skies early in the year.

STELLAR BIRTHPLACE
Orion is at the centre of another impressive story -it marks the
core of aregion of hydrogen clouds that are collapsing to form
stars in several bright nebulae. The most prominent of these is
M42, the Great Orion Nebula, some 1500 light-years away. It
can be spotted with the nake fe-

eye as afuzzy blob in the m r m

chain of stars that marks

i

Orion’s sword. Binoculars or T

i-
ii
m
telescope will reveal young
■ \ n

1 :1
i?
" t
m
stars embedded in the nebula.

At its heart is agroup called This nebula can be seen

the Trapezium, acluster of four ■
.-k.
with the naked eye as swirling mists south V :

stars that orbit each other and of Orion's belt.

'■■1 .'■
must have formed in the same

knot of collapsing gas.

NEW SOLAR SYSTEMS
^THE
CELESTIAL
HUNTER
BRIGHT STARS

Located in the Orion nebula,
this newborn star is about 1500
light-years away and is the first
view of asolar system in the
process of being born.
□
non represents ahunter
Orion’s other highlights are from Greek mythology.
its brightest stars. Betelgeuse The hunter sits at the centre
(a), marking the hunter’s right of ascene picked out in
shoulder, is ared giant star, an 'surrounding constellations -

ageing star some 400 light-years away. As it nears the end of its jhe faces the charging bull
’Taurus, while backed by his
life, Betelgeuse (a) has brightened enormously and swollen to 'dogs, Canis Major and Canis
such asize that, if it replaced the Sun in our solar system, it Minor Ahare, Lepus, cowers
would stretch to beyond the orbit of Mars. at his feet. In myth, Orion
boasted that he could overcome
Rigel (p) (Orion’s left knee), is slightly brighter than
any animal, but was undone by
Betelgeuse (a), and apure blue-white star. It is about twice as
the sting of asmall scorpion,
far away as its red rival and is ayoung, hot star with about 17 which IS preserved on the
imes the mass of the Sun. The increased mass allows it to burn
opposite side of the sky as
far more energy than our Sun, or even Betelgeuse (oc), so even the constellation Scorpius.
from this distance it is one of the brightest stars in the sky.
24
 M 7 8

NGC 2024

NGd 1981 i .

formed by ared supergiant many hundreds

of times brighter than the Sun. It Is the
closest to Earth of all Orion's stars.
. N U U

1 9 8 1

4 5 ^ 4 2
NGC 1977
M 4 3
Tr a p e z i u m
M 4 2

L
StriiuR 7d7

kywatchers in the northern hemisphere

S should look due south shortly after
SWORD The region south of
nightfall during January and February to see Orion's belt is populated by
Orion at its highest point. The constellation bright, star-forming nebulae.
rises in the east,.but slips into twIWght as the
year progresses.

ABBREVIATION Ori
BEST SEASON

Winter (early evening)

♦
.BRIGHTEST S TA R S

Rigel(p)0.2
Betelgeuse (pt) 0.5
Bellatrlx (y) 1.6
SIZE RANKING 26/88

POSITION Equatorial
HORSEHEAD NEBULA
This distinctive dust cloud in Orion
LOpATOR MAP
is abirthplace for new stars.
 #
PLANETS MOV
It took acourt astrologer obsessed by
puzzles to solve the solar system's greatest
mystery. His remarkable ideas changed the
way we view our place in the universe...
eemingly stretching into the
S
infinite distance and arching
over all human affairs, the
sky has always been seen as the seat
of the gods, so it is no surprise that
for much of its history, astronomy
has been amystical science.
Now that we know the Earth to
be the “third rock from the Sun”,
and part of afamily of different
worlds all in orbit around the solar
system’s central star, it’s hard to
imagine things any other way.
Surely these facts are obvious to
26
BREAKTHROUGHS
K E P L E R ’ S L AW S O F
P L A N E TA R Y M O T I O N
THE FIRST LAW
All the planets orbit the Sun in elliptical orbits.
THE SECOND LAW
An imaginary line connecting the Sun and a
planet sweeps out equal areas of sky in equal
times, as it loops around the Sun.
THE THIRD LAW
The amount of time it takes aplanet to
complete one orbit of the Sun, squared, is
related to Its distance from the Sun, cubed.
any astute observer, so how did r
and mathematician Ptolemy. He
G L O S S A R Y
early astronomers fail to see it? Aphelion: the formulated abeguilingly simple
point in the orbit
mechanism for an Earth-centred
of aplanet or
MUSIC OF THE SPHERES comet that is universe in 140ad, which held sway
at the greatest
Half the problem for stargazers is distance from
for over 1400 years. Ptolemy’s
that the movements of the planets the Sun. model for the planets’ orbits was
Perihelion:
in the sky are far from simple. They aRussian doll’s nest of transparent
the point in the
speed up and slow down, they loop spheres, with the Earth nestled
orbit of aplanet
about and sometimes even appear or comet where
in the middle. The theory was
it is nearest to
to backtrack on themselves -atrick extraordinarily powerful since it
the Sun.
called “retrograde motion”. A explained why everything appears
The other part of the problem to revolve around the Earth while
was the enormous influence of the evoking acelestial and geometrical
brilliant Alexandrian astronomer harmony -an idea that showed the
hand of God in his creation.
When Nicolas Copernicus
formulated his theory of asun-
centred universe in 1541, its effect
on science, philosophy and religion
was titanic. He realised that if
the planets orbited the Sun the
STEP retrograde motion of Mars can be
BACKWARD written off as an optical effect of
From our
Earth “overtaking” Mars.
perspective
on Earth, Mars
appears to loop
backward in
the sky as we
overtake it on
the inner track.
N E S T L I N G
W O R L D S
Kepler's original
conception of the
planets' orbits
had them related
to each other
geometrically.
 !
/ \
2 K
/
PERIHELION
i n
h \
I \
1
1
' L
However, Copernicus stopped
short of changing the circular orbits
to preserve the orderly geometry
of the universe. As the accuracy
of astronomical instruments got
better, allowing more accurate
observation, the spherical universe
model strained to fit the new
data. There were often perplexing
differences between the motions
observed in the sky and those
predicted by theory.
CC
(KEPLER
WAS)
THEFIRST
ASTROPHYSICIST
AND THE LAST SCIENTIFIC ASTROLOGER
Cart Sagan
DREAM TEAM
1 One hundred years later, and Tycho
Brahe’s Prague observatory was the
world’s most accurate. Johannes
i Kepler, arising star in Germany,
I
joined forces with the more eminent
Dane to study planetary motion.
When he was unleashed on
Brahe’s figures, Kepler saw that
all was not right. The orbit of
Mars had to be something other
than aperfect circle. His great
breakthrough was realising that the
orbits of the planets were elliptical.
It took him ten years to narrow
the shape down. He even tried to
model egg-shaped orbits, in the
CO
M
r o
>
O
m
The shaded areas are equal
and are covered by the planet CO
in an equal amount of time.
O
m
A P H E L I O N
m
G O I N G A R O U N D I N O VA L S
At any point along its orbit, aline stretched 0
between the Sun and aplanet sweeps out the □ :
same area in the same time. Therefore it takes
O
the planet the same time to travel between
points 1and 2as between points 3and 4.
X
T )
mistaken belief that asimple ellipse attraction between them drops off,
must have been tried out by earlier so the planet travels more slowly. Z
generations of astronomer. Conversely, as it races towards the
C O
Sun the force of gravity steeply
L AY I N G D O W N T H E L A W increases, accelerating the planet.
The second law contains the meat o
<
of planetary motion. It also has a T H E T H I R D WAY m
hidden consequence -planets Kepler’s third law had perhaps the
don't keep aconstant speed as they most far-reaching consequences.
travel around the Sun. Even though Very simply, it says that the farther
it sounds counterintuitive, this away aplanet is from the Sun,
indeed is what is observed in the the slower it travels, or the farther
heavens. As aplanet approaches away from the Sun, the less
its aphelion (see glossary), it slows gravitational pull aplanet feels.
down and it speeds up as it But remember, Kepler put a
approaches its perihelion. mathematical relationship to this
This actually makes sense in observation with no knowledge of
light of Newton’s laws of gravity. gravity. Later, Newton would find
As aplanet gets farther away the grain of inspiration here for his
from the Sun, the gravitational own laws of gravity.
■■ . - i f
S PA C E S TA R S
^JOHANNES KEPLER (1571-1630)^*’
V,
ohannes Kepier was aweak and sickly child who was
j obsessed with number puzzles. He put this skill to good use. I
rising rapidly as acourt astrologer, predicting fortunes for the
rich and influential. This patronage in turn enabled Kepler to -
devote himself to astronomy.
Kepler was no great shakes as astargazer !his
brilliance always lay in mathematical analysis. For this
V
reason, you can*t separate him from Tycho Brahe, the
great Danish observer of the skies. Kepler's laws of.
KEPLER Craters on Mars and
planetary motion mark perhaps the greatest revolution the Moon have been named
in space science. Without them, we'd still be without a ■a f t e r K e p l e r, a s w e l l a s a n e w
clear concept of gravity. ;planet-hunting telescope.
€
COMING

SYSTEM Jfr:
"precision
A '
engineered
ORRERY
GRUB ALLEN KEY
SCREW SCREWS

Witness the birth of astar and

CGLUMN
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SYSTEM
F E AT U R E S
^YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL
^Learn all about the base-plate engraving and
understand how it adds functionality to your orrery

SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE I M P O RTA N T m

0 Find out how the solar system formed from amurky !The orrery is aprecision-engineered
kit. It must be assembled and handled
dust cloud and get arecipe to make your own star. with care to prevent damage to its
;parts, and stored or displayed safely to
;ensure no parts are lost.
!Parts not to be sold separately.
!The publisher cannot replace any
parts that are damaged or lost by the
customer with tcharge.
!The publisher cannot be responsible

.jqJ
MISSIONS
Meet the heroic crew of Skylab 2, on amission
!Never use liquids or solvents to clea
the parts. For best care, use the
polishing cloth and dusting brushes
for any damage that may occur as a
result of incorrect assembly or
mishandling of the orrery. Please ensure
supplied with the toolkit (free to you read ail the instructions thoroughly
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!When assembling parts, lay them on a !All tools must be used with care.

IMAGE GALLERY flat table and keep screws and all small
12) We go in search of newly formed planetary systems items on atray so they can't roll away
and get lost. Unpack all parts carefully.
!The publisher reserves the right to
and infant stars, to reveal the early life of our Sun. alter parts and their design at any time.
following any safety guidelines provided
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!The publisher cannot be responsible
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materials.

THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

16
Stonehenge is the world's most famous ancient solar CREDITS
observatory, but It is by no means the only one... IMAGES: FC NASA/ESA/SOHO;
2NASA/Hubb!e/CR O'Dell (Rice
S TA R M A P
20) University); 3(c) Eaglemoss/Simon
Anning, (b!) AAA Collection, (be)
Locate and observe Cassiopeia -the beautiful
Science &Society Picture Library,
queen of the northern night sky.
(br) Mary Evans Picture Library;
4-5(background) NASA/Hubble/CR
UNEXPLAINED O'Dell (Rice University), (cl) Science
The mysterious Titius-Bode law appears to predict Photo Library/Eckhard Slawik,
(c,cr) Eaglemoss/Julian Fletcher,
the positions of the planets with uncanny accuracy
(bottom,fromleft)Courtesyofthe|(bl)Corbis/JanButchofsky-Houser,
C O N S U LTA N T E D I T O R : G I L E S S PA R R O W Antikythera Mechanism Research
E N D O R S E D B Y : S I R PAT R I C K M O O R E C B E F R S Project, Science Photo Library/Ria
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Hubble Heritage Team (STScl/
AURA), (br) Science Photo Library/
Eksi
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NASA/ESA/Hubble Heritage Team
II I
Heritage Team (STScl/AURA),
(tr) Science Photo Library/ESO,
(b) Science Photo Library/Tony
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 YOUR ORRERY
O

CO
O

and the STARS CO

CO

The plate which forms the base of he brass base plate of your solar system
model links the movements of the
your solar system model is much planets of your orrery to the movements
more than mere decoration... of the real planets across the night sky. It
transforms your orrery into atool to help you
O
explore the skies of the past, present and future
u
m
P L A N E TA R Y A U G N M E r T t
The base plate dates E N G R AV I N G E X P L A I N E D
your orrery and adds 'h
asurprising amount of y;
The innermost engraving is the date stamp. 0
extra functionality XXIV Augustis MMVI is 24 August 2006
t o
O
lomical Union redefined the solar

International
the
date
^he tern as we know It, confirming
your orrery as alimited-edition,
collector’s item. Surrounding
ithis are the positions of the
hplanets on that date (you
£will become more familiar
o
7 0
7 0

>
if;
D
|hwiththesymbolsasthe
Bseries progresses).
MNext are the zodiac
1constellations in the order C O

they roll around through >

7 3
the year, the months of the CO

ear and, finally, the moveable

Zodiac Calibration Ring, or
“slip ring”. Keep this issue
safe because it will help you
to use your solar system
model when it is complete.

ABRIEF HISTORY OF ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS

''o WAT E R AND

SAND CLOCKS
C3 SUNDIALS Estimating A L E X A N D R I A N

SCHOOL Agolden
CO DQ u s i n g
The length of the lengths of shadows age for astronomy
O the days and
pn o quickly followed
was including the first
CD the y e a r w e r e shadow
by calibrated of many sighting
c l o c k s " . T h e s e w e r e fi r s t . devices such as
in calculated using 1 CO
CVJ
primitive clocks. usedinancientEgypt.| the quadrant.
 WYOURBASELearnhow setupyourorrery
to run in real time and follow
the trail of the planets through
^TE WORKS the stars of the night sky.

he principal planetary configuration for your SPECIAL STARS

solar system model is August 24, 2006.
Setting the planets by eye to this date ^*same plane. This means as we look out into space
immediately reveals afeature of your orrery -you
can easily see which planets would be visible in
the night sky. Most of the planets -and especially
the nearest, clearest ones -at this time were
around the other side of the Sun, and therefore
hidden unless at dusk or dawn. Uranus may have
been visible in Aquarius (use the outer ring) and
possibly Neptune in Capricornus, but Pluto and
Fris would be invi<;ible due to their <;ma
The planets of the solar system all move on the
from Earth, they all follow the same path across
the sky against the fixed backdrop of the more
distant stars. The constellations that lie along
this path have always held aspecial significance -
astronomically as well as astrologically -and are
known as the zodiac. Because the Sun is also
in the same plane as the planets, the zodiac
constellations also lie along the path of the Sun
through the sky.
size.
The outer “slip ring” -the Zodiac Calibration V E N U S

Ring -shows the zodiac with the correct relative

sizes of each constellation (there is also a13th m e r c u r y

constellation, Ophiuchus, which intrudes on the

zodiac but is not counted as one of them). Given
the data to set the model up correctly, you can
see how the planets move through the zodiac and
should be able to spot them easily in the night sky S A T U R N

Calibration dates will be supplied regularly

throughout this magazine series.
MOON y

M A R S
HOW IT WORKS

^FIRST POINT OF ARIES

T hepointFirstin thePointnightof sky

Aries is an important
as it is the
MARS IN basis for the celestial coordinate system
LEO Knowing that locates stars and other celestial
the shapes
bodies in the heavens. The problem is
of the zodiac
that it drifts with time (see box opposite).
constellations
Confusingly, the current position of the
will help First Point of Arles is in the constellation
you find the
planets in the of Pisces. The “slip ring” is marked with
night sky. astar, so that you can line up it up with
the Aries symbol ^and keep your
orrery accurate for modern times.

■T ' i - .

A N T I K Y T H E R A PERSIAN CHINESE ASTRONO RENAISSANCE

MECHANISM ASTRONOMY ASTRONOMY
—^ The Chinese took
This stunningly Centres of learning existing instrumenti Travellers from
advanced orrery- O moved east;
CM such as the ^ the east brought
ike relic has techniques and science and
arnnillary sphered
astounded equipment became and improved k; learning back
space experts. more sophisticated. on their accuracy^ to Europe.

vlECH,
iPROJEC7
FIRST POINT OF
ARIES SYMBOL

U R A N U S

HOW IT WORKS
o
^ZODIAC
CALIBRATION
RING C

tone time, the First be Alderamin In the

A Point of Aries was constellation Cepheus,

CO

actually located at the rather than Polaris In o

boundary between Arles Ursa Minor.
and Pisces. What made Precession also makes
It drift out Into Pisces the First Point of Arles

Is aphenomena called drift, but your orrery’s slip CO

-<
fi

precession”. Simply put. ring enables you to adjust

this Is away of describing for this. Turning the ring CO
the Earth’s “wobble” as anticlockwise moves the H
It spins on Its axis - First Point of Arles back m
much like the wobble toward the constellation

of aspinning top. The Arles -or “back” In time.

Earth’s wobble makes the Turning the ring clockwise
background stars appear allows you to set the
to shift positions. In 5500 orrery accurately for the
O
years the pole star will night skies of the future. a
m
r

SPINNING TOP
Alderamin (Cepheus) 0
The gravitational Polaris X
pull of the Sun (Ursa Minor) O
and the Moon
makes Earth T h u o a n

(Draco) , *
/
-<
slowly wobble
o
on its axis every / !

c :
28,500 years, -73
changing the CD
positions of >
the stars. C O
m
D A Y S
“ D

5
m

SPSTRANGE SYMBOLS
ou'll notice that the slip ring is decorated amount of space they take up on the ring O
Y with some mystical-looking symbols. These is not even. This represents the relative
7 D
7 \
CO
are the signs of the zodiac constellations. The “amount of sky” taken up by each constellation.
CONSTELLATIONS

■ G E M I N I C A N C E R V I R G O S A G I T TA R I U S C A P R I C O R N U S A Q U A R I U S P I S C E S

PLANETS

JUPITER S A T U R N N E P T U N E ERIS
MERCURY :VENUS

is M
VERNIER SCALE FIRST ORRERY A
TYCHO BRAHE The t/) TELESCOPE Once
undisputed genius of the telescope An apparently simple very sophisticated
Renaissance astronomy invented, It ^ C ^O invention that brought tool for astronomy
teaching
single-handedly ^NjQi
hitherto
unheard Si
i
invented some of NO of choice and : ■o f a c c u r a c y t o a l l relied on
the most advanced f o r m s o f s c i e n t i fi c centuries
observational tools looked back. ^ measurement. of learninq,
 t ;

The BIRTH
of the bUI\ flij

Five million years ago asmall disturbance in an obscure

H
arm of the Milky Way galaxy set off achain of events which
would lead to the formation of anew star -our Sun...

he Sun is the solar system. A2.2 thousand
trillion trillion-tonne flaming ball, it contains
afull 98.4 per cent of the total mass of the
solar system and controls the movement of the rest
of the puny scraps that make up the planets and
other assorted satellites. Our star burns with a
ferocity that makes it by far the brightest object in
the sky. It provides all the energy for aregion of
space 15,000-20,000 million km in diameter. But
this radiant beauty was born out of the depths of
adark cloud of dust.
GENESIS
Around 4.6 billion years ago, somewhere nearby
astronomically speaking, astar in the final stages
of its life gave up the ghost. Shrugging off its
outer layers impetuously, it exploded in a
supernova. The ripples from this violent last act
upset the delicate balance of an enormous cloud of
gas and dust hanging inert in the interstellar space,
causing it to fall in on itself.
It took the next 400 million years for this cloud -
called the solar nebula -to collapse. As it did so,
its increasing gravity pulled the material tighter and
tighter together. The temperatures and pressures
at the heart of the nebula rose dramatically, until
eventually -in afurious explosion of nuclear fire -
the Sun was born.
WHAT IS ASTAR?
Stars come in all shapes, sizes and colours -
our Sun, for example, is asmallish, stable star. In
essence, they are massive bodies of hot gas and
some of the universe’s most fascinating objects.
Stars generate their energy by nuclear reactions
and shine brightly because of this energy source.

FORCE OF
G R AV I T Y

O U T W A R D

P R E S S U R E

F R O M

N U C L E A R

REACTIONS
IN CORE

S TA R F O R C E S

Stars are caught

in aperpetual
struggle between {

the destructive

energy of their
nuclear reactions

ripping them
apart and the
gravitational force
of their great bulk
squeezing
them together.

;SPIRE Acolumn
of and dust in
thoSi^ilwNebula is a
cradii for new stars. The
small bumps and fingers
are each the size of the
solar system and contain
a n i n f a n t s t a r.
Proto: AGreek prefix
(put in front of a
word) used to indicate
something that came
before. For exampfe
“proto-planet” -a
not-quite fully fledged
planet: “proto-stellar
nebula” -acloud of
dust and gas that is
not yet astar.
o
>
i n
extends out from the waist of cloud would have spun itself
the Sun carrying all the planets out into aflat disk girdling the j
on It. This is no quirk of nature Sun. The planets were formed
h o w e v e r, i t i s a r e m n a n t f r o m from the material in this disk G)
the birth of the solar system. so they are all in the same
PLAIME SAILING AH the planets, bar
Reading the signs can tell us plane. Minor deviations from
the strange outer worlds, formed on the
agreat deal about the Sun’s this are due to freak collisions
same plane, but did anumber law decide a
early history. between proto-planets. their positions (see pages 22-23)?
The conditions under which they formed and the particles) and solar radiation, including visible light.
1
amount of material that goes into them determine The Sun will spend atotal of about 10 billion years
their size, colour, behaviour and eventual fate. as amain sequence star.
00
THE LIVES OF STARS STELLAR NURSERIES 7 D
Astar begins its life when acollapsing cloud The primordial mixtures of hydrogen, helium and
o f i n t e r s t e l l a r m a t t e r - t h e s t u ff b e t w e e n t h e more complex elements, which hang suspended o
stars -reaches “critical mass”. This is when the in great clouds in between the stars, are formed by
pressure of material crushing in toward its centre earlier generations of stars. When these old stars
elevates the temperature to the point that nuclear
CO
reactions spark up inside the core. Main-sequence d
stars (stars that are still burning their primary fuel Z
source), such as our Sun, are made almost
exclusively of hydrogen gas and convert it to
helium in nuclear fusion reactions.
These reactions occur at millions of degrees
centigrade and release acolossal amount of
energy. The force of the energy pumping
out through the Sun’s body is enough to
rip it apart, blowing its contents all over
space. This happens to super-massive
stars, but normally such an uncontrolled
explosion is prevented by the gravity of
the material surrounding the core. The
inward force of gravity counteracts the
outward force -the enormous bulk of
matter acting as acontainment vessel.
ALIVE AND KICKING
Having burned for almost 5billion years,
the Sun is now approaching middle age.
It is about halfway through its main JET POWER As
sequence, the stable part of astar’s anewly ignited
lifespan. Each second, it converts more star begins to
shine, fierce jets of
than 4million tonnes of matter into pure
subatomic particles
energy, showering the solar system with and radiation
neutrinos (tiny, fast-moving subatomic stream off its poles.
7
 !■4-

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© .

died, they blew themselves apart, spewing their
contents across the surrounding space. Cooled and
condensed, the gas formed proto-stellar nebulae.
These can be hundreds of light-years across. They
disturbance on alarge scale creates "density TA R A N T U L A N E B U L A
The Sun was born
waves”, which travel through anebula, triggering
4.6 billion years ago,
many stars to start forming at once. Stars often forming from acloud
form in long trails that mark out the passage of a of Interstellar matter

are invisible, apart from where they are lit from density wave. Astronomers often use the friendly much like this one In the
constellation of Dorado.
behind, like Orion’s famous Horsehead Nebula. term “stellar nurseries” for these creches of young
Such clouds are never quite uniform and always stars, rather than proto-stellar nebulae.
contain pockets of denser material. If disturbed - CC
DISTURBANCE
ON
perhaps by the passage of an object with an THE ROAD TO STABILITY
ALARGE SCALE CAN
intense gravitational pull, anearby supernova or How quickly astar begins to shine depends on the
TRIGGER CHAINS
simply the bumpiness of their own passage mass of material within acollapsing globule of gas.
through space -these dense clumps can begin Some wannabe stars are so huge that they suffer OF STAR-FORMING
»

to collapse and trigger the birth of anew star. A runaway nuclear reactions in their cores and blow ACTIVITY

INSIDE INFO

H O W T O M A K E A S TA R I N F I V E E A S Y S T E P S
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FIND ACLOUp of interstellar THE MOMENT i

1 gas and dust. Allow the cloud
to settle, to make sure that the
material gets "lumpy". Then ^
disturb it with apassing star
or anearby supernova.
2SMALL
POCKETS
start to collapse Inward 3 of creation happens when
forming dense clumps. As the the temperatures and pressures
material compresses together trigger nuclear fusion reactions
at the centre, conditions in the clump's core. Astar is born,
b e c o m e h o t t e r. . . but your work is not over!
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horror that ashierd designed 1 gasS.Withthespaceshiprry^sm^;

to protect tb@[ Craft from two t h e

micrometeorites had deployed Skylah|,we to ferry a power was 25 watts instead of the
too early. Atmospheric drag had crew to ^scene become anticipated 12,400 watts!
: NASA ripped it off, and on its way it had arescue operation. On May 25, It took Conrad screw the best

"engineers" taken the spacecraft’s heat shield 1973, Commander Pete Conrad, part of 14 days to get Skylab
hare! at work
and asolar panel with it. Pilot Paul Weitz and Science Pilot operational. They fitted anew '
constructing
Skylab's Once in space and parked safely Joseph Kerwin set off to rendezvous micrometeorite shield, a‘'parasol”
reflective quilt. in orbit above Earth, the second :with the stricken laboratory. ~asort of giant marathon runner'

SCI-FI

3SOLARIS
he haunting film Solaris [2002)
T recounts the strange goings on
in ascientific spaceship observing a
star. The original movie, ahit for
Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky in
1972, was clearly inspired by space
craft such as the Soviet Salyut
s t a t i o n s . T h e fi l m a d d r e s s e s t h e

Fear that investigating otherworldly REMEMBER ME? George

space phenomena might not be a Clooney meets his dead wife
good thing for humankind. played by Natascha McElhone.
 7 \

73 51 7200 273

DESIGN FOR LIFE Pete Conrad tries out Skylab's space

showers -after awhile, the astronauts preferred aquick
rub with adamp cloth to the hour-long shower routine.

CC
DINNER’S
PRETTY
GOOD,
EXCEPT
THAT
PAUL
FOUND 5 f
B O R R O W E R S

ONE OF THOSE TREE TRUNKS IN THE ASPARAGUS!

let
^1.' ! : L . .

tepher^
I
m

M m
m
rr* ^ut ‘04.3£>;iin;ply IX, ■
iiSd, \A^thout a':dpubt/:-savi^’'' an inauspicious repeat - f j T

the entire prografhmelrom disaster. delivered the fifsftphotograph m- of its beginnings.

:
ADbckmg Adapter, attached to tfte
refurbished hulk of aSaturn Vfuel
tank, held the Apollo Telescope
■of aajiar flare fram space aiQtel
i;i3
The spaceship finally crashed
discovered the Sun’s coronal holes. down in the Indian Ocean and
spread debris across Western
Australia, attracting agreat deal
In 1974, the last astronauts left of media attention. One cow was

Mount (ATM), the most advanced Skylab and the orbiting observatory killed and the Australian shire

piece of scientific equipment on was put into aparking orbit that was of Esperance fined the US
board (see box). expected to last through the next government $400 for littering.
This cutting-edge technology
was used to study the Sun, without
the distorting effect of the Earth’s
atmosphere, and the effects of
long-term spaceflight on astronauts
Each and every Skylab mission
set new records for the amount of

time spent in space. This briefly

put the USA ahead of the USSR
(until the next generation of Russian
Salyut spacestations). Over the
course of Skylab’s year-and-a-half-
long mission, astronauts conducted
over 2000 hours of scientific and

medical experiments. These studied

 The YOUNG SUN
By studying the universe's regions of active starbirth, we
can roll back 5billion years of history and catch aglimpse
of our Sun and the solar system as they were born.

he birth of anew star is not such arare

[1]
occurrence as you might think. In our Milky
Way, anew star is born every year. Since
the Milky Way is an average galaxy, we can say
that this rate of starbirth is roughly the same across
the observable universe -bigger galaxies will
produce more stars and smaller galaxies, obviously,
fewer. There are about 100 billion galaxies in the
known universe, so multiplying by arate of one per
year gives an estimate of about 100 billion stars
being created per year, or 275 million new stars
every day.
These phenomenal images chart the birth of a
star, from the point when acloud of gas begins
to collapse to the moment of its ignition. Take
ajourney into outer space to explore the active
zones where starbirth is an everyday occurrence.

[1] BARNARD OBJECT [2] THE SUN IN 3D

These dark clouds are Images from STEREO,
hundreds of light-years NASA's twin solar

across. They can only orbiters, capture

be seen when lit from the turbulent outer

behind. Hidden away atmosphere of our Sun.

inside, the stars quietly View through 3D glasses
begin to form. to bring out the detail.

12
[3]

>
o

o
>

- <

1 3 J T H A C K E R AY ' S
GLOBULES Bok globules
are dense clouds of dust

and gas 15 times the

mass of the Sun. This

set is about 5900 light-

years from Earth, in the
constellation Centaurus.

[4] ASTAR IS BORN The

birth of astar such as our

Sun is aviolent, high-

energy process. As stars
burst into light the fusion
reactions in the core give
rise to withering solar
winds that rake the

surrounding gas cloud

HH-34, 1500 light-years
from Earth near the

Orion nebula, is abright

object caused by strong
jets of dense gases
streaming from the poles
of anewly formed sun.

[5] SEVEN SISTERS

The beautiful Pleiades
are astar cluster of over
100 hot blue-white
stars, about 400 light-
years from Earth. The
stars have coalesced

out of acollapsing stellar

nursery -traces
of which can still be
surrounding the
s e e n

young stars. The Pleiades

are found in the
c o n s t e l l a t i o n Ta u r u s .
 [6] IGNITION! This artist's impression shows the condensing dust cloud of the early solar system as it reaches critical mass -nuclear fusion
reactions spark off in the core and the Sun is born in aviolent and sudden explosion of light. The first wave of the solar wind whips out into

1
 >
CD
m

CD
>

the surrounding cloud of dust and gas in aflash of energy, rocking the solar nebula and blowing light gases away from the inner zones.
Farther out, countless planetesimals -the beginnings of the planets themselves -are slowly building, sweeping up all the loose debris.
SUN CU
Ancient Sun worshippers may have been more
advanced than we know. Explore the solar calendars
at Stonehenge and Chankillo, Peru.
he most impressive and
important of all objects
in the sky is the Sun. It
completes ayearly pattern of
apparent movements around the
sky, which in reality are the result
of Earth’s orbit around the Sun. The
changing amount and intensity of
daylight experienced at different
locations on Earth have aprofound
effect on us all, creating the cycle of
seasons that still controls the lives
of most people on Earth.
EARLY DAYS
It’s little wonder, then, that ancient
cultures around the world took a
special interest in the Sun’s
movements. Today, most of what
we know about these early
astronomers comes from the
permanent monuments they left
behind -stone structures designed
as ancient solar observatories.
CC
NOONE
CAN
CONCEIVE
HOW
SUCH GREAT STONES HAVE BEEN
SO RAISEO AL0R,0R WHY THEY
WERE BUILT THERE.
Henry of Huntington (1130)
MAGNIFICENT MEGALITHS
The earliest of these monuments
are the stone circles and alignments
of Europe, called “megaliths” (see
glossary). The most famous of all
the megalithic sites scattered across
5
northwestern Europe is Stonehenge
in Wiltshire, England. But there are
earlier, if less ambitious, sites in
Germany and across Europe, and
plenty of archaeological evidence
that, in some places, the stone
monuments were put up as more
permanent versions of earlier
wooden structures.
Stonehenge itself was developed
99
in several stages. The first, around
3200bc, was acircular ditch and
bank (the “henge” itself), with an
opening on its northeastern side
INNER
TRILITHONS facing towards the “heel stone”. An
The huge observer standing in the centre of
sarsen stone
circle is now a
the circle around the time of the
protected World
northern midsummer sunrise in
Heritage site. mid-June (when the Sun reaches its
 bnorthernmost rising point) would
HEEL STONE Ihave seen it appear directly over
orange line show^ the point at ^
the Sun rises on the longest day Itheheelstone(seediagram,left). CO
and Mhi^ it sets. The yellow line
depicts the point at which the Son
I
On the longest SOLAR CYCLES
day the Sun rises rises on the shortest day^sict agpn o
along the line of where it sets. The arrows the Around athousand years later,
the heel stone path of the Sun. [more stones were added to the -<
Icircle, indicating other significant
[alignments when viewed from the O
centre. Some of these related to the

motion of the Sun, but others were >

CO
apparently connected to the far
more complex movement cycle of 7 0
the Moon, which orbits the Earth
o
once amonth, but only returns to
the same precise location relative to
o
Sun and Earth once every 19 years.
IIn order to measure this pattern
Iof movements, the builders of ■<

IStonehengewouldhaveneededto 0
Icarryoutdetailedmeasurementsof CO

ItheMoon’srisingandsettingpoints C

Iover several decades.

O
e
CHANGING TIMES
H
Around 2000bc, the huge CO
k- j
“sarsen stones”, Stonehenge’s
most impressive feature, were
put into place, forming ahorseshoe
of five enormous “trilithons” (each
consisting of two uprights with a
lintel stone laid across the top).

®BREA
SK
T
TH
RO
O NU
EG
HH
ES
NGE: T H E L AT E S T T H E O R I E S

hile most people today think that
Stonehenge was some form of
ritual observatory where astronomer-
priests watched the movements of
sophisticated maths to predict eclipses,
there are plenty of other theories. One of
our planet passed through one of these
s t r e a m s a r o u n d m i d s u m m e r, a n d s o
perhaps this is why the astronomers
were so interested in this time of year.
Less controversial -but equally
surprising -is the idea that we have
been looking at Stonehenge the “wrong

oon,
Sun
rhaps
nd
used
!the
the most fascinating suggests that, while way around”. According to this theory,
X
t h e s t o n e s a r e i n d e e d a c a l e n d a r, t h e i r Stonehenge was designed as aseries of
main use was as an “early warning” “windows” for observing Sun and moon-
system for meteorite impacts. However, sets as seen from the heel stone. Looking
this theory relies on the controversial idea from the heel stone to the centre of the

that certain meteor streams (trails of
debris orbiting the Sun in the wake of
comets) contain large chunks of rock
I
and ice capable of presenting athreat
to Earth. Around the time many of the
megalithic monuments were constructed,
henge creates an alignment with the
midwinter sunset -precisely opposite the
midsummer sunrise. Other monuments
certainly seem more focused on midwinter meteor threat If meteorite strikes
than midsummer -perhaps Stonehenge punctuated the Bronze Age, did
is the same? Stonehenge predict their coming?

. t
 surrounded by aring of shorter indicating when to plant and
sarsens with acontinuous circle harvest crops, but this idea does
of lintels above them. Changes not really stand up because the
continued right up until about precise astronomical seasons do
IOOObc, and it seems likely not consistently match up with
that the monument was used in patterns in the weather. More
many different ways throughout likely, the monuments recorded
its lifetime. an administrative calendar used

Although Stonehenge is the for timing rituals and festivals.

most famous of the megalithic Burial chambers such as the one
monuments, there are countless at Newgrange in Ireland (see box)
others scattered across northern certainly seem to back up this idea.
Europe. Megalith-building lasted
from around 3500bc to IOOObc, NEW DISCOVERY
and seems to have reached a Half way around the world from m
peak around 2000bc -coinciding Stonehenge stands an even more I f

roughly with the archaeological impressive monument from a

Bronze Age and the beginnings different civilisation, which
of settled agriculture. archaeologists have only recently
recognised as another solar
H E AV E N LY R E M I N D E R S observatory. The enigmatic Thirteen
One explanation for Europe’s “solar Towers, at Chankillo in the Peruvian
temples" is that they were calendars desert, run like aspine along a

HOW IT WORKS

NEWGRANGE
ewgrange is a5000-year-old stone burial chamber in County
N Meath, Ireland. Built around the same time as the first stage of
Stonehenge, it is ahuge mound of earth hemmed in by 97 enormous
stone slabs. Some 18 m(60 ft) inside the mound, and accessed
through along, straight passage, lies across-shaped burial chamber.
This passage is precisely designed so that abeam of light from the
rising Sun enters and illuminates the interior chamber on just afew
days of the year, around the midwinter solstice -it is one of many
megalithic monuments focused on the events of midwinter, where the
days stop shortening and start to get longer again -in general this
seems to have been far more significant to the monument builders
than midsummer.

WINTER SOLSTICE Light from

the sunrise illuminates the passage
f o r s e v e n t e e n m i n u t e s o v e r a fi v e -

day period in December.

%

ridge raised at the centre of aruined
complex dating from around 300bc.
Archaeologists had recognised
the site as the remains of an
ancient pre-Columbian civilisation,
but it was only in 2007 that
researchers spotted the significance
of two small structures to the east
and west of the ridge. From these
two locations, the row of towers
marks out the entire range of
rising or setting points for the Sun
throughout the year, from its most
northerly (at midwinter there in the
southern hemisphere), to its most
southerly at midsummer.
An observer standing at the
westerly observing point sees the
Sun rising in the east over the
evenly-spaced towers, while one
standing in the east sees it setting
in the west. The tower over which
the Sun rose or set would fix the
H
time of year to within two weeks. m
CO
R I T U A L A N D R A I N FA L L
It seems clear that Chankillo was,
O
at least in part, asolar calendar, but 7 0
once again its builders left no clues -<
to its deeper purpose. It seems
likely that it too had amix of ritual
O
and practical use -rainfall in the
Peruvian coastal regions is highly >
CO
seasonal and more predictable than I
the northern European weather. TO
Stonehenge, Newgrange and o
Chankillo are just three of the
most impressive examples of
O
prehistoric solar observatories
found around the world. Clearly
-<
the Sun was even more important
to our ancestors than it is today.
and ancient peoples treated it with
0
CO
the respect it deserved. CZ
Z

o
e
G L O S S A R Y
FORTIFIED TEMPLE
H
Megalith: Literally The archaeological site at CO
alarge t o n e Chankillo also contains the
(“mega’’-“lith”): remains of afortified temple.
often one used in

ancient building.
SIX-MONTH CALENDAR

The towers on the ridge

(below) mark out the entire
solar arc over ayear. The Sun
takes six months to travel to

the top of the line of towers.

. ^

O'"

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CASSIOPEIA the VAIN QUEEN
Shaped like acapital letter Wor M, assiopeia’s concertina-shape consists of five main

the constellation of Cassiopeia is one

of the most easily recognizable star
c stars, all easily visible to the unaided eye. The
constellation lies in arich part of the Milky Way,
and contains several star clusters visible with small

patterns in the northern sky. telescopes or binoculars.

Cassiopeia’s clusters
■S i : . ■■ M52 is alarge star cluster that can be seen through
S

binoculars as aghostly cloud, although atelescope of three

*
inches aperture or larger will be needed to pick out its
4 individual stars. An even better cluster for binoculars is

NGC 663, between Delta (d) and Epsilon (e)

Cassiopeiae, containing about 80 members spread
over an area of similar size to the full Moon. NGC

457, imaginatively dubbed the ET cluster or the

:
Owl cluster, is another grouping visible with
-binoculars, containing the 5th-magnitude white
supergiant Phi () Cassiopeiae. Given that
it is about 10,000 light-years away. Phi ()
Cassiopeiae must be astoundingly luminous to
be so easily seen from Earth. Close to Delta (d)
Cassiopeiae is M103, asmall, elongated cluster
pictured below.

A C O L O U R F U L PA I R
Near the constellation’s centre, the binary
star “apair of stars in atwinned system -
CASSIOPEIA The strongest Eta () Cassiopeiae can be divided by small telescopes.
radio source in the s k y t h i s
The components, of magnitudes 3.5 and 7.5, are yellow
is the remains of astar that
and orange in colour, forming an attractive pair. They take
exploded as asupernova
around 1660, splashing just under 500 years to orbit each other.
super-hot gas across space.

M103 This
cluster contains
WUNBRIDLE about 25 stars,
one of them an
#
he vain Queen Cassiopeia, wife of orange giant
a

1
T King Cepheus of Ethiopia, dared to star near its

claim that she was more beautiful than centre. The

\ * !
cluster is small
X the sea nymphs. As punishment for
r % and is best «
Cassiopeia’s vanity, Poseidon the sea god
seen through
M —^ sent amonster to ravage the coast of % ! !

> f \ atelescope. 4
King Cepheus’s country. Cepheus and
‘A _Cassiopeia were forced to chain their ! !

daughter Andromeda to arock as a

s a c r i fi c e t o t h e m o n s t e r, b u t t h e
hero Perseus fought and killed the
nr monster to save her. In the sky
■m
7 M ICassiopeia is depicted sitting on
i/ her throne, fussing with her hair.

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10,000 light-years distant,
the open star cluster NGC 457
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contains nearly 100 stars.

4
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NGC 663
1C 59 NGC 7635
♦
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M103’ * PCaph
NGC 457
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a Shedir JO
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LACERTA
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!(m)CASSIOPEIA
' L ying on the opposite side of the north pole star from
the Plough or Big Dipper, Cassiopeia circles the pole
!without ever setting as seen from latitudes north of about
40 degrees. It is almost overhead for mid-northern
observers on evenings in late autumn and early winter.

ABBREViATIOIVl CaS

BEST SEASON

f Winter (mid evening)

I
BRIGHTEST S TA R S
%
1 Shedir ()2.2
Gamma (g) 2.2
BUB^E NEBULA (NdC 76^ The stellar ! SIZE RANKING 25/88
wind of atomic particles frorn asuper^hot POSITION Polar (N)
star* blows abubble in the surrounding gas. ,
NGC 7635 is difficult to see visually even
with large t^escopes but photographs well. L O C AT I O N MAP
 !X
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AMS

there was an unknown object orbiting 2.8 times
further out from the Sun than the Earth.
In 1781, amusic teacher and amateur
astronomer named William Herschel discovered a
new planet beyond Saturn. Using his homemade
observatory in the back of his house at 19 New
King Street, Bath, Herschel scanned the skies
looking for aplanet orbiting at the distance
predicted by the Titius-Bode law. On 13 March,
Herschel made the first sighting of Uranus -the
first planet not known to ancient astronomers. It
was travelling in an orbit 19.2 times the size of
HOW IT WORKS
^THE TiTIUS-BODE LAW
1. You need to generate aseries of
numbers. Start with zero. Add three
to get the second digit in the series, and
then double each number to get the next.
This gives you aseries that looks like
r /! =0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48...
2. Add four to each number in the series,
to give n=4, 7, 10, 16, 28, 52...
3. These numbers are surprisingly (and
significantly) close to the orbital radii of
all the known planets -Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn -at the time.
▶
,of light moving through the constellation of Taurus.
$
CERES The last planet
discovered (above) that
supported the Titius-
B o d e l a w.
F R I E N D LY R I VA L R Y A
French cartoon depicting
Le Verrier searching for
Neptune, while Couch
Adams spies on his
astronomical jottings!
D I S TA N T P L A N E T S
T h e Ti t i u s - B o d e l a w i s
back in vogue for far-
flung planets outside
our solar system.
Earth’s orbit, not far from the predicted
Titius-Bode value of 19.6.
m
This discovery led astronomers to scan the
X
heavens for the missing planet at 2.8 times the HD
Earth’s distance. The astronomer to the Duke of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in Germany, Baron Franz von >
Zach, put a“search party’’ together. Sure enough,
Giuseppe Piazzi of Palermo, Sicily found aspeck
u
This was the first minor planet ever spotted, the
dwarf Ceres in the asteroid belt. Again, it was bang
on the orbit predicted by the Titius-Bode law.
0
STICKY END
Alas, the early success of the Titius-Bode law was
not destined to last. The spectacular accuracy of its
first two predictions prompted arush to find new
planets, but the next planet that was found ruined
the party for the two Johanns. Two rival stargazers,
the Frenchman Urbain Le Verrier and the
Englishman John Couch Adams, went head to
head to be the first to locate anew planet beyond
Uranus’ orbit. But they only began to zero in on
this distant planet when they threw out the
guidelines generated by the Titius-Bode law.
When it was located in 1846, Neptune was
nearly athird of the distance closer to Earth than it
ought to have been. The final nail in the coffin was
the discovery of Pluto in 1931, whose orbit is a
mere half of the size predicted by the law. But the
antique law may be coming back in fashion.
Astronomers studying far-flung solar systems
orbiting other stars have started to
see familiar patterns revealing I ^
themselves. Is there life
yet in the numbers?
COMING 3

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GE/tR AXLES IB
1AND 2 TA P P I ifiEW,^., SCREW
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!Sunspots and solar quakes -

the turbulent life of the Sun

y’T MISS OUT! !Our star seen for the very first
t i m e i n 3 0 w i t h N A S A’ s S T E R E O
Place aregular order with !Locate Aquarius and the
your newsagent today beautiful Helix Nebula
 (N) An Eaglemoss Publication -AWeekly Publication. UK £5.99 ROI €9.99 Malta €8.99 Australia $14.95 New Zealand $16.99 South Africa R89.95

BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERYjl

The
A

s
The SUN'S
troubled §
TEENAGi
YEARS ^

■WITH THIS ISSUE: CORE COMPONENTS TO ADD TO THE CENTRAL COLUMN

 - »

BUILD AMODEL
I
SOLAR
SYSTEM \

FEATURES I M P O R TA N T
!The orrery is aprecision-engineered
kit. It must be assembled and handled
■
!Parts not to be sold separately.
!The publisher cannot replace any
« i

rith care to prevent damage to Its parts that are damaged or lost by the
parts, and stored or displayed safely to customer without charge.
YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL
30 Discover the secrets of the first analogue computer,
used to track the movements of the Sun and Moon.
parts are lost.
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the parts. F< b e s t e, use the
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SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE !When assembling parts, lay them on a !All tools mi St be used with care,

0 Follow the lifecycle of astar as the Sun evolves

Into the most powerful force in our solar system.
flat table and keep screws and all small
i t e m s natray so they can't roll away

and get lost. Unpack all parts carefully.

!The publisher reserves the right to
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following any safety guidelines p
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!The publisher cannot be responsible
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MISSIONS
1^ The STEREO twin space observatories see in double
to give us the first 3D close-up views of the Sun.

IMAGE GALLERY
Images that show the awesome power of the Sun,
capturing solar flares and the true energy within.

THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

16
Hidden artefacts and ancient monuments stand
testament to early man's fascination with the stars.

S TA R M A P
2^ Located on the celestial equator, the constellation
Aquarius contains two superb planetary nebulae.
S PA C E S C I E N C E
^ 2-5
Where does the Sun get its energy from and how
long before it r u n s out of gas?
CREDITS w
IMAGES: FC NSO/AURA/NSF:
2(background) NASA/ESA/Hubble;
Courtesy
of
theAntikythera
Mechanism Research Project; 5(tr)
Malcolm SKirk; 6-7(bl) Royal Swedish
A c a d e iy of Sciences/Institute for
Solar Physics, (tc) NASA/ESA/SOHO,
(be) NAS/ATRACE, (br) NOAO/
AUR/VNSF; 8-9(tl) Pikaia Imaging,
(cl) Science Photo Library, (be)
Eaglemoss/Julian Fletcher, (tr) Yohkoh
Solar Observatory/ISAS/Lockheed
Martin Solar &Astrophysics Lab/
National Astronomical Observatory
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Bridgeman Art Library; 10-11 NAS/V Montague, (be) Rex Features.
JHUAPL7NRL; 12-13(d) NAS/V
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ES/VHubble, (cl) NOAO/AUR/V
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M O D E L D E S I G N E D A N D O R I G I N AT E D B Y: L O U I S C A L M E L S
C O N S U LTA N T E D I T O R : G I L E S S PA R R O W
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5
 <

% The ANTIKY o
-po
CO
o

CHAN ISM
0

This extraordinary discovery
gives anew insight into how
technologically advanced our
ancestors were and also how
they viewed the heavens.
P 3
CO
-<
CO
ntil its discovery back in 1900 the
m
Antikythera Mechanism, as it is now
known, lay in asunken Greek ship in the
Mediterranean for about 2000 years. Sponge divers
Stumbled across the wreck after seeking shelter
O
from astorm around the rocky islet of Antikythera.
Unbelievably the significance of the device almost U
m
went unnoticed and it wasn’t until the wood

surrounding the mechanism dried out and cracked

!'t .n

"f Aw .
!

1 1
that museum staff became aware of the fact that
0
they had something rather special on their hands.
>
S - A

H
7n

X
m

>
S C R A P M E TA L
Apiece of
rusted engine -
o
or possibly one
of the most
>
important
archaeological C O
discoveries

of the early
twentieth century?
(Pictures courtesy of the
Antikythera Mechanism
Research Project.)
 The dials, positioned on the front and rear of the i
box, gave clear indications that the device would r

have been used for astronomical purposes. The

front dial is marked with the Egyptian calendar (12
months, 365 days) and has amoveable inner ring
marked with symbols of the Greek zodiac, enabling
the user to re-calibrate during leap years.
I
AHEAD OF ITS TIME

It is generally accepted that this dial would have

had three hands, one to show the date and the
other two showing the positions of the Sun and
the Moon. Also visible was amechanism believed
to show the phases of the Moon. The dial displays
aparapegma (or almanac) indicating the rising and
setting of specific stars; these stars are inscribed
elsewhere on the Antikythera Mechanism, suggesting
the user would have cross referenced what he
discovered. All this is remarkable, but when you
consider that two further dials were located on the
reverse of the mechanism, you begin to get some
understanding of just how technologically i

advanced the Antikythera Mechanism Is. I

Since then scientists have offered numerous A C C U R AT E M E A S U R I N G POWER WITHIN I

The front and rear of the The dials on the reverse of the mechanism sit
theories about the purpose of the Antikythera
mechanism were used to
Mechanism. But it wasn't until the 1970s that
track the heavens. neatly one above the other. The upper dial is made
X-rays revealed what was really going on under the up of aspiral, each turn divided into 47. In total
G L O S S A R Y
surface dials on the box. Highly detailed sets of there are 235 divisions on this dial, marking the
Metonic: After 19 years,
interlocking gears were clearly visible on the X-ray. the phases of the Moon months of a19-year Metonic cycle. Positioned in
Cut by hand from asingle sheet of bronze, the appear on the same days in the centre of this is asmaller dial showing the later
the year in this lunar cycle.
gears have between 15 and 223 triangular teeth. and longer 76-year Callipic cycle. Both the

uch like the calibration ring on f

M your orrery, the outer dial on the

Antikythera Mechanism was moveable
and had aspecific purpose. Scientists
were just able to make out the markings I
on the outer moveable dial -it had

been carefully divided into degrees and

showed the months of the year.

MAKING UP FOR LOST TIME

The Ancient Egyptian calendar had

no leap years, meaning that every
year the calendar fell into error by
\
one quarter of aday. The slip ring
allowed the user to move the months
NEW Allows you the OLD Showing the inner
Freedom to set your and therefore compensate for the mechanism along with
orrery to specific dates. loss of time. the moveable outer dial.

i
G L O S S A R Y S PA C E S TA R S ^ (1922-1983)-*
!
-<
Callipic: 76-year cycle.
the equi\ lent of four DEREK DE SOLLA PRICE , o
Metor cycles T i i n u s
day). In this cycle the new 7 0
ithout Derek de Solla Price the
m o o t

□n the
a p p e a r in the sky
sam ays. w Antikythera Mechanism may not have CO

Saros eclipse cycle:

received the attention it has. Along with O
nuclear physicist Charalampos Karakalos
Cycle of 6585 days
he undertook the first major analysis
of the incredible discovery using TO
X-rays and gamma rays.
CO
DISCOVERY
-<
CO
Although at the time their
work was largely ignored m
the two correctly identified
the Antikythera
Mechanism as being
an astronomical

c o m p u t e r. O
FACTS The data were
U
m
not all accurate but they
did put the Antikythera
r
Mechanism on the map.

0
Metonic and Callipic cycles are known to be X
m
used in the fixing of calendars. The lower dial,
>
again, is made up of aspiral divided into 223
divisions. This shows the Saros eclipse cycle.
7 ^
Again there is asmaller dial inside the Saros
dial showing a54-year Exeligmos cycle. X
The mechanism inside the box that powers m
73
all of these dials and hands is as impressive as
>
the outside. The technology present in this
amazingly advanced astronomical instrument m
has been compared to clocks from the fourteenth O
X
century. What is clear is that ancient Greek >
astronomers were obviously far more advanced
than we realised. CO

■c

ANCIENt GEAR
J
All the geclf^ have
teeth with a60°

angle so they can

interconnect.

a
 '"he Lrb ,
of the bUr\
Struggling through its violent, tempestuous and troubled
early years, our local star eventually settled into acalmer
period. Discover our Sun as it comes of age...

hen the Sun’s core ignited in ablaze loses 2000 tonnes of mass. The Sun’s internal S

W of glory around 5billion years ago,

the young star we met in issue 2
finally stopped collapsing under its own weight.
The outward pressure of radiation from the intense
nuclear fusion reactions at its core began to fight
back. Eventually, adelicate balance between the
forces was reached. Then, as the Sun got to work
on converting its huge reserves of hydrogen into
helium, it finally joined the vast majority of stars in
the so-called “main sequence”.
But just because the Sun has settled down into a
routine way of life, doesn’t mean that it is any less
ferocious. It is still in its adolescence. Each second
it generates 200 trillion trillion watts of energy and
structure reflects this need to move energy away®
from the core and expel it into space. This is not as
simpleasitsounds.InordertoleavetheSun,the^
energy is carried in different forms, and the journey
from core to visible surface, through roughly
700,000 km of the solar interior, can take many
tens of thousands of years.
THE HEART OF THE MATTER
The Sun’s interior has three distinct layers. At the
centre is the core -the region where hydrogen is
converted into helium in nuclear fusion reactions j
Super-compressed, the core is dense and very hot
with temperatures in excess of 15 million °C.

S O L A R HOW IT WORKS
P R O M I N E N C E RAOIATIVE

Z O N E
^INSIDE THE SUN
CONVECTIVE

/ Z O N E he Sun is divided up into different

/
T layers determined by how energy
is transported within them. The
SUNSPOTS
core produces fearsomely energetic
gamma rays. Once inside the
radiative zone, gamma rays travel
0 on arandom zig-zag path, being
absorbed and re-absorbed, slowly
^ '
I losing energy over many thousands
1^
of years.
The convective zone features

large roiling masses of gases,

transporting heat to the surface -
the photosphere. This is where
the Sun finally becomes visible
^^jIKore
to our eyes. Beyond this, the
Sun’s diffuse corona stretches

C O R O N A V for millions of kilometres, blending

P H O TO S P H E R E
into the solar wind.

PHOTOSPHERE The
visible surface of the
S u n i n f a l s e - c o l o u r,
shot at three different
wavelengths. Sunspots
* and solar prominences
can be seen easily.
CO
Energy from the fusion reactions is produced in the
form of packets of electromagnetic radiation called O
photons. These are the very same photons that >
make up visible light, but they have many times 7 3
more energy. The high energy of the photons gives LD
them amuch shorter wavelength than visible light
and they are pumped out of the core as invisible CO

gamma rays, the most energetic form of radiation m

in the universe. The gamma rays are immediately
absorbed by the densely packed solar material and
M then re-emitted instants later. This keeps the core O
superheated, even as the gamma rays lose energy. d

: OUTER LIMITS
a
m
■k NOveraverylongperiodthephotonsgraduallypush
p
I
their way out of the Sun’s core and enter alayer
knownasthe"radiativezone".Thisregionisnot
0
4

ii ASTAR IS APHOENIX J

DESTINED TO RISE FOR ATIME

FROM ITS OWN ASHES!
O
■ Carl Sagan

X
#■* hot and dense enough for fusion reactions to occur
and, as photons pass (or “radiate”) through it, their CO

energy drops. Slowly they transform into less

powerful X-rays and ultraviolet radiation. While the
core’s diameter is roughly one fifth of that of the
entire Sun, the radiative zone stretches two thirds
of the way to the surface.
At the top of the radiative zone, the falling
density and temperature of the Sun’s material
mean that radiation is no longer the most efficient
way to carry energy outwards. Huge masses of
hydrogen now absorb the energy but do not

SOLAR PROMINENCE

Massive eruptions of
super-hot gas, exposed in m m
r this X-ray photo.
Illions of kilometres boundaries between layers
M separate us but inside the Sun. By
astronomers can still measuring movement
learn agreat deal about in the Sun’s surface,
the Sun by “listening” “helioseismologists”
to it. Our local star Is h a v e c o n fi r m e d t h a t

constantly shaken by I our ideas about the

disturbances that Sun’s interior are

ripple out from its largely correct.

.5^ core and across its
■4T -
surface. Similar to
SHAKING SUN Listen to what
sound waves, they are the Sun "sounds" like at http://soi.
d e fl e c t e d o f f c o u r s e a t t h e stanford.edu/results/sounds.html.
 J
; - A
W :
.■■ ->'l%f^
'. --'V?

■:;«
.■ .^>■

:i^-

re-emit it. This material heats up and rises

/ ■■

Li? towards the less dense upper regions of the Sun.

TW^ Meanwhile, cooler material from above sinks
downwards setting up large circulating convection
cells that transport energy out of the Sun. This
region is called the “convective zone”.

THE VISIBLE SUN

At the top of the convective zone, the gas becomes

sparse and cool enough to be transparent to the
photons once more. Their lower energy means
they burst from the gas in the form of ultraviolet,
visible light, and infrared (heat) radiation.
This is the “photosphere”, the visible surface
SUN CHANGES of the Sun. To the naked eye, it is adazzling,
ITS SPOTS The featureless disc, but dense filters can block out
grainy solar most of the radiation and reveal ahuge variety
s u r f a c e a n d large
of features on and above the surface.

!sunspot
captured
by the Swedish
Solar Telescope.
Most prominent are the sunspots -large dark
“holes” in the photosphere, often many times the
size of the Earth. In reality, these are regions of
S PA C E S TA R S
the photosphere that are less dense and therefore
yJOSEPH VON FRAUNHOFER (1787-1826) cooler -they appear dark only because, with a
temperature of about 3800 °C, they are some
2000 °C cooler than their surroundings. They come
T he Sun’s upper atmosphere contains many
elements. The key to identifying these is the in pairs, but often congregate in larger groups too.
i i spectroscope, invented by German optician Joseph Bright lines of hot, dense material, often associated
von Fraunhofer in 1814. The device split the Sun’s
with sunspots, are called “faculae”.
light into aspectrum, allowing him to identify
several hundred tightly defined “absorption lines”.
In 1859, German chemists Gustav Kirchoff and GAS EXPLOSIONS
Robert Bunsen spotted the similarity between the Along the edge or rim of the Sun rise
Sun’s dark “Fraunhofer lines” and the bright e m i s s i o n prominences”, loops of cool, red gas. Dark
SUN STAR By
lines” produced when they burnt certain chemicals.
the end of his life wriggly lines across the face of the Sun, known
Fraunhofer had been They guessed that the same elements were
causing the lines in the Sun, and identified them as filaments, show where the cooler gas of
made an honorary a s

citizen of Munich.
hydrogen, oxygen and sodium in its atmosphere prominences is silhouetted against the brighter
background. At times, the Sun can also belch out

INSIDE INFO

HOW DO SUNSPOTS FORM?

T he Sun generates the most powerful magnetic

field in the solar system through its shifting
masses of electrically charged particles. However,
as the Sun is made entirely of gases, different
parts move at different rates. Over time, this
causes the magnetic field to get tangled and it
forces its way up through the surface of the Sun
in loops. p -

Where aloop pushes through the photosphere.

it forms asunspot pair -amagnetic north and
south pole. Gas flowing along the field lines
causes prominences, and occasionally, when the THE SUN'S pristine magnetic
field “short circuits”, it releases huge amounts of 1field
runs
smooth
in loops
energy as asolar flare or coronal mass ejection from magnetic north to south. days), carrying the field with it.
 CO
huge billowing clouds of super-hot gas called solar
flares and “coronal mass ejections”. These rush o
across the solar system at very high speeds, and >
when they reach Earth they rain particles into our TO
planet’s magnetic field, interfering with satellites C O
and radio signals, and producing spectacular
displays of northern and southern lights. CO

m
FLAME THROWING

Seen through the right filter, the entire surface

of the photosphere dissolves into aseething mass O
H
of “granules”, each with adark edge and abright
centre. These are the tops of convection cells in
o
the region below -the bright patches mark fresh,
hot material rising up from the interior, while the
dark edges show cooler material that has already
released its radiation, and is sinking back down. increase in number (see below). Finally, as the SUN CYCLE 0
The most detailed views of all show amass of spots converge on the equator, they start to cancel Images taken at 120
■vertical tendrils of material
day increments showing
flame-like "spicules’ each other out, dwindling away and taking the changes in the Sun's
some 10,000 km Ion rising out of the photosphere. Sun’s magnetic field with them. After awhile, the corona during the
magnetic field regenerates and the cycle repeats waning part of its cycle,
(Pictui lurtesy of the Yohkoh
SOLAR CYCLE again -the Sun’s magnetic poles are now reversed iion of ISAS, Japan.) o
The paths taken by prominences, the upright compared to the previous cycle -so the r e a
appearance of spicules, even the ragged edges solar cycle actually lasts 22 years, rather than 11.
of sunspots, all give the impression that the Sun Variations of the cycle don’t just affect sunspot
is “hairy” -they are similar to the paths taken numbers -they drive awhole range of solar activity, C O

by iron filings around apowerful magnet. This
is no coincidence -shifting masses of electrically
charged particles inside the Sun produce the
most powerful magnetic field in the solar system.
During a“solar cycle” of about 11 years, the
magnetic field starts out in arelatively smooth,
ordered state, with just afew sunspots occurring
at high latitudes. As the field becomes more and
more tangled and complex over the course of several
years, sunspots form closer to the equator and
including solar flares and perhaps the Sun’s overall
energy output.
N E X T: D E AT H THROES - W H AT
WILL HAPPEN WHEN THE SUN DIES?
he link between the solar cycle and Earth’s climate is still
T controversial, and has become afocus for people who deny that
global warming is entirely man-made. The truth is that we know far too
little about the solar cycle to understand whether it might be causing
an increase in the Sun’s energy output at this point in history. However
there is some evidence that the cycle can affect the climate on Earth.
In aperiod called the Maunder minimum, from 1645 to 1715, sunspot
numbers were unusually low. This coincided with a"Little Ice Age
on Earth, during which the climate cooled noticeably, allowing the
celebration of regular “frost fairs” on London’s frozen River Thames

THE BIG FREEZE

Inhabitants of London

have fun "messing

about on the river"
at a f a i r

2LOOPS
push outtangled
ofof the field
eventually
Sun, producing
sunspots and other activity.
 T W N
OBSERVATORIES
Launched on the evening of 25 October 2006,
after alengthy delay, the STEREO twin solar
observatories set off on ahistoric journey.

ASA'S STEREO (Solar of this is to help us to develop

Terrestrial Relations agreater understanding of the
Observatory) mission movement of energy from the Sun
has broken boundaries in many to Earth and to explore the way
ways. For the first time it’s now solar plasma and radiation interact
possible to view solar activity in with Earth and other planets in the
3D outside of Earth’s orbit. By solar system.
setting the observatories on a Even before the first 3D image
heliocentric orbit, one ahead of had been viewed the observatories

Earth and one behind, NASA were forging ahead, breaking all \

successfully placed two “eyes” used the gravitational pull of the

in space. Images taken by each Moon as aslingshot, firing each
individual observatory are !l! observatory into exactly the right
returned to Earth as data in real¬ solar orbit, albeit at different times.
W
time and then combined to create
Dr. Michael Kaiser, STEREO project scientist
asingle 3D picture. The purpose
the rules of space flight. Although One of the main mission objectives
S TA C K E D NASA had used the gravitational of STEREO is to study Coronal Mass
The twin pull of aplanet to position Ejections (CMEs). These are the
observatories
spacecraft in the past, they had most powerful explosions in the
are carefully
secured inside
never tried to use gravity to affect solar system, packing the power
the fairings j the trajectory of more than one of abillion-megaton nuclear bomb,
of the Delta spacecraft. STEREO set anew Clearly visible from Earth, the effects
II rocket Just can be felt as soon as 20 minutes
precedent and NASA successfully
before launch.
 FIRST VIEW

The very first

3D image of the
Sun released

by NASA on
December 4,
2006.

C O

ability to establish their own

orientation, position and orbit and
adjust these accordingly. Having O
spacecraft that can carry out these CD
C O
functions alone reduces the cost m
could cost as much as $70 billion 7 3
of the mission. Aby-product of <
in lost satellites and services. this “intelligent” design is that >

the remaining instruments can be o

73
controlled from separate locations,
m
Each observatory carries 16 again reducing the cost. C O

later as the mass of solar material T instruments, developed in many

batters Earth's magnetic field like a O
R
E
T
S different countries. The large
freight
train.
Withspeeds
between
their^s^ofar
Uriels
number
and
variety
instruments
of In the next few years NASA is
700,000 and 10 million km/h and fully deployed, on board created adesign challenge planning to return to the Moon
the economic impact of acategory for NASA: ensuring that one with people and robots. The effect
5hurricane, understanding these instrument did not obstruct of solar explosions on both astronauts
“space storms” is of vital another was essential. After launch and machinery like the International
importance. Not all CMEs impact and deployment, each observatory Space Station could be devastating.
with Earth and not all of those that I is about the size of abus. But with STEREOs help, any
do have devastating effects; some The largely autonomous settlement in space or here on Earth
cause minor disturbances with spacecraft are designed with the should be safe from space weather!
mobile communications or TV and The huge
disc used for
radio signals. However one model transmitting data
estimates that a“super storm” back to Earth-
 The ANGRY SUN
As the Sun matures, activity on the surface
begins to peak, giving off more light and
energy. Technological advances mean it's now
e a s i e r t h a n e v e r t o v i e w o u r c l o s e s t s t a r.

he Sun, now in the middle of its lifecycle, is getting hotter and hotter.
Temperatures are believed to be increasing by about 10 per cent every
10 billion years. Nuclear fusion at the core keeps temperatures at a
searing 15 million °C -the surface by comparison is ablistering 6000 °C.
Although it takes along time for the energy to make its journey from core to
Surface and eventually into space, when it does the results are truly explosive!
0

■>

[1] SOLAR FLARES

Large explosions of
plasma, known as solar
flares, blast from the Sun's
s u r f a c e . S m a l l e r fl a r e s

loop back due to the

effect of the Sun's gravity.

[2] DARK SPOT Sunspots

are caused by loops in
the Sun's magnetic field
that lower the intensity
of heat escaping from
the photosphere. The
lower temperatures give
them their distinctive
dark appearance.

A
 [31

CD
m

O
■ >

[3] AURORA BOREALIS [4] ASUPER POWER [5] FIRE FROM THE SUN
The Northern Lights The Atlantis space This image of acoronal
are caused by charged shuttle and the mass ejection was
particles hitting Earth's International Space captured by the SOHO
upper atmosphere where Station visible against observatory using a
they react with oxygen the impressive backdrop coronagraph. The image
and nitrogen atoms of the Sun, less than an shows the plasma trails
hour after Atlantis had that cross the vast ocean
releasing magical violet,
red and green colours. undocked from the ISS. of space to Earth.

<P
\
[6] TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE As the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun solar eclipses occur. This digitally-enhanced composite
[of 22 images), created in August 1999, clearly shows the Sun's thin plasma layer, the corona (not normally visible but shown in white here).
 >
G)

O
>

- <

At astaggering 2million C, temperatures a r e higher in the corona than the photosphere -the Sun ssurface -because of heating from
the Sun's magnetic field. Radiation spreads this phenomenal heat across the solar system.

_OST SECRETS of the
ANCIEN
ASTRONOMERS
O
ur prehistoric ancestors
were fascinated by the
movements of the Sun,
Moon, stars and planets -but since
they kept no written records, the
only evidence we can hope to find
are the monuments and artefacts
they made from durable materials.
It took along time for archaeologists
to notice that many impressive
monuments were built around
astronomical alignments -and
they are still discovering new levels
of sophistication in the knowledge
of ancient astronomers.
The stone “megaliths” of
northern Europe are usually
accepted as the first astronomical
monuments. They were built
)
I
roughly between 3500-1000bc,
though many were on the site of
earlier earth works or, perhaps,
temporary wooden structures.
MOON MONUMENTS
Many of these monuments line up
with the rising and setting points
of the Sun at certain times of
year, but some show adetailed
knowledge of the Moon’s complex
19-year cycle of “standstills”. One
of the most striking examples is
at Callanish on the Isle of Lewis
in Scotland. Here, the stone rows
were designed so that the Moon
I
Mankind has been
observing the movements
of the stars and other
objects in the sky since
before recorded history.
Unearthing this early
knowledge has revealed
astaggering level of
sophistication.
would just skim across their tops at
G L O S S A R Y
Lunar standstill: its major southern standstill -the
Aposition in the
sky whi r e t h e
lowest point it reaches in the sky.
Moon reaches the While we will never know the
most northerly or true beliefs of the people who
southerly extreme
of its motion. built the megaliths, the existence
of “lunar observatories” shows
that their level of interest went
beyond the directly practical. It
seems more likely that they were
MOON STONES
built for avariety of civil and ritual
The tallest stone
in the central purposes -for regulating a
circle at Callanish calendar and celebrating or
marks the
recording religious festivals.
entrance. Human
remains have
been found here. CALENDAR DISC
Aside from the monuments
 U-1 -
V.

a?

m
(S)

o
n

>
L O

»HOVENWEEP CASTLE
O
Built in Utah, by the Anasazi tribe.
these remains are believed to
house acalendar room.
O

PRESERVED If it represent stars, including the during years when the extra month
not for apolice distinctive Pleiades cluster, while was required.
culture of the megalith builders, operation, the
alarger crescent and disc may
0
Nebra Sky Disc
offering tantalising hints of their lost represent the Moon in different BIRTH OF ASTRONOMY o
might have
science. For example, patterns vanished into a phases. One theory is that the disc Within the lifetime of Europe’s C O
H
carved on to stone in aburial private collection. was used to regulate the calendar. megalithic culture, more C O
chamber at Knowth in Ireland are Twelve “lunar months” (complete sophisticated civilisations had m
O
thought to show the earliest map cycles of lunar phases) add up to sprung up around the '?D

of the Moon. Even more fascinating only 354 days, so in acalendar Mediterranean and farther east.
C O
is the Nebra Sky Disc, found by based on lunar months, it is The Egyptians and Babylonians
archaeological looters in Germany’s necessary to add an extra month were the first to leave written o
Saxony-Anhalt region in 1999. every three years or so in order to records of their astronomical
The disc dates to around 1700bc, keep in step with the solar year. beliefs, and paved the way for the X
m
and belonged to asophisticated Experts think the Sky Disc shows a rise of “real” astronomy in classical
>
Bronze-Age culture. Small dots on pattern that occurred in the skies times (see later issues), but parallel
O
m

EGYPTIAN CALENDAR >

* c n
T 7 V
H
X )
emonial centre at Nabta
\ o
nsouthern Egypt
the ages of the Pharaohs o
»and years. It consists of
Fstone rows and burial m
X )
ipparently for sacred CO
3ngside astone circle
ined to significant points
’s annual cycle.

- . T: X

"-n ■■

!Mf.,
h-^
’’ ' m\n^
Tn '

(S)
NORMAN
LOCKYER
[1836-1920)
t - ’ -
V T-
■ ■ ■
c
PG^MATH Lockyer is credited
wifh discovering'^elrafn and setting 3 Iwidely regarded as the founder of anew science,
up the scientific jckirnai,. Nature.
to these developments, other
non-literate cultures continued
to practise their own brands
of astronomy.
A N C I E N T O B S E RVATO R I E S
Traces of solar observatories have
been found in many cultures around
the world. North American Indians
laid out “medicine wheels” that
often have asolar orientation. More
impressive is Hovenweep Castle, an
imposing monument built by the
Anasazi tribe on the Colorado/Utah
border around 1200ad. One of the
chambers in this defensive fortress
has windows that are designed to
allow sunlight to enter only at
specific times of year -the entire
room is thought to be acalendar
of some sort.
At around the same time, the
inhabitants of Easter Island in the
Pacific Ocean were erecting the
famous and enigmatic stone heads
or “Moai”. These too seem to have
an astronomical significance -one
cluster stands around the coast of
the island, gazing due west towards
the equinox sunset.
■ i fi . ■
■ f
■«r
u l t
ntiquaries of the 17th and 18th centuries,
A such as William Stukeley and John Aubrey
were the first people to study megalithic sites
seriously. They were largely responsible for the
mistaken belief that the monuments were built by
the Celtic druids who led resistance against the
expanding Roman empire. . f
D I G G I N G D E E P E R I N T O T H E PA S T
respected astronomer Norman
Lockyer, whose discoveries included the element
helium, made the first detailed study of
Stonehenge, revealing its astronomical alignments.
Lockyer’s work paved the way for others, but It : ^
^was not until the 1950s that Scottish engineer
^AlexanderThommadeadetailedsurveyof
monuments across Britain and beyond, revealing
If \ the vast number of astronomical alignments and " /
.;?C
j
Wthe sophistication of their construction. Thom Is
^known as archaeoastronomy.
PA I N T I N G O N T H E WA L L FOREVER including the Crab Supernova, an
Monuments that reveal ancient LOOKING
exploding star that blazed in the
TO THE
interest in other aspects of the sky HORIZON
sky around 1054ad.
are few in number, but are all the The great civilisations of
The impassive
more intriguing for their rarity. stone faces of Central and South America were
The Anasazi culture that built Easter Island's
also fascinated by avariety of
Moai statues.
Hovenweep had another events and phenomena -for
Are they looking
focus around Chaco Canyon to the equinox example, the Maya city of Uxmal
sunset?
in New Mexico -here, incorporates monuments that
alongside evidence for more track the rising points of Venus,
solar observatories, are paintings the brightest object in the sky
on the rock walls that are thought after the Sun and Moon.
to represent astronomical objects
G L O S S A R Y
Solstices and equinoxes: Solstic a r e
the turning points of the Sun’s yearly
progress north and south. Days get
shorter after the immer solstice and
longer after the w i n t e r □Istice. Midway
solstices are the equinoxes -when the
Sun is directly over the equator and day
id night are of equal length.
i
 ' ■■

before the Aztecs re-inhabited

X
it and gave it its present name, m
meaning "birthplace of the gods”.
CO
Its builders laid the buildings out 1
on agrid pattern around two great
perpendicular avenues, but while
O
7 3
most such cities align to the
I t

f south, east and west), at Teotihuacan
‘>4
H I D D E N C AV E LOOKING TO THE STARS
The Pyramid of
Many of the Mesoamerican
the Sun (above),
under which the peoples left written accounts of
their beliefs (outlined in later
Ihidden sacred
cave was found.
issues), but others have vanished
into the mists of history. The great
Mexican city of Teotihuacan was
built in the middle of the first
millennium ad, about 1000 years
<
"ordinal” compass points (north,
o
n
the entire grid is rotated by aprecise
15.5 degrees. This means that its >
CO
western avenue would have pointed
directly towards the setting point of 7D
the Pleiades star cluster at the time
O
of its construction. The Pleiades were
important to many central American
O
civilisations, and archaeologists
have discovered acave beneath the
enormous "Pyramid of the Sun” with
atunnel that leads in this direction.
It seems that the entire city was
O
then built around this sacred cave.
o
CO

F I R E I N H E AV E N
CO
Important celestial m
events, such as the o
7 3
Crab Supernova of 1 m
1054, did not escape
the attention of the CO
Anasazi Indians.
o
O l

I
m

>
Li-'t;
o
m

>
CO

m
7D
C O

0 -
A

1*^ ;
 ■ ■

3UARIUS
.^i
Tjhis constellation in
the’equatorial region of the
M. sky depicts ayoung man 4

pouring water from ajar \

The Sun passes through

ft Aquarius from late
AFebruary to early March.

i i -tit

he water jar carried by Aquarius is represented

by aY-shaped group of stars in the northern
part of the constellation, almost exactly on
the celestial equator. From the jar asprinkling of
stars flows southwards towards Piscis Austrinus
the southern fish.

D O U B L E S TA R
HELIX NEBULA Acolourful and
complex shell of gas surrounds a The star at the centre of the water jar asterism
central white dwarf in this composite Zeta (Q Aquarii, is an attractive binary, easily
of imaged from the Hubble Space
Telescope and ground-based separated by small telescopes. The component stars
observatories (above). Glowing orbit each other every 600 years or so and at present
oxygen gas shows up as blue while are gradually moving apart as seen from Earth.
hydrogen and nitrogen appear red.
DYING STARS
M2 This great globular cluster
contains over 100,000 stars and When stars like the Sun reach the end of their lives
measures about 150 light-years
they throw off their outer layers to form aso-called
across. Even though it is 38,000
light-years from us it can still be planetary nebula, and two of the finest examples i n

seen through binoculars. the sky lie in Aquarius. The Helix Nebula, NGC 7293,
is the nearest and hence the largest-appearing
planetary nebula in our skies. On clear, dark nights it
can be seen through binoculars in the constellation’s
m . southern reaches as apale, round patch. Its full glory
ythologists say that Aquarius represents Ganymede, I S apparent only on images taken through large

M a shepherd boy from Troy. Zeus, the greatest of the Greek

telescopes, when it appears like acolourful flower.
gods, became infatuated by Ganymede’s as shown here. On older photographs its shape
good looks and swept down in the form ^ resembled two overlapping loops of aspiral.
of an eagle to carry him up to
hence the name Helix Nebula.
Mount Olympus, where the
Greek gods lived. There, Another planetary nebula with an interesting shape
Ganymede became is NGC 7009, known as the Saturn Nebula because
awaiter to the gods. of its extensions that resemble the rings of Saturn
In the sky, he is
depicted pouring
STELLAR SWARMS
water from ajar -
or possibly the liquid M2 in northern Aquarius is arich globular cluster
is nectar, which was the easily visible ahazy patch in binoculars o r s m a
a s

£5 favourite drink of the gods. telescopes. Another globular, M72, is much smaller
a n d f a i n t e r.
 How the
SUN SHINES 1proton

Basking in the sunshine on ahot day, you'd be forgiven for 1 e l e c t r o n

thinking of the Sun as abenign provider of light and heat.

The violent reality couldn't be more different...
very single second for the past 5billion
years, the Sun has converted more than
4million tonnes of hydrogen gas into pure
energy. Despite this output, there is enough material
in the Sun for it to continue at this rate for at least
another 5billion years.
Everything happens
right in the very heart
of the Sun. Its core is
like an enormous reactor
that uses hydrogen gas
as its fuel, converting
it to the heavier element
helium in nuclear
fusion reactions.
FUSION POWER Earth- F U S I O N FA C TO R
bound fusion reactors
Fusion reactions are
generate super-hot
reactions between the
plasma to recreate the
conditions inside the Sun. subatomic particles that
HYDROGEN The
simplest element makes
up 74 per cent of the
Sun's mass. Protons can
reside in the nuclei of atoms. They don’t occur
be considered as free
readily and need extremely energetic conditions hydrogen nuclei.
(very high temperatures and pressures). These
are exactly the conditions found in the core of 2protons
2 n e u t r o n s
the Sun, where the crushing weight exerted by
the bulk of the Sun’s mass creates temperatures
of up to 15 million and pressures 250 billion
times the atmospheric pressure on Earth.
One bucket full of the material in the Sun’s
core is so dense, you wouldn’t stand achance
of lifting it.
Under such extreme conditions as these,
matter cannot exist in normal states (as solid,
HELIUM The next
liquid and gas). Instead it becomes “plasma”.
simplest element
This is astrange state of matter, which occurs makes up 25 per cent
when an atom’s electrons are stripped from the of the Sun's mass (the
central nucleus. Material in the Sun exists in a remaining mass is made
up of trace amounts
kind of “hot particle soup”, allowing subatomic
of heavier elements).
particles to get closer to each other than they
Helium builds up like
ash in the Sun's core.
ordinarily would, overcome their mutual repulsion

S PA C E S TA R S

HANS BETHE (1906-2005)

ans Bethe (pronounced prompted him to wonder about

H “bay-tuh”) was aGerman the mechanisms at work in the

theoretical physicist who fled Sun’s core. In 1967 he won the

Nazi Germany in 1933. After two
years in England, he moved to
Cornell University, USA, helping
it establish its reputation as a
centre for excellence in physics.
During World War II, Bethe
headed up the Theoretical Division
at the top secret Los Alamos
laboratory, working on
t h e fi r s t a t o m i c b o m b s .
Nobel Prize for his ground-breaking
theories on the mechanics of energy
production in stars.
m
Despite his work on weapons of
mass destruction, Bethe was an
% internationalist and apacifist. Along
with Albert Einstein, he lobbied for
both anuclear test treaty and
nuclear disarmament.
^

i
Later, he moved on to help AT O M I C K I T T E N H a n s B e t h e
develop fusion-powered was atireless campaigner for the
hydrogen bombs. This work h
1 peaceful uses of nuclear power.

2^
 KEY P L AY E R S :
CO
PROTON Apositive particle found NEUTRINO " 0
>
t h e cleus (centre) of atoms Asuper-fast
particle, hardly
NEUTRON Aneutral particle,
which acts as ‘glue’, keeping
weighs athing o
protons together in the nucleus G A M M A m
R AY O e a d l y,
POSITRON Apositively high-energy CO
radiation
charged electron
o
proton m
d e u t e r i u m
(hydrogen
nucleus)
(‘heavy hydrogen’)
t r i t i u m
+ t r i t i u m

K ^
m

1
D E U T E R I U M X
Z : ( ‘ H E AV Y T R I T I U M
IZlHELIUM^ o
HYDROGEN)

\ o
c n

X
m
TWO TRITIUM NUCLEI COLLIDE
^TWO
PROTONS
At COLLIDE
low temperatures and speeds, protons 2aprotonanddeuteriumcollide
The “strong nuclear force” -afundamental 3 The conditions in the Sun’s core are
CO
c
repel each other because of their mutual force of nature, more powerful than the force of ideal for these reactions. The core is 15
z
positive charge. But get hydrogen nuclei within electric repulsion -makes nuclei stick together. million °C and is so dense that even light
0 0
10-^s mm of each other and it’s totally different! This requires high temperatures and densities. takes 100 thousand years to escape!
X

m
!-0

G L O S S A R Y
State of matter;
Depending on the energy,
asubstance can exist in
three states -solid, liquid
and gas. Water can exist
as ice (low energy), water
(normal state) and steam
.(high energy). Plasma is a
Ifourth, super-excited state
INSIDE INFO
WHY DOESNT THE SUN BLOW UP?
he world’s most powerful
T weapons use the destructive
,power of nuclear fusion. In an H-bomb,
expanding gases blow the bomb
!casing apart in arapid and uncontrolled
Ireaction, which generates an explosive
force equivalent to about 25 million
tonnes of conventional explosive.
H o w e v e r, t h e S u n d o e s n ’ t b l o w i t s e l f
to pieces because the bulk of its
-due to the like charges repelling -and undergo output of 4X10^^ watts. It would take 2billion of
fusion reactions (see box above). the Earth’s most powerful nuclear power stations
working flat out for ayear, to match the energy the
FUSION POWER Sun produces in one second.
In the proton-proton fusion reaction, four protons The phenomenal power output of the Sun is
come together to make helium. The burst of simply the result of atiny discrepancy in the mass
energy released from each stage of the reaction is of the end products of the proton-proton reaction.
what makes the Sun shine with an average power The key is the fact that helium’s mass isn't quite
four times the mass of one proton (it’s 3.97 times
m
s ■ l i m to be precise). This missing minuscule amount of
m
mass -equal to just 0.75 per cent of the mass of
one proton -is converted into energy during
fusion via Einstein’s famous equation E=mc^.
G A M M A - R AY T R E AT M E N T
The Sun’s proton-proton fusion reaction produces
gamma rays -alethal form of nuclear radiation
and the major culprit of radiation sickness. In fact
EQUILIBRIUM
The Sun is able
the Sun produces enough gamma-ray radiation
to contain the to sterilise the entire solar system. So how did life
Furious energy survive this bombardment?
of its fusion "

outer layers act as acontainment r e a c t i o n s . The answer lies in the density of the Sun.
vessel. Gravitational forces, created Material in the core is so tightly packed that
by the enormous mass of the Sun, pull gamma rays collide constantly with particles. It can
material In towards Its centre, keeping take thousands of years for the rays to escape and,
the reaction controlled and contained.
by the time they do, they have lost much of their
devastating energy.
 ISSUE
i

^ildamodel itr f

SOLAR
m

SYSTEM
Aprecision-f
4 }

-engineered
ORREe r y

end of
SOLAR
k
t h e

SYSTEMi
m t hl e ■S}

SUN 9 0 #

out w/th %
abang?

lELF-
fCREWSs

MERCURY -IT
■V'

PLUS
PCOMPLETE
STAGE one with this
PLANETARM.^
ISSUE; P L A N E Tmercury
'
GRUB SCREWS parts

t M -

m
m !Witness the mighty fall of the
5(
S u n i n i t s fi n a l d e a t h t h r o e s .
I
S O
t-
!Follow the amazing story of
modern-day planet hunters.
m
m
PLANET
MERCURY !Do sunspots hold the answers
to the common cold? I

Eaglemoss Publications Ltd, 5Cromwell Road, London SW7 2HR

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m .

"he END of
the SOLARJ i-
m

SYSTE m

Will the m m

SUN go
m
m h :
m m
m

out with m w
m
m

aBANG? A
m
I

A-
m

■COMPLETE STAGE ONE WITH THIS ISSUE: PLANET MERCURY PARTS

 BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
FEATURES I M P O R TA N T ■■
/
/ l 11 I
!The orrery is aprecision-engineered !Parts not to be sold separately.
kit. It must be assembled and handled !The publisher cannot replace-any
with care to prevent damage to Its parts that are damaged or lost by the
YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL
3D Complete stage one in this magazine,
parts, and stored or displayed safely to
ensure no parts are lost.
!Never use liquids or solvents to clean
the parts. For best care, use the
customer without charge.
!The publisher cannot be responsible
for any damage that may occur as a
result of incorrect assembly or
and find instructions for using your engraved gear. polishing doth and dusting brushes mishandling of the orrery. Please ensure
supplied with the toolkit {free to you read all the instructions thoroughly
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE subscriptions customers). when assembling the parts.

0 Find out what will happen when the Sun

!When assembling parts, lay them on a
fiat table and keep screws and ail small
items on atray so they can't roll away
!Alt tools must be used with care,
following any safety guidelines provided
by the manufacturer.
dies and what it means for planet Earth. and get lost. Unpack ail parts carefully. !The publisher cannot be responsible
!The publisher reserves the right to for any injuries caused by any tools or
materials.
alter parts and their design at any time.
MISSIONS
10
^Scientists are constantly scanning the
skies in search of new, habitable planets.

IMAGE GALLERY
Startling images of the remains of sunlike
stars show the eventual fate of our solar system.

THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

16
Ancient Egyptians mapped out the heavens
and used this knowledge for practical purposes.

S TA R M A P
20’
Use the star map to locate the star clusters
and galaxies in the constellation of Pegasus
CREDITS
UNEXPLAINED
Does the solar cycle explain global flu pandemics, IMAGES: FC Hubble Heritage Team;
3Alamy/Don Vail, (I) Eaglemoss/
paranormal sightings and revolutions?
Julian Fletcher; 4-5{bl) Science Photo
CONSULTANT EDITOR: GILES SPARROW r Library/Pekka Parvialnen, (tc)
E N D O R S E D B Y : S I R PAT R I C K M O O R E C B E F R S Eaglemoss/Julian Fletcher, (tr)
E N C O U R A G E D B Y: T H E I N T E R N AT I O N A L A S T R O N O M I C A L U N I O N Hubble Heritage Team, (br)
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Science Photo LIbrary/Detlev van
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Science Photo Library/Physics Today
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(b) Pikaia Imaging; 10(tr) NASA/JPL, Features/Sipa Press, (cr) Corbis/
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©Eaglemoss Publications (2008). All rights reserved.

2
 -<

COMPLETE
o

STAG E1 >

CO

CO

With this issue, you can assemble the first m

stage of the solar system model. You are
'-now also ready to collect and construct
the mechanical stages of your orrery. o
a
m
ou have now collected enough components to build the first

Y stage of your solar systerh model. You can find the instructions
for constructing stage one in issue oYie of Build AModel Solar
System. With this stage complete, you have the core framework upon n
which to build the rest of the mechanism. o
* . The base plate, with its engraving, slip ring and feet, acts as a
hi-:. T 3
temporary base; the gear sets that will make up the working parts of the
solar systern mechanism fix on, and rotate around, the central column;
and the drive shaft, with the Sun*and 55-tooth driving gear will eventually ’
CD
*drive the planets around the model, when connected to the motor unit.
Planet Mercury fixes onto the driving gear and is already in place at stage >

one, as is the first of the planetary gear sets.

T - .

i; .

S 1 A O E O N E T h e fi r s t
stage in the construction
of the solar system
.model is its framework.
 RNS in
Set your orrery to one of the most famous astronomical
events in the history of man, and amystery to boot!

our engraved gear, which arrives with STAR OF BETHLEHEM

Y issue seven, is etched with three of the

most important astronomical events in
history. It is also engraved with 360° markings, so
that you can set your orrery to any past or future
planetary alignment.
WHAT IS APLANETARY ALIGNMENT?
When planets come together in the sky, it is called
aplanetary conjunction. This is now regarded as
acoincidental arrangement, caused by our Earth-
Aclose encounter between Jupiter and Saturn
happens every couple of decades and is
nothing unusual, but “retrograde” motions of
the planets saw them come together not just
once, but three times over the course of six
months. This would have been apowerful
sign to star-gazing wise men -Jupiter
is the planet of kings, while Saturn was
seen as protector of the Jews and Pisces
itself was associated with Israel. This

based perspective across the planets of the solar
system, as they travel at different speeds on their
various orbits of the Sun. Ancient astronomers
thought differently, however. In 7bc, arare and
extraordinary planetary conjunction occurred
in the constellation Pisces.
conjunction was followed in February 6bc
by atriple conjunction of Mars, Jupiter and
Saturn. The addition of Mars, the Warrior
King, could have indicated to the Magi that
the new king would be amighty one -the
Messiah predicted in Hebrew scripture.

G L O S S A R Y

Retrograde motion:
Apparent movennents of
the planets in the sky,
caused by the Earth’s
own motion, when they
appear to backtrack
on themselves.

^5^ ■ ■■
E A RT H JUPITER
^ - S A T U R N -<
^VENUS INSIDE INFO o
WHAT CAUSED THE STAR OF BETHLEHEM?

stronomers have argued since time immemorial over the true CO

A origin of the “star in the east” seen by the wise men. Part of the
o
problem is that until the 1600s, chroniclers of the sky were likely to
describe anything as astar. Planets were “wandering stars”; comets
were “hairy stars”; and meteors were “shooting stars”. So how can
5
we be sure that the “star” of Bethlehem was aplanetary conjunction?
Meteors only last for CO
seconds, so it’s probably
safe to dismiss them from CO
the line-up of likely suspects.
Other stellar spectaculars,
such as comets and

exploding stars (supernovae)

are momentous celestial

events and, one can safely O

assume, they would be widely
recorded. This leaves the a
m
possibility of planetary
conjunction -aless eye¬
catching event, but
nevertheless, one that would
S U P E R N O VA 1 9 8 7 A W h e n

asupergiant star explodes in 0

have been noticed by sharp asupernova, it briefly -but c n

eyed men of astronomy. dramatically -increases in intensity.

>

0 0

S^HOW TO SET UP YOUR ORRERY n :

he inner ring of the engraved gear holds

N E P T U N E
T all the information you need to set up
the planets as they would have HISTORICAL
TIMEPIECE
appeared in 7bc. Each symbol in the
360“ ROSETTE Yo u r s o l a r
ring refers to the position of that
allows you to system showing
planet in the sky. All you need to do
set up your the alignments
is move the planet arms so that they
orrery to any of the planets
historical line up with the corresponding planet in 7bc, from the
planetary symbol. Use the symbol key provided in issue perspective of
conjucntion one to match each planet to its symbol. planet Earth.

A C C U R AT E A L I G N M E N T S
To move the planet arms, loosen the grub
screws locking the planet arm collars using
an alien key. These screws are found on the f
opposite side of the collar to the planet arm.
Then looking from above, spin the arms into
\
the correct alignment (shown right). The
conjunction is immediately clear to see.
You will notice that there are no positions
marked for Ceres and Eris. This is because ? '

detailed data from their motions is not

available prior to 1600. When you set

SIGNS IN THE SKY Early your solar system model to re-enact the
astronomers read deep
Star of Bethlehem, you are replicating an
meanings into strange
event that was seen as deeply significant
alliances of planets In
by the astronomers of 2000 years ago.
the night sky.
 Tie DEATh
of the
Billions of years from now, our local star will begin to run out
SUN
of fuel, triggering aseries of events that will eventually e a v e
it acooling ghost of its former self, orbited only by burnt-up
lumps of molten slag.

or the past 5billion years, the Sun has
shone by nuclear fusion reactions that
turn hydrogen, the lightest and simplest
element, into helium, the next lightest element,
in its core. Each individual fusion reaction turns
alittle of the Sun smass directly into energy via
Einstein’s famous equation E=md. As aresult,
the Sun loses 4million tonnes asecond -though
this is agrain of sand considering that the core
itself occupies aquarter of the Sun’s diameter and
has atotal mass of some 800 trillion trillion tonnes.
regions around the core start to fall inwards. They D E AT H T H R O E S T h e
S u n ' s fi n a l a c t w i l l b e t o
soon become compressed and hot enough
throw off its outer layers
to support hydrogen fusion themselves in a“shell” as aplanetary nebula.
around the core. The doubling up of energy from Here, billions of years
in the future, it is shown
the dwindling core reactions and this new shell
stripping the atmosphere
of hydrogen burning means that the Sun’s overall from Neptune.
energy output will rise enormously. It will become
much brighter, but at the same time the additional

f : 5 M

felTHEBRIGHTSUNWASEXTINGUISH’D, m

AND THE STARS DID WANDER DARKLING

91
IN THE ETERNAL SPACE.
Lord Byron
f
m
But athousand million grains asandstorm
make, and eventually the core’s supply of hydrogen
will dwindle. The effects may be felt on Earth long
before the hydrogen runs out completely (see box
on page 9), but when it does, around 5billion
years from now, the Sun will be forced into the
next stage of its evolution. #
■ I

RED GIANT
Throughout the Sun’s hydrogen-burning life,
it has kept up adelicate balancing act between !
the inward pull of its enormous gravity and the
outward pressure of escaping radiation. The two
forces cancel each other out (see The Birth of the *
Sun, Issue 2), but as our star’s main fuel supply
runs out this delicate equilibrium is endangered -
and the results are not what you might expect. As
the force of radiation from the core weakens, the

6 m

^1-
 CO
O
HOW IT WORKS

^INSIDE ARED GIANT CONVECTION CELLS >

;:d
his illustration shows the structure
CO
T of astar like the Sun passing C O O L S U R FA C E ;
“ B L O T C H I N E S S ”
H Y D R O G E N -

through the second of its two red-giant BURNING SHELL

CO
CAUSED BY s
phases. An expanding shell of helium C O N V E C T I O N

fusion is following aspherical shell of C E L L S

hydrogen fusion out through the star.

Meanwhile, the spent core slowly
collapses, shrinking from aquarter G)
of the Sun’s diameter down, eventually,
to about the size of the Earth.

As the core grows steadily denser, a

the layers above it are compressed by
its gravity and burn faster and brighter
as aresult. The star becomes more

luminous and the pressure from its

O
radiation causes the upper layers to HELIUM¬

billow outward, cooling as they do so. B U R N I N G

SHELL
This means that convection cells, found
only in the upper layers of hotter, sunlike EXTENDED o
AT M O S P H E R E
stars, extend through almost the whole CARBON-RICH CORE >
outer envelope of ared giant.
X

m x m m M M Y ■ . ■■■■■ , ■
Main sequencer
The best, and longest,
years of astar’s life.
During this stage, stars
burn their primary
source of fuel -
hydrogen -converting
i t t o h fi l i i i m i n t h o c o m
force of radiation coursing through its upper layers
will cause them to balloon outwards. The Sun
will expand to perhaps 100 times its current size,
engulfing the orbits of Mercury, Venus and maybe
even Earth itself. And because its surface area
becomes so much greater, the actual amount of
radiation escaping through each square metre of
it will be much less, so the surface will cool down.
Currently, the Sun’s surface temperature is
around 5500 °C, but in its swollen future, it could
drop as low as 3000 °C. As it cools from yellow
heat towards longer, lower-energy wavelengths,
the Sun will have joined the group of stars known CO
as red giants. CZ
The giant phase will be comparatively short¬
lived, lasting perhaps afew tens of millions of
years -already processes deep inside the core
will be moving towards another important change.
As the remaining hydrogen reactions die away.
conditions grow increasingly hot and dense. They
will eventually become extreme enough to begin
fusion of helium into heavier elements. All of a

5/jV^ SPACE STARS

!SUBRAHMANYAN CHANDRASEKHAR (1910-1995)
ndian-born Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar was amongst the
first to work out the physics of stellar remnants -debris
such, as white dwarfs, left over after astar is officially dead.
j

■ j
After studying at Cambridge U Iniversity, he moved to Chica g o
:University in 1937, and became aUS citizen in 1953.
Chandrasekhar figured out that above acertain “weight”
limit (around 1.44 times the mass of the Sun) the white
dwarf collapses to form an incredibly dense, city-sized
neutron star or even ablack hole. The energy released
in the collapse of the dying star is released
FOLLOWING ON
a s asupernova explosion -the universe’s Chandrasekhar took
most powerful explosions. This upper mass up the reins from
limit is named the Chandrasekhar limit in R.H. Fowler, his old
h o n o u r o f i t s d i s c o v e r e r. college professor.
sudden, the first helium reaction begins. The waste
product of the Sun’s life so far becomes its new
fuel supply, and the core re-ignites, in an event
called the helium flash. Again, the addition of a
new energy source has unexpected effects -the
rejuvenation of the core chokes off the hydrogen
fusion in the shell above it, the star’s overa energy
output falls, and it temporarily shrinks and grows
hotter again, ceasing temporarily to be ared giant.
RING OF FIRE
But the respite offered by helium
fusion will be abrief one. The high
temperatures in the core will force
the Sun to squander its new fuel
supply at aprodigious rate,
burning through it in tens
of millions of years, leaving
behind heavier elements
such as carbon, nitrogen and
oxygen. Astar the size of the
Sun does not have the power
to burn these elements as fuel.
As the core nears the end
of its helium supply, history
will repeat itself. The hydrogen¬
burning shell above the core is
re-invigorated and soon ashell of
helium fusion moving outwards in its
wake joins it. The Sun will once again
swell to ared giant, but this time, there
is no going back,
INSIDE INFO
HOW AN AVERAGE. MIDDLE-AGED STAR DIES .
P R E S E N T D AY O u r S u n i s a n
1 average-weight star burning
hydrogen in its core, but fuel
supplies are running out...
■! ' %** !.
FUR-LINED HOOD
The Eskimo Nebula,
NGC 2392, looks like a
face in afur parka. With
acooling white dwarf at
its heart, these patterns
are formed by shells
thrown off the dying star.
FUTURE: 5BILLION YEARS The
2 Sun is now ared giant, burning
hydrogen in shells around adead
helium core. Mercury engulfed. ’
As the hydrogen and helium shells push out
through the Sun and the core’s contribution dies
away to nothing, our star will enter its endgame.
The outward force of radiation will overwhelm the
pull of gravity, and the Sun’s distended outer
atmosphere will blow away into space. Soon the
fusion shells too will tear themselves apart, until
the star’s upper layers are scattered into aseries
of spectacular and beautiful celestial smoke rings -
aso-called planetary nebula.
WHITE DWARF
The nebula will continue to spread across
space for millions of years, fading as
it slowly cools. But it will be kept
warmer and brighter than we
might expect by fierce radiation
from the object at its heart.
Stripped of its outer layers, the
Sun’s brilliant core lies exposed
for the first time.
With no outward radiation
pressure to support them, the
atoms of the core, by now mostly
carbon, oxygen and other heavier
elements (collectively known as
“metals” to astronomers) will gradually
compress under their own weight, until
they form adense ball about the size of
the Earth. Even though the core is no longer
generating energy, it will still be intensely hot,
radiating away its remaining energy as brilliant
2FUTURE: 6BILLION
After abillion YEARS
years, helium
burning starts up in the core. The
Sun reverts to asmaller, yellow star.
 CO
O
>
PO
CO

■ p

D.OUBLEDOGS CO
*Sicifcrs Aand Sidus Bare
'adouble star system m
,that make up the
'* Oog St^r in Canis Major.
!This artist's impression O
!; ‘ shows the dominant
c
blue-white star, Sirius A
! a n d i t s s m a l l e r, w h i t e -
u
. . ‘dwarfcompanion. m

light. It will have become awhite dwarf

0
star -astar so dense that asingle teaspoon
of its material weighs several tonnes.
i w a m ■
Over billions more years, the white-dwarf u
e’ve got about another 5billion years before the Sun swells into Sun will gradually dissipate its energy through >
w ared giant, but the Earth could be uninhabitable long before its radiation. As it cools, the light it emits will
that. Over its history, the Sun has grown hotter and brighter, and will gradually dwindle into lower energies and longer
continue to do so as it ages. Short-term climate changes aside, we o
probably have about abillion years before Earth gets so hot that the
wavelengths, until eventually the star produces
oceans evaporate -and 3.5 no more visible light. At this point, the Sun will
billion years before they are / have reached its ultimate stage of evolution - m
gone completely. As the Sun t ablack dwarf. Our star slife will end not with
C O
enters its red giant phase, the abang, but with along, slow whimper.
atmosphere will be “boiled off”.

BARREN WASTES Dry and

airless, eventually only heavy
N E X T: T H E J O U R N E Y C O N T I N U E S - A C L O S E
elements will remain on Earth.
E N C O U N T E R W I T H S U N - S K I M M I N G P L A N E T. M E R C U RY

¥ '

% *

FUTURE; 8.0001 BILLION YEARS A L L T H AT R E M A I N S A f t e r 8 b i l l i o n

yj FUTURE: 8BILLION YEARS The
‘helium fuel runs out in the core. 5 In amere 100,000 years, the red ^^years of heat and light, the Sun is
Helium- and hydrogen-burning shells giant shrugs off its outer layers and now awhite dwarf star, slowly cooling
balloon outward, scorching Earth. becomes aplanetary nebula. in the depths of space...
 PLANET
V

The hunt is on! Space agencies and

astronomers are searching the skies hoping
to discover new planets and signs of life...

earching for new planets devoted to locating rocky planets. S PA C E S TA R S

around other stars has
become the latest craze in
astronomy. New discoveries are
announced almost monthly, and
ambitious new missions are tabled
to hunt terrestrial exoplanets
With athree-year mission time
COROT was “poweredxtpmn
January 2007. The satellite is made
up of alarge telescope that detects
variations in the intensity of alight
source such as astar.
WMICHEL MAYOR (1942-PRESENT)
ichel Mayor, a
M professor at the
University of Geneva,
Switzerland, launched the

(see glossary), specifically those This planet-hunting technique
orbiting in the “habitable zone”. relies on the fact that any planet
M team has now found 100 of
HT
Michael Silionii, COROT
This is the zone around astar
passing in front of astar dims the
where the surface temperatures starlight, even if only marginally.
modern era of planet hunting
w h e n h e d i s c o v e r e d t h e fi r s t
extrasolar planet, named
51 Pegasi B, in 1995. His
the 270 extrasolar planets
known, using the European
Southern Observatory’s
telescope at La Silla, Chile.
These Include, in 2007, an
Earth-like planet orbiting
PLANET PIONEER

Detectors must therefore be Michel Mayor

of planets could be conducive to nearby star Gliese 581 in the f o u n d t h e fi r s t

life. It is hoped that these missions extremely sensitive, but being in constellation Libra. extrasoiar planet.

will not only discover life, but also
shed some light on the formation
of our own solar system and
particularly the development
of life on Earth.
space makes the search far easier,
removing the distorting effects of
Earth’s atmosphere and allowing
much clearer sight lines.

In December 2006 the ESA COROT

searches the
launched COROT (Convection, universe for
Rotation and planetary Transits), other terrestrial

the first space mission specifically planets.

MISSION S TAT S
* r LAUNCH: 27/12/2006
VMISSION DAYS: 183 to date (25/06/07)
%MISSION FIRSTS: first mission with the
Iability to locate rocky planets several
mtimes larger than Earth.
#LAUNCHMASS:630kg
rDRBITAL ALTITUDE: 896 km

ioT

Data collected by the
satellite is sent back to ■
receiving stations based
in Austria and Brazil to
be processed. COROT
has already surpassed
expectations -in May 2007 it;:
discovered GJ 436b, aNeptune-
sized planet orbiting ared-dwarf
star, just 30 light-years from Earth
It is hoped that this is the first of
■■■-discoveries
many — —for COROT. ■
■ i
As well as the satellites scanning the
skies from space, there are anumber
of active land-based missions. One
team of planet hunters is led by
Mike Brown (see box), who is well
m s
The
onnaming ofthe
6, dwarf planet,
someErie,
fe-^
September 2006 came
time after its discovery in 2005. The
reason for this delay was largely due to
ongoing debate over whether the object
was classified as aplanet or aminor
planet. Once that issue was resolved the
name Eris was chosen. Eris is aGreek
goddess, the personification of strife and
discord. Until then the planet was
affectionately known as Xena from the
popular TV show, Xena: Warrior Princess
The name Eris, in part, reflects
t h e c o n fl i c t w i t h i n t h e a s t r o n o m i c a l
community over the classification of
Eris (and Pluto] as dwarf planets.
GLIESE 581c Five
times the size of Earth,
Gliese 581c is believed
to sustain liquid water
on its surface and with
it, possibly life.
PLANET FINDER
NASA's TPF mission
(right) will use an
optical telescope
and infrared
r
7 T 3
array to hunt
distant 5;
z
m
H
X
c
z
known for his work of the Kepler mission will be to m
searching for planets both gather information on the numbers c n
within and outside of our solar of Earth-sized planets and their
system. Earth-based telescopes size, and to investigate their stars.
generally detect exoplanets using The SIM (Space Interferometry
the “wobble technique". This is Mission) planet quest will conduct
where scientists look for awobble agiant census (the first of its kind)
This new
in the orbit of the local star caused of our closest stars. SIM will also
NASA mission
is scheduled by the gravitational pull of nearby measure the distances to those
for launch in planets. The bigger the planet, the stars with Earth-like planets.
November 2008. 1
greater the wobble Both SIM and Kepler will supply
■ A
m m information for alater mission, the
Terrestrial Planet Finder mission
NASA has three new planned NASA believes that roughly
missions, trying to establish seven per cent of nearby stars
whether there is life out there. could have alarge planet within a
The first is Kepler, named after distance equivalent to three Earth-
the famous seventeenth-century orbits. The two observatories aim
astronomer. The main objective to study all the planets outside of
our solar system -from their early
life, in large dust disks, through to
the features of existing planets
m ■ orbiting far away stars. Back on
Earth, scientists will use information
iSf#
on the planets’ complex
K. combination of gases to establish
■; m m m
whether they could support life.
m m
Over the next decade, missions
such as the Terrestrial Planet Finder
and other planet-hunting missions
iwill vastly increase our knowledge
iof the stars closest to us and their
|: planets. Hopefully they will finally
1^-
provide an answer to the question
TROUBLE AND STRIFE Eris
of whether there is actually life out
is also known ai ■D i s c o r d i a ” .
there in the vast universe.
11
 >
CD

>

■<

its outer layers are consumed

A
s

i n
expanding shells of fiery fusion
reactions, adying star rids itself
of them in aseries of stellar “shrugs”. The
resulting nebulae are some of the night sky s
most enchanting objects, backlit by the fierce n
e g g s

radiation howling from their central stars. [2] CAT'S EYE NEBULA
With an "eye" that's
thought to be m o r e
than half alight-year in
Ml. diameter, the cat's eye is
% #
one of the most complex
and beautiful nebulae.

[3] ANT NEBULA

This nebula is believed

to show the future shape

of our Sun. Material
shed from the star hits
previous layers at speeds
- ♦ of up to 3.6 million km/h.

[4] HOURGLASS
N E B U L A

Acomposite of three
images, showing
nitrogen (in red).
hydrogen (in green)
and oxygen (in blue).
Astronomers have

playfully named this

nebula "The Eye of God".

m 13
 ■5 .

[5] END OF EARTH! Several billion years in the future, Earth roasts in the bloody light of the red-giant Sun. As our star swells to about 200
times its current size, it will engulf the present orbits of the inner planets, but because the Sun will be losing mass in afierce solar wind, the
 >
CD
m

CD
>
I
m
7 ^
<

■K .

■ ; * *

Earth's orbit will drift outwards slightly. Earth's oceans have long since boiled off, and its atmosphere blown away on the stellar winds,
leaving Earth abarren, lifeless cinder. The Sun is so large that its surface is much cooler than it is today, shining red rather than yellow-white.
 #

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN

STARGAZERS
I
Akey focus of Egyptian astronomy was the revitalizing
-! --r.
annual flood of the great River Nile. The Egyptians
associated this event with the rising of Sirius -the
brightest star in the sky.

D E N D E R A H
or the ancient Egyptians, divided into three 10-day “decades”.
Retaining much the very first appearance of The Egyptians observed that there
of its original
Sirius each year coincided were 36 stars or constellations that
colour, the ceiling
at Denderah is a with the season of “ahket” - rose heliacally on the first decade
massive symbolic aperiod between June and of each month.
chart of the
September when the Nile These stars or “decans” could
heavens.
flooded. The position of the be used to tell the time at night or
temple of Isis, the winged goddess date in the solar year provided it
of birth and growth, is directly was known when they appeared.
linked with the heliacal rising So the Egyptians drew up star
point of Sirius. The heliacal rising charts, properly known as diagonal
r
of astar is when it appears on the star calendars. These made their
G L O S S A R Y
First Intermediate
eastern skyline at dawn. earliest appearance in the First
Period: Includes Intermediate Period (see glossary)
the seventh, E A R LY C A L E N D A R S on coffin lids, to be used by the
eighth, ninth,
tenth and most The ancient Egyptian year was dead. Later, by the time of the New
of the eleventh
divided into 12, 30-day months, Kingdom, more elaborate versions
Dynasties.
plus “vague days”, and each was appeared, usually on tomb ceilings.
T E M P L E O F H AT H O R O f a l l t h e
temples in the Denderah region,
i:*
this one is the best preserved.

ZODIAC The Astar ceiling in the tomb of
circular zodiac in
Ramesses VI shows the figure of
^.the roof of the M
the sky-goddess Nut; she is curved
IDenderah temple
^complex gives o n e K. into an over-arching posture to
of the earliest represent the solid sphere in which
depictions of the
the stars were thought to be fixed.
^signs of the zodiac. ^
Nut also appears elsewhere, such
as on aceiling in the Temple of
Hathor at Denderah where she
arches across zodiac signs, arranged
in what is to us an unfamiliar
configuration. In aroof chapel of
the same temple there is acircular
zodiac (the original is now in the
Louvre), unique in Egypt. This
version was developed by the
Babylonians and the Greeks,
and is fairly familiar to us today.
PYRAMIDS OF GIZA
H
stars forming the “belt” in the
X
constellation of Orion, as they
m
moved across the night sky.
CO
I
CELESTIAL JOURNEY
O
To ancient Egyptians, Orion housed
Osiris, the god who governed the -C
great cycle of birth, life, death and
resurrection. Egyptian texts refer to O
Thuban as one of the Imperishable
Stars, meaning it never set; because >
CO
of the Earth’s rotation and axial tilt
I
such “circumpolar” (see glossary)
stars occupy the area of sky around O
which the celestial dome appears
to rotate. It was believed that the
O
spirits of deceased pharaohs
travelled to these stars and to Orion

In the distance is the

pyramid of Khufu,
while the middle CCTHE
EGYPTIANS
DREW
UP
STAR
CHARTS,
PROPERLY
^
belongs to Kharfe KNOWN AS DIAGONAL STAR CALENDARS” >
and the closest
Paul Deuereux, archaeoastronomy expert z
to Menkaure.
o
m

Denderah has other associations in order to regulate celestial

with stellar astronomy. Temple motion. So it now seems the shafts m
O
inscriptions refer to afoundation were to enable Khufu’s spirit to
-<
ceremony, the “stretching of the make its celestial journeys. T i

cord”, in which the pharaoh pulled The Great Pyramid-Orion

>
acord loop taut between two staffs connection has been taken to z
to align the foundations on the fanciful lengths by some authors C O
H
“Bull’s Foreleg”, the constellation who suggest that certain pyramids >
-PD
we recognise today as the Plough on the Giza plateau were laid out in a
O
or Big Dipper (Ursa Major). pattern mimicking the arrangement >
INI
m
STELLAR LINE UP
KING'S CHAMBER CO
High up inside the Great Pyramid The stone tomb of
is the King’s Chamber. Two narrow Khufu, located in
shafts lead from the north and h i s b u r i a l c h a m b e r.

south walls respectively, penetrating

the surrounding mass of the
pyramid’s structure to reach the
outside. They were first thought to
be symbolic ventilation shafts for
the spirit of the entombed pharaoh,
Khufu (Cheops), but scholars are
now revising their ideas about them.
It has been realised that at the ■
time of the pyramid’s construction
the north shaft would have pointed
to the star Thuban in its highest
position in the night sky, while
:-!■
the south shaft followed the three

17
 1^-

f T

■ - ■

' x

THE MAIN DRAG

The impressive
avenue leading
■■■ A
to the temple
at Karnak, still
awesome after

about 5000 years.

of stars in the Orion constellation. of the Great Temple surrounded

NORMAN LOCKYER (I836-1920] Critics point out that this scheme by smaller structures, all
conveniently ignores the other enclosed by awall bounding
pyramids on the plateau. aprecinct over 1km square.
A19th-century
scientist,
Sir
Norman
Lockyer,
wondered if the orientations of ancient Through the sixteen centuries
temples aligned to foundation sunrises. He tested HERE COMES THE SUN over which the complex was
his theory on Egyptian temples, discovering the In ancient Egypt the power of the remodelled and augmented the
Sirius orientation of
creator god, Ra (or Re), was thought great axis that runs like aknife-
the Temple of Isis at
to infuse the solar disk, the Aten. cut through the precinct was
Denderah in the process. 41
He published The Dawn The temple complex of Karnak at largely respected. It was
of Astronomy \n 1894, ancient Thebes, the region near obviously important, but why?
aforerunner of what present-day Luxor, is perhaps his
much later became

“archaeoastronomy”,
greatest monument. LOOKING TO THE SUNRISE 1
Karnak developed on the eastern Early investigators assumed it
the study of astronomy
in archaeological banks of the Nile during the Middle indicated asolar alignment and
c o n t e x t s . and New Kingdoms at an earlier cult guessed at midsummer sunset
centre of the local god, Amun, who but later researchers noted that
UBIQUITOUS Already
encountered in issue three,
became upgraded to “King of the the view of the setting Sun
Gods”. Karnak was dedicated to would have been obscured by
Lockyer is renowned for his
studies of Stonehenge. Amun-Re, which melded Amun with hills. The solution to the riddle

the Sun god. The complex consists had to wait until research in the

I
^INSIDE INFO
.AHE FESTIVAL OF OPET
very year in the flood
E season agreat
procession of sacred barges
emerged from Karnak
carrying the holy image of
AmumRe and sailed 2km i
south along the Nile to the
Temple of Luxor where a
solemn regeneration ritual
took place.
STARTING OVER The repetition
of the festival ensured the flood
would return again next year. .^
1960s by aSmithsonian Institution
astronomer, Gerald Hawkins.
Hawkins wondered if the axial
alignment worked in the other
TTX
direction, toward sunrise. Although skyline could be obtained,
mM’-m the Hall of Festivals in the sanctuary
complex at Karnak blocked the
, I - w ' . eastward view along the axis, he
^Jfound that achapel alittle farther
along was dedicated to “Ra-Hor-
Akhty” (Sun[god]-Rising, Sun-
Brilliant on the Horizon).
1
N E W M AT H E M AT I C S
Re-calculating the axial alignment,
Hawkins found that it oriented to
midwinter sunrise in 2bc. Even so,
there was not aclear view to the
■
sunrise point from the chapel.
H
dedication to Ra-Hor-Akhty and
the image of apharaoh bending his
m
knee and facing toward an aperture
from where aclear view of the
CO
Across the Nile from Karnak
o
Stand two 18-metre (60-ft) -<
statues the Greeks called the
Colossi of Memnon. One of them O
n
was cracked during an earthquake
in 27bc, after which it issued strange >
CO
sounds at sunrise (the Sun warmed
the quartzite rock the statue was 7 0
made from, causing expansion).
O
Greek tourists flocked to it as an
oracle. Motivated by learning that
the Colossi are the remnants of
O
amortuary temple dedicated to
Ra-Hor-Akhty, Hawkins calculated

kil
Further exploration revealed an
upper chapel, the High Room
that the figures faced midsummer
sunrise. The Theban Dynasty clearly
0
>
of the Sun, which contained a celebrated the ascendant Sun god.
n
m
G L O S S A R Y
"“v V Circumpolar
stars: Stars that
f " . ’

are so close to
o
0^ 'll*, ^4' '' the poles tl jy
- <
, v never appear to T !
s e t , but just move
around the poles. >
■f m
SUN CHAIRS C O

The Colossi wait H

>
patiently for the 7 0
Sun to rise at o
midsummer to
warm their stone
m
cold bodies. 7 0
L D

" i f - .
 4

«
.theWINGFD
This constellation represents the flying
horse of Greek mythology. It is the
seventh-largest constellation, even thpugh
only half the horse is depicted in the sky.

our stars mark out the corners of agiant square S i D E V VAY S S P I R A L ■ 1

that represents the horse’s body. However, At 40 million light-years
from Earth, NGC 7331
one of these stars does not actually belong is one of the brighter
to Pegasus -Alpheratz is now known as Alpha (a) galaxies in this region
Andromedae, although it can also be called of the sky. It appears
as asmudge of light
Delta (5) Pegasi. in asmall telescope.
G R E AT S Q U A R E
The densely
packed globular cluster
M15 can be seen through
binoculars and small
telescopes, although
apertures of 150 mm or so
are needed to resolve Its
individual stars. Ml 5lies #
33,000 light-years away.

The Great Square of Pegasus is so large that arow of

30 full Moons could fit within it. Despite its size, the
Square contains only ahandful of stars bright enough
to be visible with the naked eye.
From the corner of the Square marked by Alpha (a)
Pegasi stretches acrooked line of stars that delineate
the horse’s neck and head, while two lines of stars ^THE WINGED HORSE
extending from Beta (|3) Pegasi trace out the horse’s
forelegs. Beta (|3) Pegasi, also known as Scheat, is a .fe Pegasus
was
the offspring of
red giant that varies irregularly between magnitude Medusa the Gorgon.
The young Medusa was
2.3 and 2.7. Midway along one side of the Square lies \ I
ravished by Poseidon,
51 Pegasi, astar similar to the Sun. In 1995, the first
god of horses as well
extrasolar planet was discovered around this star. r r v as the sea. Unfortunately
the seduction happened
CLUSTERS AND GALAXIES in the temple of the goddess
Near the horse’s muzzle lies one of the finest globular Athene. Outraged at this
sacrilege, Athene changed Medusa into asnake¬
clusters in northern skies, M15, visible through
haired ogre whose gaze could turn people to stone.
binoculars as arounded misty patch. In the northern In afamous myth, Perseus decapitated Medusa -and
part of Pegasus lies the only other deep-sky object from her body sprang Pegasus, ahorse with wings. Pegasus
in the constellation within reach of modest amateur flew away to Mount Helicon where he lived with the Muses.
telescopes -NGC 7331, aspiral galaxy presented Later he became the mount of the Greek hero Bellerophon.
nearly edge-on to us.
 H i

'^PEGASUS
I

7 ^

Pegasus
flies
high
on
evenings
in
October
and November. It is visible from everywhere
in the northern hemisphere but from latitudes >
below about 50° south only part of it can be XI
seen. Pegasus adjoins Andromeda, just north of *

the zodiacal constellations Pisces and Aquarius.

0 . ..o
“ O

1
I: ABBREVIATIOMPeg m
CD
BEST SEASON
>
CO
September-October
BRIGHTEST S TA R S
CO

Beta (|3) 2.4

Epsilon (e) 2.4 #

SIZE RANKING 7

POSITION Equatorial [N]

I^OCATiON M/^

LAGERTA i o

STEPHAN'S QUINTET At first glance

\this looks like asmall cluster of five o
7 ^
ANDROMEDA faint galaxies. However, one of CO

i them -at upper right in this image -

\
n
\is actually much closer to us than the
f
\others and lies superimposed by
*chance, so the group should perhaps
_tbe renamed Stephan's Quartet.
Alpheratz
r 8 0
. {

Scheat

K
;.V \
\

u
I VULPECULA
^ A I
X

% I

/Algenib PEGASUS 9

DELPHI
Markab J
Y
a
M 1 5
PISCES
3 1

L Enif r

A i
/
8 /
P
/

\ EQUULEUS

AQUARIUS
 The SUN’S
TEMPER TANTRUMS
When the Sun breaks out in spots, strange things happen on
Earth -or so say asmall group of scientists. Is sunspot activity
linked to events on Earth or is it just an odd coincidence?
S
ince their discovery, sunspots have been
linked with avariety of phenomena. It’s
been said that they can influence wars,
the stock market, diseases and even fashion! In
the scientific world most of these connections are
considered tenuous (at best) or utterly ridiculous.
^Weknowthatcoronalmassejections(CMEs)
Mand solar flares can affect technology both in space
and here on Earth. As the massive outbursts
of energy speed across space they can render
satellites useless and, as they hit Earth, overload
power grids and cause blackouts. It is awell-
documented fact that any spacecraft caught in
the firing line of aCME can not only be shunted
off course by the power of the solar wind, but
can suffer serious malfunctions.
We also know that these powerful explosions
on the Sun happen most at the peak of the solar
cycle. Sunspots and solar flares are related to the
solar cycle, which runs for atotal of 11 years,
going from aminimum -where activity is at its
lowest -through to amaximum -where sunspot
FLU BUG Could
o u t b r e a k s o f i n fl u e n z a
really be linked to the
level of sunspot activity?
activity is at its highest. But is it possible that these
cooler magnetic sunspots could be affecting us in
ways we don’t even know?
SUNSPOTS AND SICKNESS
One theory is that there’s alink between the
outbreak of influenza epidemics and the sunspot
cycle. According to this theory the flu virus is
always present in space, having been left behind
in the dust trails of passing comets (believed to
be made up of organic material). As Earth ploughs
though through these interstellar dust clouds large
amounts of the virus are stored in our upper
atmosphere. During asunspot maximum, high
solar activity bombards the Earth with particles,
and sends them raining down into the atmosphere
triggering effects such as the northern lights.
The same effect forces the virus particles down
into the lower atmosphere where they condense
into raindrops and fall on an unsuspecting
population below.
Sir Fred Hoyle, one time director of the Institute
of Astronomy at Cambridge, plotted sunspot
maxima against influenza pandemics and
i
found them to be closely correlated. Although
arespected scientist, Hoyle’s findings were
largely ignored by the scientific community. 4
ALIEN LANDINGS
If the influenza virus comes from space then it is
safe to assume that there is life out there. Fred
Hoyle argued that it is more than likely that life
evolved and colonised Earth from outer space. So
it came as no surprise to him that sunspot activity
has been linked with increased alien sightings.
At times of intense sunspot action the magnetic
field of Earth is buffeted by solar wind and the
high-speed stream of subatomic particles that go
 of what he believed to be adistinct connection

between particularly fierce battles and solar flares.

m
Amarked increase in sunspot activity around the
X
years 1916 and 1917 coincides with some of the
cruellest battles being fought in World War One
and the Russian Revolution. >
5-
m
p: u

0
% A* S i t e .
/

o n

hand-in-hand with ROSWELL Did sunspots

CMEs. The massive solar storm of 1989 that and CMEs force an alien
0 0
spacecraft to crash land?
ploughed into Earth not only battered satellites, S U N A N D Y O U R H E A LT H

but also caused Earth’s atmosphere to swell. W O R L D AT W A R P e r i o d s Sunspots could also have abearing on how long
The knock-on effect of increased atmospheric of high sunspot activity you live, according to two scientists from Michigan " D
correlate with some of
drag on satellites caused at least one to re-enter the world's worst wars.
State University. B. Rosenburg and D.A. juckett
the atmosphere. have suggested that children born to amother
>
There seems no logical reason why these events who was herself born during aperiod when the
wouldn’t affect alien spacecraft as much as human sun was at the peak of its 11-year cycle have a 7 D
ones. Some say this is what caused the supposed lower life expectancy, he reasoning behind this C

"UFO crash’’ in 1947 at Roswell, New Mexico. argument is that when awoman is born her eggs
(jO
While the sunspot phenomenon doesn’t appear are already formed within her to be released at a
to answer the question of whether the object that later date. If there are alot of sunspots then levels
crash-landed was or was not aUFO, it does of radiation are believed to be higher, meaning
explain how it may have entered the atmosphere. that her eggs could potentially be dama: :ed.
Whatever the truth, scientists and enthusiasts
LINKS TO WAR alike will continue to be fascinated by the potential
ARussian professor of Astronomy and Biological effect of sunspots and the solar cycle on both our
Physics, A.L. Tchijevsky, (see box) became aware planet and us.

A.L. IL/niULlVOix (1897-1964)

,Al^
chijevsky was convinced that there was aconnection
T between the outbreaks of war or civil unrest and
A a '
sunspots. To prove his theory he compiled histories of
72 countries worldwide from 500bc to 1922ad. He ■ d
then compared this data (from as far back as the 17th \

century when sunspot figures were first accurately

recorded) and what he noticed was quite startling.
There was adramatic increase in “unpeaceful” events
« (war and violence) in the five-year period surrounding \. I.
the solar maximum. Sadly for Tchijevsky he was locked
-away for 30 years in Soviet prisons for suggesting that f
'this theory may go some way to explaining the Russian
I I
Revolution of 1917. TROUBLE ON \^
.THE STREETS «
SILENCEO VOICE Many of Tchijevsky's works TheRussianRevolution^ *1

went unpublished until after his death. <wasn't just about politics
COMING
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^ILDAMODEL

SYSTEM
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PLUS THISISSUE: begin BUfLC

V VENUSGEAR SET

PLANET ARM GEAR SPINDLE

[Ic-
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■S- ^ ,Instructions for constructing

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LOCKING
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I G R U B
'SCREWS *
Explore our changing ideas of the . 1

universe and our place within it.

!Mariner 10’s groundbreaking
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Eaglemoss Publications Ltd, 5Cromwell Road, London SW7 2HR
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BUILD AMODEL §
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I M P O R TA N T ■
. F E AT U R E S f
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11
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MISSIONS
10
Find out about the pioneering Mariner 10 mission,
the only space probe to visit Mercury.

ii) I M A G E GALLERY
Groundbreaking shots taken by the only
interplanetary mission to Mercury.
4 THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY
. 1 6
The revolutions in science and astronomy that have
changed our view of our place in the

S TA R M A P
20
We show you the best tips and tricks for spotting
this fast-moving and difficult-to-find planet.

UNEXPLAINED
Persistent rumours place amystery planet orbiting
between Mercury and the Sun, but is it all hokum?
C O N S U LTA N T E D I T O R : G I L E S S PA R R O W
E N D O R S E D B Y : S I R PAT R I C K M O O R E C B E F R S
IMAGES: FC NASA; 2NRAO/AUI/
E N C O U R A G E D B Y: T H E I N T E R N AT I O N A L A S T R O N O M I C A L U N I O N N S F & N O A O / A U R A / N S F / TA
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Fletcher; 6-7(c) NASA, (tr)
NASA/JPL, (br) Science Photo
SR Library/Christian Darkin; 8-9(tl)
Science Photo Ubrary/Dr David
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Science Photo Library/Dr Michael J
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Fletcher;(br)SciencePhotoLibrary/Giraudon,fb)NASA/Dryd^Fl^)ht
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Science Photo Library/Sheila Terry;
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Archives; 19{b) NASA/ESA/Hubble/ »-
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Imaging; 21 {!) Pikaia Im^hgrW
The Royal Swedish Academy of
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York Picture Library.
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C€IWARNING! Accessible gears ahd small parts. * .
Keep o\it of reach of children. Keep this informatfon for*reference.*
Applies to ail issues of,*Bulld^A Model Solar System'.
.©Eaglemoss Publications (2008). rights reserved. t

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5
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BEGIN o
7 0
u i

BUILDI^
O
\
'Id

C O

STAGE 2 CO

The second stage of

building your solar system
model adds the working
parts and planets. The
impressive engraved gear
is added in the first phase. 0
CD
m

PHASE 1, STAGE 2:
COLLECT ALL THE
D D
COMPONENTS YOU e
N E E D TO B U I L D T H E F I R S T
D
P H A S E O F S TA G E T W O
IN ISSUES FIVE TO SEVEN.
O
i n

>
G)
nstage two, you will collect and construct m

h O
asuccession of gear sets. Each of them is
mounted on the central column and, with
carefully calculated gear ratios, drives the
planets and moons around the solar system.
Every phase of building stage two adds
another gear set to the orrery, until all the
working parts are mounted on the mechanism.
This phase sees the engraved gear, Venus
gear assembly and planet Venus joining the
Mercury gear set that you constructed in stage
one. The engraved gear will add agreat deal of
extra functionality to your solar system model,
enabling you to set your orrery to any planetary
configuration in the past or future.

/TAr

With the addition of

the engraved gear and

Venus assembly, your
solar system model
starts to take shape.
 6 m m

2 completed stage one and slip aplastic

Remove the base plate from your already

washer (WAS) over the central column. Slide

the Venus gear set up the column until it meshes
with the small gear set above. Using a1.5mm
alien key, lock the gear collar to the gear spindle
with agrub screw (M3G). Check the illustration
on page 3to see how the tiers of gears build up.

Now attach the Venus planet

3 arm (03) to the Venus large gear
set. Feed the arm into the designated
hole on the collar and secure with a

grub screw (M3G). Once the arm is in

position, locate the pin at the base of
planet Venus (VEN) with the hole in
the top end of the arm. (Note: All
planet arms have ahole in one end
only for the planet’s pin, so ensure you
fit the arm with this hole uppermost.)

4
 o
d
7 D
CO
O
5
7 0
CO
-<
CO
H
m

screw, be sure that the holes on

o
the Moon gear arm and engraved
gear match up exactly. 5 clipping the outsize gear axles
Assemble the Moon gear set by
o
m
(72 &73) together from either side r
of the engraved gear as shown -
with 72 on top and 73 below. Locate 0
the 31-tooth gear (35) with the four CD
small pins on top of the top gear

P a r t

VENUS PLANET ARM 1

41-TOOTH GEAR 1

GEAR COLLAR 1

GEAR SPINDLE 1 MSG ;GRUB SCREW 5mm 3

39-TOOTH GEAR 1 M2.3S S E L F TA P P I N G SCREW 6mm 7

31-TOOTH GEAR 1 M2.3S S E L F - TA P P I N G SCREW 8mm 1

E N G R AV E D GEAR 1 V E N PLANET VENUS 1

MOON GEAR ARM 1 W A S PLASTIC WASHER 2

8 m m
23-TOOTH GEAR 1
SUN-SKIMMER
Mercury is the smallest true planet -barely larger
than Earth's moon. Airless and heavily cratered,
Mercury's similarity to our Moon goes further
than just its size.
urtling round the Sun at more than
50 km per second, speedy Mercury is
the smallest of the solar system’s planets
-atiny, searing world ever so slightly larger than
Earth’s moon. The little planet takes amere
88 (Earth) days to orbit the Sun, but 59 days to
rotate on its axis -exactly two-thirds of its year.
Astronomers used to think that the planet was
“tidally locked”, just like the Moon around Earth,
presenting only one face to the Sun. However,
this configuration of day and orbit reduces the
tidal forces on the planet almost as much.
Mercury’s orbit is strange in other ways -it
is more elliptical (stretched) than that of any other
true planet’s and is also tilted from the plane of the
solar system at an angle of eight degrees. The long
end of the ellipse “wobbles” slowly around the
Sun, partly due to the gravity of the other planets,
but also due to the way that the huge mass of the
Sun itself distorts space around it. Before Einstein
m
S i .
mW 4
discovered general relativity, some
astronomers tried to explain Mercury’s
“wobble” as the work of an even smaller
planet closer to the Sun (see page 22).
The combination of long day, short year,
high speed and elliptical orbit can cause
some very strange effects on the surface.
MOON-LIKE APPEARANCE
Small in size and only ever seen in twilight
skies. Mercury is adifficult target for m
Earthbound astronomers, who had to wait
until the space age for their first good look
at the surface of the planet. Even now, only
one space probe -Mariner 10 -has made
I
it to Mercury, so little more than half of the
surface has been photographed.
The most striking and unique features on
Mercury are the huge, winding cliffs called
rupes. They cut across the surface, frequently
ONE-SIDED VIEW
Mariner 10, the only probe
to visit Mercury to date.
saw only one hemisphere
due to its flight path.
 Approximately 3.5 billion o
years old, the Brahms
Crater, caused by an
asteroid impact, has a
5
diameter of 97 km and a

central peak that is about CO

20 km across.
CO

G)

U
m
running for hundreds of kilometres and separating CALORIS BASIN

neighbouring landscapes with sheer drops or rises
of two km or more. On the largest scale, Mercury’s
i crust looks like ajigsaw puzzle in which some
pieces are too big and have “popped up” above
Mercury’s other standout feature is the huge
Caloris Basin. This vast impact crater is the second
0
CD
largest in the solar system, trumped only by the
enormous South Pole-Aitken Basin on the far side

their neighbours. In other places, the surface is
crinkled where it seems to have been squeezed to
fit it all in. In fact, planetary scientists think that’s
more or less what happened (see box overleaf).
Mercury’s heavy cratering gives the surface a
Moon-like appearance, but it is more uniformly
grey (the coppery colour often shown in images of
Mercury is usually aresult of observing conditions).
The interiors of the biggest craters are relatively
smooth, indicating that material flooded their
floors shortly after their formation, but there are
no obviously dark patches to parallel the Moon’s
“seas”, suggesting the crust is lacking in iron and
titanium compounds.
of the Moon. Avast central plain is surrounded by CO
7 ^
mountain ranges and radiating lines of hills -the
remains of “ejecta” sprayed out during the impact
that formed the basin. The overall diameter of the
7 D
entire complex is some 1350 km -stretching
across about one tenth of Mercury’s circumference.
The Caloris impact took place about 3.8 billion
years ago, and was so huge that it shook Mercury
to the core and beyond. Shock waves rippled out
around the surface and through the centre of
the planet -where they met on the other side,
they were still powerful enough to pulverise the
landscape, creating ajumble of blocks that the
Mariner scientists named “weird terrain”.

he combination of Mercury’s brief year and

T slow day creates abizarre pattern of day ;
and night on the planet’s surface. Most places
'Vi see asunrise just once every two years, when
the planet’s orbit and rotation match up.
Normally, the Sun tracks very slowly
across the sky from east to west — t h e
effect of Mercury’s slow rotation is
amplified by the changing direction of the
Sun. However, because Mercury’s orbit is a
pronounced ellipse, it speeds up considerably
when it is closer to the Sun. At these times,
this “changing viewpoint*’ effect can overcome
the effect of Mercury’s rotation, so the Sun
actually starts to move backwards in the
sky. At these times, some parts of Mercury
experience adouble sunrise or sunset.
SPEEDY PLANET Clearly HOT POLES
visible alongside the This close to the Sun, Mercury’s day-lit surface
crescent of the new Moon
is heated to more than 425 °C -hot enough to
is the tiny planet Mercury.
melt lead, while night-time temperatures plunge
to -170 °C. Radio studies from Earth have shown
that some parts of Mercury's surface receive more
heat than others thanks to its curious orbit. Even

at night, these are warmer than their surroundings

and they are termed the planet’s "hot poles”.
If it ever had an atmosphere. Mercury lost it
long ago, boiled away into space, escaping the

CCMERCURYISANUNUSUALLY
DENSEPLANET,WHICHSUGGESTS
THAT IT CDNTAINS FAR MURE METAL
n
THAN WDULD BE EXPECTED!
Dr Jonti Horner

weak gravity. However, for such asmall world,

Mercury’s gravity is actually surprisingly high,
suggesting its interior is denser than any of the
other rocky worlds. Put together with the fact
that the planet has amagnetic field, this is
strong evidence for ahuge iron core
(which may still be partially
molten) occupying much
NBREAKTHROUGHS of Mercury’s interior.
S U R P R I S E PA C K A G E
HOT SPOTS

or abrief moment in the early Aradio "heat'

F 1970s, Mariner 10 scientists map shows
thought that tiny Mercury had a how unevenly
Mercury's
satellite of its own. The probe picked surface is
up unexpected readings of strong, warmed.
high-energy ultraviolet rays, initially
lined up with Mercury, but later
detaching themselves from the planet.

LEAP FORWARD
The belief at the time was that since

such rays could not make it across

the wastes of interstellar space, the
signal had to be coming from nearby.
Following one of its encounters with
Mercury, Mariner 10 turned its
instruments to look back at the planet
and, once again, picked up the signal.
Evidence was mounting that the source MESSENGER M l
N A S A’s n e w e s t
could be asmall moon reflecting UV from the
m i s s i o n t o M e r c u r y,
Sun. However, the second signal drifted farther which left Earth
away from Mercury -it became clear that this in 2004, is set to
was actually abackground star and that unravel more of the

ultraviolet rays could indeed travel between p l a n e t ’s m y s t e r i e s .

stars! This breakthrough discovery killed off

speculation about apossible satellite.
 CO
Mercury could not have formed naturally with STRUCTURE OF MERCURY

such an outsized core, so the best explanation

D E E P LY

SURFACE
PITTED

—
Mercury is so dense that
scientists think that it
O
is that acollision with another sizeable planetoid must have alarge iron
early in Mercury’s history stripped away much of core. The planet's
>
small size relative 7 ^
its crust and melted the planet all the way through to its oversize CO
When it re-solidified, most of the material that
core suggests
survived was the remains of the earlier core. It that it was once CO
may sound like something out of science fiction, much bigger.
but there’s strong evidence for collisions like this
throughout the early solar system -including ^ MANTLE (APPRDX.
55D KM THICK)
one that formed Earth’s Moon -and Mercury’s CD
outsized core also helps explain the problems
with its crust (see Inside Info box).
PA RT I A L LY LIQUID
U
NICKEL-IRON CORE, m
UPRIGHT ORBIT COOLING S L O W LY

And Mercury has one more fascinating story to

tell -despite the searing daylight temperatures and
lack of aprotective atmosphere, it seems that there
could be frozen lakes of ice hidden away in deep
craters on the surface. Very unusually, Mercury
orbits the Sun "bolt upright” -its poles are tilted
over at just 0.01 degrees from the vertical relative
to its orbit, and so it does not experience seasons
like those on Earth -aside-effect of the tidal
forces that have slowed Mercury’s
rotation. This means that, at the
poles, the Sun only peeks
briefly above the horizon,
and there are craters
0
CO
seeing the Sun’s blazing light. Radio astronomers
working from Earth have discovered that these
I
deep craters often coincide with bright, reflective CO
7 \
spots on Mercury’s surface, most likely caused
by ice. But where did the ice come from? At the
moment, the best theory is that it was dumped
there by comets that happened to crash into
Mercury throughout its history. In human
timescales such events are incredibly rare, but
over the billions of years of solar system history,
they are inevitable and even commonplace.

locked in perpetual NEXT: VENUS THE LFTHAIl T H E

PLANET SHROUDED
shadow, never

ust how did the bizarre rupes cliffs

J
-■. f ^

and folds that crisscross Mercury*s

surface form? Experts think that they
* V
are created by geological faults.

T E M P E R AT U R E C H A N G E S

■
■ i

The idea is that Mercury’s unusually vj -

large iron core caused the planet to

expand early in its history, cracking the
crust apart into separate blocks. Then,
as the interior cooled and shrank, the
crust collapsed inwards, folding in an
effort to fit together. Since there was no RUPES Ascarp r u n s from top left to
bottom right, cutting through craters.
way that all the different crust blocks
could fit together neatly in the planet’s
reduced surface, some parts have popped up in comparison to their
neighbours. This happened some time after the heaviest period of
impact cratering, since in many places craters and other features
continue uninterrupted from one side of arupee scarp to the other.

9
 ■ iti.

he final Mariner mission, ivti was on itS:Vi^

launched on 3NoveTtrber: IMariner 10 sails a le: spent millioRj
lliSj
1973, was to be m
m
daring of all A
of theockk) ■ ■

ii®- ■
Inp

H^eppeColombo(seS?^^
^'^overed that it M
m
Z

■i. S i
;S".l. iir

X
m

■■ r m
'■i i i
U P A N D AWAY
■■

technique
would be able to alter its direction MARINER
II 10REAPED
ABOUNTIFUL
HARVEST
OFNEW
and speed witreut using extra INFORMATION ABOUT THE INNER PLANETS
n

: : n a

2tS‘-
r t : J'jx;
T

overcanie the issiii^^ radratioh by s. ;©(

5.

constFucting solar panels on an axis to worl was taken 1 3

i~i\;
m
As the probe got closer to the Sun to switch bfT the cameras to prevent
the panels were rotated, keeping damage to the optics.
them at abalanced temperature s

“ ^ 1 1
NASA placed the Mariner 10 space 4

Everything appeared to be going probe in an orbit around the Sun,

smoothly and Mariner was placed going the opposite way to Earth.
into aparking orbit for amere 25 This meant the speed of the probe
minutes: after that it left Earth and was slow enough for the

Mercury. First mission to explore more than one planet

and to return to aplanet for further visits. First mission
to use gravity sling-shot and solar wind to manoeuvre.
First time TV pictures of Earth seen from space.
ORBITAL MASS: 473 9kg
 vcv GIUSEPPE COLOMBO n9201984)

G uiseppe Colombo was

invited by NASA*s Jet
Propulsion Laboratory {JPLl
to join the Mariner 10 team.
It was his imagination
and input that led to the
multiple visits to Mercury.
He calculated that by placing
the Mariner 10 probe in a “BEPI”
specific orbit it would be Aplanned
posable to use gravity to European
bring the probe repeatedly Space Agency
: ^
mission to
back to Mercury. In total Mercury is
the probe passed Mercury to be called
aStaggering three t»mes. BepiColumbcT

w a s

ry
ur\^:passin@
ateOTtrtWTO
iCK s e a l e dA a 1 T T l e a v e r

rndar e t t

lO tnaio the Moon.

As fuel ran low scientists realised f

. I’Magnetic
SMd
v
;readings showed :that Mercury had
Manight-time temperature of about
aptly named Messenger

that they could use the solar panels J Ijl -183 and ahigher daytime
on the probe to act as sails. By Wtemperature of 187 ^C.

MEMORIES OF
THE MOON
I S The surface of
Mercury showed
multiple impact
craters, much like
the Moon.

SAFE STOWAGE

Packed away
before launch the
Mariner satellite
is carefully
checked over by
it^ NASA scientists.
a
[1] AN ORIGINAL
The modest number of

pictures taken by Mariner

10 were painstakingly
patched together by
mission scientists. A
NASA-sponsored project
is using new technology
to smooth out and colour
the original images.

[2] CALORIS BASIN

The outer rings of
the basin are up to
1 3 0 0 k m i n d i a m e t e r.

The larger impacts

created weaknesses

in Mercury's surface
through which
l a v a fl o w e d .

[3] DEGAS RAY CRATER

The light coloured rays
stretching out from
the crater are "ejecta"
-material blasted away
from the surface by the
force of the impact that
created Degas.
e i
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 m

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[4] CUFFS OF MERCURY Beneath the scorching Sun, arupes fault winds its way across the baking surface of Mercury, disrupting previously
formed features such as this mid-sized crater. As Mercury's huge core expanded early in its history, then cooled and contracted, separate

14,
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Nicolaus Copernicus marshalled all
the available evidence for aconcerted
attack on Ptolemy’s system. Wisely,
perhaps, he did not publish his
atechnique called "parallax”, where ORIGINAL MAP the gulf of space, they too had to
Created by hand,
acelestial object is sighted from be Suns in their own right. By the
this is William
opposite points of Earth’s orbit. H e r s c h e l ' s fi r s t
late 1600s, scientists such as Isaac
We will explore this method later view of the Newton believed that our solar

ideas until he was on his deathbed, Milky Way. system was adrift in anear-infinite I
on in the magazine series.
but they rightly caused ahuge stir. It soon became obvious that no sea of sunlike stars.

star had aparallax observable by

KEPLER CRACKS IT the instruments of the day, which GALAXIES BEYOND OURS
But, like Aristarchus before him, meant the stars had to lie at huge Measuring distances became an
Copernicus could not break from distances from Earth. In addition, abiding passion in astronomy.
the idea of perfect circular orbits. in order to appear bright across William Herschel’s early maps
of the stars proved that the
universe had a“shape”, but
iiTHEHISTORYOFASTRONOMYISAHISTORY it wasn’t until the 1830s that
J5
OF RECEOING HORIZONS. telescopes became powerful
Edwin Powell Hubble
enough to measure the parallax

and as aresult, his new

"heliocentric” (Sun-centred) theory
was no better at explaining the
motions of the planets. It was not
until 1609 that German astronomer
Johannes Kepler described the solar
system with its true, elliptical orbits
in his laws of planetary motion.
Kepler was just in time for the
invention of the telescope, which
proved the question beyond doubt.
INTO THE STARS
With Kepler’s laws in place, the
huge scale of the universe began to
unfold. The realisation that Earth
made an enormous loop about the
Sun gave astronomers the means to
measure the distance to stars, using
18
\BREAKTHROUGHS
WUNIVERSAL EXPANSION
he movement of galaxies observed
T by Edwin Hubble had two potential
explanations. The first is an update
of the old geocentric idea -for
some reason our own galaxy is special,
causing everything to move away from I
it fand on top of that, some mechanism
to make the more distant galaxies
move away more rapidly). The second
is far simpler -the universe (meaning
space itself, not just the objects within
it) is growing at aconstant rate and
our galaxy is simply caught up in the
general expansion. Because there is
more space between the Milky Way
|MAIN knovyn for lending his name and more distant galaxies, they move
to the most famous telescope, Edwin Hubble
measured the distance to farflung galaxies.
away more rapidly.
 of distant stars. As telescopes brought another shock. Hubble every direction bears the faint
grew in size and long-exposure noticed that nearly all the galaxies afterglow of this moment. The
m
photography became even more seemed to be moving away from radiation is very weak, and warms
GO
powerful, agreat debate raged us, and the more distant they were, space to just 2.7 degrees above
H
about the nature of the strange the faster they were retreating. absolute zero, but it can only
“spiral nebulae” in the night skies. The only convincing explanation
O
have come from the Big Bang. 7D
Some astronomers thought they for this discovery was that the Thanks to measurements

were young solar systems in orbit
close to the Milky Way. Others
believed that they were vastly
more distant and composed
of innumerable stars -in fact,
galaxies in their own right.
E X PA N D I N G H O R I Z O N S
The debate was finally settled in
1924 when Edwin Hubble carried
out the direct measurement of star
universe was not the static place
that most scientists had assumed,
but was instead expanding rapidly.
And most people agreed that if it
was expanding, the entire cosmos
must once have been compressed
to asingle point in space and time
-what we now call the Big Bang.
AN ALMIGHTY BANG
D E E P S PA C E Cosmologists have spent much
of distant galaxies, we now have
an idea of the age of the universe. o
Occurring around 13 billion years
ago, the Big Bang is surprisingly >
CO
“recent”. To put it another way,
I
the entire universe is less than three
7 0
times the age of our solar system. o
But while cosmologists think they
now have apretty good idea of
our true place in the cosmos, they
O
would be unwise to think

distances in the spiral nebulae
(distant galaxies), and proved that
such objects were, in general, many
millions of light years away.
This discovery showed that the
universe was vastly bigger than
Snapped by the of the twentieth century finding that this is the last word. For
Hubble Space
evidence for the Big Bang, and instance, there could well be
Telescope, this
image of the refining their measurements of hidden dimensions, or other
o
>
galaxies the rate of expansion. The clinching universes alongside our own.
beyond ours
proof that the universe was formed Whichever way the wheel turns,
shows the o
immensity of in agreat explosion came in 1965, another revolution in our view of

had ever been imagined, but it also the universe. with the discovery that the sky in the cosmos is almost inevitable. m

Z
H
j :
m

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m

c n

t
♦
/
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O MERCURY TRANSIT This picture of the Mercury
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transit of 2006 shows the planet as aclear dot
1 8 / 0 7 / 2 0 11
against the fiery background of the Sun.
0 2 / 0 9 / 2 0 11

2 4 / 1 2 / 2 0 11 I 14/11/2011

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05/03/2012 glllLANET MERCURY 9 !

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17/04/2012
his Mercury locator chart [left] shows the
o
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T planet’s motions through the sky over the
16/08/2012 coming years. The winding line shows Mercury’s j
changing position relative to the Sun (centre
line). The shading indicates the extent of the
26/10/2012
dawn/dusk sky around the Sun, revealing that
05/12/2012 - I

Mercury rarely makes it out of the twilight i

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into the pre-dawn or post-dusk sky. The best I
17/02/2012
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01/04/2013

URBAIN LE VERRIER
This science grandee is
one of 72 people whose
names are engraved upon
the Eiffel Tower, for their
outstanding achievements.
Jextreme reaches of the known solar system. But
VULCAN -the
HIDDEN PLANET
Supposedly situated somewhere between Mercury
and the Sun, Vulcan became the astronomical Holy Grail
of the early nineteenth century.
oday, the planet Vulcan is best known as the closer to home, there was asimilar mystery. We
home of Star Trek's Mr Spock, but in the late now know that Mercury’s orbital “wobble” is a
nineteenth century, many astronomers result of general relativity -the distortion of space
thought it was areal world -atiny, burned world itself caused by the great mass of the Sun -but in
orbiting closer to the Sun than Mercury. Le Verrier’s time, an additional inner planet
se e me d th e o b vi o u s so l u ti o n .
The saga of Vulcan began with the French
astronomer and mathematician Urbain Le Verrier. The new planet would be so close to the Sun
Though he seldom looked through atelescope. that it would only be revealed during total solar
Le Verrier made his eclipses -otherwise it
name for his precise iiIHAVELOOKEDFORTHERINTO might be seen as adark
understanding of orbital spot when it crossed the
SPACE THAN EVER HOMAN OEING
dynamics, and the way face of the Sun in a
DID BEFORE ME transit”. In 1859, Le
that each planet's
VUiiliam Herschel
Ve r r i e r r e c e i v e d a l e t t e r
gravity affects the
motion of the others. from Edmond
In 1846 he sealed his place in the history books with Lescarbault, aFrench amateur astronomer, who
his accurate prediction of the position of Neptune claimed to have seen just such an event. From
s oaccurate that the astronomer following his Lescarbault’s observations, Le Verrier calculated an
calculations found it on his first night of searching. orbit for the new planet, which he named “Vulcan
The discovery of Neptune was due largely to after the Roman god of fire. Vulcan was excitedly
[explained “wobbles” in the orbit of Uranus, at the discussed by astronomers as they prepared to
observe the solar eclipse of 1860
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COMING UP IN ISSUE 6

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PLANET
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andearth-moon SVSTEMPARTS

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!%
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irM out about the beautiful,
23-TOOTH GEAR
but deadly, planet Venus.
OUTSIZE GEAR
AXLES (MOON GEAR SET}
!Mapping the surface of Venus
from the Magellan probe.
! H o w t o l o c a t e Ve n u s i n t h e
II
V E N U S GRUB S E L F - TA P P I N G FLATHEAD
vast ocean of space.
PLANET ARM SCREW SCREWS SCREW Eaglil e m o s s Publications Ltd, 5Cromwell Road, London SW7 2HR
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BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM lA 6

APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY
'’T’nil

I-Si

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VENUS J

The LETHAL 7
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WITH THIS ISSUE: PLANET VENUS, VENUS ARM AND EARTH-MOON SYSTEM PARTS
 BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
F E AT U R E S
^YOUR SOLARSYSTEMMODEL
Use your model to see how the inferior planets have
unique patterns of movements in Earth's sky.

SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE

0 Our nearest planetary neighbour, Venus is Earth's
evil twin, with adevastatingly hostile atmosphere.

MISSIONS
Launched from the shuttle, the Magellan probe
mapped the surface of Venus in amazing accuracy.
^IMAGE GALLERY
121
Infrared and radar imaging from Galileo and Magellan
reveal fascinating details of Venus through its clouds.
T H E S TO R Y O F A S T R O N O M Y
16
.V
The first evidence of astronomy as ascience comes
from ancient Babylonian cultures.
S TA R M A P
20^
Venus is the easiest of all planets to see, shining
brightly as the morning or evening "star".
I M P O RTA N T
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kit. it must be assembled and handled
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UNEXPLAINED CREDITS I ■■ I I
In the 17th and 18th centuries, astronomers were Picture Library; 23{t) Corbis
fooled into thinking that Venus had its own moon. JPHOTOGRAPHS:
NASA/JPL;
FC
IFC Galaxy Picture Library/Robin
Scagell; 4NASA/Tunc Tezel; 6{bf)
UK/Stefano Bianchetti, (bl) The
Goddess Neithi, illustration from
C O N S U LTA N T E D I T O R : G I L E S S PA R R O W
Galaxy Picture Library/Robin 'Pantheon Egyptien: collection
ENDORSED BY: SIR PATRICK MOORE CBE FRS | Scagell. (tr) NASA; 7(t,c) NASA, des personnages mythologigues
ENCOURAGEDBY:THEINTERNATIONALASTRONOMICALUNIONI w m (b) Mary Evans Picture Library; de i'ancienne Egypte' by Jean>
4

8(t,c,br)NASA,(be)GalaxyPicture|FrancoisChampoHion,published 1
Library/JPL; 10(tl.br) NASA/JPL, c.1986 (colour lltho), French
(c) Galaxy/JPL, (bl) Topfoto/AP; School, (19th century)/Brooklyn fi i
11 (t) Corbis UK, (br) NASA;
12-13 NASA; 16(cr) Ancient Art
Museum of Art, New York, USA,
Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund/The I
8c Architecture Collection, (b)
IBridgemanArtLibrary,(br)NASA.
Corbis UK/Roger Wood; 17(t)
Topfoto/British Museum, (b) Art ARTWORKS: 5(tr) Eaglemoss
Archive; 18(t) Corbis UK/Nick Publications; 5(c), 9, 14-15, 22
Wheeler, (b) British Museum; 19(t) Pikaia Imaging.
Werner Forman Archives, (b,c)
REPRO: Stormcreative
AKG London; 20 Galaxy Picture
Publishing Ltd \

Library/Robin Scagell; 21 Courtesy

ofStanleyGibbons/CaptainCook|PRINTING:CenturyLitho(Truro)
Centenary Set; 22(t) Mary Evans ILimited

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©Eaglemoss Publications (2008). All rights reserved.
 -<

NFERIOR
o
c
x j
E V E N I N G S TA R
LD
In spring and early
summer, Venus appears as o
abright star in the west
shortly after sunset. >
7 0
L D
<
CO
H
srcury and Venus both orbit closer nterms of their orbits, the planets of the Solar m

System have long been split into two distinct

to the Sun than Earth. This gives
:Jie
maunique pattern of movements
■ U I
Earth's sky, which your solar system
model is designed to reflect.
groups -inferior planets with orbits that are
inside Earth’s, and superior planets with orbits that
O
are outside.
Whether aplanet is inferior or superior has a D
huge effect on the way it moves when viewed
m

from Earth. Superior planets make long, relatively

s l o w circles (with some complicating loops) that

can carry them all the way around the sky and
Z
deep into the nighttime constellations that l e

directly opposite the Sun.

-X)

NTHE f
O

Inferior planets i n contrast, make rapid loops X )

away from the Sun and then back towards it as if >

tethered by invisible elastic. They seldom get far
m
enough from the Sun to appear in atruly dark sky
C O
instead we see them as permanent residents of
the morning and evening twilight. The way these
planets move has even influenced their names
Mercury, Which can only ever be glimpsed for
afew nights at atime, is named after the fleet-
footed mg||enger of the Greek gods, while brilliant
Venus is s'oi
i^es known by the alternative
names of rand Hesper, the morning and
evening*^sfars.
#
G L O S S A R Y
Degree: Ameasurement
of angle in the sky. There
are 360 degrees in a
circle around the entire
horizon, and 90 degrees
from the horizon to the
point directly overhead
(the zenith).
LOOPS IN THE SKY
Acomposite photo of
Venus's path, clearly
showing how you can
view the entire orbit of
an inferior planet.
15 December 2000
Because the inferior planets always stay close
to the Sun we can see their entire orbits abit like
an edge-on dinner plate. Venus’s orbit covers 93
degrees of the sky (see Glossary) so even when the
planet lies on the outer edge of its orbit as seen
from Earth, it is never more than 47 degrees from
the Sun. For Mercury, the situation is even more
extreme -at best it can reach amaximum of 28
degrees away from the Sun, so it is only ever seen
against fairly bright skies.
SIGNIFICANT POINTS
During each orbit around the Sun, an inferior
planet passes through anumber of significant
points in its orbit called conjunctions and
elongations (see Conjunctions and elongations).
Because these points depend on the relative
positions of Earth and the inferior planet, and both
worlds are moving, it takes longer than aMercury
! «
#
f .
4
or Venus year for them to return to the same
position relative to each other.
In general, Venus returns to the same location
relative to Earth every 584 days, and Mercury does
the same in 116 days.
SHIFTING PHASES
Inferior planets have one other important
difference from the superior worlds -they show
phases (see Glossary) similar to those of the
Moon. These arise because our changing point of
view allows us to see different proportions of the
planet’s daylight, sun-facing side at different points
in its orbit.
When it is on the same side of the Sun as Earth,
the planet will appear to have the largest diameter,
but most of its sunlit side will be facing away from
Earth and towards the Sun, so it will display a
crescent phase. On the far side of its orbit relative
1March 2001
V -
m m
:
 -<
HOW IT WORKS o
©INFERIORPLANETSONTHEMODEL Superior
CZ
conjunction 7 0
iU
of the Sun and setting behind it in
The
overhead
your solar viewprovided
system model by
makes the evening sky.
Inferior
CO

it easy to tell where aplanet lies in Sonne orreries use alightbulb to

conjunction
o
space compared to the Earth. represent the Sun. In this case,
Inferior conjunctions take place you are able to view the rising and
TO
when the planet lies in between the setting and waxing and waning of
4 CO
Earth and the Sun, and superior the planets quite clearly.
conjunctions when the planet is on By advancing your model’s motor -<
'Sc; the opposite, or farthest, side of slowly and studying the angle CO
m 1
the Sun from Earth. between Sun, Earth and planet,
At other times, if aline from the you can identify the points of m
planet to the Earth has the Sun on greatest eastern and western
its left, the planet is to the west of elongations. Allowing the motor to
the Sun and rises ahead of it in the run in this way will even work out
morning, while if the line has the the visible phase of the planet (see
Sun on its right, the planet is east Phases below]. G r e a t e s t
O
elongation west
a
m

PHASES This illustration

shows why you see

changing proportions of
Ve n u s ' s f a c e i n a s i m i l a r
to Earth, the planet will be much more distant, but
an observer will be able to see more of Venus’s
0
z
daylit side, so it will appear “gibbous”, with a T ]

way that you do with the phase between half and full. m
7 0
face of the Moon.
o
VIEWING VENUS 7 D

Inferior planets are typically at their most T )

C r e s c e n t brilliant in the sky about halfway between their

greatest elongation and inferior conjunction m
(see Conjunctions and elongations), when the CO
proportion of the daylight side visible and the
planet’s relative closeness to Earth combine to
maximum effect.

Tracing the changes in their phase, size and

^GLOSSARY
Phase: The amount of
apparent brightness (which is most easily done
daylit surface of the with Venus) is afascinating study for anyone with
planet or moon visible to asmall telescope or even agood pair of binoculars
t h e o b s e r v e r.
(7x50 or 10x50 will be ideal).

INSIDE lIMFO

C Q N J U N C T I O N S A N D E L O N G AT I O N S

\jhen aplanet lies on the far side of the face of the Sun. When they do, the event
tthe Sun from Earth, it is said to be at is known as atransit.

superior conjunction, and when it is on exactly
the same side of the Sun as Earth, it is at
inferior conjunction (a conjunction is simply a
coming-together of two objects in the sky as
viewed from Earth).
Although when seen from above (see
Phases) the inferior planets appear to lie
directly between the Sun and the Earth, In
reality Venus and Mercury rarely pass across
Some way to the east and west of inferior
conjunction lie two other special points
known as the greatest eastern and western
“elongations” -these are the points where
the angle between the Sun, Earth and the
planet is at its greatest, so the planet is at
its greatest distance from the Sun in the sky.
At this point, you will have the longest time
to see it before sunrise or after sunset.

<F
 PLANET
Despite being named after the ' V.

Roman goddess of love and V -

beauty, Venus, our nearest A -

planetary neighbour, BEAST

The beauty of Venus, as ^

is Earth's evil twin seen from Earth; b e l ll e s

-its boiling, choking, the true fiery face of ^

Wthis hellish planet. i
m

crushing atmosphere ^pelted with acid rain and

scoured by molten lava.
utterly hostile to life.

sthe most brilliant

A object in the sky after

the Sun and Moon, it’ s
little wonder that Venus has

fascinated people since early

times. Ancient skywatchers saw
this blazing “star” as the
personification of the goddess of
love. Today we know that it’s a
world in its own right -one that hHUH
offers astartling comparison with
our own.

Venus circles the Sun once every

225 days, at an average distance of
about 108 million km (67 million miles).
This is closer to the Sun than Earth’s own

average distance of 150 million km (93 /

million miles). With adiameter of 12,104km

(7521 miles) the planet is only alittle smaller than O O

PLANET PROFILE VENUS

m WiT?

a
■l i
B E A U T Y

Even in twilight, Venus J

easily outshines the
stars and other planets, j
appearing low down in ^
the morning and evening
sky for weeks at atime. ^
 *

CO
Earth, so we might expect conditions on Venus to
be similar to those on our own planet (if alittle
O
warmer). It’s no wonder, then, that astronomers
once conjectured that its thick cloud layer might
conceal ahospitable and inhabitable world. CO
Unfortunately for those with dreams of exotic
Venusians, robot space probes sent to investigate VENUS IN COLOUR B A C K WA R D P L A N E T CO
Ve n e r a 1 3 w a s t h e fi r s t
the planet quickly revealed the hellish truth -slight The rotation period of the planet was amystery
probe to photograph the
differences from Earth have combined to make
surface in colour -part of until astronomers managed to bounce radar
Venus one of the deadliest environments in the the craft itself is visible. signals off the surface. Surprisingly, it turned out
solar system. that Venus takes longer to rotate on its axis 0
The thick, choking atmosphere is dominated by (243 Earth days) than it does to go round the d
carbon dioxide (CO2), Sun (225 Earth days).
a
producing surface Even more remarkably, Venus is spinning m
pressures ahundred backwards. One theory to explain this strange
times greater than behaviour is that the planet has been slowed by
those on Earth. A the friction generated by its thick atmosphere.
runaway greenhouse Another is that the planet is actually “upside
effect has pushed down’’, knocked over by ahuge cosmic collision
surface temperatures occurring very soon after its formation. T l
to 480°C (896T);
>
and sulphuric acid MISSIONS TO VENUS
condenses in the The first space missions to investigate conditions H
atmosphere to form a on Venus were the Soviet Venera probes. The
highly corrosive type early Veneras were designed mainly to analyse
of acid rain. Consequently any object reaching the S PA C E S U R V E Y O R the planet’s atmosphere but Veneras 1, 2and 3
The Pioneer Orbiter
planet’s surface is simultaneously crushed, melted failed to relay any information, either because
was just 1.2m high
and burnt. faults developed en route or planetary
and 2.5m across yet
carried abattery of conditions proved too hostile. Veneras 4, 5and
fBENEATH THE CLOUDS instruments including a 6provided useful data and in 1970 Venera 7
magnetometer at the
The clouds that cloak Venus’s upper atmosphere end of a4.7m boom, made the first successful landing. But it was not
are dazzlingly bright, reflecting up to 80 per cent of to map the planet's until 1975 that the first pictures of the planet’s
the sunlight shining on the planet. To show detail, magnetic field. surface were returned.

scientists photograph them usin s p e c i a One of the USA’s Pioneer space missions to
techniques. These images reveal that the clouds Venus in the late 1970s released acluster of mini

circulate around the planet every four Earth days, probes that parachuted into the atmosphere in
creating vast arrow patterns. different areas. They revealed that the clouds on

SCI-FI

JUNGLE PLANET

enus has long been apopular Writers imagined that exotic

\
V setting for science fiction. Ever alien life forms thrived there,
since the 1930s, when the ranging from man-eating plants to
respected Swedish chemist Svante alien dinosaur-like ceatures.
Arrhenius theorized that the thick

cloud enveloping the planet was

water vapour, it was assumed
W A T E R W O R L D
Venus was drenched by perpetual
Sci-fi artist Frank RPaul painted this
rain, creating conditions that would
aquatic city of colourful Venusians for
support alush jungle landscape. a1941 edition of Amazinq Stories.
 Venus are very high in the sky and that below
©BREAK
LT
HR
A NO
DU
IG
NH
GS
S ON VENUS about 45km (28 miles) the atmosphere is clear
(mainly because conditions are so hot at this level
hen Soviet scientists lost contact with Venera 7during its that clouds cannot condense). The huge amount of
w final descent on 15 December 1970, they wrote off the space atmospheric carbon dioxide traps solar radiation,
mission as afailure. But later analysis of the radio signals showed creating apowerful greenhouse effect.
that avery faint transmission had continued. What was more, this
analysis revealed that the pressure and temperature around the THE GREENHOUSE PLANET
probe had remained constant for atime, indicating that Venera 7
had touched down safely on Venusian ground. Earth and Venus formed close together in the solar
Just over four years later, Venera 9sent back the first black and system, so both planets probably started with a
white pictures of the surface. In 1982, Veneras 13 and 14 returned similar quantity of surface water. There’s even
colour images that evidence Venus once had oceans and amilder
revealed that the
climate than today. However, the planet is closer to
ground around the
landing sites consists the Sun and experienced higher temperatures over
mainly of cracked billions of years, which increased the amount of
plates of what water vapour entering the atmosphere. The vapour
was thought to be acted as agreenhouse gas, letting solar radiation
volcanic rock.
through to warm the planet’s surface, but then
trapping the heat in the
atmosphere, and
pushing the
temperatures ever
higher until all the
HAPPY LANDING w a t e r h a d b o i l e d o ff
The Venera 9lander
survived for 53 minutes
the surface and

a f ter touch down, relaying become vapour.

the first pictures of the Powerful UV
surface of the planet.
radiation then split the
vapour into oxygen and
hydrogen atoms, which
were blown away by

TECHNOLOGY

RADAR MAPPING

nits simplest form, radar mapping from

Ispace involves firing radio waves at a
VENUS CONCEALED
Until the space age,
planet’s surface and measuring how long Ve n u s h i d i t s s e c r e t s
it takes for the “echoes” to bounce back.
behind athick layer
Radio waves return earlier from tall o f r e fl e c t i v e c l o u d .
landscape features, which are slightly To see any detail
closer to the probe, and later from small the clouds had to be

features and depressions. If the probe’s photographed using

orbit is plotted precisely, it is then UV light (far left).
relatively easy to map the surface.
More sophisticated radar systems, such
as that used by the Magellan probe, fire VENUS REVEALED
alonger “chirp” of radio waves to create To create this picture
amore detailed picture. By calculating
of the surface, images
the strength, angle and speed at which from the Magellan
radio waves return, scientists measure probe were combined
the elevation, slope and roughness of the with data from the
Pioneer Orbiter and
area being surveyed, and can even note
variations in the mineral composition of mapped on to a
the Venusian landscape. PC-simulated globe.
 HOW IT WORKS

yf
>
enus is slightly smaller than Earth
V but its structure is essentially LD
s i m i l a r. A t I t s c o r e I s a b a l l o f s o l i d
- <
metal, which Is surrounded by a
sphere of molten iron and nickel.
Amantle of semi-molten rock lies
between the core and the crust that

covers the planet’s surface. This crust

Is, on average, tens of kilometres G)
deep -about the same thickness as c
the Earth’s crust.

But there is an important difference o

Venus lacks an underlying “slippery”
layer, called the asthenosphere, that
on our planet enables the tectonic
plates to slide around -so-called
“continental drift”. Scientists think
this lack of crust movement is Solid iron and nickel

associated in part with the absence of inner core

water on the planet surface.

HOTHOUSE
AT M O S P H E R E
Infrared images from the
Venus Express orbiter
reveal the huge amount
of heat trapped in the
Venusian cloud layers.
the solar wind streaming off the Sun. Once Venus
lost all its water there was nothing to absorb the
CO2 being pumped out by the planet’s many
volcanoes. CO2 is also agreenhouse gas and came
to dominate in the atmosphere, further increasing
global warming.
C H A RT I N G T H E S U R FA C E
Space probes orbiting Venus mapped the
surface using radar equipment which could
penetrate the clouds and provide detailed
billion years since both planets were formed. With
less heat, scientists assumed there would be less
volcanic activity than on Earth.
What was more, there were surprisingly few
meteorite craters (even allowing for the planet’s
thick atmosphere). Craters build up on aplanet’s
surface over time, so their absence suggested the
landscape was relatively young -afew hundred
m i ion years old (about one tenth of its history).
UNDER PRESSURE

images of the landscape. These images revealed Scientists think the lack of tectonic plates helps
that the planet has several broad highland explain both the youthful surface and the number
plateaux capped with volcanoes and separated of volcanoes. Venus’s initially cooler interior,
by rolling plains and deep, sinuous canyons. combined with the absence of surface water

Unlike Earth, however, the crust is not split into (which helps to “lubricate” tectonic plates on
distinct sections (called tectonic plates on Earth). Earth) meant the planet was unable to form aplate
This apparently minor difference is one key to system. This prevented the planet’s internal heat
the planet’s climate crisis. from “venting” through the joints between the
The Magellan probe entered orbit around Venus plates, as it does on Earth.
in 1990 and spent three years mapping the planet As aconsequence, heat builds up beneath the
with the most sophisticated radar available. This surface. Every few hundred million years, the
allowed scientists back on Earth to build up adetailed internal pressures become too great and molten
global map of the planet, using computer technology. lava erupts on to the surface, reshaping the planet
Venus turned out to be aworld entirely dominated by by forming volcanoes and wiping away most of the
volcanoes In many different shapes and forms. older landscape
The presence of so many volcanoes came as
asurprise. Venus Is slightly smaller than Earth
and so should have started life with less Internal

heat and cooled down more quickly over the 4.5

9
The Magellan probe provided the most
comprehensive images of almost the entire
surface of Venus in unprecedented detail
agellan was the first
interplanetary probe
to he launched from
NASA’s reusable spacecraft,:^
Space Shuttle. Named after
sixteenth-century Pdituguese
explorer, Ferdinand Magell^, it
created the fist and still the best
high-resolution map of Vent^.:
Launched aboard the shuttle
Atlantis from the KennedySp^fe
Center in Florida on 4IVfey 1989,
the probe was released from the
shuttle’s cargo bay about six hours
into the mission. Less than an
hour later, the rocket motors placed surface and at its mmimum as far
Magellan on the correct away as 8542km.
interpfa^tary trajec^^ towards Because Venus is dirouded in a
Venus. The actual journey, including dense, c^que atmosphere,
one and half loops of the Sun and conventional cameras coidd not be
released m t h e
two mid-course cor^ctions, took used to map the surface. Instead,
Space Shuttle's
cargo bay in low 15 months. The spacecraft arrived Magellan took advantage of
Earth orbit. at Venus on 10 August 1990. imaging radar, using bursts of
microwave energy to illuminate the
surface abit like acamera flash.
Once there, Magellan’s rocket Millions of microwave pulses
motor fired again to place the were sent at aslight angle to the
spacecraft in orbit around the planet's surface every second and
planet. The orbit was highly the echoes that resulted when they
elliptical -so that at its closest, bounced back were then collected.
Magellan was just 294km from the This data was transmitted back to
I
 m : - : : r

hemisphere of Venus.

VENUS GLOBE

THE
ii MISSI0N..ii(0TONLYFUiFILLEDITSSCIENCE
VA P O R I S E D O N R E - E N T R Y
■M
IWO OF|flONSTRArED
^INNQiRTIVE p
S10N5J
I 1^1 Dr €Sfoiitv mDiro^
i i
t i l l

m m :

measured and recorded a20km- By the end of the third, ei

wide strip of the planet ssurface. cycle on 14 September 1992
The boundary As the spacecraft reached the high Magellan had successfully mapp^
between the
point of its orbit, the antenna was 98 per cent of the planet’s surfi
lowland plains tu r ned towards Earth and
and equatorial The following three eight-month heat or re-entry, some pieces
highlands of transmitted the data it had cycles were used for collecting data svtrm^ to crash on tcMSte surface
Aphrodite Terra. collected After transmitting for
almost 114 minutes, the on-board
computer repositioned the antenna
for another orbit to map the
adjacent strip of the surface.

Venus itself spins once every 243

Earth days. As the planet rotated
beneath the orbiting spacecraft,
Magellan collected strip after strip
of radar image data.
By the end of its first eight-
month cycle, between September
1990 and May 1991, Magellan had
mapped 84 per cent of Venus’s
 VENUS th r o u 1the CLOUDS
With each mission to Venus more fascinating details of the planet
have been revealed. From pictures of its acid atmosphere we now
have high-quality images of the surface.

ubsequent missions to Venus have used

S various technologies to image the planet.

Whereas NASA’s Galileo spacecraft used
infrared cameras to reveal the lower clouds around
4

the planet, Magellan employed radar-imaging

equipment to help scientists create detailed three-
dimensional maps of the planet’s surface.
Because it is similar in size, density and
proximity to the Sun, early astronomers expected
that Venus would share an Earth-like environment.

But the picture that has emerged is quite different.

The biggest question is whether the current state
of Venus could hold many clues for global change
of our own planet.

[2]

(1) LOWER ATMOSPHERE (2) UPPER ATMOSPHERE

This picture, taken by
Galileo in February 1990,
from 100,000km above
the surface, is an infrared
image of the low-level
c l o u d s a r o u n d Ve n u s .
The red represents the
radiant heat of the lower
atmosphere at about
200X.
The full beauty of
Venus photographed,
at arange of almost
2.7 million km, also
by Galileo. The photo,
taken in February 1990,
has been coloured and
filtered to emphasise the
clouds of sulphuric acid
that cloak the planet.

12
i
 >
o
m
S»^,:
o
@ > 9 ^ ” >

?■: ^’' ‘I

(3) DICKINSON CRATER (4) THREE CRATERS (5) EFFECT OF WIND

This highly detailed Asingle frame of avideo Avolcano in the Parga
Magellan image is of produced from data Chasma region of
the 'Dickinson' crater collected by Magellan. Venus, taken with the
in the north-eastern It shows three craters radar imaging cameras
Atalanta Region of in the north-western aboard Magellan. Winds
Ve n u s . T h e c r a t e r i s 6 9 k m portion of Lavinia scouring the surface of
in diameter and and is Planitia. The simulated the planet in anorth-
the result of ameteorite colours are based on westerly direction
impact followed by a colour images recorded have created the white

volcanic eruption from by the Soviet Venera 13 deposit of material 35km

w i t h i n Ve n u s . and 14 spacecraft. long and 10km wide.
 61

[6] DESCENT THROUGH THE CLOUDS This artist's impression shows the Soviet Venera 7probe parachuting through the sulphur clouds of
Venus on 15 December 1970. Rapid descent through the upper atmosphere helped to slow the egg-shaped titanium capsule to asteady

14
 >
CD
m

CD
>

- <

speed, then the parachute opened at an altitude of around 60km. In the end, the parachute failed just 10 metres above the surface, but the
probe made it to the surface intact, and sent back the first signals from the surface of an alien planet.
 BABYLON IAN
ASTRONOMY
Although the Egyptians have left us the earliest star maps,
the first evidence for astronomy as ascience comes from the
Near East, and the ancient cultures of Mesopotamia.

Most of what we know about I .

he region once known as
Mesopotamia (from the Greek Mesopotamian astronomy comes
for “between rivers”) lies in from one particular city and people
modern-day Iraq between the rivers -ancient Babylon. This city was
Tigris and Euphrates. It has long founded around 2400bc and rose
been known as the cradle of to dominate the region between
civilization, for it was here that the the 18th and 16th centuries bc. It
first cities were built, more than flourished again in abrief century
7000 years ago. It was also in of independence around 600bc.
Mesopotamia that the earliest Fortunately, despite repeated
writing was established, in the form regional conflicts and occasional
of cuneiform clay tablets, and here waves of conquest from outside,
that the earliest astronomers made there was aremarkable continuity
their observations and calculations. of civilization, so that when
VENUS OF
BABYLON

Ivory carving of
the love goddess
Ishtar, linked to
the planet Venus.

rr ‘

SPACETEMPLE^I^
The Elamite ziggurat orj
holy observatory was
wrecked In 640bc.|
f'/.

'Jt-.

- - : l
fS.
tf-
 H
and father of the Sun god Shamash.
I
Astarte or Ishtar, the goddess of m
love and war, was linked to the
CO
/ / -? planet we now call Venus.
✓
These gods were worshipped
I O
in grand stepped temples called
ziggurats (from aphrase in the
^ '

Akkadian language, meaning “built

on araised area”). Ziggurats have
O
long been thought to have an
astronomical purpose -they were >
CO
frequently dedicated to the various
sky gods, and originally had shrines
';A for sacrifices, and probably also for o
observation, at their peaks.

STARS AS PREDICTORS
o
SKY WORSHIP European scholars managed to very first civilisation -the so-called Like all ancient civilizations, the
Babylonian seals decipher cuneiform inscriptions, Sumerian people whose cities Babylonians made no distinction
were engraved
they found the entire history of included Ur and Uruk. between the science of astronomy,
with sky gods
-identified by the region, including many of its The Sumerians were and its fanciful cousin, astrology.
CD
their pointy hats. scientific records, was laid out undoubtedly the original namers The urge to predict the movements >
before them. of many constellations (see of planets and stars in order to C D
-<
glossary) that survive to this day. foretell events on Earth was the
G L O S S A R Y S U M E R I A N S K Y WAT C H E R S o
For instance, they saw ascorpion main reason for taking akeen z
Constellations:
The first detailed astronomical in modern Scorpius (with its claws interest in the night sky.
Imagined patterns >
made of stars in
observations from Babylon record where Libra now lies), abull in However, the astronomers
the night sky. it
is thought that
the motions of the planet Venus Taurus, and ashepherd where the of Babylon had asurprisingly >
c n
ancient farmers during the reign of King Ammisaduqa, hunter Orion now stands. sophisticated understanding of the H
created them to X I
in the 18th century bc, but even the Each Sumerian city had its own relationship between the Earth and
help remind them o
of the seasons earliest Babylonian culture was the patron gods, and these were often the heavens. They did not believe
for planting and culmination of several millennia of associated with astronomical that Earthly events were caused by
h a r v e ! :ing crops,
o
development, dating back to the objects -Sin was the Moon god the movements of celestial objects.
■<

TECHNOLOGY

THE TOWER OF BABEL

he most famous of with avariety of languages

T all ziggurats was the so they might never again
Etemenanki at Babylon, co-operate on such agrand
scheme.
sometimes called the Temple
of the Seven Lights of the This may be agarbled
Earth (a reference to the seven memory of Babylon and the
tower’s decline after its
prominent objects of the sky
-the planets, Moon and Sun). conquest by the Kassites
This towering monument, around 1590bc. When king
91m tall and built on seven Nabopalassar led Babylon
storeys, is the origin of the back to independence in the
B i b l i c a l t a l e o f t h e To w e r 7th century bc, casting off
of Babel. This tower rising the shackles of Assyrian
towards the heavens proved domination, he launched a
so ambitious that God decided grand building project that
to confound its builders and included reconstruction of

scatter them, cursing them the ziggurat.

 might coincide with another such
event on Earth.
Babylonian astronomers were
particularly interested in the first
m
and last appearances of stars and
planets in the sky before sunrise
or after sunset. These could act as
omens, but certain stars were also
used to mark the beginnings of
W J
A
calendar months (see below).
i
However, while the plains of
Mesopotamia offered them an ideal
-the period in which the moon’s
phases repeat -to within a
couple of minutes of the currently
accepted value.
THE BABYLONIAN CALENDAR
The other great Mesopotamian
concern was in accurate keeping of
the time and date. In the daytime,
they measured time by the Sun,
and at night they kept track using
water clocks.

CCTHEPURETORCHTHATFLARESINTHESKY, M
THE HEAUENLY LIGHT SHINING BRIGHT LIKE THE DAY.
Sumerian prayer to the Goddess Venus

flat horizon, they still encountered Because their mathematics

problems with the perpetual was based on the number 60

dust near the surface -the need (rather than the number 10 used
to observe at ahigher level may in the decimal system), they are
have been one reason for the responsible for the 60 seconds in a
construction of the ziggurats. minute, and 60 minutes in an hour
By the Neo-Babylonian that we still use today.
times of Nebuchadnezzar, However, the date was a
B A B Y L O N G AT E but instead that history moved in they had accumulated more different matter -in order to
Entry to Babylon great cycles, and that heavenly than amillennium of detailed keep things relatively simple, the
was through the
Ishtar gate, now patterns reflected these. So, if, for observations, which allowed them Babylonians used asystem of
rebuilt, which example, an alignment of planets to understand the motions of twelve 30-day months making up a
was dedicated
in the morning sky coincided the planets with unprecedented 360-day year. Each new month was
to the love

goddess.
with the death of aking, then the accuracy. For instance, they had measured from the first appearance
oappearance of asimilar alignment worked out the “synodic month” of the crescent moon in the evening

BREAKTHROUGHS

0 USING THE RECORDS

ince the mid-19th they discovered the first

s century, archaeologists Mesopotamian observation
have unearthed several of Halley’s Comet in 164bc,
Mesopotamian libraries, and used this information to
each one acollection assess how the comet’s orbit

of clay tablets stamped has evolved over the past

with cuneiform symbols.
Their finds Include many
astronomical records (and
several copies of the “Mul.
Apin” compendium, source of
most of our information about
Mesopotamian astronomy).
Modern astronomers
2000 years.
Another study has taught us
more about our own planet.
By tracking down the dates
and times of ancient eclipses,
for example, astronomers
from Durham University were
have able to calculate the rate at

put these meticulous records which the Earth’s rotation is

to good use. For instance, slowing down.

 H
Although no longer independent,
I
the city continued to flourish for
almost three centuries.
CO
1
FIRST PLANET MODELS
O
By classical times the Babylonian
astronomers had developed
sophisticated mathematical models
for predicting the calendar and the
O
motions of the planets -they were
even aware of the long, slow >
CO
changes caused by precession, the I
25,800-year “wobble” of Earth’s 7Q
axis (see glossary). O
■t ■
m.-'
■
Wc '
In this final form (and particularly
after Alexander the Great
■' ■■
O
f
y .
conquered the Achaemenid Empire
in 331bc), Babylonian ideas spread
' m ;
■
■■ ■!^'1 out from Mesopotamia -they were
to be apowerful influence on later
Greek and Islamic astronomy.
0
CD

>
S TA R S Y M B O L S CD
sky, although there were special STONE RECORD - <
Priests used
provisions to back-date amonth Boundary
symbols such W o
if the observation of the crescent stones (kudurru)
as stars and the
indicated land
moon was delayed. crescent moon to
>
ownership and
The 360-day year length is the represent gods. often recorded

origin of our angular measurement astronomy data. >

0 0
system of 360 degrees in acircle H
m : :x)
(with 60 “minutes of arc” of 60 n o
seconds each within that).
- r

I * - .
o
ECLIPSES FORETOLD
-<
With just 360 days in ayear, the
calendar would rapidly drift out of
sync with the Mesopotamian
seasons, and Babylonian
astronomers knew that it was an

oversimplified model. Fortunately,

they had also worked out that there
are almost precisely 235 synodic
LION RIDER
months in 19 solar years. Venus was seen
This meant that careful addition
as the goddess
of seven extra “intercalary” months Ishtar riding the
across each 19-year period would sky on alion.
keep the calendar in step with the
seasons. The precise understanding G L O S S A R Y
Axis: The
of the lunar cycle even allowed the imaginary line
Babylonians to predict eclipses of around which an

the Moon. object like aplanet

rotates. Earth’s
In 539bc, Babylon was axis is aline

conquered and absorbed into the through the North"

and South Po'—
first Persian (Achaemenid) Empire.
VENUS the
I

GODDESS
I
I

As the brightest planet in the sky, Venus is easily seen with the
naked eye. When visible, Venus appears in the eastern sky in the
morning and the western sky in the evening.

enus shines brilliantly in the dawn or dusk as from full to crescent-shaped. When it appears farthest

V the so-called morning or evenin: star

Many people will have seen Venus without

realizing that it is not astar at all but our nearest
from the Sun, as viewed from Earth -known as
greatest elongation -Venus is half-illuminated.
Venus is brightest when closer to Earth, appearing
S TA R - B R I G H T
planetary neighbour. as anarrow crescent. At such times, the crescent
Venus always
appears brighter Venus takes seven and ahalf months to orbit the phase can be seen clearly through binoculars. Venus
in the sky than Sun, alternately gracing the morning and evening sky. appears small and full when farthest from us, as the
even the
Brighter than any star or the other planets, it is easily whole surface of the planet then reflects the Sun's light
brightest of the
stars. The planet seen in twilight up to several hours before sunrise directly towards Earth.
can be seen or after sunset. So dazzling does it become that it is Blanketed by unbroken cloud, Venus shows almost
most easily when frequently reported as ahovering UFO. no features apart from vague dusky streaks and
the Sun Is very
low on the Through atelescope, Venus displays acycle of brighter cloud caps at the poles. It is best observed
horizon. phases as it orbits the Sun, just like the Moon, ranging against atwilight sky.

©'GODDESS
LOVE
OF
tfirst, the ancient Greeks thought
A Venus was two separate objects,
naming it Phosphoros when seen in the
morning sky and Hesperos in the
evening. Later, when the two were
recognized to be the same, the planet
 enus is so intensely bright it is hard to
00
o
V miss in aclear sky, so no particular skill or
O 0 9 / 0 6 / 8 0 0 8 O knowledge of the sky is necessary to find this >
OJ O
00 spectacular planet. Look to the west in the TJ
evening sky or to the east in the morning sky
around the dates shown on the chart.

Morning elongations follow about five months

after evening ones, as the planet passes <
1 5 / 0 1 / 2 0 0 9

between the Earth and the Sun (pictured).

But nearly 15 months elapse between evening e
C O
CD and morning elongations because Venus has
i -
S 0 5 / 0 6 / 2 0 0 9■ to move around the far side of the Sun before
o
c v
reappearing.

o
<
m

1 1 / 0 1 / 2 0 1 0 Q
HOW IT WORKS
O
^TRANSITS OF VENUS D
o O
5 ery rarely, Venus can be seen passing
m
C O

z
c v

1 9 / 0 8 / 2 0 1 U V across the face of the Sun, an event C O

known as atransit. Transits of Venus

J J
29/10/2010 occur in pairs, but each pair is more than
acentury apart. The last Venus transit
Z 0 8 / 0 1 / 2 0 11 Z was in June 2004 and the next will be on

5-6 June 2012, lasting over six hours.

LU
After that, the next pair will not be until
2 11 7 and 2125.
> s : r o
o o The postage stamp below shows
c v

CT explorer Captain James Cook (1728

LU 1 6 / 0 8 / 2 0 11
1779) and astronomer Charles Green
(kneeling) in Tahiti in 1769 observing
the transit of Venus. Naturalist Daniel

Solander stands in the background ready

to record the event. To avoid being blinded
26/03/2012 by the Sun, the trio viewed the transit
c v
through coloured filters -amethod not
o
0 6 / 0 6 / 2 0 1 2 r u recommended today! The stamp was
o
c v
r u
issued by Tuvalu, aPolynesian island in
15/08/2012
the Pacific, to mark the bicentenary of the
explorer’s death.

CO
r -

o
CV

PHASED IN
Like the moon,
Ve n u s s h o w s

phases: small
and full when

farthest away
and large and
crescent-shaped
as it nears Earth.
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COMING UP IN ISSUE 7
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m m . v o l c a n i c s u r f a c e o f Ve n u s .
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!The Russian space probe Venera

and its mission to Venus.
#

Eaglemoss Publications Ltd, 5Cromwell Road, London SW7 2HR

C€ WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
Keep out of reach of children. Keep this information for reference.
Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.

.Place aregular order with

your newsagent today
 (N) An Eaglemoss Publication -Every Week UK £5.99 Malta €8.99 Australia $14.95

BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM ^
t

APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY

■>V

' ^ I t

scover a 500 m i

yeir-old surface shaped

by

>

1 3 6 - T O O T H E N G R AV E D G E A R C O M P L E T E S S TA G E 2 P H A S E 1
 BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
F E AT U R E S I M P O R TA N T m
!The orrery Is aprecision-engineered
kit. it must be assembled and handled
I
!Parts not to be sold separately.
!The publisher cannot replace any
with care to prevent damage to its parts that are damaged or lost by the
YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL
30 Complete the assembly of Stage 2Phase 1and take
parts, and stored or displayed safely to
ensure no parts are lost.
!Never use liquids or solvents to clean
the parts. For best care, use the
customer without charge.
!The publisher cannot be responsible
for any damage that may occur as a
result of incorrect assembly or
acloser look at how the engraved gear will be used. polishing cloth and dusting brushes mishandling of the orrery. Please ensure
supplied with the toolkit (free to you read ail the instructions thoroughly
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE subscriptions customers). when assembling the parts.

0 Explore the surface of Earth's nearest neighbour,

*When assembling parts, lay them on <
fiat table and keep screws and aih a l l
items on atray so they can't roll away
!All tools must be used with care,
following any safety guidelines provided
by the manufacturer.
Venus, where laval plains surround soaring volcanoes. and get lost. Unpack all parts carefully. !The publisher cannot be responsible
!The publisher reserves the right to for any injuries caused by any tools or
alter parts and their design at any time. materials.
EMISSIONS
10
During the Soviet vs American space race, Venera
probes gathered remarkable data about Venus.

IMAGE GALLERY
121
Three-dimensional imagery and electronic colouring
provide specular views of Venus's landscapes.

THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

16
From the 6th century bc, Greek scientists started to
apply mathematics to astronomical observations.

S TA R M A P
20
Recalling Greek legend, Pisces is seen as two fish
swimming in opposite directions, joined by acord

UNEXPLAINED
An occasional glow, the ashen light on the night side of
Venus has stirred much debate among astronomers.
C O N S U LTA N T E D I T O R : G I L E S S PA R R O W -CREDITS ■■ I I I
E N D O R S E D B Y : S I R PAT R I C K M O O R E C B E F R S
PHOTOGRAPHS: FC NASA/JPL; History Archive, (cl) Science &
E N C O U R A G E D B Y: T H E I N T E R N AT I O N A L A S T R O N O M I C A L U N I O N IFC NASA/CR O'Dell/Hubbie Rice Society; 20-21 Galaxy Picture
^University; 5(c,b) NASA/JPL, (t) Ubrary/Robin Scagell; 21(b) NASA;
'NASA/Thierry Lombry/APOD; 6 21 (br) Galaxy Picture Library/NSF/
NASA/JPL; 7Galaxy Picture Library/ Todd Boroson/NOAO/AURA; 22
JPL; 8(t,c) NASA/JPL; 9{t) NASA/ Galaxy Picture Library/David Gray;
NSSDC, (b) NASA/JPL; 10(t,br) 23(t) Rex Features Ltd/Patrick
NASA/NSSDC, (bc) Corbis UK, (cl) Grover, (bl) Topfoto/World History
mTopfoto; 11 (tl,tr) NASA/NSSDC, Archive, (br) Topfoto/Print
^(bc,br)
Galaxy
PictureLibrary/ Collector/HIp.
yDonaldPMitchell;
12-13 NASA/
BJPL;16(t)BridgemanArtLibrary/ ILLUSTRATIONS: 4Eaglemoss
BTheStapletonCollection,(cl) Publications/Julian Fletcher; 7-8,
BBrldgen^an Art Library/Bibliotheque 14-15 Pikaia Imaging.
b|
DesArts
Decoratifs Archives
BCharmet;17(t) NASA/Sun-Earth REPRO: Stormcreative

BDay Team, (cr) Mary Evans Picture Publishing Limited

mLibrary/Alsa Media, 17(b) AKG
^j,|LondonLtd;18(t)Topfoto,(c)AKG PRINTING; Century Litho (Truro)
iIii, fLondon Ltd; 19(t) Topfoto/World Limited

t o s s lications Ltd, 5Cromwell Road, London SW7 2HR

C€ wiWiNGr Accessible gears and small parts.
Keep out of reach of children. Keep this Information for reference.
Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.
©Eaglemoss Publications (2008). All rights reserved.
2
 1

COMPLETE Stage
O
PD
CO
O

PHASE 1 LO
■<

jWith this issue you can complete the first

^phaseofStage2ofthesolarsystemmodel
add Venus and the engraved gear plate
m
^"o»the already completed Stage 1. O
U

ou have now collected enough components to build

Y the first phase of Stage 2of your solar system model.

You can find the instructions for constructing this
phase in issue 5of Build AModel Solar System. This phase
o
o
enables you to add another planet, Venus, to the solar
system model, along with the gear set that drives it. At this
m
point you also attach the Moon gear set that drives the Moon
around the Earth, ready for the Moon itself and our own
C O
planet and its gear set in the next phase.
Finally you attach the all-important engraved gear plate. >
O
This beautiful plate is not just decorative but also provides
PHASE 1The completed
the vital gearing that ensures all the planetary movements phase one of stage two h J

around the orrery exactly mirror the motions of the actual of your solar system ■ n

model. (There are 10

planets in the night sky. In addition, the engraved plate is >
phases in this stage to
marked out in 2-degree and 10-degree increments so you complete the gears and
CO

can set the planets to the positions they will occupy on arms for all the planets
specific dates. This allows you to visualise the position of the in the solar system.)
planets on those dates and predict where their orbits will
take them in the days and weeks that follow.
Three important dates are already marked on the engraved
plate -- the first day of the current millennium, the planetary
configuration of the “Star of Bethlehem” and the 24 August
2006 resolution of the International Astronomical Union that

re-defined the solar system and decreed how it should be

known today (see pages 4and 5).

3
 ENGRAVED GEAR
This beautiful brass plate is functional as well as
decorative. It allows you to set the model to
see the position of the planets at any time in
the past, present and future.
Millennium planetary nee you get to know the markings on
c o n fi g u r a t i o n

O the engraved gear you will be ready to

set your completed orrery to show
how the solar system will look on any date you
“Star of Bethlehem”

p l a n e t a r y c o n fi g u r a t i
choose. The most prominent markings on the plate
make up apattern of radiating lines called a
“rosette”. There are 180 lines set at 2-degree
intervals, giving a360° circumference. The outer
ring is divided into 10° increments to help you
10° markings
quickly locate the approximate angle you are
looking for. You then fine-tune your adjustment
using the individual lines of the rosette.
P l a n e t a r y c o n fi g u r a t i o n
marking the lAU 2006 T H R E E I M P O RTA N T D AT E S
resolution

To help get you started, the engraved gear is

marked with astrological symbols indicating the
positions that the planets occupied on three dates
Rosette marking 360° of astronomical significance. The ring marked
in 2° increments
1lANUARIIS 2000 (1 January 2000), for example,
shows where the planets were positioned at the
start of the new millennium.

The ring displaying 1OCTOBRIBUS 7bc

(1 October 7bc) marks the rare conjunction of

HOW IT WORKS

AID TO ASTRONOMY
S a t u r n

our solar system model is auseful aid for

Y observing the planets in the night sky. By
setting it according to the planets’ positions V e n u s
M a r s
relative to the Sun (called their planetary
heliocentric longitudes) on the date you plan to
observe the sky, you can see which planets may
be visible and when.

You can obtain information about the position c n

E a r t h
of the planets from the Internet (or go to www.
build-solar-system.com/astronomy_online.html).
For example, from sunset on 1August 2008 to
sunrise on 2August 2008, when Earth is at 309° Jupiter
to the Sun, no planets will be visible in the evening
sky, but Jupiter (289°) should be visible around the Midnight
middle of the night and Venus (165°), Mars (192°)
IMot to scale
and Saturn (161°), should appear before dawn.

A
 o
T H E D AY T H E S O L A R S Y S T E M G R E W c
73
hen Pluto was discovered in 1930 it gave C O
astronomers aheadache -it was far too small! If

Pluto was considered worthy of the title “planet”, what of O

other large solar system objects, such as the asteroid
Ceres -aren’t those planets too? Then another “planet” -

r
Erls -was discovered outside Pluto’s orbit in 2005, 73
adding fresh controversy. L O
The issue was finally decided by the General Assembly
of the International Astronomical Union. The historic CO
resolution passed on 24 August 2006 determined exactly H
m
how such objects would be defined. Delegates agreed to
demote Pluto to “dwarf planet”. But far from shrinking,
the solar system actually grew -as Eris and the former
asteroid Ceres joined as “dwarf planets”. The positions of
all 11 bodies on that date are marked on the engraved O
gear. The size of the solar system is not yet fixed as the
lAU will announce more “dwarf planets" in the coming
a
years. Currently it has 12 candidates on its “watchlist”, gjThe identification of alarge orbiting object on
but this is regularly updated as new bodies are found and 5January 2005 re-ignited the row among astronomers about how to define
more research is carried out on ones already discovered. a“planet” -so it was named Eris after the Greek goddess of discord.

planets that some experts think drew three Persian

priests, the Magi, to Bethlehem 2000 years ago
and so may be the "Star in the East” associated
with the birth of Jesus -the most important date
in the Christian calendar.
The inner section commemorates an historic

date to astronomers because it shows the position

of the planets on 24 August 2006 when the
International Astronomical Association (lAU)
resolved that henceforth there would be just eight
true planets" in the solar system -Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune -and that Pluto would now be known
as a"dwarf planet". At the same time, two other
orbiting bodies joined the "club” (see Inside Info).
 The VOLCANOES o(
Earth's nearest neighbour Venus is

VENUS our near-twin in terms of size, but its

surface is very different -it is covered in
volcanoes surrounded by laval plains.

fwe could Strip away the toxic atmosphere that The largest of these plateaus are Ishtar Terra in
hides the surface of Venus from our gaze, we the northern hemisphere, and Aphrodite Terra on
would see astrange landscape of soaring peaks, the equator. Ishtar is home to the planet’s largest - 4

deep canyons, and rolling plains like frozen seas. mountain ranges, including the huge Maxwell
Nearly all features on Venus are aresult of volcanic Montes along one edge. These enormous volcanic
activity, and though we don’t yet know whether peaks tower up to 11km above the surface -taller
the volcanoes are erupting today, we know that than Everest -and have adiameter of up to 100km m m

they were active in the geologically recent past, Aphrodite Terra, meanwhile, is home to famous
and will be again in the future -in fact, they are volcanoes such as Sapas Mons and Maat Moons.
the dominant force in shaping the planet. ■ ] ■

The most impressive volcanoes on Venus are SHIELD VOLCANOES

huge mountainous cones rising on the broad Venus has more than ahundred of these monster
i

highland plateaus that are Venus’s equivalent of volcanoes, while Earth has just one on asimilar
continents. Back in its early history, it seems that scale -the volcano beneath Hawaii. All of these
Venus’s crust tried to break up into asystem of are “volcanic shields", built up from layer upon i -

drifting plates like those seen on Earth, but for a layer of lava laid down over millions of years as a
A

variety of reasons, the process ground to ahalt. single fissure in the crust has erupted repeatedly. T
\
m
The plateaus are called “terrae” from the Latin for In the early 1990s, when NASA’s Magellan
V: \
\
V
“lands”, and they often rise to an average height of spaceprobe used radar to map the surface of
some 4km above the surrounding plains. Venus in detail, it became clear that the huge
\

HOT MOUNT The 4km

shield volcano Gula Mons
on the horizon resembles
those in Hawaii. It towers !^5

above the impact crater

Cunitz (centre).
 c n
o
■

enus failed to develop aproper system of

V tectonic plates for anumber of reasons. The V. CO
simplest is that it produces alittle less heat from ■ CO
its core than the slightly larger Earth. Since it is
this heat that churns the planet’s mantle and
creates the forces to push and pull the crust m
a r o u n d , Ve n u s n e v e r d i d m o r e t h a n s t r e t c h a n d
compress afew areas of its surface.
However, the lack of water on the planet O
is probably more important. On Earth, the d
introduction of water into the upper mantle often
happens at plate boundaries [see diagram] where U
an oceanic plate slides under acontinental plate. m
This helps to release heat and create a“slippery”
layer called the asthenosphere, which the crustal plate slides on.
Venus seems to lack this layer, which makes it much harder for
tectonics to get going, X
m

<
'J
And then there are the coronae, novae, and O
\ V .■ ^shield volcanoes on Venus were only asmall part
A T
arachnoids (from the Latin for “ring”, “star” and o
V i ■
of the story -there are hundreds of other features >
iv i
that also seem to be volcanic. Many of these “spider”). These are broad networks of apparently
% turned out to be medium-sized shields -typical of fine cracks in the surface, up to 100km across. The O
W ' f I m
Earth volcanoes -but some were quite different. coronae form concentric circles around acentral CO

\ " The so-called “pancake domes” are shallow, pit, the novae are radiating starbursts of alternating o
steep-sided and generally circular outcrops that ridges and trenches, and the arachnoids seem to
I be amixture of the two. <
/ J seem to have formed

when particularly viscous CC

TURNING
MYTELESCOPE
UPON Coronae are thought Z
to reveal areas where
or sticky lava oozed VENUS...I WAS MUCH SURPRISED...IT CO
\ out through cracks in WAS SO STRIKING IN APPEARANCE.
19
magma chambers once
the surface. Because welled up beneath
Astronomer, JFBarber, Nottingham, 22 October 1863
this lava was not runny the surface, causing
enough to spread out it to crack and bulge
around its original vent, it piled up in large bubbles outwards. As the magma erupted and drained
AINE CORONA

In the plains south of
Aphrodite Terra, these
features are the result
of thick mantle material
welling up and causing
the surface to bulge up.
that slowly set, sealing off the vent. Pancake
domes are often found in clusters -perhaps
formed as the molten magma from one large
underground chamber found its way to the surface
along several different routes.
away along the cracks, the solid crust eventually
subsided into apit. Novae show where magma
flowed away from an eruption in all directions to
form radial patterns, and arachnoids are probably a
mix of the two but are as yet unexplained.

j f '

G L O S S A R Y
Shield uolcano: A
U N E A R T H LY E N I G M A
volcanic mountain built up
These oval landscape Prom layers of solidified
features with web-like lava rele id in

cracks, called arachnoids, s u c c e s ive eruptions.

are aVenusian mystery.

■■ ^ " '■
 plates allow heat from the planet sinterior to
escape at amore-or-less steady rate. Volcanoes
tend to concentrate along tectonic boundaries,
where they are tr !gge r ed as plates coll id'e o r

separate. The clearest example is the famous

Pacific Ring of Fire, which ranges from Alaska to
South America and. on the other side of the ocean
from Siberia to the Philippines.
1
On Venus, where there are no plates to relieve
the pressure, heat is still trying to escape from
the planet’s core to its cooler surroundings and i
ultimately into space. The solid crust acts like the
lid of apressure cooker, trapping the heat so it
builds up just below the surface, melting the rocks

Perhaps the most amazing thing about the MAGMA CAPS

Venusian volcanoes, though, is that they are all the Ringed depressions
called coronae may
same age. By counting the number of craters on cover huge collapsed
the surface (see box), astronomers have estimated magma chambers.
that at least 80 per cent of the planet’s entire
surface is around 500 million years old -it was
resurfaced almost entirely by volcanic eruptions at
around the time when the first complex lifeforms
were evolving in Earth’s oceans.
Half abillion years ago, Venus must have been
an impressive sight -although the eruptions
probably occurred over afew million years, at
any time large areas of the planet would have
been covered in erupting volcanoes and glowing,
slowly cooling lava plains. But why would all the M O U N TA I N S
The fractured mountains
volcanoes erupt at the same time in this way?
and canyons of the
According to the best current theory, it all comes
eastern highland, as
down to the fact that Venus failed to develop a pictured by Pioneer-
proper system of tectonic plates. On Earth, these Ve n u s O r b i t e r.

INSIDE INFO

VENUS PRESSURE CQOKER

eteorites regularly
M penetrate the
clouds to scar the

landscape with craters. ■1.

r * -
On other rocky planets, \

craters help date the ■M

surface. But Venus is
XT':
under such huge internal
heat stress that regular
volcanic eruptions act
like arelease valve on a

pressure cooker, letting S U D D E N I M PA C T PRESSURE BUILD UP

heat escape and 1 Over time, constant 2 Inside Venus, trapped SCRUNCHTIME
The crust cracks,
removing all impact meteorite bombardments heat builds up to critical releasing heat into space and
craters at the same c o v e r t h e s u r f a c e o f Ve n u s levels, putting the planet's triggering volcanic lava flows
time. with impact craters. crust under growing pressure. that erased the surface.
 ^BREAKTHROUGHS
VENUS RE-AWAKES?
stronomers still aren’t sure
A whether there are active
volcanoes on Venus today. According
to the theory that explains the global
eruptions, the release of heat from
inside Venus 500 million years ago
should have relieved the pressure of
magma across most of the planet.
However, there are intriguing hints
that some areas are still active.
The Soviet robot landers Venera
11 and Venera 12 apparently
passed through afierce electrical
storm on their descent to the
and creating pressurized chambers of molten
magma across much of the planet. When the
pressure finally gets too much, Venus "blows” ~
the magma forces its way out through any weak
spots it can find, and over afew million years,
it spreads out across the planet, obliterating
everything in its wake and eventually setting to
leave a
pristine new landscape,
COOLING DOWN
The last time this happened was 500 m i l l i o n
years ago, and only afew highland areas, such
Alpha Regio, survived relatively unscathed
a s
bearing the only remnants of amore ancient
Venusian surface. These cataclysmic eruptions
probably happen every few hundred million
V E N U S T O D AY
4 New impact craters have
formed but internal pressure
builds up again -ready for
the next violent eruption.
O
>
surface. This may be significant
as such storms often happen
above active volcanoes for reasons
scientisis still don’t fully understand, LD
The European Venus Express H
orbiter also detected lightning
high in the atmosphere. More
intriguingly, spacecraft have
discovered that amounts of sulphur G)
dioxide gas in the atmosphere vary
d
alot from year to year, suggesting
that active volcanoes occasionally o
pump out fresh supplies that then
gradually dwindle away.
years. As the centre of Venus gradually cools
and pumps out less heat, they wi! b e c o m e
frequent, but there is no reason to believe that
we have seen the last of them yet. One day the
volcanoes will re-awaken and flood the low-lying
regions, reshaping the planet once again and
wiping out the Venus we know today.
accumulated. Even though Venus’s
thick atmosphere shields the
planet from most space debris.
afew meteorites do make it
through -more than 1000 have
now been counted.
From studies of the Earth and
Moon, scientists have apretty
good idea of the rate at which
such impacts happen in our
part of the solar system, and it
seems to have been steady for
the past 3billion years or more.
So, the older asurface is, the
more time it has been exposed to
C R AT E R D AT I N G
I
bombardment, and the more heavily cratered
Regular lava flows
it will be, on average. Volcanic eruptions and scour the surface, so
other events can effectively wipe asurface only recent meteors
clean, resetting this crater “clock”. have left amark.
 ,IThis 2fo-taH;
Ve n e r a s 3 t o s i m i l a r ^
featuring a a n i s ; :
spimrifiil eMry ):arO^T^ f r .
S’©

Qn 18 Oct^r 1967, Vetrera

etw^h 19^1 and 1984, and Venera 2, launched as with all became the fir^ spacecraft to JH
the USSRsfi^ aseries of of ^craft as part of apair, lost 'gl¬

measuretieainjsphereaniillWr»ii|TiiBBaa^tiwg^v.^
communi^tions just-before pisiet.
TheScoffit
Space
authoriti®
Teok^i^^i^cal
eaned Venera (the f o r atmospheric aitry. realised that their chicles’ ronSS
. 1
Veeus) to piber data from Venus. Abreakthrough came, however, hulls, designed to withstand 25 solar panels and
The initial missions were dismal with its twin, Venera 3. Launched atmospheres, would be crushed ^dish antenna. .^
failures. Venera Iwas lost on on 16 November 1965, it became
route, Veneras 1964A and 1964B the first manmade object to land,
didn’t reach their parking orbits albeit with acatastrophic crash

S PA C E S TA R S

WSERGEI PAVLOVICH KOROLEV (1907-1 gee)

Korolev
widely
is regarded
as
one of the founders of the

Soviet space programme. His first

involvement with rockets was

during the build-up to World War

II. Following imprisonment, along
with many colleagues, under
Stalin, he quickly rose to become
t h e h e a d o f t h e fi r s t S o v i e t r o c k e t

development centre, known now

as RSC Energia.
His greatest achievement was
to turn rocket weapons into the
basis of aspace exploration
programme -afeat that ensured
that the Soviet Union would be the

world’s first space-faring nation.

10
F
VENERA 7
The 1m,
500kg, egg>
shaped landing
capsule was
parachuted
to the surface
o f Ve n u s o n
15 December
1 9 7 0 .

<
m
Z
m
70
>
■ n

scientthc package, which included and-white images of the surface. O

W
temperature, pressure and light Venera 12 survived for arecord
L D
sensors as well as an altimeter, 110 minutes, recording what is
gamma ray spectrom^r, gas thought to be lightnin|^ Veneras 13
r analyser and radio transmitters. It and 14 were similar, but included a
bytile75-100a^mi^pheresbnthe entered the plant's atmosphere surface sampler and seismometer. .,;
surface of Veaus and launched bothj U t e i t s t w i n , : on 22 July 1972. Arefrigeration to investigate surface movemenis
Venera 16, this
I' Venera 5and 6as^nospheric craft stood 5m systen in ibo The soil .foiihd to-be abasalt

i .
.^probefe They recorded 53 and tall and had a

:^^; 51 minutes <3# data before their of 4000kg

ift:^^ featured
ronboard batteries failed
for the first time i
Ve n e r a 7 w a s l a u n c h e d o n ;; ^§13 on*board
IP 17 August 1970 and arrived on computer to
save the images
15 D^emb^, but just before it took for later
landing its parachute failed transmission. used to pre-chill the lander to (see glossary), similar to that found
Crashing into the planet surface at 17 prolong its life on the surface. It on Earth’s midgncean ridges.
:metres per second, it toppled over sent 50 minutes-worth of dat% Veneras 15 and 16 were similar

but, having been hugely over- confirming the surface temperature but replaced the entry probes with
engineered, the craft survived. In and pressure. It also measured the Surface imaging radar equipment.
spite of abent aerial, it transmitted ^ light level, finding it similar to an Arriving at Venus in October 1983,
data about the surface temperature u overcast day on Earth. the two 4000kg craft mapped
for 23 minutes until its battery died. H Ve n e r a s 9 t o 1 2 w e r e m u c h Venus for 8months, from the North
Launched in March 1972, the IS larger and more robust craft. Pole to about 30^N latitude (about
^.:^Venera 8probe had an extended Venera 9sent back the first black- 25% of Venus’s surface).
■-ii:-! 'V

TECHNOLOGY

MIXED CAMERA SUCCESS

he Venera 9and 10 landers each had

T two cameras but only one worked on VENUS
both of them because both the second IMAGES

cameras were unable to operate their lens Composite

images of the
covers. The cover design was duly changed
Ve n u s i a n s u r f a c e ,
f o r Ve n e r a s 11 a n d 1 2 b u t t h i s r e s u l t e d i n
produced from
failure of all four covers. Changes were photos taken
made for Veneras 13 and 14 and saw total iwith the cameras
on Venera 13.
success, although the lens cap on Venera
14 was jettisoned beneath the soil
compression probe, ruining that experiment.
DRAMATIC LANDSCAPES
With all its water having boiled away billions of years ago, Venus's
surface features have been almost exclusively created by the eruption
of molten lava from volcanoes across the planet.

f. A

:r
 >
o
m

>

I1J QULA MONS

he best images of the surface of Venus that
currently exist are those generated from the
radar data capture by the Magellan probe in
the early 1990s. The data, which were radioed
back to Earth, were processed by the scientists at
colours shown in the photos taken by the Venera An image of this 3km-
13 and 14 interplanetary probes. high volcano, computer-
The Magellan images show asurface covered by simulated from Magellan
d a t a . L a v a fl o w s
the results of volcanic activity ~there are towering extend for hundreds of
mountains and volcanic craters, some reaching kilometres across the

the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California to create heights of 8km or more, and complex patterns of fractured plains.
three-dimensional images. Some of the pictures lava flows stretching across hundreds of kilometres [2] EISTLA REGIO
were then electronically tinted, following the of plains. Aportion on western
Eistia Regio from a
v i e w p o i n t 11 0 0 k m
north-east of Gula Mons.
[4] Computer-generated
light rays simulate a
perspective view.

[3] SIF MONS

AMagellan image of
an area about 160km

across, showing aseries

of complex lava flows
that have emerged from
t h e n o r t h e r n fl a n k o f S i f

Mons -- alarge volcano

to the south.

/
[4] MAAT MONS
r* This volcano rises to a

>
height of 8km above the
!s % surface of the planet.
' X
The simulated colours are
i
based on photos taken
/ by the Soviet Venera 13
and 14 probes.

13
 iH :^: M i
h^

[5] CATACLYSM! In this artrist's impression of Venus some 500 million years ago, aviolent electrical storm rages above the erupting caldera of a
mid-sized volcano, as the planet vents trapped heat that has reached critical levels beneath the surface. Rivers of silicate lava pour down onto the
 . J
IS
^asi i s
m

Hi
BiS

I I
i l i

Sf!i H
f k

■. ' ' K f - i . r

cracked, parched lowland plains, gathering in slowly cooling lava lakes that wipe away all trace of the older surface. The storms that occur in the
sky are still not fully understood, but similar activity in the atmosphere today suggests that the planet may still not be entirely dormant.
ASTRONOMERS
The stirrings of
m o d e r n s c i e n t i fi c
enquiry began in the
region of the eastern
Mediterranean in
around the 6th
century bc. The
ancient civilisation
responsible was that
of the Greeks.
he Greek colonies that
flourished on the islands and
coastal areas of the Aegean
Sea were wealthy and leisured,
largely owing to astrong trading
economy supported by slave
labour. Moreover there were no
real unifying political or religious
systems across the archipelago to
stifle free thought.
Architects, artists, poets,
playwrights, orators and engineers
all had freedom of expression, as
did mathematicians and
GEOCENTRIC philosophers, who turned their geometrical models to show the
The ancient
attention to the skies. movement of celestial bodies. They
Greeks made
sense of the 29- Early Greek astronomy was based their ideas on the geocentric
day lunar month principally ameans of prediction. model of the solar system, with the
with the addition
The movement of the Sun, Moon Sun, Moon, all the visible planets
of a13th zodiac
sign -Ophiuchus, and stars enabled societies to keep of the solar system and the stars
t h e s n a k e - h o l d e r. track of time, observe religious of the celestial sphere revolving
They believed festivals and carry out necessary around acentral, stationary Earth.
that the solar
agricultural tasks. While they did not reject
system and the
stars revolved the influence of the gods, they
around a M AT H E M AT I C A L M O D E L S endeavoured to make sense of
stationary Earth Astronomical observations fell
what they saw by watching the
(inset).
to the mathematicians, who forces at work around them. One of
were concerned with creating the first known Greek astronomers
 V R E L AT I V E S I Z E S
-:3rt^T' ^ '■p ^ u-
was Thales of Miletus, born around Aristarchus tried
^Si sf pV2§?/tx tj* > * 7 i ' !*- 4“ T-M *"-M3U. *T* f s ©If
624bc in what is today the Aydin to show the
m f

W* -j jLjsr.' X’- *- 0 relative sizes of

m
province of Turkey.
the Sun and CO
Xri? ^ 4 :r ^^ M o o n .
N AT U R A L L AW S
O
While maintaining belief in the X ■■ 7 0
\
“soul” of all things, and that “all ■<
r 1T
things are full of gods”, Thales
nevertheless attempted to explain
/ o
r i
the world using natural laws. He V

believed the world was originally >

CO
formed by water. His studies on
geometry led him to measure the h^ -J VL0J Xi; -
heights of the pyramids of Egypt - o
by measuring their shadows at the
time that his own shadow equalled
o
his height -and to estimate the size precise time. His most influential
of the Sun and Moon. contemporary was Pythagoras of
Thales defined the constellation Samos (c.572-492bc). Pythagoras
was an advocate of observation
Ursa Minor and explained its
0
O
CC
ASTRONOMY
COMPELS
THE
SOOL
TOLOOK
UPUVAROS
» m
ANO LEAOS OS FROM THIS WORLO TO ANOTHER.
7 s
Plato
>
CO
DISC WORLD
7 3
usefulness to navigators. He and experiment. As well as his Thales believed
o
t h a t t h e fl a t E a r t h
also predicted asolar eclipse mathematical calculations, he
fl o a t e d o n a n
-although it is likely that he introduced the word “Cosmos”
endless expanse
o
predicted the year only, and not the to describe the ordered universe. o f w a t e r.
m
7 3
CO
S PA C E S TA R S

0PLATO
(427-348SC)
task of explaining the planets*
Great
ofphilosopher and
founder
the first Academy in Greece, retrograde motion.
%

Plato believed there was no higher --Plato wrote of the solids that

training for the mind than bear his name in his dialogue
mathematics. He regarded the T/maet/s, c.360bc. He associated
universe as having acentral Earth, each of the four classical elements

surrounded by concentric spheres w i t h a s o l i d ( E a r t h = c u b e ; fi r e =

o f w a te r, a i r a n d fi r e , a l l c o n ta i n e d tetrahedron; air =octahedron;
in arotating sphere of stars. w a t e r = i c o s a h e d r o n } . T h e fi f t h
He noted that the stars moved solid, the dodecahedron, held the
around the Earth In aregular whole universe.

pattern but that the planets In 1596 Johannes Kepler made

“wandered” in an Irregular manner. amodel of the solar system
This irregularity was satisfied by (shown left) based on the Platonic
means of crystalline spheres that solids, each set inside one another
held the Moon, Sun and each of and separated by spheres. This ~
and other astronomical studies -
O^iu,
the planets.
OiUi,
This theory explained the eventually resulted in Kepler’s laws
^planets’ movement but it did not fit of planetary motion, in which he
with the observable phenomenon, described the elliptical movement
and so he set his students the of the planets.

<7
He was the first to claim that the
Earth was spherical -possibly
by observing the curved shadow
of Earth on the Moon during an
eclipse.
He and his followers believed
that numbers lie at the heart of all
things and that circles, like spheres.
were perfect. This led to his theory
of circular planetary motion. One
of the greatest observations of
Greek astronomy was, however.
unacceptable to the Greek world view.
SUN-CENTRED
In the 3rd century bc, Aristarchus of
Samos proposed that the Earth and
planets revolved around the Sun
-the so-called heliocentric view of
the solar system.
This was criticized by his
contemporaries, although it
anticipated the work of Copernicus
by nearly two millennia. (It is
said that Copernicus did credit
Aristarchus in his work De
reuolutionibus caelestibus, but
crossed out the credit prior to
publication.)
D I S TA N C E S the Sun was 18 to 20 times greater
Hipparchus than the distance to the Moon, and
calculated
the distances the Sun was 18 to 20 times larger. He
between the based further calculations on alunar
Earth, Sun and
eclipse. While his geometric methods
M o o n .
were good, his estimates were wrong
because truly accurate measurements
could not be made at that time.
EQUINOXES
PTOLEMY Unlike Aristarchus, Hipparchus of
The Greek Nicaea (d.l27Bc) believed firmly
mathematician in the geocentric model of the
r e fi n e d t h e
heliocentric
universe. It is not known exactly
model that lasted what kind of instruments he used.
for 1500 years. and his findings come mostly
Aristarchus’s only surviving text from the reports of Strabo of
outlines his calculations for the Amasya and in the astronomical
size and distances of the Sun and compendium The Almagest, or
Moon. He reasoned that when Great Book of Ptolemy.
the moon was at dichotomy (see Hipparchus’s best-known work is
glossary), it formed aright-angled the discovery of the precession of
G L O S S A R Y triangle with the Sun and the Earth. the equinoxes -the change in the
Dichotomy: the direction of Earth’s axis.
By calculating one of the other
phase of the
Moon or an angles in this triangle, he could His conclusions were based on
inferior planet estimate the distance between the comparison of his observations
(Mercury or
Venus) when half the Earth, Sun and Moon with of bright stars with those of his
of its disk is
trigonometry. predecessors. His estimate of a1°
visible.
He calculated that the distance to shift in 100 years compares well
with the value known today of 1°
I
in 72 years.
m
These studies also enabled
CO
him to calculate the length of
the tropical year (see glossary)
O
by measuring the Sun’s apparent TO
revolution from equinox to equinox. <
He erred by only 6V2 minutes.
O
PLANET MOVEMENT
Hipparchus also undertook further >
C O
work on the size and distances of

the Sun and Moon, using lunar TO

and solar eclipses to make his O
calculations.
His observations on their
o
movement led to the concept of
the deferent and epicycle to explain
-<

o
o

>
CO
S TA R both the movement of the Moon, celestial latitude and longitude of the
C ATA L O G U E :pd
and that of the planets. stars and noted these measurements
Hipparchus's O
work laid the
Despite the accuracy of his work, in acatalogue.
foundation he concluded that more frequent His accuracy was greater than O
for Ptolemy's observations were needed, and it any previous observer. On the
m
Almagest (left) fell to the Greek mathematician catalogue’s completion in 129bc he 7 Q
as well as the CO
Ptolemy to refine the system that had noted around 850 stars and the
Copernican view
of aSun-centred was subsequently used for the next apparent brightness of each. This
universe (above).
1500 years. brightness was assessed in asystem
Late in life, Hipparchus began his of six magnitudes -asystem similar
last great work. He measured the to that in use today.

G L O S S A R Y
P l a n e t
BREAKTHROUGHS
Tr o p i c a l y e a r :

^THE DEFERENT AND EPICYCLE Epicycle

(also known as
the Solar year) is
the length of time
{moon or planet) was fixed
this
Inconcept,
geometrica!
the Earth sits to apoint on the
Retrograde
loops
that the Sun, as
seen from the

at the centre of acircle, circumference of the j Earth, takes to

D e f e r e n t
return to the
called adeferent. A epicycle. S X ! same position on
smaller circle, the The subsequent Earth Equant the celestial ;;
epicycle, sits with its movement of the epicycle, sphere about
centre on the edge of the coupled with varying size ^65 days. \ ^
deferent circle. circles and rotation

The epicycle then moves periods, could be used to

around the edge of the
deferent, tracing the
deferent’s outline with its
centre and rotating as it
goes. The celestial body
explain the movement of
the outer planets and their
changing brightness, as
they move closer to, then
farther from. Earth.
PTOLEMY’S EPICYCLES According to
Ptolemy, each epicycle was centred on an
“equant” point offset from the Earth.
 PiSCt-S the FISHES
The constellation Pisces,
representing two fishes joined
by cords, recalls asad legend
from Greek mythology.
* %

sthe year draws to a

A close, two fishes can

be seen swimming in
opposite directions in the
' %

evening sky, their tails joined

by cords. This fishy pairing is %
Pisces, aconstellation of the
zodiac. ■ V

The cords connecting the two

fishes are knotted together at a
point marked by the star Alpha (a) m

Piscium, also called Alrescha. This

is afourth magnitude star with aclose
companion of fifth magnitude seen by a
telescope of 100mm aperture or greater. 5 TA . . R I N G
'#■
Pisces Is easy
■H l grclet to identify from
its ring of stars
The body of one of the fish is formed by aloop of -the Circlet.

seven stars known as the Circlet, south of the Great

Square of Pegasus. In the Circlet lies the star TX \

Piscium, which appears strongly orange through

I I binoculars and small LOVE GODDESS
telescopes. It is a ccording to acommonly told tale, Pisces represents
red giant that varies A Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love, and her son
in brightness by Eros. Fearing the approach of aterrible hundred-headed
about 50 per cent, monster called Typhon, Aphrodite and Eros joined hands
and, entrusting their fate to
between magnitudes
the gods, jumped into the river
4.8 and 5.2.
Euphrates. There they were
Look at the chart transformed into the two
TX PISCIUM fishes we see in the sky today,
and locate the brightest star in
This red giant joined forever by along cord
is seen on the
the constellation. Eta (ri) Piscium,
that is tied to their tails.
far left of the magnitude 3.6, partway along the
Circlet with an cord leading to the northern fish.
orange glow. (In Pisces, the star labelled “alpha”
is not the brightest.) just over
two Moon diameters from this star lies M74, aspiral
galaxy seen face-on. Powerful telescopes may reveal
the curling shape of the arms, but more modest ones
will show arounded glow with abrighter nucleus.
20,
ARIES \

: e s swims high in the sky in the evenings

p; from October to December, between

IPegasus and Andromeda to the north and

ICetus and Aquarius to the south. It is fully TRUE SPIRAL
Ivisible from all but the most northerly latitudes I M74 offers a
jon Earth, and down to about 55 degrees south classic view of a
!of the equator. spiral galaxy.
The Sun passes in front of Pisces from mid-
iMarch to late April, when the constellation is
Icompletely invisible in the sky.

ABBREVIATION PSC

BEST SEASON

Autumn (late evening]

BRIGHTEST S TA R S

Eta (r|) Piscium

TX Piscium

SIZE RANKING 14

POSITION Equatorial

LOCAnON MAP

ASHEN
LIGHT
One of the most intriguing mysteries
of Venus is the strange glow that has
often been seen on its night side.
Nobody can agree on what it is.
S
hortly before and after its inferior
conjunction (when it passes between the
Earth and Sun), Venus is large and bright in
Earth’s skies -athin crescent easily seen before
dawn or just after sunset. It looks quite like avery
young crescent Moon, and like the young Moon, it
is sometimes possible to see afaint glow from the
dark side. In the Moon’s case, this effect is easy to
explain -it is simply “Earthshine”, the effect of
light reflected off Earth, illuminating the night side
of the Moon (just as moonlight on Earth
illuminates our own night times).
CRESCENT PHASE
But this explanation doesn’t work for Venus
-even though it’s the closest planet to Earth,
it’s much too far away to be lit up by Earthlight.
Also, Venus doesn’t have asatellite of its own to
bounce light back onto the night side. Over the
centuries, scores of experienced astronomers have
reported the effect, which usually appears as an
even, greyish green glow across the night side. It is
usually called the "ashen light’’.
The first person to mention the light was Italian
astronomer Giovanni Battista Riccioli (see Space
Stars box), who saw it on the night of 9January
1643. Soon others were seeing it too -it seemed
to be visible most often around the crescent
m s
phase, when
Ve n u s w a s
closest to Earth.
This was probably
because, as the
daylight side of the planet
grew and brightened, and the
diameter of the planet got smaller
as it moved farther away, the light was
harder to see. VENUS'S GLOW An
Over the first couple of centuries, there were artist's impression of the
thin cresent that can be
any number of ingenious theories to account for seen just before and after
the glow. Some thought it was caused by lightning the planet passes between
in the Venusian atmosphere, others that it was the Earth and Sun.
CCFESTIUALSOFFIREGIVENBYTHEVENUSIANS...
ARESOMOCHMOREEASILYARRANGES,BECAOSEONVENOS
THE TREE GROWTH MOST BE FAR MORE LOXORIANT THAN IN
THE VIRGIN FOREST OF BRAZIL...”
Franz von Gruithuisen, 1833
in fact moonlight reflected from an undiscovered
satellite. The most romantic theories suggested
that the ashen light was created by intelligent
Venusians. The German astronomer Franz von
Gruithuisen thought he detected aperiodic cycle in
the appearance of the ashen light, and suggested
that It might be caused by agreat fire festival
celebrating the accession of anew emperor.
He later suggested that the light might be fires
deliberately lit to clear the Venusian jungle for
agriculture, but nobody paid much attention
Von Gruithuisen was prone to fantasies about
extraterrestrial civilisations, and threw away
his reputation as a
good telescopic observer
when he claimed to have seen cities and
other signs of intelligent life on the
Moon.
S PA C E A G E
The observations of ashen light
continued unabated -some
dismissed it as nothing m o r e
than an optical illusion. But often
the witnesses were respected
astronomers such as William
Herschel (the discoverer of
Uranus) and in our own time
Patrick Moore.
Observations made from
orbiting space probes or from the
largest Earth-bound telescopes have
confirmed that the night side of Venus
mw does intermittently glow. The light
^emitted, though, seems too weak to be
spotted by observers with small telescopes.
So if the ashen light does exist, what causes
it? Lightning is still one favourite explanation,
since several space probes have confirmed that
today. Riccioli published his most famous
work, adefence of the geocentric universe
called the Almagestum Novum, in 1654.
X
>
1
the Venusian atmosphere is subject to occasional PAT R I C K M O O R E T h i s
electrical storms. If lightning bolts illuminate the eminent contemporary
astronomer has gone
cloud layers, then could they be perceived as a
record as having seen the
steady, continuous glow? ashen light of Venus.
Aurorae similar to Earth’s northern and southern
lights seem to be ruled out -they rely on the
interaction of aplanet’s magnetic field with
streams of particles flowing out from the Sun, and
Venus has almost no magnetic field. The theory
most widely accepted by modern astronomers is
that the ashen light is aform of “airglow” similar
to that created in Earth’s upper atmosphere.
According to this idea, ultraviolet rays from the
WILLIAM HERSCHEL The
Sun break up molecules of carbon dioxide in the disoverer of Uranus was a
upper atmosphere into carbon monoxide and r e l i a b l e w i t n e s s t o Ve n u s ' s
oxygen, which emits greenish light. mysterious glow.
GEOCENTRIC
An illustration from
Riccioli’s book.
f23
COMING
®An,

^ILDAmSEl -ftjnf
mi
SOLAR _ J
J

system M
APRECIS' ^
^ION-ENGINE '
eered orrery
E A R T H ’ The

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to th(e
OAS/SOFLIFE
*n the solair system

■. I C t -

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. ^ L L - _

GEAR PLUS
WITH
THIS
ISSUE; PUNET EARTH
the moon.
verticalSUPPORTand g e a r
'.'^I Jiii: ‘‘iL.

ISee how Stage 2Phase 2of the

Isolar
system
model
is
constructed,
pAwesome images of Earth from
orbit and how our planet was mapped.

VERTICAL SUPPORT PLANETEAtlTH !Explore awealth of remote sensing

A R M
!data from the Landsat program.
Eaglemoss Publications Ltd, 5Cromwell Road, London SW7 2HR
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Applies to ail Issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.

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EART
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*
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P P
We l c o m e t o t h e
- M .,t

OASIS OF LIFE
i.:

S O

in the solar system

T^'

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IWITH THIS ISSUE: PLANET EARTH, THE MOON, VERTICAL SUPPORT AND GEAR
BUILD AMODEL '
f

.SOLAR- #

SYSTEM
iFEATURES t ; -

■-4
YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL
J u se the exploded diagrams and step-by-step
instructions to assemble the parts with issues 8-11

SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE

D Adelicately balanced, temperate world with land,
water and arich variety of life, our Earth is unique.

MISSIONS
10
Still running after more than 30 years, the Landsat
programme collects remote sensing data about Earth.

\IMAGE GALLERY
12
/The full beauty and complexity of Earth as only views
from space can fully reveal.

THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

16
Find out how people first worked out Earth's size
and shape and then made maps to navigate at sea.

S TA R M A P
20
Scorpius agiant scorpion in the night sky -has its
tail raised as if to sting. Its claws are now Libra.

S PA C E S C I E N C E
2 2 CREDITS
How did life on Earth first begin at atime when
conditions were truly hostile by today's standards? IMAGES: FC NASA/GSFC/Reto Mary Evans Picture Library; 18(tj
Stock!!; 2-3 NASA/GSFC; 6Corbfs/ |Mary Evans Picture Library; 18{bf)
C O N S U LTA N T E D I T O R : G I L E S S PA R R O W
Jeremy Horner; 7(d) Alamy/ Topfoto/British LIbrary/HIp, 18(br)
E N D O R S E D B Y : S I R PAT R I C K M O O R E C B E F R S
Worldspec/NASA; 7{br) PIkala Topfoto/Topham Picturepoint;
E N C O U R A G E D B Y: T H E I N T E R N AT I O N A L A S T R O N O M I C A L U N I O N TAU . Imaging; 8(tr) Bridgeman Art 19(bl) Topfoto/Topham
3^

Library/Trustees of the Watts Picturepoint; 19(tr) Topfoto/World

Gallery; 8(bl) NASA/Landsat 7 History Archive; 20(t) NASA/
Project/APOD; 9(c) Alamy/ APOD; 20(b) Pikaia Imaging; 21(t)
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 »

i f

BEGIN BUILDING !
o

t o

o .
>!

-<

, - w m m
i

The second phase of stage 2 o .

D
adds planet- Earth and our
'Moon, together with their
support arms and "gears.
4 mt mf

.11;

he gear assembly for the Earth-Moon THE EARTH-MOON SYSTEM *

With the parts supplied with
system enables it to rotate Bs Earth orbits I-
issues 8to 11, you can begin
the Sun, This is achieved by agearwheel ^Ito see how our amazing
that turns against the rim of the engraved gear. h ome planet fits into the
The gedr ratios are calculated to represent both s?5lar system. The planets are
fashioned from silver-plate
these interconnected sets of motions accurately. and the Earth's surface Is .i-fe
Whenailstage2phasesarecompleted,in painted in detail. t : -
Stages you get avariable-speed motor unit,
fhit can be ^calibrated so thal J^h% orbit »

around the Sun tal^S 36.5 seconds, givin: #

.a comparison with the orrery modefolone

«
second equal to 10 real Earth days.
m

IMPORTANT: You are strongly recomrfierrded

I
to bDild each phase in order, as publish^, and
to unpack the parts one phase at atime to 0
%

ensure you don’t get an^parts -especially the

g^r wheels -mixed up.
m;-

- !

* ^
 #

Assemble the Earth gear set by making a“sandwich” with

the Earth spindle (42) at the centre. Use three 6mm
crosshead self-tapping screws (M2.3S) to fix the 92-tooth gear
(45) to the Earth spindle -ensure the screw heads sit in the
countersunk side of the gear and thread into the holes around
the spindle. Slide the Earth support arm (40) over the
Earth spindle, with the collar for the vertical
support arm pointing upwards. Place the 47-tooth
gear (38) on the top and fix with three 6mm
crosshead self-tapping screws (M2.3S), with the
heads in the countersunk holes.

M 3 G

2 Using a1.5mm alien key (hex

wrench), lock the Earth support
arm (40) to the Earth spindle (42) with
a5mm grub screw (M3G).

3 Create the small gear “sandwich” with

the 36-tooth gear (49) at the top.
the planet gear arm (50), gear axle 1
(70) and gear axle 2(71) in the
centre, and the 22-tooth gear (48)
at the bottom. Ensure gear axle 1
(70) goes on top as shown. Fix these elements
in place with two crosshead self-tapping
screws -use the last remaining 6mm M2.3S
for the top and the one longer 8mm M2.3S
for the bottom.

No Part Qty
0 6 VERTICAL SUPPORT ARM 1

3 8 47-TOOTH GEAR 1

4 0 EARTH SUPPORT ARM 1

4 1 11 - TO O T H GEAR 1

4 2 EARTH SPINDLE 1

4 4 EARTH SPINDLE BUSH 1

4 5 92-TOOTH GEAR 1

4 8 22-TOOTH GEAR 1

4 9 36-TOOTH GEAR 1

5 0 PLANET GEAR ARM 1

7 0 GEAR AXLE 1 1

7 1 GEAR AXLE 2 1
8 m m

EAR PLANET EARTH 1

M O O EARTH’S MOON 1

M 3 G GRUB SCREW 5mm 2

^Remove
the
base
plate
(65)
from
your
previously
completed
M2.3S S E L F - TA P P I N G SCREW 6mm 7 ^Istagetwophaseonebylooseningthegrubscrewinthecolumn
M2.3S S E L F - TA P P I N G SCREW 8mm 1 support (66) using a2.0mm alien key -see Issue 1, page 10. (Keep
W A S PLASTIC WASHER 2 the assembly upright to ensure you don’t lose the planets -or remove
the planets for safe-keeping while completing the next steps.)

t>
5 Slip one plastic washer (WAS)
onto the protruding top of the
<
O
c
Earth spindle (42) of the large gear
a > D
sandwich”. Slide the entire
*00
sandwich” up the central column
(64) and mesh the upper 47-tooth O
gear (38) with the 22-tooth gear (48)
on the underside of the Moon gear
arm (37).

Slip the second plastic washer (WAS) onto the O

6 central column and engage it around the
a
m
protruding lower rim of the Earth spindle (42). Slide f
the small gear “sandwich” up the central column,
mesh the two gears and secure the entire stage by 0
tightening a5mm grub screw (M3G) into the planet CD

gear arm (50). Refit the central column (64) to the c :

column support (66) and tighten the grub screw u

using a2.0mm alien key. C O
H
>

r o

” D

>
C O

0 6

8 Push the pin of

planet Earth
(EAR) through the
collar of the Moon

4 8
(MOO) and then
into the socket at pin

the top of the

vertical support arm
7 Push the Earth spindle bush (44) into the collar of the
Earth support arm (40). Take the vertical support arm (06). This phase is 4 1

(06), with the socket for Earth spin at the top. Slide the now complete.
4 4
11-tooth gear (41) up this vertical support arm and
engage it on the locking pin part-way up the arm. Stand
i ®
the lower end of the arm in the Earth spindle bush (44)
and mesh the 11-tooth gear with the engraved gear (36). ^ m
 HOME PLANET
Earth is unique in the solar system -atemperate world with
amix of land and water and abundant life, made habitable by
i
the delicate balance between its various forces and cycles.
o ^

G L O S S A R Y arth is the largest of the terrestrial planets.
Convection: The It is slightly bigger than Venus, and much
tendency of hotter
larger than Mars or Mercury. Orbiting the
material to rise through
c o o l e r m a t t e r. T h i s i s Sun at acomfortable distance of 150 million km in
because things tend to an almost-circular orbit, it is blessed with afairly
expand when heated,
becoming ;s dense. temperate climate that allows water to survive on
its surface in liquid form. But this is just one of
several crucial features that combine to make
planet Earth the world that we know.
T E M P E R AT U R E C O N T R O L
RISING
Almost as important as the presence of liquid
The HtmalayaEam. still
water are the ^wiperalure \ariatiQns that allow
caused by the Earth stilt relative to the Sun. This
ensures that throughout our planet’s year-long
orbit, first one hemisphere and then the other is
exposed to more sunlight. Meanwhile, day and
night are created by our planet’s steady rotation
period of just under 24 hours. Without these
variations. Earth would turn into adead world, far
colder at the poles and hotter at the equator, or icy
on one side and baking on the other.
Another unique aspect of Earth is the presence
of tectonic plates ~while all the other rocky planets
have solid crusts. Earth’s is split into fragments of
different sizes, which float around on the planet’s
manfc Tectonics 42lay two key roles in the wider
pm IS thi|t they regulate the planet’s
 o o CO
/ i internal temperature, continually bleeding off excess
PLANET PROFILE EARTH heat rather like the pressure-relief valve on aboiler. A O
second is that, through interaction of water, rock and
air, they help to lock away huge amounts of carbon 7 3
l E l i dioxide that would otherwise poison our atmosphere CD
and perhaps create arunaway greenhouse effect like
that seen on our nearest neighbour, Venus. CD

AIR CUSHION
The atmosphere not
only keeps Earth warm
but also guards against
deadly solar radiation.
EARTH SPROTECTORS
Earth’s huge Moon is athird unusual aspect of our
planet -no other terrestrial world has asatellite of CD
anything like its size. (In the next issue we’ll take a
detailed look at the relationship between Earth and
a
Moon.) It seems likely that our companion in orbit m
protects Earth from many of the asteroid impacts
that might threaten its delicate balance
Earth’s magnetic field has asimilar role to play
0
X
it sheaths the entire planet in aprotective cocoon
o
that deflects deadly particles from the Sun before
they can bombard the planet. Some particles m

are funnelled down over the north and south

magnetic poles. Here they collide harmlessly with >

gas molecules in the upper atmosphere, releasing
radiation that forms the mesmerizing light show
known as the northern and southern lights o r

aurora borealis and aurora australis.

Earth’s air and water volumes are puny

compared to its m a s s i v e rocky bulk. The oceans
have an average depth of just 3.7km on the surface
of aplanet 12,756km across. The atmosphere
nwhile, forms ashell of gases about 100km
m e a

or more deep, but it rapidly peters out to become

i n s u b s t a n t i a l a b o v e 11 k m .

Solid inner

molten by heat left over from Earth sformation and the c o r e

decay of radioactive elements trapped there. The circulating

molten iron generates astrong magnetic field. Around the
outer core is the mantle, amass of mostly solid silicon rock M a n t l e

compounds. Heat from the core drives convection currents

that push hot rock up to the surface, replaced by cooler
rock sinking down.
The Earth’s crust and uppermost mantle form arigid
layer -the lithosphere. This floats on aweaker, slippery
layer called the asthenosphere. The crust varies in
thickness from the deep rock of the continents to the thin
ocean crust. Ocean floor is recycled by tectonic activity Liquid outer
powered by currents in the mantle. New ocean floor forms
at mid-ocean ridges where molten rock spews up from
below, forcing plates apart. Elsewhere, ocean plates are
sinking below the continents, generating volcanoes and
earthquakes in the process.
AWORLD IN BALANCE

Earth’s air consists of amix of 78 per cent nitrogen

gas, 21 per cent oxygen, and traces of other gases
including water vapour and carbon dioxide. The
atmosphere has developed steadily throughout the
4.5 billion-year history of our planet. The air we
breathe today is the result of acomplex balance
between various processes that absorb and release
differing amounts of the various gases. The balance
has changed in the past, and may do so again in
the future, but for the moment it provides an ideal
environment for life.
The oceans are the repository for the bulk of
Earth’s water, and form the basis for the water
cycle that powers complex weather systems. Water
evaporates off the ocean surface into vapour,
condenses to form clouds, and then falls back to
earth as rain and, in colder regions, snow. Snow
builds up into ice in glaciers and polar caps, while
the rainwater that falls over the land runs back to
the sea, carving river channels and shaping the
landscape through erosion as it goes.
CIRCULATING SYSTEMS
Air and ocean alike are constantly circulating. The
atmosphere rises and falls in enormous systems
called Hadley cells -named after their discoverer, the
18th-century English meteorologist George Hadley.
In
the
early1970s,
colleague former
Lynn NASA
Margulis scientist
proposed James
anew way Ldvelock and
of looking at the
Earth. They noticed how many of the processes that keep Earth m
balance are self-correcting -achange to one process lead^ to a
change somewhere else in the system that restores the balance.
For instance, higher levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere not
only lead to global warming but also
encourage more plants, including
trees, and plankton to thrive. Since
trees and plankton remove carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere, the
balance is eventually restored.
Lovelock and Margulis suggested
that the Earth, along with its plants
and animals, could be regarded as a
single enormous organism (although
they did not mean this to be taken
literally) in which the individual parts
worked together to maintain life.
They warned, however, that this
self-regulating system would only
work over along timescale, and that
the rapid changes introduced by .i
human society had the potential to ,
overcome Gaia in the short term,
with unpredictable consequences
all life forms ~including humans.

Generally there are three of these systems on

^eithersideoftheequator,poweredbyconvection
(the tendency of hot air to rise through colder
surroundings). Warm air rises in one region, is
7'" pushed towards the poles, and then drops back to
the ground at higher latitudes.
The oceans circulate in great systems called
“gyres” that rotate clockwise in the northern
!hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern
n
jhemisphere, carrying warm water away from
tropical zones and into the colder higher latitudes.
These general circulatory systems are modified by
the “coriolis” forces, which are generated as Earth
rotates, creating apattern of prevailing winds and
weather that comes from the south-west in the

northern hemisphere, and the north-west in the

California's San Andreas
southern hemisphere.
fault marks where two ^
tectonic plates slide
Matters are further complicated through
interaction with Earth’s landmasses, which can
past each other, causing i
frequent earthquakes, jrise up to 5km into the atmosphere and tend to
San Francisco, with its
gain and lose heat faster than the oceans around
steep streets and -^j
skyscrapers, stands on . them. Some scientists have drawn parallels
the edge of the fault.. | between the Earth and aself-regulating machine
(see Inside Info).
 n V
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CL <^ 3
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i3Nvid 3^0H vj 3ain9 IAI31SAS dvnos

 DSAT

Launched over 30 years ago and still running, the Landsat

programme represents the world's longest continuously
acquired collection of space-based remote sensing data.

/ J T t

fc--
he Landsat programme is
one of the great success
yfstories of space science.
Although weather satellites had
The launch, on
15 April 1999,
been monitoring the Earth’s
from Vandenberg atmosphere since 1960, until the
Air Force Base, mid4960$ no one had realised just
California, atop how useful it would be to monitor
aBoeing Delta II
rocket. terrain in the same way. some foreign countries may object.
It was during the last two In 1965, William Pecora, the But by 1970, NASA had agreen
Mercury flights, the Gemini director of the US Geological Survey light to build asatellite.
Once the worlds missions and Apollos 7and 9that (USGS), proposed the idea of a Remarkably, within two years,
sixth largest, by photographs of Earth were first satellite programme that would the Earth Resources Technology
1972 (left).
^ It had
fallen lower than
^ Space.Thesepictures continuously gather photographic Satellite (ERTS-1, later to become
the mid-60s level. allowed scientists to monitor natural images of Earth from space. known as Landsat 1) had been
By 1987 (right), |resources such as forests, seas, lakes Initially, there was opposition built and, on 23 July 1972, it was
drought had launched into Earth orbit.
and rivers as well as Man’s impact from those who felt that high*
replaced much
of the lake with on them -including urban sprawl, altitude aircraft would offer better ERTS-1 carried two instruments
wetlands. i m i n i m and timber-logging. value, and others who worried that avideo camera system called the

i
w
Si
Or Darrel Williams, the Landsat 7Project Scientist
W- m -
Return Beam Vidicon (RBV) and the
Multispectral Scanner (MSS). The
RBV captured a185x185km square
and was originally designed to be
the main imaging system. Due to
malfunctions, though, it was no
longer used after Landsat 3.
Instead the MSS, which captured
a185km wide swath using six
simultaneous 480m-wide line
scans, back and forth along the
width of the swath, became the
main imaging device. In order to
continue the programme, new
satellites were launched every two
or three years up until 1999, when
Landsat 7was launched.
h a n k s t o To m H i l l o f t h e L a n d s a t
T project, you can build replicas of the
Landsat 5and 7satellites using LEGO
plastic bricks. After taking aposition
with Landsat flight operations in Autumn
2006, Tom spent several evenings with
his son using photos of the satellites to
build the models from LEGO they had
in the house. Once he was happy with
them, Tom submitted the designs on
LEGO’S website and the approved kits
went on sale in March 2007.
Landsats 5and 7not only
captured images but also infrared
data (see glossary). This is used
to monitor water quality, glacier
recession, sea ice movement, coral |the flooding of
reef health, deforestation rates and
population growth.
Landsat data has been used to
access damage from natural
disasters such as fires, floods and
tsunamis as well as to plan disaster
relief and flood control
programmes. Web mapping
services such as Google Earth, MSN
Maps and Yahoo! Maps are based
r
A E R O S PA C E M O D E L S C r e a t o r
Tom Hill with his Landsat 7(left)
and Landsat 5(right) LEGO models.
LANDSAT 4An artist's impression of Landsat 4
scanning a185km-wide swath of the Earth as it orbits
around the planet. It was the first of the Landsat
satellites not to carry the RBV video imaging camera.
HI-
lUEW ORLEAms
An image made
by Landsat 7
on 30 August
2005 shows
New Orleans
in the wake
on enhanced and colour-balanced
of Hurricane Landsat 7images. And some fast-
Katrina -one food restaurants, for example, have
of the deadliest
hurricanes in the
even used population information
to help them plan new franchises.
USA's history.
There are two main ground sites
used to capture the Landsat data
-Sioux Falls, Dakota and Alice
Springs, Australia -with backup
sites in Poker Flat, Alaska and
Svalbard, Norway. All the sites are
equipped with 9-1 Im antennas
and can receive both S-band
(satellite housekeeping) and X-band
(science) data simultaneously.
On 31 May 2003, the Landsat 7's
Scan Line Corrector -adevice that
compensates for the forward
motion of the spacecraft -failed.
The result was that some areas are
imaged twice and others not all.
Although not ideal, the missing
data can be filled in using other
Landsat 7data. Luckily anew
satellite, the Landsat Continuity
Mission, is planned for 2011.
 [1] EASTERN HEMISPHERE
[1] [2]
Acomposite image
compiled from months of
data collected by NASA's
Terra satellite flying
700km above ■ w

the Earth's surface. M %

m M

■M f : V

i i ^ ^ ■

r '

zARTH from ORBl

i

From space you can see the full beauty
of Earth and appreciate the fragile
balance that allows life to flourish
uniquely on this planet.
12
he first time that Earth was photographed
from space was on 14 August 1959 by the
US satellite Explorer 6. The television image
showed alow-resolution picture of cloud cover in
black and white. Since then, our home planet has
been photographed thousands of times by both
astronauts and remote probes and continues to be
imaged by orbiting satellites.
 [2] CITY LIGHTS Earth's
city lights, created
by data from NASA's
Defense Meteorological
>
Satellite Program. This O
clearly shows transport m
links and urbanisation.
t o
[3] FIRE WATCH An >
image captured by
NASA's Aqua satellite
on 2August 2006 shows
two large fires (marked
red) in the Okanogan- <
Wenatchee National
Forest in northen
Washington, USA.

[4] GREECE An image >

acquired by NASA's Terra
satellite in August 2006
shows the complexity of
islands scattered off the
coasts of Greece in the
O
Aegean and Ionian Seas.

[5] TYPHOONS NASA's o

T O
Aqua satellite imaged
00
these three enormous

typhoons spinning
wildly over the western
P a c i fi c O c e a n o n
7August 2006.

■ A

. m i

I
[5] BLUE MARBLE IInspired by the famous photograph of planet Earth taken by the crew of Apollo 17, this image is the most detailed true-
colour image of the planet to date. It is in fact acomposite image, created at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Most of the information
 >

CD
>

■<

is from months of observations by NASA's Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, flying 700km above the Earth on board the Terra
satellite. They have been combined with separate cloud imagery and global city lights from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program.
 PAT H F I N D E R

MAPPING the
Advances in
maps enabled
Ferdinand

Magellan's
expedition to
circle the globe.

ROUND EARTH

Star guides called From ancient times, most people knew

armillary spheres,
invented by the Earth was round. The problem was working
Greeks, show the
ancients knew the
out our planet's precise size and shape, and
Earth was round.
using that knowledge to navigate at sea.

he belief that Earth was flat
must have seemed common
sense to the first people
who considered it. The idea was
G L O S S A R Y accepted by early Greek
Elevation: An
philosophers -some saw the Earth
angular measure
of the height of as adisc floating in avast ocean.
aparticular In about the mid 4th century bc,
celestial object
above the horizon.
however, Aristotle marshalled
several powerful arguments to
16
prove that Earth was asphere
-indicated by the shape of the
shadow cast on the Moon in an
eclipse and the fact that ships
disappear over the horizon hull
first, so that their masts remain
visible for longest. By around 200bc,
Eratosthenes of Cyrene had even
worked out away to measure
Earth ssize (see Inside Info).
With the shape of the Earth
understood, at least in general,
the key question for navigators
was how to locate positions on
the surface and plot courses
between them. In the mid 2nd
century ad, Claudius Ptolemy (the
author of the Almagest) wrote an
equally influential work called the
Geographia. In it, he showed how
 X
INSIDE INFO
m
MEASURING THE EARTH
CO
reek-Egyptian philosopher south distance between the two
G Eratosthenes of Cyrene locations was about 5000
O
(276-1 94bc) came up with an Egyptian stadia.
ingenious way of calculating the From this he calculated
Earth’s circumference. He’d Earth’s entire circumference to

heard that the Sun passed be 252,000 stadia. No one o

directly overhead (an elevation
of 90°) on midsummer’s day at
the city of Swenet in southern
Egypt. He measured the
elevation of the Sun at midday
on this date for his own location
today knows how long a“stadio”
actually was, but it is now
reckoned that Eratosthenes’ >
CD
estimate might have been
accurate to within 1per cent of
the Earth’s true circumference.

of Alexandria and it proved to O

be just under 83°.
Eratosthenes assumed the
difference In angle was due to
the spherical shape of the
Earth. He knew that the north-
C A L C U L AT I O N E r a t o s t h e n e s ’ m e t h o d Z
involved measuring the angle of elevation
at Alexandria, 5000 stadia from Swenet. O
The answer allowed him to work out
accurately the radius of the Earth and,
from that, the circumference.
Alexan E a r t h -<

O
MAPPED OUT
any place on Earth could be defined already shown how the position of Cartographer >
by asimple pair of coordinates the Sun at midday depended on Gerardus “ D
“TJ
-longitude and latitude. Latitude the observer ’s location on Earth’s Mercator’s style
of map is still the z
measured position north or south surface, and specifically on their most popular o
of Earth’s equator; longitude latitude. The only significant form used today.
measured it east or west of an problem was that the Sun changed
arbitrary line, and parallel to the its path across the sky, and its
equator. Both co-ordinates were height at midday (“culmination”), >
measured in degrees, with 360° throughout the year. But it was
making afull circuit of the Earth. asimple matter to build up an ? ■■

Latitude was easy to calculate “almanac” of the Sun’s midday

in good weather. Eratosthenes had heights from aspecific location, and
C A P TA I N ' S A I D

Projection maps
like this, drawn
by Mercator's son
Rumold in 1587,
made navigating
at sea ascience
and not an art.

G L O S S A R Y
Culmination:

The highest point

reached by a
celestial object
as It crosses over

the meridian line

joining north to
south across the

sky for a
particular
observer., ■ ■

use this to fix the latitude of any
place on Earth.
Longitude was far more of a
challenge, and would not be solved
until the 18th century. Meanwhile,
most early attempts to measure it
relied on “dead reckoning” -simple
estimates of how far avessel had
travelled between two locations. If
18
L A T E R R E D ' A P R E S E R AT O S T H E N E
SMALL WORLD the latitudes of the two points were apressing need for accurate maps.
At the time of
known, simple trigonometry could Since they rarely ventured far, their
Eratosthenes, the
known world was
be used to work out the distance charts of the coastlines of Europe
Europe, North travelled due east or west, and so remained reasonably accurate.
Africa and Asia.
calculate the longitude difference. It was only with the arrival of
These were the principles behind the great age of exploration in the
BAD GUESS
early navigation charts or “portolans‘ late 1400s that it became more
This 1595 map
wrongly predicted from ancient to mediaeval times. pressing to develop accurate long-
land at the Arctic. Sailors were the only people with range maps. Fortunately, in 1569,
S PA C E S TA R S L fi i
(JOHNHARRISON(1693-1776]
nglish clockmaker John Harrison devoted his life to solving the
E longitude problem after parliament announced, in 1714, a
r e w a r d o f £ 2 0 , 0 0 0 f o r t h e fi r s t
person to solve it. He developed four
increasingly accurate timepieces,
incorporating techniques that are still
used in modern watchmaking. His final
prototype proved itself after keeping
accurate time to within 5seconds on a
voyage to the West Indies. In 1772,
Captain James Cook took acopy of the
clock on athree-year journey around
the world, during which it never
deviated by more than 8seconds.
TIME KEEPER John Harrison
revolutionized navigation at sea.
the Flemish mapmaker Gerardus
Mercator (1512-1594) came up m
with an ingenious new style of map CO
that allowed astraight line on the
Earth to be plotted as asequence o
of straight lines on the chart. The
Mercator projection was extremely <
influential, and is still awidespread
O
form of map design.
With the aid of amagnetic
compass (probably introduced
>
CO
from China in around 1300) and a
device for accurately measuring the
elevation of the Sun or stars, it was O
now possible to navigate by dead
reckoning over long distances. But
how could the distances -and in
O
particular the change in longitude — J .

-be better calculated?

N AV I G AT I N G B Y P L A N E T
The key problem was one of
timekeeping. Every location on the
planet has its own local time, with
the Sun rising four minutes later for
each degree one travels west.
Astronomy offered one solution.
Astronomers discovered anumber
GLOBAL RULE
A1736 French
from all parts of the world, yet
were not linked to Earth’s rotation.
expedition
to Lapland to
In 1681, Italian astronomer
measure 1° Giovanni Domenico Cassini put this
of longitude into practice, making observations
c o n fi r m e d E a r t h ' s
of the moons of Jupiter from the
flattened shape.
island of Goree in the West Indies.
Compared to observations from
Paris, they provided aprecise
offer a£20,000 prize to anyone
who could accurately determine
0
longitude on board ship. The prize >
was eventually claimed in 1765 by “ D
” D
John Harrison, aclockmaker who
developed aseries of increasingly O
elegant and accurate “marine
X
chronometers" (see glossary).
Despite all these improvements, m

of celestial phenomena that were
predictable and could be observed
G i - O S S A P I Y
Stadia: Plural of
stadio, an ancient
measurement that
had various values
across the ancient
world.
Chronometer: A
highly accurate
lock used on
ships to measure
distances at sea.
longitude for Goree and, by
extension, the entire American
continent. Measurements such as
these were soon extended to other
remote locations, but the problem
remained difficult, and impossible
to solve in less-than-ideal
conditions such as those at sea.
Then, in 1707, aBritish fleet
ran aground on the Scilly Isles in
thick fog through amiscalculation
of longitude. The loss of life
spurred the British Government to
one other great puzzle remained >
-what was the precise shape of
X
the Earth, and its precise diameter
and circumference? The debate
was finally settled in the 1730s,
when the French Academy of
Sciences arranged two expeditions,
to measure the precise length of a
degree of longitude (along anorth-
south line) in Lapland and Ecuador.
These proved beyond doubt that
Earth was flattened at the poles
and bulged at the equator.

BREAKTHROUGHS
SECONDS OUT
Harrison's second WTHE GREENWICH MERIDIAN
'timekeeper" of
1739 never went I
hile Harrison’s chronometers turned longitude into a
to sea but helped
him develop the
w precise measuring system for use in navigation, one
question remained -what should be the reference point? In
perfect marine
c h r o n o m e t e r. 1884, delegates of 25 nations meeting in Washington, D.C.
agreed to use aline passing through the Royal Greenwich I
Observatory in London as the prime meridian of longitude. From
now on, locations would be measured east or west of Greenwich I

and time in relation to astandard Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).

<j5
 SCORPIUS and
Agiant scorpion lies in the southern

LIBRA
half of the sky, its starry tail raised
as if to sting -but it lost its claws to
make aset of scales!

M7 CLUSTER
he stars that make up Scorpius and Libra were
The bright blue x;
once linked. The Greeks saw Libra’s stars as the
stars of the M7
%
claws of Scorpius. But two thousand years ago open cluster can
the claws became The Scales of Libra. Two of Libra’s be seen in the A
tail of Scorpius A

stars, Alpha (a) and Beta (p) Librae, still bear the
names Zubenelgenubi and Zubenelschamali, from the
with the naked f m m .
eye alone.
Arabic words for southern and northern claw. m

The scorpion’s heart is marked by Antares, or Alpha t o X

(a) Scorpii, abright star with anoticeably fiery colour.

It is ared supergiant some 400 times larger than the ' i m
Sun. Like many such swollen stars, Antares pulsates
irregularly in size, varying in brightness as it does so f
: - w .

-in this case between about magnitude 0.9 and 1.2.

S T I N G I N T H E TA I L
f - ■
Two jewels of the night sky lie near the tip of the
scorpion’s tail. These are the sparkling star clusters M6
and M7. The larger and brighter of the two, M7, can - 0 \

just be seen with the unaided eye as ahazy patch # '

against the Milky Way. Through binoculars, dozens of

stars are seen scattered over an area twice the

apparent width of the full Moon. m

M6, smaller and fainter because it is more distant, *<i®RION’S KILLER
is popularly termed the Butterfly Cluster due its shape
corpius
when seen through binoculars and small telescopes. S recalls the
An orange star decorates one of the butterfly’s wings. Greek legend of
Close to Antares lies the globular cluster M4. Orion the hunter

who was stung

PA I R I N G O F F to death by a
scorpion, sent
Scorpius abounds with double stars that are easy to
by the goddess
divide. Omega (co) and Mu (p) Scorpii are both wide Artemis as a
enough apart to be seen separately with the eye alone, punishment for his
while binoculars will show Zeta (Q Scorpii as adouble, boastfulness. The

near the open cluster NGC 6231. Turn your binoculars constellation Orion
sets below the horizon
to neighbouring Libra and you will find that Alpha (a)
as his slayer rises, its
Librae is another easily separated double. ]
sting poised to strike.
Small telescopes easily pick out fainter companion Libra is so called because in
stars to Beta (P) and Nu (v) Scorpii. Xi (^) Scorpii, T i

ancient times the Sun passed through

in the far north of the constellation, is actually a The Scales at the autumn equinox, when day and night are of
quadruple star, with afaint companion and another equal length -and so in balance.

nearby pair, visible through asmall telescope. h;

20,
i
 corplus and neighbouring Libra reach
Stheir
highest
points
in
the
sky
on
evenings
between May and August. Scorplus is so far
south of the celestial equator that only the
most northerly parts of it can be seen from
latitudes above 44 degrees north. The Sun
passes In front of Libra
and Scorplus in
N o v e m b e r, w h e n
they are invisible
from Earth.

L O C ATO R MAP

ABBREVIATION ScO ABBREVIATION Lib

BEST SEASON BEST SEASON

Summer (evenings) Su mme r [e ve n i n g s]

BRIGHTEST S TA R BRIGHTEST S TA R

Alpha (a) Scorpii Alpha (a) Librae

(Antares) (Zubenelgenubi) V R U U

SIZE RANKING 33 SIZE RANKING 29

POSITION Equatorial POSITION Equatorial

4 8
1
' M \

SCO X-1 Zubenelakrab

e
X /Zubenelgenubi «
SERPENS CAUDA f

V P K .

L I B R A

M80 / rsiGC 5897

I I
. , 0m/ ! 4 2 I

[ 2
2 2 ‘ ‘.1
1
m-. 1 Antare K

!M M 4
,13

^^I^SCORPIUS -■ n
- 9 V
#

LUPUS

M 6

NGC 6383 # e M6 CLUSTER

The beautiful i
M 7
\
Shaula star patlern
« . u r4k M6‘is known as
m the Butterfly
1NGC 6231 Cluster because
NGC 6124 ^
NGC 6322 it reserribles a.**
I
0 M r 1

blue butterfly. *
■N G C 6178 ■; with ks wings !
NORMA outstretched when
^NGC
6388 viewed through
ARA ^ binoculars.
 M
ii^i*>fe^i*;'fi!Sail

Earth appears to be the only planet in the solar system -and beyond
-to support life. How life arose, and whether it exists elsewhere in the
Universe, are two of the greatest questions in science today.

ife began on Earth 3.8 billion years ago -
very shortly after the Earth formed its crust
some 0.2 billion years earlier. Conditions on
the planet at that early stage were dramatically
different from those of today -the atmosphere
was amix of carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and
water vapour. Ultraviolet radiation from weak
sunlight generated what little oxygen there was by
splitting the water vapour into its
elemental parts.
The ingredients for
life were all present
.m -carbon, hydrogen,
foxygen and nitrogen
existed as well as
^!.>■
Nevertheless, as geological evidence in the 19th POND LIFE Life began,
some believe, as single-
century suggested, it was this “primordial soup”
celled organisms similar
from which life originated. Scientists postulated to that in blue-green
that single-celled organisms (similar to current-day pond scum (above).
species of cyanobacteria such as blue-green pond
BLACK SMOKERS
scum) arose from warm chemical pools lit by weak
Some of the most
sunlight and occasional flashes of lightning. primitive life-forms
on Earth today live in
DEEP-SEA CHIMNEYS scorching-hot undersea
volcanic chimneys.
But the discovery, in 1977, of black smokers
presented anew scenario for life’s origins. Black
smokers are deep-sea hydrothermal vents -
chimneys of sulphur-bearing minerals that pour
forth from beneath the Earth’s crust. They form on
mid-ocean ridges in areas of volcanic activity when

^energy provided by mineral-rich water flows up through lava. Sulphur

PSYCHROBACTER
Acold-living organism that
could have an alien origin.
sunlight or chemical
change. But, at this
early stage, planet
Earth was poisonous
to almost every life-
form known today.
minerals crystallise on contact with the ocean
water around the mouth of the flow, gradually
building into chimneys that spew out chemicals
from within the planet.
These black smokers teem with bacterial life,
capable of tolerating the 400°C temperatures

S PA C E S TA R S

ySTANLEY MILLER [1930-2007]

merican chemist and of the carbon had formed

A biologist Stanley Miller was
aPhD student at the University
of Chicago when, in 1953, he
attempted the first successful
life-generating experiment in a
laboratory. Miller used water,
methane, ammonia and
hydrogen, sealing the chemicals
-together with electrodes to
simulate lightning -in asterile
loop of glass tubes and flasks.
He alternately heated then
cooled the tubes for aweek,
and at the end of this period
found that up to 15 percent
S TA N L E Y M I L L E R C r e a t e d t h e
building blocks of life in alaboratory
version of primordial soup.
organic compounds. Among
these compounds were amino
acids, sugars and some
ingredients for nucleic acids
(or DNA).
Despite Miller’s seeming
success, it is now thought
unlikely that the early
Earth conditions were
as conducive to organic
growth as the conditions in
Miller’s equipment. Although
scientists have continued to
experiment, nothing, so far,
has proved conclusive.
 1...

rH-

. r # I

c n
.HOW IT WORKS j j
>
^PHQTDSYNTHESIS Ingredients Product o
m
arly Earth had an atmosphere that r
E was dominated by carbon dioxide, Sunlight ^3: ( / )
similar to the atmosphere of Venus. O
Early, one-celled life-forms -bacteria or m
HaO +COs +Rlutrients matter +O2
prokaryotes -were the first organisms to L m
develop photosynthesis. This, it is argued
Eby some, would have been able to produce
Water ^Carbon h N i t r a t e Sugars Oxygen
o
d i o x i d e . Phosphate
an oxygen-rich atmosphere, capable of
supporting more advanced life-forms.
1
X
around the vents. The most primitive bacteria areas of shallow water the mats started to grow m

on Earth today are also tolerant of intense heat, into grouped globular shapes. This was the first Amino add: Abasic
O
building block of protein,
suggesting that the first bacteria evolved in ever ecosystem ~the bacteria on the surface had a which is present in all life-
different role from those in the centre. O
searingly hot conditions such as those close to forms. Some have been
found in meteorites, which
early black smokers. has prompted the
Whether it was generated in sea vents or COMPLEX LIFE-FORMS BEGIN suggestion that life may o
have arrived on Earth from T !
soupy pools, the earliest life would have been The changes brought about by these living rocks an extraterrestrial source.

chemosynthetic -using chemical reactions to were far-reaching. Over the next two billion years T l

release energy. But at some time before 3.4
billion years ago (according to the earliest fossils
found), ashift to photosynthesis (see How It
Works) changed everything. Cyanobacteria began
to use sunlight energy to convert the abundant
carbon dioxide and water to make organic food,
producing oxygen as waste. This oxygen then
the bacterial clusters raised the oxygen levels in
the atmosphere to 20 per cent, creating intolerable
conditions for organisms that liked carbon dioxide.
Some died out; others adapted and survived. ROTIFER An example
of complex multi-celled
It was in this period that the shift from single- life that developed over
celled to more complex organisms took place. three billion years ago.
Around three billion years ago, one kind of
m

r s i i i

a s m

COMET One theory

/ / holds that life came
m
to Earth on acomet
i from elsewhere in the

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 $14.95
(N)AnEaglemossPublication.AWeeklyPublication.UK£5.99Malta€8.99Australia

BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM 9 )

APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY

The EARTH-MOON

DOUBLE
PLANET
Constant interacting
companions in orbit
around the Sun

'jVlTH TrJJS JS5UE: - i ^ \ 3 = D r

 / I

/
/
♦

BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
FEATURES
3
% YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL
^With the planets positioned you can begin to see how
they all move against the distant celestial sphere.
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE
0 As constant close companions in orbit, the Earth and
Moon influence each other dramatically.

MISSIONS
10
From the first flyby In 1959, lunar probes have
collected awealth of data about our neighbour.
/
IIMAGE GALLERY
Take adetailed look at the rugged mountains and
crater scars that make the Moon surface so distinctive.
i

T H E S TO R Y O F A S T R O N O M Y
I 1 6
Sir Patrick Moore makes apersonal selection of his
10 most significant u n a r history milestones.
#

S TA R M A P
2 0
Turn your telescope towards Aries -the ram with a
golden fleece -and the northern triangle, Triangulum.

UNEXPLAINED
Breathtaking reports of men on the Moon in the CREDITS
1960s left some people in doubt. Was it all ahoax?
IMAGES: FC NASA/JSC; 2-3
CONSULTANT EDITOR: GILES SPARROW Galaxy/Robin Scageii; 4Pikaia
ENDORSED BY: SIR PATRICK MOORE CBE FRS Imaging; 5(t) Eaglemoss/Donna
ENCOURAGED BY: THE INTERNATIONAL ASTRONOMICAL UNION Askem; 5{br) Mary Evans Picture
Library Ltd; 5(bc) Topfoto/British
Museum/HlP; 6NASA/JPL; 7(b)
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Baltimore, USA; 7(tc) NASA/GSFC;
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Photo Library/Eckhard Slawik; 9(cl)
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II I
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ail other pictures NASA/JSC;
18(blu,bl) Galaxy/NASA, all oth e r
pictures NASA/JSC; 19(tr) Galaxy/
NASA; 19(b) Galaxy/NASA/John
Frassanito and Associates; 19(tl)
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Free Documentation License; 20(bl)
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 I i
CELESTIAL CO
o
>
7D

X \
\SPHERE
V
CO

CO

\ \ Your model solar system shows you

\ the positions of the planets in the solar o
\ system, and theihrelationships to each u
o t h e r. B u t i n the night sky, they also m

moveagainstadfiptantbackgroundof
stars -fhe celestial sphere.

\ ,
o
he cele^ial sphere is an imaginary bubble
projected into space around the Earth, n

medieval times, before the Scientific C O

/
i
Revolution that sweptfaway the old Earth-centred >
view of the universe, astronomers thought the
I / i ;
I
' sphefe was real. In fact, they believed there were C O
~T)

several such spheres nested one inside the other

m
around the Earth -each made of ciwstal and 7 D
m
cariyingaparticularcelestialbodyluchastheSun
Moon or aplanet on its path around the Earth.

/ / The outermost of these spheres, studded with

stars,rotatedonceaday,carryinfgthestarsacross
Earth’s sky. 7
/

Of course, today we know tfiat things work the

other way round -the stars are all at varying
(though equally unimaginable) distances from
Earth, and they stay in the same place while the
Earth spins beneath them. And Earth itself is just
.one among eight major planets orbiting the Sun.
/But despite this, the idea of the celestial sphere is
SlAR TRAILS so useful that astronomers still use it.
Along exposure at
either the north or Imagine, then, ahollow ball with Earth at its
south pole captures the centre. Two lines extend out from Earth’s north and
apparent movement of south pies, meeting the celestial sphere at its two
the stars on the celestial

sphere. The movement

fixe^oints -the north and south celestial poles
is, of course, aresult of (qffen abbreviated as NCR and SCR). The celestial
the spinning Earth. poles pin down the sphere’s central axis -it rotates

y
stars are fi x e d to the Esrtih snortih north celestial

sphere’s surface and once aday around aline from the NCR through the
appear to move in the
centre of the Earth, to the SCR
opposite direction to
Earth’s spin The farther astar is from either of the celestial

poles, the farther it must move to complete its

daily circuit of the heavens from east to west -
m o t i o n

stars at or near the poles barely move at all, while

those midway between the poles must race across
the sky. Precisely halfway between the celestial
poles there is an imaginary line around the sky
called the celestial equator, which divides the sky
into two hemispheres. This is also the projection of
Earth’s own equator into the sky.

THE ECLIPTIC
There’s one other important line on the celestial
sphere, and it’s one that has an important relation
to your solar system model. Known as the
“ecliptic”, this is the line on which the Sun appears
ecliptic to move around the sphere (completing one circuit
from west to east in ayear), thanks to the Earth’s
tation of
changing point of view.
ydue to
rth’s spin

G L . O S & A R Y
celestial

equator Equinox: Either of two points in the year when the |

Sun lies exactly on the celestial equator and day [
IMAGINARY GLOBE
and night are of equal length. =
First Point The celestial sphere is Axis: Aline through the middle of an object such [
south celestial
of Aries
pole
purely imaginary and has as aplanet, around which an object rotates.
no precise size.

north celestial pole

circuippolar zenith
. \ stars

nyone looking at the celestial sphere from the surface of the Earth
A will find that they can only see half of it at one time -the other half
will be blocked out by the Earth itself. This explains why some parts of
the sky are permanently out of view from certain regions of Earth. ceie^ial equator, ^
An observer standing at the north pole would see the north celestial
pole (NCP) straight overhead, and the celestial equator around their
horizon, but would never see the sky*s southern hemisphere.
Now, if that observer travelled south to mid-northern latitudes, they A
would see the NCP move lower in the sky to his north, while southern-
hemisphere stars came into view to his south (see figure A). Stars
close enough to the pole would continue to circle it, while those around north celestial pole
the celestial equator would now be constantly changing with the
rotation of the celestial sphere.
When our observer reached the equator, things would change again
-the NCP would now lie exactly on the horizon, due north, while the
celestial equator would pass directly overhead, and the south celestial
7 z e n i t h
pole would not appear on the southern horizon (see figure B). There
would be no circumpolar stars (stars that celestial equatclr
HALF THE SPHERE
describe acomplete circle, as in the image on
Different viewpoints on 7
the previous page), but every object in the sky 7
Earth give you different
would, In theory, be visible in the course of a portions of the celestial
day (though of course many would be drowned sphere. But you'll never see
B
out by sunlight). more than half of it.
south celestial pole
 I

1ST

<
HOW IT WORKS
o
^MAPPING THE ECLIPTIC
;:d
sing your solar system model, you
u can see how the planets are t n
distributed along the ecliptic and around O
the celestial sphere at any time. By
considering Earth, rather than the Sun,
as the centre of the solar system, you
can tell in which directions the different
CO
planets lie -acomplete circle around
-<
the Earth, starting and ending with the CO
Sun, is just the same as acomplete
circle around the ecliptic. To help you m
further, the zodiac signs engraved on the
slip ring of the base plate will indicate in
which constellation each object lies.

O
U
AVIEWING GUIDE If instead of looking at your m
solar system model from above (figure A), you
look at it with the planets on the ecliptic (figure B)
you will get an indication of which planets will be
visible in the sky on aparticular date and exactly 0
when they will be visible.
H
X
m

O
m

In effect, it’s aprojection of Earth’s own orbit :4—

H i
m
-I—
CO
onto the sky, and, because the orbits of the Moon H
V
and the major planets also lie in roughly the same A 'Ck >
flat plane, it’s the line around which the planets
CO
are found in the sky. However, because Earth’s * . " ■ n
X
equator and poles are tilted over at 23.5 degrees, \ R

the ecliptic is tilted at the same angle to the X )

celestial equator.

I
C E L E S T I A L C O - O R D I N AT E S
The constant rotation of the Earth makes simple I
measurements of an object’s position in the sky I
s

fairly useless, since everything moves from minute

to minute and the co-ordinates will not be the
I
same for two observers in different places.
Fortunately, the fixed points of the celestial
sphere can act as the beginnings of auseful
co-ordinate system -aheavenly equivalent of
the familiar terrestrial latitude and longitude. Nevertheless, like longitude, right ascension needs
These measurements are known as “equatorial its equivalent of the Greenwich Meridian -aline
co-ordinates’’. Celestial “latitude’’ is known as defined as the “Oh” from which everything else can
declination, and is measured in just the same be measured.

way as its earthly equivalent -in degrees north or The chosen point, called the First Point of Aries
south of the equator. MAPPING THE SKY (although it actually now lies in Pisces) is one
Abrass model of the
Heavenly “longitude”, meanwhile, is called of the two points in the sky where the ecliptic
celestial sphere (above),
“right ascension”, and it is measured in hours, crosses the celestial equator, and corresponds to
and amedieval map
minutes and seconds around the sky (rather (above right) showing the position of the Sun on the northern spring
than in degrees East or West of Greenwich). the First Point of Aries. equinox, around 21 March each year.
 DOUBLE
PLANET
Earth's natural satellite, the Moon,
is so huge compared to the size of
our own planet that the two worlds
strongly influence each other.

he Moon is Earth’s constant companion on its orbit

around the Sun. Its familiar face and regular cycle of
phases make it apart of our everyday lives, so it’s easy
to overlook just how unusual our satellite really is.
With adiameter of 3476km, the Moon is one quarter the
size of Earth, with l/50th of its volume and l/80th of its -
mass. These figures are huge for asatellite -the only moons
that are larger orbit the gas giants of the outer solar system,
so that even the largest of them all, Jupiter’s companion
Ganymede, is just l/27th the diameter of its parent planet.
None of the other rocky, terrestrial worlds has amoon this
size -Mercury and Venus circle the Sun in solitude, while
Mars keeps apair of small asteroids, Phobos and Deimos, for
company. For aclose comparison to the Earth-Moon system.

5KY PA RT N E R

Earth's giant companion

has had aunique effect
on the formation of our

planet and on life itself.


®BREA
TK
T
HH
ROU
E BGHSS P L A S H
IG
oon rocks brought back by the Apollo landings reveal that
M our satellite has astrange composition. It formed in roughly
the same region of the solar system as Earth, but its
surface seems to have been completely molten at
one stage. It also has an unusually small iron
core compared to its overall diameter. To
explain these features, Don Davis and A
William KHartmann proposed in 1975 M
that the Moon formed during agiant
impact -or “Big Splash” -with Earth.
The theory is that, shortly after flH
Earth was born, when it was slightly
smaller than today, it suffered a
devastating collision with aMars- V in the inner solar system. But this idea also
sized world (sometimes called Theia)
that had formed in our part of the solar
system. The two worlds merged in this
fiery furnace, but large amounts of material,
mostly from the mantles of each planet,
were flung out into space, where they rapidly
coalesced to form the Moon.
%
^ 1^afterformingindependentlysomewhereelse
L AVA L U M P M o o n
rock’s volcanic origin
shows aviolent past.
CO
had formed from material left in orbit around
O
the Earth as our own planet formed -just as
we think happened for most of the moons of
the giant planets.
The major drawback to this idea is that the CO
dusty, rocky material that formed the inner planets
CO
was comparatively sparse, with none of the huge
excess of ice and gas found in the outer solar
m
system ~so it was hard to explain how
Earth could have formed with ahuge ring
of unused material around it. o
Another popular idea was that the Moon d
^hadbeencapturedintoorbitaroundEarth u
m
had several problems -for one thing, the
Moon's orbit is slowly spiralling outwards
o
(by around 3.5cm per year), which is hard
to explain in this model. For another, the m
chances of the Moon getting captured in apassing D
encounter that did not affect Earth's own circular o
orbit around the Sun were extremely slim. 00

m
MOON AS ASPIN-OFF “ D
E a r t h M o o n
Athird theory sought to explain the outward spiral >
of the lunar orbit and the related fact that Earth’s
m
we have to look way out beyond Neptune, into the R E L AT I V E S I Z E S rotation is gradually slowing down (so that aday
Moon's size and distance
icy depths of the Kuiper Belt, where the demoted from Earth -to scale.
now lasts two hours longer than it did about 600
dwarf planet Pluto and its major moon Charon are million years ago). According to this idea, the Earth
even closer in both size and separation. had spun so fast in its youth that it became
unstable, flinging off material from its bulging
THEORIES OF LUNAR ORIGIN equator that went into orbit and coalesced to form
The Moon, then, breaks alot of the rules about the Moon. Some even suggested that this event
MOON SHADOW
planet formation SO where did it come from? formed the Pacific Ocean basin.
Farmers have long relied
For along time, three different theories vied for on the Moon to light
But it soon became clear that Earth could

supremacy. The simplest was that the Moon their nocturnal labours. never have spun fast enough for this scenario.

. . . .

m m 1:^
m
,,4#'
w
IS

i t
r 1
and eventually, evidence brought back from the
Moon by the Apollo missions backed up afinal,
cataclysmic theory that is widely accepted today
-the so-called Big Splash (see Breakthroughs).
REMARKABLE POWERS
Some 4.5 billion years may have passed since its
formation, but the Moon has not been amere
passive observer of events on Earth. Even in a
modern world that protects us from many of the
forces of nature, we are still subject to its effects in
our everyday lives.
For our ancestors, the Moon was of crucial
importance -the changing cycle of its phases
regulated calendars as far apart as Mesopotamia
and Mesoamerica, and in an age before artificial
lighting, full Moons allowed harvesters and hunters
alike to continue working beyond sunset.
WAXING MOON Most significant of all, though, the Moon raises
The phases of the waxing tides on the surface of the Earth. Tides are bulges
(growing) and waning
M o o n a c t a s a c a l e n d a r. in the Earth caused by the pull of our satellite’s
gravity. They distort the shape of the Earth itself,
creating abulge directly beneath the Moon, and
acounterbalancing bulge on the other side of
the planet (in reality, the bulges are slightly offset
because of the Earth’s fairly rapid rotation).
GLOSSARY INFLUENTIAL PARTNERS
Dwarf planet^^s
The Earth’s surface is largely covered by alayer of
HTilil
water that is much easier to pull around than its
interior rocks. Because of this the tides have the
Asteroi
greatest effect on our planet’s oceans, causing them
to rise and fall to amuch greater extent than the
Earth’s land surface as the planet effectively rotates
beneath the two tidal bulges. The complex daily and
monthly cycle of tides is acombination of influences

^HOW IT WORKS
^TIDAL CYCLES

E very coast on Earth experiences high and low tides twice spring tide
aday, caused by the pull of the Moon. This takes the gravitational forces of
form of atidal “bulge”, with shallower water in between Sun and Moon combine

to create highest tides

bulges. The cycle repeats 40-50 minutes earlier each day.
Meanwhile, throughout the month, the tides run twice
through acycle that ranges from the extreme highs and
lows of “spring” tides, to shallower “neap” tides, and back.
The day-to-day change is caused simply by the changing Sun’s i n fl u e n c e

direction of the Moon as it orbits Earth in just over wanes as Moon

moves around Earth

27 days. The cycle of spring tides and neap tides,
meanwhile, is aresult of the changing directions of the Sun
and Moon. Although the Sun is much farther away from the
Moon it is also much more massive and so its gravitational
pull raises its own tides on Earth. When these are lined
tides are lowest
up with the lunar tides (around new and full Moons), the when Sun and Moon

changes are particularly extreme. Midway between these are at right angles
times (around the first quarter and last quarter), the solar
tides counteract the lunar tides, flattening out the bulges.
t
neap tide
SPRING AND NEAP TIDES
The tides on Earth are at their highest when the Sun and
Moon are in alignment. As the Moon moves round the
Earth it counteracts the Sun's pull and the tides diminish.
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE Othe double planet
 LUNAR
As our closest neighbour in space,
it is hardly surprising that the Moon
has been the target of the majority of
remote interplanetary missions.

he earliest missions to the The far enough to provide data on

Moon were the result of 99kg soft-landing the space between Earth and its
lunar capsule.
intense activity by both the pictured in front satellite, including new information
USAand the USSR to develop rockets of the complete. on the Van Allen radiation belts that

capable of delivering nuclear 1580kg would prove extremely useful to

warheads from one continent to
"41
spacecraft.
containing a
subsequent missions.
anotfier. Fortunately, while the r o c k e t m o t o r. Pioneer 4, which was launched
politicians postured, they also on 3March 1959, also failed,
budgeted generously and the so-called missing the Moon by adistance
space race saw huge strides place & of more than 60,000km. like the
space science and technology. former spacecraft, it too ended up
1 t i
i n

The first US probes to the Mooi in an orbit of the Sun.

were the Pioneer series. Pioneers

to 3were all launched in the fatfer
part of 1958. White they all failed
in their mission to photograph the
Moon close-up, they did travel

BREAKTHROUGHS

^ION PROPULSION
nSeptember 2003, the European Space Agency launched a
revolutionary probe which took almost 13 months to reach the
Moon. Its name was Smart-1 and its rocket motor ~having less
power than apuff of breath was an early space trial of asolar-
powered ion engine. While astandard chemical rocket can operate
only in bursts before its
fuel runs out, an ion
engine can burn
continuously for years.
Once in lunar orbit, the
probe mapped the Moon
with X-rays, specifically
looking for frozen water
at the south pole. It was
deliberately crashed
into the lunar surface in

September 2006, having

generated much useful
|| data that will be put to
iuse in planned missions S M A RT- 1 A n a r t i s t ’s i m p r e s s i o n o f E S A s i o n -
t o M e r c u r y. powered spacecraft on its Moon mission.
 i
k

9 «
*

>

- ^ u
V
, \
v
m ^

-JS-.
S
V'?.’
\V ii."

■f
>-l xf' l i :

f
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rs
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fi

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.^1 *13
LUNAR ORBITER This programme SURVEYOR 3This, the third of the US t P-.

consisted of five identical 390kg Moon lander series, was the first to , ^ '
m A
% O :
spacecraft. Their mission was to CD
feature arobot scoop. This was used ■ .

m
photograph lunar landing sites. to help analyse the fine surface soil. i -
CO

SiiKitStii

and relaying them back to Earth, The Soviet space agency I

Between 1961 and 1965, the USA then deliberately self-destructing on followed asimilar course to MASA ■I:
launched the Ranger series of the lunar surface. designing ajKobe initially to otsW s

probes. All except Rangers 7to 9 Having gathered enough data land bn the Moon wtitfe reSirning "I mail [iiaim

suffered from technical problems.
The probes were designed to send
back live images of lunar surface
as they headed fee^nlmpact with
the Moon -andThis the last three
did, with considerable success,
returning thousands of images.
The next series of US lunar
probes, the Lunar Orbiter, was
to choose alanding site, NASA pictures on the way.
scientists now wanted to find out Luna, i, ^ugh, mi^d and
whether the lunar surface was became the first spaeecT^ in
able to support alanding vehkle. solarcHtritiR lPS^. Uina 2. which ■h
Seven spacecraft were launched followed shortly afterwards, brame
and all except Surveyors 2and 4 the first craft to impact on the lunar
succeeded in making asoft landing. surface, and its sister probe, Luna 3,
took the first pictures of the far side
of the Moon.

designed to orbit the Moon and
photograph areas that were being
selected as possible landing sites
for the manned Apollo missions. All
five, launched between 1966 and
Not only did the probes take
thousands of photographs but
Surveyor 3analysed asoil sample.
The 1968 Surveyor 7mission was
purely scientific, exploring the u n a r
When, in 1969, the USA landed
Surveyor 5had an
aman on the Moon, the Soviets alpha-scattering
continued with unmanned missions device to measure
the abundance
up until 1976. Luna 24 was the last j of the major
Soviet mission to date, returnin elements of the

1967, succeeded, taking images region around Tycho crater. soil samples to Earth for analysis. lunar surface.

ffe-'.--'.
.^.1
 m : . ' S t
m

m A
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u o
m

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I

7D
, 0 1^/

J31

LUNAR
FEATURES
Because it lies so close to
Earth-tied observers, no other
heavenly body in the universe
can be seen in so much detai
and so easily.

D the Moon and, unless it’s showing its full

oint atelescope or apair of binoculars at

face, the light of the Sun will shine across

the surface, revealing the many dramatic features.
Acasual glance shows that the Moon is covered
with craters, which are the scars of ancient
asteroid impacts
Look alittle longer and you will be able to see
mountains, ridges and the vast, sunken plateaux
that astronomers call mares, or seas. Every night
as the Sun shines at different angles, you will be
able to see their changing appearances.
 [5] GIANT IMPACT HYPOTHESIS Apopular theory for the formation of the Moon is that the young Earth was struck by aMars-sized body,
Theia, named after the Titan of Greek mythology who gave birth to the Moon goddess Selene. Theia may have been in the same orbit as

1
 >
G)
m

O
>

<

>
7 0

>

d
7 0

CO

Earth and about 60° ahead or behind. As it grew its angular distance from Earth fluctuated until the two collided. Theia's mantle and much of
Earth's mantle were ejected into space and Theia's core sank into the Earth's core. The orbiting debris later coalesced to form the Moon.
 t r
PATRICK MOOR
UNAR
i

V
STON T
1;
'.in

The legendary Sir Patrick Moore selects 10 lunar

history highlights -some from the earliest days of
astronomy, others from recent times...

FA R S I D E I n back valuable data -for instance,

ith such arich history

W
TO THE MOON
1959, Luna 3sent In 1968, Apollo
of observation and
b a c k t h e fi r s t
confirming that the Moon has no 8became the
discovery, it was quite images of the far detectable overall magnetic field. fi r s t m a n n e d
achallenge for Patrick Moore to side of the Moon. Luna 2landed, although it 4
mission to

select just 10 milestones in the impacted and presumably broke journey to the
Moon and back
Moon’s story. It was bound to be a up. No signals to Earth.
partly personal choice and he were received after

began with the telescopic touchdown.

observations of Galileo (see ♦

Breakthroughs, page 19). Indeed, I FA R S I D E
his first five milestones were during IInOctobercameLuna
the 17th to 19th centuries. Then in ^ * ,^3, which went round
^ the Moon and sent

back the first images of

■HHHi the far side -those
areas which are always turned away
from the Earth and which we can

never see. Speculations had been

the 20th century space flight took
off and lunar discovery advanced
in leaps and bounds.
In 1959, the Soviet Union's Lunas
1, 2and 3were the first spacecraft
to be sent to the Moon. Luna 1
by-passed the Moon and sent
rife and it had even been suggested
that all the air and water had been
drawn round to the far side, which
might, therefore, be inhabited.
Luna 3disposed of all these ideas.
The images seem very poor and
LANDING The blurred by present-day standards,
first landing on but Luna 3was atriumph. It was
the surface of the
Moon was by the
confirmed that the far side is just as
USSR's Luna 9. cratered and just as barren as the
hemisphere we have always known.
But the only large “sea” is the Mare
: M .
i □ a
„ . . - r
t

16

u
 X
-I m
^ i ■ ]

■ ‘ S - I
o
’73
<
o

>
CO
I
7 3
O

o
Orientale, atiny part of which can CREW James Surveyors, of which five were Apollo 10, crewed by astronauts
Lovell, William
be seen from Earth under the most successful. The following year saw Thomas Stafford, John WYoung
Anders and -<
favourable conditions. Frank Borman the first successful Apollo flight and Eugene Cernan, made a
The Russians also mapped the -the astronauts
who manned the
to the Moon. In December 1968, second flight around the Moon
and did everything except actually
o
“Soviet Mountains”, which they Apollo 8, carrying astronauts Frank
Apollo 8flight.
believed to bepf great importance, Borman, James Lovell and William land. (Young and Cernan did
but which were later found to be
EAGLE The Lunar Anders, made acomplete circuit subsequently land, in Apollos 16 >
nothing more than abright ray. Module (above and paved the way for alanding. and 17 respectively, and Stafford
centre), moments would also have landed but for the
after separating
"CONTROLLED LANDING FIRST MAN ON THE MOON Apollo 13 mishap.)
from the Apollo m
In 1966, the first successful 11 C o m m a n d There had unquestionably been a On 19 July 1969, Neil Armstrong C O
H
^controlled landing on the Moon Module. “space race” between the USA and then Buzz Aldrin stepped on to the
O
was made by the USSR’s Luna 9. It USSR, and the Americans won. The rocky surface of Mare Tranquillitatis.
SMALL STEP
Soviet rockets were not reliable m
touched down in the Oceanus Buzz Aldrin's The gap between the two worlds C O

Procellarum and sent back images footprint (above enough, and after one particularly had finally been bridged.
direct from the surface. These right) -barring disastrous explosion the Russians
an Impact, it will THE ELEVENTH MILESTONE
showed that the ground is quite remain intact for gave up.
firm enough to bear the weight of a millions of years. In 1969 -the year of “the Patrick Moore planned to end his
spacecraft. There had been fears highlight of all highlights” -Man personal selection of lunar
that the maria, at least, were reached the Moon. In May, highlights with Armstrong’s “one
coated with deep, treacherous
layers of dust.
One astronomer, Thomas Gol
is on record as saying that any v o u d l
probe incautious enough to
land “would simply sink into .
the dust with all its gear.”
So there was general relief
when Luna 9transmitted its

first picture.
Shortly afterwards, the first 'C.'-

NASA Surveyor spacecraft made

an equally faultless landing in the THEJ^Q^ Lunar

Mare Nubium. During 1966 and 3in|lAldrin st^ds^'S^ -

1967 the Surveyors mapped the beforetheUSflag
entire Moon. There were seven IrJ July 1965^. ^

17
 7hy

THE CREW
small step” and, so far as lunar So Patrick cheats and adds one
Apollo 11 was
history is concerned, 1969 certainly more date. He calls it 10a... In
crewed by
dwarfs all other years. It will be 1994, astartling announcement Command

remembered, Patrick says, long came from NASA, claiming that Module Pilot
Michael Collins
after 1066, 1815 and 1939 and the ice had been found on the Moon.
(left), Commander
rest have been forgotten. And after It was based on data transmitted
Neil Armstrong
Apollo there followed along lull by the unmanned lunar orbiter, (centre) and Lunar
Module Pilot
which is not over even yet. Clementine, which was scheduled
Edwin Eugene
to survey the Moon and then go 'Buzz' Aldrin
on to look at asmall asteroid (right).
Geographos.

ICE ON THE MOON

T h e instruments on board
S AT U R N V
Clementine indicated that ice
The launch, at
would be found on the floors of 09.32 (Eastern
4" jsome polar craters that are Daylight Time) on
never lit 16 July 1969,
by the Sun, so that they
from the Kennedy
are always in shadow - Space Center,
permanently in inky blackness, Florida.

and, therefore, bitterly cold,

Ice could exist there if

temperature was the only

LUNAR ICE
Celementine's
instruments
consideration, and the data even
suggested that
ice could be suggested that lunar ice could
found in shadowy provide enough water to satisfy the
polar craters.
needs of future colonies from Earth.

Others were sceptical, however

-there had been no trace of any
watery substance in any lunar
material which had been analysed,
and how could it accumulate?
 X
®BREA
KTHROUGH
EARLY S
LUNAR OBSERVATIQNS m
CO
4^ 1610 Galileo’s telescopic >1839 Publication of the
H
observations of the Moon. He great work Der Mond by
was not the first to do so Wilhelm Beer and Johann O
H e i n r i c h v o n M a d l e r. 7D
(Thomas Harriot was), but he
<
was more systematic, and he Although they used only a
produced amap showing small telescope (Beer’s o
i d e n t i fi a b l e f e a t u r e s . 33^in refractor), their map
was amasterpiece of C R AT E R L I N I M E S c h m i d t ’ s

41651 Map drawn by the good, accurate work and it comments on the crater in >
1866 resuited in renewed CO
Italian astronomer Giovanni remained the best for
i n te re st i n l u n a r o b se rva ti o n .
Battista Riccioli, who many years.
7D
introduced the system of
naming the craters after 41852 Warren de la Rue took some photographs of the O
famous people -usually (but Moon. He was not the first to do so, but his images z
not always) astronomers. His represented amajor advance. By the end of the century
system is still followed, the first photographic atlases of the whole visible surface O
GALILEO In 1610, I
although of course post- had been produced.
the great Italian
Riccioli astronomers come off astronomer published
second-best, as the main detailed drawings 41866 Announcement by JSchmidt of the Athens
features of the Moon had
already been named.
of the Moon in his
Siderius Nuncius
Observatory that the crater Linne, on Mare
Serenitatis. had disappeared, to be replaced by a
0
[Starry Messenger)
white spot. We are now certain that there is no
41778 First observations by real change but the announcement caused a
Johann Schroter, who made reawakening of interest in lunar observation. >
detailed drawings for over 30 Many people had thought that the map by
years. Unfortunately he never WILHELM BEER B e e r a n d M a d l e r w a s s o fi n a l t h a t

made afull map, and his The Berlin banker who there was little point in continuing I
set up aprivate m
observatory, with all his From 1890, when the British C O
observatory and
\Astronomical Association founded H
unpublished observations, was co-authored

destroyed by invading French Der Mond iits Lunar Section, the Moon has o
soldiers in 1813. in 1839. been under constant scrutiny. m
CO

In 1998, another probe,

POONBASE Both Russia
Prospector, was deliberately and the USA have plans
crashed into apolar crater in the ~such as this one -but

hope that water would be found no-one knows when the

fi r s t w i l l b e r e a l i s e d .
in the debris flung out. The results
were negative.
Patrick Moore is acomplete
sceptic about this -water has never
existed there, he reckons. There are
no skating rinks on the Moon!

W H AT T H E F U T U R E H O L D S
In the future there must be another

highlight -the official opening of

the first Lunar Base. When this will
happen, Patrick does not know, but
it ought to be within the next few
decades, in which case many of you A '

now reading these words will be - T ' i -

there to see it. 2030? 2050? 2080?

Time will tell!
 ARIES and
TRIANGULUM
Aram with agolden fleece
graces the evening skies at the i

turn of the year. It is called

Aries, and next to it lies the
northern triangle, Triangulum.

A
ries is one of the less prominent figures of the
"a* "" zodiac but is of considerable astronomical

significance. In the time of the Greek

astronomer Hipparchus, in the 2nd century bc, the point
"-P
at which the Sun crossed the celestial equator from
Y-
south to north on its annual path around the celestial
sphere lay in Aries. This crossing point -the vernal
RAM HEAD equinox -now lies 30 degrees away in neighbouring
'Alpha (a), Beta Pisces, because of the Earth’s toppling motion (called
(p) and Gamma (y) precession). But this point is still referred to as the
Arietis form the
First Point of Aries.
head of Aries.
Aries is most easily recognized by its crooked line of
three stars. Alpha (a). Beta (p) and Gamma (y) Arietis,
which mark the horns and head of the ram. The rest of

■' i t
its body is outlined by much fainter stars.

^CTLCENFLEECE Alpha Arietis is an orange giant of magnitude 2.0. The

faintest star of the trio. Gamma Arietis, is an impressive
ries represents the ram of legend that was clothed double consisting of near-identical white stars, easily
A in golden wool. This ram could fly, and saved Phrixus, separated when viewed through asmall telescope.
the son of King Athamus of Boeotia
A#
w h e n h e w a s a b o u t t o b e s a c r i fi c e d
TINY TRIANGULUM
to avert afamine in his father’s / \
\
/ To the north of Aries is the smaller constellation of
land. With Phrixus on his back,
4 t h e r a m fl e w t o C o l c h i s o n t h e Triangulum. This is anarrow triangle of three stars, the
sf shore of the Black Sea. Here, brightest being only magnitude 3.0. Although these
^r r P h r i x u s s a c r i fi c e d the ram
stars are not particularly interesting, Triangulum
to Zeus. After Phrixus
died, the Greek hero
contains an important spiral galaxy called M33, the
.V
0 third-largest member of our Local Group. M33 is
Jason and his Argonauts ^ ■s i
#

made an epic voyage h s relatively close to us, at 2.7 million light years away, but
k >
to Colchis to retrieve
Iit is not too prominent. Aclear, dark night is needed to
the ram’s priceless be able to pick it out using binoculars. It appears as a
fleece. Triangulum simply a A ' W hazy patch of similar size to the full Moon.
reminded the Greeks of

atriangle. Photographs and CCD images show the spiral arms

of M33, but visual observers need large telescopes to
see them.

.''S
 The M33 galaxy,
with its pink
' Va r i e s a n d gas clouds, is
ries and Triangulum lie highest in the Triangulum's
A evening sky in November and December
claim to fame.

each year, between

the zodiacal
constellations Pisces

and Taurus. They a r e

visible from all but

I
the most southerly
latitudes on Earth.
I
IThe Sun passes
through Aries from
late April to mid May

L O C AT I O N MAP

ABBREVIATION Ari ABBREVIATION Tri

BEST SEASON BEST SEASON

Late autumn-early Late autumn-early

winter (evenings) winter [evenings]
BRIGHTEST S TA R BRIGHTEST S TA R

Alpha [a] Arietis Beta ((3) Triangulum

SIZE RANKING 39 SIZE RANKING 78

POSITION Equatorial POSITION Equatorial

ARIES
Hamal^r

YsSheratan

Mesaiithim:"i

J f

TAURUS
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 m

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THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

16
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2 0
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WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
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©Eaglemoss Publications (2008). All rights reserved.

n he constellations of the zodiac are the most "
special constellations
wraps itself around Earth's sky, unique
because it is home to the Sun, Moon
and planets. This is the zodiac -it
defines our calendar and the
measurements we make in the sky.
■<
o
O
>
CO
" " - <
famous in the sky, largely because of the
popularity of astrology. Almost everyone ""
knows their “Sun sign -the zodiac constellation
where the Sun supposedly lay at the time of their
birth. But the real, astronomical zodiac is alot
more complex than you might think.
The Earth’s annual orbit around the Sun means
that our local star is projected against different
areas of the background sky at different times of
year. Over afull 12 months, the Sun appears to
trace aslow anticlockwise circle from west to east
against the more distant stars apath called the
ecliptic (see Glossary on next page).
ECLIPTIC PLANE
This photo taken by the
Clementine spacecraft
from behind the Moon
shows the alignment of
Saturn, Mars and Mercury.
Most objects in the sky are “fixed” in terms
of their co-ordinates. They always rise and set in
the same places, and follow the same daily arc
across the sky for an observer at aparticular
latitude. The Sun, though, is different
because it changes its daily path across the
sky throughout the year as it moves farther
north or south on the ecliptic. This makes
the days grow shorter or longer in opposing
hemispheres. It is aresult of our planet’s tilt
on its orbit -which puts the ecliptic at atilt
compared to the parallel paths of the other
celestial objects.
Astronomers often use amodel called the
celestial sphere to describe Earth’s skies (see
issue 9). This projection of Earth’s poles and equator
into the heavens explains how the stars normally
follow repeating circular paths around Earth’s
sky, parallel to the so-called celestial equator. The
orientation of the celestial poles and equator in
an observer’s sky depends on his or her latitude
on Earth. At the north pole, the north celestial
pole (NCR) is directly overhead and the celestial
equator rings the horizon. At mid-northern
latitudes, on the other hand, the NCR is lower in
the sky to the north, and the celestial equator rises
from due east, sweeps across the southern sky,
and sinks back below the horizon due west.
THE EQUINOXES
In contrast to this, the path of the ecliptic crosses
the celestial equator at two points called the
equinoxes. The Sun passes through one of these
points around 20 March, and the other around 23
September -the two times in the year when day
and night are equal in both hemispheres.
^Between March and September, the Sun
sweeps across the ecliptic and through
the sky’s northern hemisphere. It
^reaches its greatest separation from
the equator on northern Midsummer
|| Day, 21 June.Then, from September
IIItoMarch,itpassesintothesouthern
Iskies, again reaching its
|1 southernmost point at southern
Mmidsummer (and northern
■midwinter) on 21 September.
As the Sun passes along the
ecliptic, it can lie in any of 13 different
constellations -these are the 12 well-known
zodiac signs, and one other called Ophiuchus
PLANISPHERE
This medieval version
(see Inside Info). Because the solar system
shows the constellations is almost flat, with all the orbits of the major
as mythical creatures. planets lying in nearly the same plane, these
INSIDE INFO
THE THIRTEENTH SIGN
T he constellation of Ophiuchus, the Serpent-Bearer, is
currently the thirteenth sign of the zodiac -the Sun
passes through it between Scorpius and Sagittarius,
from 30 November to 18 December.
It was not always this way, but the precession of the
equinoxes has gradually drawn this part of the ecliptic
farther north on the celestial sphere, so the Sun’s path
across the sky passes through just anarrow northern
extension of Scorpius rather than through the bulk of
the constellation’s “body”.
OPHIUCHUS One interpretation of the sign has
the figure as Asclepius, the Greek god of medicine,
who learned the secret of immortality after seeing
one serpent bring another healing herbs.
 THE DATES OF THE SUN’S PRESENCE -<
TROPICAL SIDEREAL ASTRONOMICAL SOLAR BRIGHTEST o
SIGN MEANING SYMBOL O B S E R VAT I O N S S TAY S TA R
ASTROLOGICAL ASTROLOGICAL

ARIES RAM T 21 MAR -20 APR 14 APR -14 M AY 19 APR-14 M AY 2 5 D AY S ALPHA ARIETIS TO
3 8 D AY S ALDEBARAN
T A U R U S BULL 21 APR -22 M AY 15 M AY -14 JUN 14 M AY -21 JUN CO
GEMINI TWINS H 23 M AY -23 JUN 15 JUN-16 JUL 21 JUN -21 JUL 3 0 D AY S POLLUX
o
C A N C E R CRAB 24 JUN -23 JUL 17 JUL -16 AUG 21 JUL - 11 AUG 2 1 D AY S B E TA C A N C R I

3 7 D AY S REGULUS
LEO LION eft 24 JUL -23 AUG 17 AUG -16 SEP 11 AUG-17 SEP
TO
17 SEP-31 OCT 4 4 D AY S SPICA
VIRGO VIRGIN r m 24 AUG -22 SEP 17 SEP -17 OCT
CO
SCALES 23 SEP -23 OCT 18 OCT -16 NOV 31 OCT -23 NOV 2 3 D AY S B E TA L I B R A E
LIBRA
-<
A N TA R E S
SCORPIO SCORPION 24 OCT -22 NOV 17 NOV -15 DEC 23 NOV -30 NOV 7DAYS CO
OPHIUCHUS SERPENT BEARER 30 NOV -18 DEC 1 8 D AY S ALPHA OPHIUCHI H
3 2 D AY S E P S I L O N S A G I T TA R I I
m
S A G I T TA R I U S A R C H E R ( C E N TA U R ) 23 NOV -21 DEC 16 DEC -14 JAN 18 DEC -19 JAN

CAPRICORN HORNED G O AT VS 22 DEC -19 JAN 15 JAN -12 FEB 19 JAN-16 FEB 2 8 D AY S D E LTA C A P R I C O R N I

AQUARIUS WAT E R C A R R I E R 20 JAN -18 FEB 13 FEB -14 MAR 16 FEB-12 MAR 2 4 D AY S B E TA A Q U A R I I

FISH 19 FEB -20 MAR 15 MAR-13 APR 12 MAR-19 APR 3 8 D AY S E TA P I S C I U M

PISCES
o
C O N S T E L L AT I O N S V S Z O D I A C S I G N S constellations are where the planets and Moon a
G L . O S S A R Y m
Ecliptic: Acircular path that Tropical dates are used by Western are usually found. r
is effectively aprojection of astrologers; sidereal by Indian (Hindu)
The zodiac constellations are among the
Earth sorbit into the sky. astrologers. Astronomers use the zodiac
to mark the Sun's path across the sky. oldest of all named star patterns, mostly dating 0
back to the ancient Mesopotamian civilisations
around 2000bc or even earlier. Most represent
m
„HOW IT WORKS living creatures, each attributed, according to N
sSJtRACKING THE ZODIAC astrologers, with certain properties that can O
influence people born “under their sign”. D
he base plate of your solar system model is designed to let >
T you track the positions of the planets against the zodiac
PRECESSION
o
constellations and compare them to the astrological “houses”.
The inner zodiac band, with the constellation names, is divided However, there are some important differences
into 12 equal sections that correspond to the astrological between the zodiac constellations in the sky and
houses (beginning with Aries on 21 March each year). the familiar zodiac calendar. Even taking
The outer slip ring shows the true extent of the ecliptic across Ophiuchus into account, the Sun does not spend
the constellations, and the time spent by the Sun in each one
the same amount of time in each constellation
(including Ophiuchus). The astrological symbols are used here to
represent each constellation. through the year (see the table above).
The asterisk marked on the slip ring gives the present- _ What’s more, the horoscope zodiac is offset
day alignment of the two systems -simply rotate from the Sun’s true position by aconsiderable
it to align with the small Aries symbol distance: along, slow wobble in Earth’s axis causes
on the base plate. Tables provided in
an effect called “precession of the equinoxes”,
later issues will allow you to rotate
the slip ring and adjust the in which the position of the Sun at agiven time
constellations for dates in the of the year gradually creeps around the sky over
past and future, many thousands of years.
slip ring
When the zodiac was first pinned down, the
Sun lay on the boundary between Pisces and Aries
a s t e r i s k
at the northern vernal (spring) equinox. This was
used as the basis for dividing the year into 12
symbol
equal signs (beginning with Aries: 21 March -
'constellation
20 April) and continuing from there.
of Pisces

However, precession means that the Sun

zodiac names now lies near the opposite side of Pisces at the
equinox, and it does not pass into Aries until
base plate
19 April. Your solar system model takes this into
account, so you can study the planets against the
astrological and astronomical zodiac at any time.

-<F
 The POWER WITHIN
the EARTH
O
ne of the many things that make our
homeworld unique in the solar system
is its outer surface or crust. Earth is the
only rocky planet whose crust is not asolid shell.
Instead, its outermost layer is broken and
fragmented into "plates", whose slow and steady
drift affects geology, climate and even geography.
EARTH'S HIDDEN STRUCTURE
The segmented chunks of Earth’s crust are called
tectonic plates (from tekton, aGreek word for
builder). Their existence was first suggested around
1912 by scientist Alfred Wegener (see Space Stars)
but his theory was only accepted in the 1960s.
Individual tectonic plates range in size from
relatively small sections such as the Anatolian
Plate, to enormous ones such as the Pacific Plate.
Tectonic plates typically contain amix of two
distinct types of crust -thin oceanic crust and
thicker continental crust. Oceanic crust is just afew
kilometres deep and, as its name suggests, l i e s
6
Beneath the rocky outer crust,
slowly churning masses of hot
rock are continually reshaping
the surface of our planet Earth.
■"'v
F I R E M O U N TA I N largely below sea level. Continental crust is much
Active volcanoes such as
thicker and rises up to several kilometres above sea
Tungurahua in Ecuador -
which forms part of level, while its deep roots plunge like an iceberg
South America's Andes into the mantle. The ancient cores of the
mountain range -- are continents contain some of the thickest and oldest
proof of the violent
crust and may be up to 70 kilometres thick.
forces produced when
tectonic plates meet. Each tectonic plate is made up of crust plus the
uppermost region of mantle. Together they form a
layer called the lithosphere. This “floats" on top of
alayer of fairly fluid, mobile rock in the mantle
called the asthenosphere, between 100km and
200km deep. Rock beneath the crust is not all
molten but is generally acrushed and compressed
mix of minerals denser than those found on Earth’s
surface. The high temperatures and pressures in
the mantle cause the rocks to deform and “flow"
past each other over millions of years.
Heat from the core causes mantle rock to heat
and expand, becoming less dense in the process
and pushing its way up through cooler surrounding
rock in the same way that hot air rises over cold.
 o
i H m ■
he Earth’s core -amix of moiten iron and
T nickef swirling around aslowly solidifying incoming
solar
CO
central kernel ~plays avital role in protecting w i n d
magnetotaii
the planet. The rotating mass of iron in the CO
core generates an electric current that, in
turn, creates Earth’s magnetic field. The field
emerges through the surface at the magnetic f pressure of solar
north and south poles, extending into space to wind stretches

form aprotective cocoon that traps or deflects m a g n e t i c fi e l d

O
dangerous particles of radiation from the Sun.
Without this protection, life on Earth could
not survive. Earth’s “magnetosphere” is d e fl e c t e d solar
a
wind particles m
distorted by the pressure of solar radiation so
that it forms ahuge billowing tail blowing away
from the Sun. Electrically charged particles
collide in the upper atmosphere to create the
0
beautiful light-show known as the northern X
lights (aurora borealis) and the southern lights WINDPROOF The Earth’s g
(aurora australis). deflects deadly solar particles ^
o

Rock loses heat as it travels upwards, until at the O L O S S A R Y

move parallel to the plates carrying the plates
s o

X I
top of the mantle it is no warmer than its Epicentre: The point with them. The rate of movement is very slow
on the Earth's surface
surroundings. Pushed aside by currents of hotter just afew centimetres per year -but the forces
directly above the place
rising rock from below, it is eventually recycled, where an earthquake involved are so powerful that over millions of years X
drifting back down towards the core where it is originates underground. they can completely reshape the face of our planet.
heated again, so repeating the cycle.
In this way. Earth’s mantle is split into anumber REGIONS OF VIOLENT ACTIVITY X

of "convection cells' great loops in which the The centres of individual plates tend to be stable
same material is continually being recycled. At the places, but the boundaries create some of the >
tops of these cells, the rocks of the asthenosphere most active and violent locations on Earth. Here

the plates are either pulling apart, moving past X

S PA C E S TA R S
each other or crashing together violently.
ALFRED WEGENER [1880-1930) Transform boundaries, where plates scrape past
^each other, are often associated with earthquakes.
These occur when two plates jam together before
German
scientist
Alfred
Wegener
trained
as
an
astronomer
at
Berlin University, but became fascinated by meteorology, and suddenly breaking free, causing ahuge release of
pioneered the use of weather balloons to study conditions in the energy deep underground. As shockwaves spread
upper atmosphere. His theory of “continental drift” (the precursor to
out from the quake sepicentre (see Glossary), the
P-T,, plate tectonics) was triggered by the realisation
that the coasts of widely separated continents - landscape around them ripples like fluid, causing
ksuch as western Africa and eastern South widespread devastation. The most famous
\America -seemed to fit together (something transform boundary is California’s San Andreas
fthat had also been noticed by 16th-century Fault, where the Pacific and North American Plates
mapmakers). grind past each other. This caused the devastating
Wegener backed this up with studies of the
earthquakes that have hit San Francisco.
strange distribution patterns of apparently
identical fossil species in different At divergent faults, plates are pulling away from
parts of the world. He first put each other and new crust is continually created to
% forward his theory in 1912, but it plug the gap. Fresh rock is laid down by eruptions of
was largely ignored until the 1950s. volcanic magma from the mantle below, usually at
By then, Wegener was not around
f
I / to enjoy his vindication -he died of
the bottom of steep-sided “rift valleys". Most
heart failure during ameteorological divergent faults occur in oceanic crust, as the plates
'expedition to Greenland in 1930. are thinnest here. Divergent faults encircle the
V
planet as deep-sea chains of volcanic mountains that

PA S T A N D F U T U R E E A R T H
ectonics are constantly
T reshaping the Earth, moving
the continents across its face.
Around 250 million years ago,
the continents were united in
asingle landmass, for which
Wegener coined the name
Pangaea (meaning “all-Earth”). As
the plates drifted apart, an ocean
called the Tethys Sea separated
Pangaea into two supercontinents
-Laurasia and Gondwana. Then
as North and South America
drifted separately away and the
Atlantic opened, the Tethys Sea
ISLAND AHOY
Steady accumulation of
molten rock on the sea
floor builds up over time
to form anew island.
SEA FLOOR SPREAD
N e w s e a fl o o r f o r m s a s
molten rock erupts from
deep ocean trenches.
began to close. Its remnants today
form the Mediterranean and its
neighbouring seas.
North and South America later
became joined. According to some
predictions, the modern separation
of continents is only temporary,
and in another 250 million years,
the landmasses will reunite to
form another supercontinent
-“Pangaea Ultima”.
EARTH MOVING All the major land
masses seen today were once part of a
single supercontinent called Pangaea.
CO
hotter and more fluid than overlying rocks of the
lithosphere. In some regions, two plates O
containing continental crust collide. In this case >
the two opposing landmasses buckle and 7 0
compress, often with one riding up over the CO
margin of the other. The result may be ahuge
mountain range such as the Alps, formed by the CO
collision of Italy with Europe, or the Himalayas, m
where the Indian subcontinent pushes into Asia.
R E G U L AT I N G T H E E A RT H G)
As we as reshaping global geography, the slow
drift of the continents has acrucial effect on Earth’s
o
climate. The rearrangement of land masses can
open up new seaways and close old ones, altering
the movement of the deep ocean currents that
transport heat around the planet. The joining up of
0
North and South America about 4million years ago
split the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, plunging Earth
into aclimate crisis that led to the most recent “ O
o
sequence of ice ages.
Volcanic activity at plate boundaries helps Earth
“let off steam”, so preventing abuild-up of pressure
that might lead to more violent eruptions. Plate
tectonics also help maintain the delicate balance of
X
gases in Earth’s atmosphere. Volcanoes release water
vapour and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere to
help keep Earth warm. Meanwhile at convergent
boundaries, carbonate rocks are carried back down m
into the mantle, thus locking away excess carbon that >
might otherwise cause Earth to overheat. : : o
I.
't'f
 &

■ X ' "

W ' :--^»if£t:.;

On their launch, the ERS-1 and 2

satellites were the most sophisticated %' ■

Earth observation spacecraft ever '0A

developed and launched in Europe.

3U-:.-

.. >.j.-

aunched in 1991, The
European Remote Sensing
satellite, ERS4, was ESA’s
first Earth observation satellite.
Based on the earlier French SPOT
satellite, ERS4 was relatively large,
measuring 12 x12 x2.5m and
weighing in at 2400kg.
It consisted of: aservice module,
which carried the computer
module, which carried the three
thrusters used for modifying the
orbital alignment; the solar array,
consisting of two 5,8 x2.4m wings;
and apayload consisting of imaging
a n d s c i e n t i fi c i n s t r u m e n t s .
Launched aboard an Ariane 4
rocket on 17 July 1991, the satellite
was placed in anear polar orbit
at an altitude of 780km. Along
the craft’s primary mission was
to perform remote sensing of
the Earth’s oceans, ice caps and
f
coastal regions. This is achieved
with the help of five main scientific Data from
the satellites
instruments:
and control
"An Active Microwave Instrument instructions to
(AMI) that combined the functions them are handled
of aSynthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
listening station
and aWind Scatterometer. The SAR I in northern

control systems; the propulsion with its sister satellite, ERS-2, operated in two modes: image Sweden.

m fa

■■
□
n11 December 2007, ESA’s Envisat (Environmental Satellite]
acquired a400 x400km image of an oil slick off the coast of
South Korea. More than 10,000 tonnes of crude oil were reported
to have spilt from the 148,000-tonne tanker Hebei Spirit after it %
collided with another vessel on 7

December. The oil damps down the

waves on the sea surface and the

radar aboard the satellite captures :iv-

this as adarker area in an

otherwise brighter sea.

KOREAN OIL SPILL One of the images '4

captured by the Envisat satellite -images

that helped to alert authorities to the
extent of the problem.

10
 /

- * v
MESSINA

Data captured
by ERS in March
2006 help
n : scientists to
understand why
^the currents
are so strong
j
in the southern
U Italian Strait of
Messina.
: / '

o
00
CD
a m
i /
r j
m

<

O
m
>

only 24 hours apart, the increased

Acomposite ERS-2, launched in 1995, had an frequency and quantity of data
image of the
ERS-1 satellite improved ATSR instrument, collected provided scientists vyith
over the coast of designed to monitor chlorophyll aunique opportunity to observe
The Netherlands, g^d vegetation, as well as an changes in the Earth over avery
additional Global Ozone Monitoring short period.
mode could acquire large images of Experiment (GOME) sensor for In March 2000, acombination
oceans, polar regions, coastal atmospheric ozone researcb. of gyro and computer failure led
regions and land; wave mode Shortly after ERS-2 was to the termination of the ERS-1

captured aseries of smaller,
5X5km, images that were used to
monitor the height and direction of
waves. The Scatterometer
measured the sea surface wind
speed and direction.
"ARadar Altimeter (RA) provided
measurements of the sea surface
launched, scientists at ESA decided
to link the two spacecraft in the first
ever ‘tandem’ mission. This mission
lasted atotal of nine months. As
the two satellites orbited the Earth
mission -it had lasted five years
more than originally scheduled.
ESR-2 is still returning data, having
lasted well beyond its three-year
life expectancy.

height to within fractions of a

®BREA
EK
T
UH
RO
R OU
PG
EH
SN
A S PA C E A G E N C Y

millimetre, and monitored sea-

B ythe 1970s, with the space race |
surface wind speeds and ice. between the two superpowers m
"An Along-Track Scanning over, European ambitions in space | f-

Radiometer (ATSR) and cameintofocuswiththeestablishment,| a

in 1974, of the European Space *

Microwave Sounder (MW)
combined infrared and microwave
sensors for measuring
temperatures at the sea surface
and at the top of clouds.
The payload module contained
m adedicated Instrument Data
Handling and Transmission (IDHT)
^^^ystem.Thisalloweddatatobe
Agency. Its headquarters are in Paris |
and its spaceport is the Guiana Space
Centre in Kourou, French Guiana. The ll
European Space Operations Centre
(ESOC) is in Darmstadt, Germany. |
Among its successes are the I
development of the Ariane rocket I
system, the 18-year lUE ultraviolet I
telescope, and Giotto, the deep-space
ESOC
mission to study the comets Halley and Grigg-Skjellerup. More ESA scientists at

^■transmitted directly to the ground recently. ESA tested arevolutionary space-propulsion technology work in the
with its lunar probe, Smart-1 and is still receiving images and Operations Centre
stations in real-time or recorded
valuable data on Mars via Mars Express, launched in 2003. in Germany.
on one of the two on-board tape
^4^corders for transmission later.
 >

Q
>

m
7D

[1] MOUNT FUJI The [2] MOUNT ETNA [3] CALIFORNIA FAULT [ 5 ] B O G D A M O U N TA I N S
After an eruption of this California's San Andreas One of the few places
snow-capped peak of the
sacred dormant volcano active volcano in Sicily, fault is the sliding boundary on Earth where land

pokes through the clouds Italy, in 1992, ahuge lava o f t h e P a c i fi c a n d N o r t h is below sea level, the
above Honshu in Japan. fl o w t h r e a t e n e d t h e t o w n American plates. fault-bounded trough
of Zafferana, but It was c a l l e d t h e Tu r f a n
It marks the point where
three tectonic plates successfully diverted. [4] HAWAII Asteam Depression, in north-
meet -the Eurasian (or For about half amillion plume results from lava western China, is a

Amurian), the Okhotsk years, Etna's landscape sliding into the sea off strange mix of salt lakes
h a s b e e n i n fl u x . the coast of Hawaii. and sand dunes.
and the Philippine plates.
[6] CLEVELAND VOLCANO Stratovolcanoes such as those found in Alaska a r e
steep-sided, multilayered cones built up from repeated
eruptions of lava through the same volcanic vent. The Alaskan volcanoes form part of the enormous Ring of Fire that forms arough circle
 >

CD
>

- <

i
around the Pacific from the Andes to South-East Asia. NASA astronaut Jeff Williams photographed this plume erupting above the extremely
active Mount Cleveland volcano on Chuginadak Island from the International Space Station in May 2006.
 \ N fi \ I-H''A n"iAi^s K l O L L M A U M

. .

5*!
"b

li

Not only did this 2nd-

PTOLEMY’S century astronomer

map the known world
but he also wrote a
book that, for the next

COSMOS
1400 years, defined
man's understanding
of the universe.

PTOLEMY Born he scholar known in his time as abasis for their observations. His
in about 83ao in
by the Greco-Roman name cosmology was accepted right up
the Roman
of Claudius Ptolemaeus is until the 17th century, when it was
province of
Egypt, the great considered the most influential overturned by the revolutionary
astronomer died astronomer of the ancient world. work of Johannes Kepler and
in Alexandria,
He laid the foundations for Nicolaus Copernicus.
Egypt in about
161 AD. centuries of observations in the No details of Ptolemy’s personal
East, and rose to the status of a life or character survive, though it
mythical savant in the West. is thought he was born in Egypt
Medieval astronomers called around 83ad. From his work it

him Ptolemy, King of Alexandria, is known that he spent his life in

using Latin translations of his text Egypt’s capital, the port-city of
WORLD MAP H
Ptolemy was the HOW IT WORKS X
first geographer
to make use of ^TRIQUETRUM m

longitudinal and (/)

latitudinal lines. tolemy made many of upper rod. With the H
p his own observations known rod lengths and
o
using aquadrant, distances between hinges,
armillary sphere and an it was possible to <
instrument called a calculate the altitude of

Triquetrum, or ‘Ptolemy’s observed objects. O

rules’. Similar to a
ALMAGEST OBSERVATION Ptolemy based
quadrant, it comprised a
Ptolemy's work
vertical pole with two
his works on his own
observations of the heavens,
>
includes a CO
significant intersecting rods. Sights which he made with avariety of
were attached to the astronomical instruments.
contribution to
PD
trigonometry.
O
volume but its breadth. He wrote on the known world. Geographike
O
atreatise on music, Harmonics, hypegesis, or Guide to Geography,
explaining how music equated with was acompilation of contemporary
mathematics. He investigated the knowledge in which he assigned
properties of light in Optics, and in coordinates to all known places,
his geometrical work he contributed and created projected maps,
T
T )
to the study of trigonometry with, H

most importantly, atable of chords ASTRONOMY O

(see Glossary). But it was Ptolemy’s two works on m

As ageographer, Ptolemy astronomy that had the most far- -<

produced the first extensive work reaching effect on world CO

knowledge. The first. He O

.t, w > . * Mathematike Syntaxis, or The o

L D
Mathematical Collection, was later
i>S

known to Arab astronomers as o

CO
'tr^Z^TmiUk tLv A’- -K ^ U - Megiste, or Great Book. It
.acquired its modern title
when given the prefix
"TM. 4. Jf
/ W. J 4 - ' v u s r 4 * S i l t Y * * i
Xi« fr.# /i- 4 ; tal, becoming A/-
\Magest and known
\today as the
^%Almagest.
VIPtolemy's
IAlmagest is the
'4.0€»#-r
r '
Ionly detailed
Itreatise on
Alexandria. Being wealthy and iGreco-Roman
cosmopolitan city, and with the ,1astronomy to
largest library-museum in the ^tsurvive into
world, Ptolemy had the texts of /modern times,
all the major Greek astronomers rIt provides
at his disposal, in addition to the an encyclopedic
writings of his predecessors and synthesis of the
contemporaries. astronomical knowledge
While he drew heavily on the of the ancient world,
studies of those who had gone interpreted and substantially
UNIVERSE
before, Ptolemy’s body of work is Ptolemy's model supported with rigorous proofs by
t h e a u t h o r.
impressive, not just in terms of its was geocentric.

17
 CCWHENISEARCHOUTTHEMASSED
WHEELINGCIRCLESOFTHESTARS,MYFEET
NO LONGER TOUCH THE EARTH.”
Ptoiemy

The work is divided into 13

books. The first book outlines the

geocentric system. The second

contains atable of chords and

spherical trigonometry. Subsequent

books explain the Sun’s motion and
year length; the Moon’s motion,
distance and month length; eclipses,
conjunctions and oppositions, THE OLD WORLD
This medieval
precession, astar catalogue and the
map of the
movement of the planets. continents

In addition, there are details for surrounding the

the construction of an astrolabe and Mediterranean
was constructed I j
acelestial globe. from the
instructions in
C O N S T E L L AT I O N S Ptolemy's Guide I,
to Geography.
He credited his predecessor
3

Hipparchus for much of his solar and

lunar theory, and the star catalogue,
which Ptolemy expanded from 850
h
to 1022, and divided into 48 \i
S
V
constellations.

BREAKTHROUGHS His second -later -astronomical

^PTOLEMY’S ERROR treatise appeared in two

books entitled Hypothesis ton
equant offset an equal amount in the
In
order to
reconcile
of the the
planets withapparent
his desire motion
for an opposite direction. The equant acted as a
planomenon, or Planetary
Hypothesis, and sets out his
Earth-centred system in which objects only point around which the deferent circle
moved in "perfect” circles, Ptolemy rotated with apparently uniform speed. cosmological view. The spherical,
amended the geocentric model he had But when applying his own system to the stationary Earth, Ptolemy argued,
inherited from Hipparchus. Most motion of the Sun ~he ignored the equant lay at the centre of the cosmos as
significant was the equant point -Earth system (left) and used asimpler model afixed mathematical point, with
was offset from the centre of each (right), which meant that his calculations the celestial realm, in the form of a
'deferent” circle to one side, with the of the Sun’s position could drift badly.
series of spheres, moving around it.
This geocentric view later became
known as the Ptolemaic system.
Earth "
While it was fundamentally wrong,
Earth 2 e
Ptolemy had no reason -given the
t knowledge of the time -to suppose
Centre ^
t distance e

Centre it so. His elegant mathematical

equai^
t distance e solutions to the movement of
the celestial bodies included the

introduction of the equant (see The

S u n S u n deferent and epicycle in the Story of
Astronomy, Issue 8).
It has been argued -notably by
the 20th-century astronomer Carl

18>
 Ptolemy’sTetrabiblos,
is one of Four
orBooks
the first complete
manuals of astrology ever
written. Considered “at the
t i m eas scientific as any of
his other writings, it sets
out the philosophical
framework of astrological
belief to this day.
Ptolemy was
scrupulously careful to
reject any kind of
superstition, magic, and
the interpretation of
charts to determine a
course of action.
PTOLEMY’S ZODIAC An
820ao iiiustratton of the Sui
his chariot and the signs of the
zodiac from Ptolemy’s Tetrabmios -.
still the basic text for astrology.
L
G L O S S A R Y
Chord: Astraight line, connecting
two points on acurve that, in early
trigonometry, was an essential
startingpointformanycalculations.^
O
-<
O
>
O
O
0
LONG-LASTING Sagan -that Ptolemy’s expertly
This 15th century
explained cosmology “helped
illustration marks
the longevity of prevent the advance of astronomy
Ptolemy's universe. for amillennium.” Certainly his
mathematics offered “proof” of
asystem that was fundamentally
wrong, but there were few scholars
in the following centuries who had
the will or freedom to challenge it.
HONOURED
The turbulent times following the
fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th
century were not conducive to
scientific study. War, plague,
disruption of trade and the power
of the Christian church put an end
to the quest for knowledge so
valued in the ancient world, and
Ptolemy’s works were preserved for
several centuries thanks only to the
efforts of Arabic scholars.
Yet, in spite of those who have
sought to discredit him, Ptolemy
is honoured in astronomy today
with two craters that bear his
name -one on Mars and one on
the Moon -and an asteroid called
4001 Ptolemaeus.
 DELPHINUS, EQUULEUS
and SAGITTA
Aplayful dolphin leaps high
in the northern sky. This is DOlS^IN
Delphinus, and on either hen thieves attacked the Greek poet and musician Arion
side lie Equuleus the foal W during his return voyage from aconcert tour of the
Greek islands, he was forced to jump overboard to escape
and Sagitta the arrow. the raiders. He was saved from drowning by adolphin, which
swam to Greece with Arion on its back. In gratitude, Apollo,
the god of music and poetry, placed the dolphin in the sky.
An alternative Greek myth says that Delphinus represents
he constellation Delphinus is asmall but the dolphin that brought the sea nymph Amphitrite to marry
the sea-god Poseidon. At least three
attractive grouping of stars with adistinctive different Greek legends are
shape, rather like achild’s kite with atail. associated with Sagitta
Gamma (y) Delphini, at the northernmost tip of the This celestial
arrow was said
kite, is abeautiful double consisting of orange and
to have been
yellow stars. They are divisible when seen with asmall
shot by Apollo,
telescope. In the same telescopic field of view can be Hercules, or
seen another, fainter, double called Struve 2725. Eros, the god
Historically, the constellation was known as of love.

Job’s Coffin, although who named it and when is

not known. Presumably the name arose from the
perimeter of the constellation, which is distinctly
box-like. The name has also been applied solely to the
diamond formed by the four brightest stars.
Alpha (a) and Beta (P) Delphini bear two of the
oddest star names in the sky: Sualocin and Rotanev.
Read backwards, they spell out the name Nicolaus
Venator, the Latinized version of Niccolo Cacciatore, a
GAMMA
DELPHINI
This double star
can be seen
with asmall
telescope. Both
are normally
described as
yellow but you
m may view the
m fainter star with
abluish hue.
19th-century Italian astronomer who was the assistant
(and eventual successor) to Giuseppe Piazzi at Palermo
Observatory. Opinions differ as to whether Cacciatore
named the stars after himself or whether it was done
by the director, Piazzi.
SPEEDING ARROW
Sagitta, in the Milky Way next to Delphinus, consists
of athin triangle of stars resembling an arrow. It is the
third-smallest constellation in the entire sky. Its main
feature of interest is M71, amodest globular cluster
visible through binoculars and small telescopes as a
misty patch of faint light 13,000 light years distant.
Between Delphinus and Pegasus lies Equuleus, the
second-smallest constellation, representing the head
of asmall horse. The Greek astronomer Ptolemy is
said to have invented Equuleus in the 2nd century ad,
perhaps as afoal for the winged horse Pegasus.
Equuleus’ most interesting object is Gamma (y)
Equulei, awide double star of 5th and 6th magnitude
that can be separated when viewing with binoculars.
 CYGNUS

NGC 6905

. 5
>
" O
DELPHINUS ^ S A G I T TA
IC 4997

PEGASUS
NGC !7006

RotanevP \
NGC 6S9'I

\
V8
5 y
■7-
/

/
NGC 6934
/
P 0
a

Kitatpha

EQUULEUS

iIZl A9Ip byIarjcl uste rJn^ itta

some 13,000 light years from Earth.
^DELPHINUS, EQUULEUS AND SAGITTA
# t .
elphinus and its
D
9

€
neighbours Sagitta and
. V
4
Equuleus are best seen in
". #
9 ' : the evening sky in August
'* "
and September. They lie
% A
Ibetween Aquila the eagle and
Ik"<:*.* 'Pegasus the horse, south of
*■ * ‘

i
■" 4
f"" the familiar cross shape of
4

{
S i r * Cygnus, the swan. Sagitta
.r-' -A* ^ K■: lies against the starry
V-V
r - background of the Milky Way.
# .
*
.■>%

■
* -
L O C ATO R MAP

"Vf
t
1.

ABBREVIATION EqU ABBREVIATION Del ABBREVIATiOM Sge

% - -
"tf
BEST SEASON BEST SEASON BEST SEASON

f
" .
Late summer-early Late summer-early Late summer-early
autumn (evenings) autumn (evenings) autumn (evenings)
BRIGHTEST S TA R BRIGHTEST S TA R BRIGHTEST S TA R
V

Alpha (g) Equulei Beta (P) Delphini Gamma (y) Sagittae

■A p *
SIZE RANKING 87 SIZE RANKING 69 SIZE RANKING 86

POSITION Equatorial POSITION Equatorial POSITION Equatorial

 ♦

RENTIATIOK
Why are only the planets round? And what
pulls the heavy metals into the planetary
core? The answer to both of these
questions is differentiation, an effect of
the law of gravity itself.

hen Isaac Newton

W
because all points on the sphere
discovered the law of are at the same distance from the

gravity in the 17th object itself.

century, he realised that it always
worked in the same way. Because
the force of gravity around a
massive object depends only on the
mass of the object and our distance
from it, it will be the same at any
point over the surface of asphere
centred on the object. This is
This rule is simple enough to
understand, but it has far-reaching
consequences -it explains why
planets are spherical and how they
become split into internal layers.
CENTRE OF MASS
Although every individual mass of
rock or other material inside a

planet generates its own gravity, C R AT E R S harder it is to support itself against

>
Low gravity on
¥
once on the surface or beyond the the inward pull of gravity, especially
I Earth's Moon
planet we can treat all of this results in steep¬ if there is somewhere to go. The
J t

i- ' f
matter as being concentrated at a sided craters. higher the force of gravity, the
single point -the centre of mass H Y P E R I O N
(see Glossary). Saturn's moon is
'mj ■ This means that every large enough to
be spherical but
object on the surface
is highly irregular,
I t .
experiences amore- suggesting that
V% or-less identical force it might be a
\ towards the centre of fragment of a
: s “
*
4 %
much larger,
r -
the planet, and will spherical body
tend to fall towards
4
- %
that was broken

it unless something up, for example,

- I
gets in the way or by acollision.
\
holds it back.

The bigger BREAKTHROUGHS

. % something is, the DWARF PLANETS

■ %

I
\ he ability to form atruly spherical surface is

liH ‘.5^
T one of the crucial factors that astronomers

use to decide whether asmall solar system

body, such as an asteroid or Kuiper Belt Object,
:f;;y" *1
DIONE Large is worthy of the title “dwarf planet”. At the
icy bodies such
moment, there are three agreed dwarf planets
as Saturn's
-Ceres (the largest asteroid), and the Kuiper
moon (left) are
Belt worlds Pluto and Eris.
spherical due to
i
'
differentiation.
"*4
 CO
greater this effect, so the Moon can T 3
support deep, steep-sided craters IIMSIDE INFO
>
whose walls would soon slump P L A N E TA R Y P O W E R P L A N T S O
inwards on Earth. m

In
the
liquid
interiors
of
giant
planets
such
as
Jupiter,
Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune, the differentiation process can continue ( j )
SIZE MATTERS
G L O S S A R Y
more easily, and it seems that in three of these planets, n
As aresult, the greater the size of a Centre of mass: at least, it’s still going on. Denser material is continuously m
solid world, the more likely it is to sinking towards the centre, pushing past lighter material and
This is essentially Z
the centre of generating heat through friction as it goes. This kind of heating
have afairly flat, spherical surface. gravity of abody. by gravitational contraction is thought to explain why Jupiter, o
Because the rocks and ice that In aspherical m
Saturn and Neptune all emit more energy than they receive from
object such as a
formed early planets and moons planet, it would be the Sun. Uranus is the only exception to the rule -perhaps as
had to be melted or at least expected to be aresult of whatever cosmic catastrophe knocked it over so it
close to the
crushed and squeezed into place in now orbits on its side. It’s also worth noting that, although the D
c e n t r e .
heating mechanism
order to form such aneat sphere.
is called contraction, m
m
the planet’s overall
mass and gravity are m

light remaining constant,

materials
so there’s no effect
>
on the height of H
the outermost
O
cloudtops. Z

JUPITER This infrared

d e n s e image shows the excess

materials of energy being generated
in the interior of this

gaseous giant.
L
c o r e

same strength on materials of all Temperatures also rise closer

there tends to be alower limit to
the size of truly spherical worlds. If
they were any smaller, the collisions
that formed the world in the first
place would never get hot enough
to melt the interior.
Meanwhile, gravity continues
to affect the inside of the planet.
Just as outside, it’s possible to
keep considering each layer to be
pulled towards the centre by the
gravity of all the material closer
in. Although gravity pulls with the
kinds, denser ones will tend to to the planet scentre as material
sink through lighter surroundings, is packed ever more tightly by the
until the planet’s interior is divided downward pressure from above,
into asequence of layers of widely and inside the larger solid worlds
d i ff e r e n t d e n s i t i e s . it can grow hot enough to melt the
heavier metals that gather near
T E M P E R AT U R E the core. As heat rises from the
light crust
Iron and nickel, the heaviest core, it creates huge convection
common elements in the universe, cells through the mantle, so
will tend to end up near the centre, the separation into layers never
where they form adense core. becomes complete.
G R AV I T Y
Differentiation
separates the
materials of the
molten interior
(A), to create a
structure such
as Earth today
(B). At the same
time, it flattens
out the surface.
V E S TA T h i s
distant asteroid
is differentiated
despite its
small size.
COMING ISSUE

S E L F - TA P P I N G G R U B
SCREWS SCREW M

AMODEL
22-TOOTH GEAR

fel
SYSTEM
^precision engineered
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ORRERY

i Explore the surface

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of the
moon
The ba*rren and
heavily
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landscapeofEarth's
/natural satellite

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MARS GEAR ARM GEAR AXLE 2’

"Explore the surface of our Moon
a n d fi n d o u t h o w i t h a s e v o l v e d
through bombardments from space
and global lava eruptions.
"The Apollo programe to land on
the Moon -one of the greatest
achievements in human history.
From fantasy to fact -how the only ’
body close enough to Earth to be P
perceived as another world has us
fascinated us throughout history.
C€
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"Moonwatching from Earth

with details of visible craters,
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 (N) An Eaglemoss Publication -Every Week UK £5.99 Malta €8.99 Australia $14.95

BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM ^
[r

1l)
APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY

zxplore the surface

of the MOON \
r

The barren and

heavily cratered /

andscape of Earth s
natural satellite

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BUILD AMODEL m

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SOLAR
SYSTEM
-P
■■
FEATURES I M P O R TA N T
♦The orrery is aprecision-engineered
kit. It must be assembled and handled
"Parts not to be sold separately.
"The publisher cannot replace any
I

with care to prevent damage to its parts that are damaged or lost by the
YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL t

33 Add the Earth-Moon system, completing the second

parts, and stored or displayed safely to
ensure no parts are lost.
"Never use liquids or solvents to clean
the parts. For best care, use the
phase of Stage 2of your model assembly. polishing cloth and dusting brushes
supplied with the toolkit (free to
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE subscriptions customers).
customer without charge.
"The publisher cannot be responsible
for any damage that may occur as a
result of incorrect assembly or
mishandling of the orrery. Please ensure
you read all the instructions thoroughly
when assembling the parts.

0 Explore the highlands, "seas" and craters that

dominate the barren surface of the Moon.
"When assembling parts, lay them on a
flat table and keep screws and all small
items on atray so they can't roll away
"Alt tools must be used with care,
following any safety guidelines provided
by the manufacturer.
and get lost. Unpack all parts carefully. "The publisher cannot be responsible
"The publisher reserves the right to for any injuries caused by any tools or
alter parts and their design at any time.
MISSIONS
1^ NASA's phenomenal Apollo programme to put aman
on the Moon and win the superpower space race.

IMAGE GALLERY
Spectacular pictures taken by Apollo astronauts
walking and driving on our desolate Moon.

THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

16
From fantasy to fact -how the Moon has fascinated
mankind throughout recorded history.

S TA R M A P
Close enough to see some of its features with the
naked eye, the great silver orb dominates the sky.

UNEXPLAINED
Strange glows reportedly seen on the lunar surface
suggest to some that our satellite may not be dead.
CREDITS
C O N S U LTA N T E D I T O R : G I L E S S PA R R O W
IMAGES: FC NASA/Human Space
E N D O R S E D B Y: S I R PAT R I C K M O O R E C B E F R S
Flight; 2-3 Hubble Heritage Team/
E N C O U R A G E D B Y: T H E I N T E R N AT I O N A L A S T R O N O M I C A L U N I O N
NASA/ESA, (r) Eaglemoss/Simon
Anning; 4(t) Rich Richins, (b) Pikaia
Imaging, 5(cr) iStpockphoto, (bl) Ceri
Loxley; 6-7(tc) NASA/JPL, (be)
NASA/Human Space Flight, (tr)
Pikaia Imaging; 8-9{cl) NASA/JSC,
(tr) NASA/Human Space Flight, (cr)
NAS/VJPL, (b) Pikaia Imaging; 10-11
NASA/Human Space FlighVMSFC/
JSC; 12-13 NASA/Human Space
Flight/JSC; 14-15 www.moonpans.
■■ I I
I I
Everett Collection, (br) Science
Photo Library/Detlev van
Ravenswaay; 19(t) Rex Features/
SNAP, (c.bl) Mary Evans Picture
Library; 20{bf> Pikaia Imaging, (br)
Galaxy Picture Library/Jamie
Cooper; 21 NASA/JPL; 22{tl) Leon
Stuart/Department of Astronomy,
Columbia University, (bl) Jean Pierre
Martin; 23{t) Pikaia Imaging, (b)
NASA/Human Space Flight.
REPRO; Stormcreative

com; 16 Mary Evans Picture Library; Publishing Limited ^^

17(tr) Science Photo Library/Royal
Astronomical Society, (b) University PRINTING: Century Litho (Truro)
of Liverpool; 18(t) Rex Features/ Limited

Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,

BeaumonlPHouse, Avonmore Road, Lon^|Bii^W14 STS
WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
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■ 1
 " % ♦

p m. 1^.
' #■

With^tlis issue you can complete

"©*m Wk
f
4' ^ -S'^i W-:

♦ ‘ Hi the second phase of Stage 2of

‘ffeiSiafr systerti model and add
w , : ; s m Earth and our Moon to the already " \ \
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‘ build the second phase of Stage 2of your solar o
I system model. The instructions for constructing
m
this phase are in issue 8of Build AMo(^e! Solar System.
m
iiLycjb dddm
IThis phase enables you to add Earth and the Moon to the
" J
m
solar system model, along with the gear |et that drives
CO
m
' r m
i them. You cart also attach the gear chain that will link to H
Mars and its moons in the next phase. >
O
>. Agear wheel turns against the rim of the engraved geaf m

^to make Earth rotate as it orbits the Sun. The gear ratios h O

I’:,
are calculated
tcrrepresent
btth
these
interconnected
sets ♦ X
Mi
m i iof motions accurately, >
fei. When all the Stage 2phases are completed (there are CO
m .
10 phases in all), you will then get avariable-speed motor
unit to fit into abase unit This motor can be calibrated so
h:
that the Earth sorbit ait>und the Sun takes 36.5 seconds,

giving acompar|son with the orrery model of one second

M ;
equal to 10 real Earth days m

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which includes
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M o o n .

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 i

LUNAR
T H E M O O N ' S PAT H
Astronomer Rich Richins

MOTIONS
photographed the Moon
over amonth in New
Mexico, USA, then
montaged the images on
his computer.

The Moon is acomplex object he main pattern of the Moon around the
sky is obvious to everyone, and easy to
to track through Earth's skies track. As it orbits the Earth every 27.3 days,
-governed by its own motion the Moon moves farther and farther to the east of
the Sun. It rises and sets about 50 minutes later
and the Earth's orbit around
every day until eventually it completes its circuit
G L O S S A R Y

Celestial equator;
The line separating the
sky's own northern and
southern hemispheres.
the Sun, it repeats its cycle and approaches the Sun again from the west.
With each orbit of the Moon, the Sun has
just once every 18.6 years. itself tracked some way farther along its annual
path through the sky, so the Moon has to move

orbit of Earth ...

plane of ecliptic
he Moon sorbit (Aj is tilted at an angle
Line of Nodes
5.2 degrees T of 5.2 degrees from the plane of the
ecliptic -the apparent path of the Sun
around the Earth. The two points where it
crosses the ecliptic, known as “nodes”, are
joined by the so-called Line of Nodes passing ■j i s

B
3
r >
■
through the Earth. Eclipses can only happen ^
when afull or new Moon coincides with one
of the nodes.
I
orbit of Earth The Moon’s entire orbit spins slowly
plane of ecliptic around the Earth, completing one circuit
Line of Nodes every 18.6 years (B]. As aresult, the
orientation of the Line of Nodes changes
direction, and the opportunities for eclipses
tend to follow arepeating cycle.
 -<
alittle farther to “catch up” and come back into
/^T\
BREAKTHROUGHS O
alignment with it. As aresult, afull lunar month PREDICTING ECLIPSES CZ
with respect to the Sun is about 29.5 days long.
TO
With each circuit around Earth, the Moon also ny eclipse (whether solar or lunar) relies on the precise
passes through acycle of phases. It begins as a A alignment of Earth, Sun and Moon, so that the Moon casts its LD

dark “new Moon”, growing through acrescent and shadow on Earth or vice versa. Solar eclipses can only happen at new O
Moon, and lunar eclipses at full Moon. However, the 5° tilt of the
the precise semi-circle of “first quarter”, then on to
become abloated “gibbous” Moon, and aperfect
Moon*s orbit means that this does not happen at every single new or
full Moon.
5
circle-the “full Moon”. If one knows the date when aparticular eclipse did happen, LD
The journey from new Moon to full Moon though, it*s reasonable to expect another eclipse after one Saros <
takes almost 15 days, and no sooner is the disc cycle of precisely 223 lunar months (18 years 11 days and 8 C D
hours). The prediction works well for lunar eclipses, but is less
accurate for solar eclipses, since In this case the alignment must be m
iiiLIKETOTHINKTHATTHEMOONIS so precise that It only affects astrip of Earth
55
THERE EVEN IF IAM NOT LOOKING AT IT. afew kilometres wide, and this moves
from eclipse to eclipse.
Albert Einstein
Because the Saros is not a
whole number of days, the O
eclipse will also happen y I Q
complete, than it begins its gradual erosion back to

)
at adifferent time m
crescent and finally anew Moon. The entire cycle of day -it takes a t

of phases is governed by the amount of sunlight Triple Saros of 54

falling on the Moon’s Earth-facing hemisphere. years 34 days,
for the cycle
TILTED ORBIT to repeat
exactly. Z
The real complexities of the Moon’s motion across >
the sky stem not from this simple cycle, but from ECLIPSE

the combined effects of the Moon’s tilted orbit, This photo

sequence i
and Earth’s own tilted axis of rotation. Our planet shows a o
orbits the Sun like aspinning top, with the axis of partial lunar
eclipse. o
its rotation at 23.5° from “vertical”. From our point LI z
of view on Earth, this causes the Sun to move from C O

23.5° north of the celestial equator (see Glossary)
in June, to 23.5° south of it in December. It follows
awave-like path against the background sky
known as the ecliptic (see Inside Info).
The Moon’s orbit lies almost on the ecliptic,
but is tilted at an angle of 5° with respect to it.
L U N A R S TA N D S T I L L
The stones of Callanish in
the Outer Hebrides were
set 4000 years ago to
record the Moon's path at
major standstill.
This means that the rising and setting points of
the Moon, and the height it reaches in the sky,
vary like those of the Sun. However, because
the Moon’s orbit is gradually pulled around the
Earth every 18.6 years, there are times when
the 5° tilt of the lunar orbit is lined up with
the tilt of the ecliptic, and times when the two
counteract each other like waves cancelling each
other out.

STANDSTILLS
When the two reinforce, the Moon can reach
extremes known as “major standstills” in which it
can move from 28° north of the celestial equator
to 28° south of it (and back) in the course of a
single month. When they cancel each other out, at
a“minor standstill”, the Moon’s oscillations are
less noticeable, reaching amaximum of 18° to
either side of the equator.
The cycle of lunar motions repeats every 18
years 11 days 8hours, when the Earth, Sun and
Moon return to the same relative positions, and
D .
this repeating pattern is known as aSaros cycle.
The SU RFACE
of the MOON
Our natural satellite, the Moon, is awondrous
but barren place -very different from Earth
and largely shaped by bombardment from
space and by its own volcanic activity. m

ooking up at afull Moon, it’s easy to see The Moon is abarren, airless
that the surface of our satellite has two i r
ball of rock without enough
distinct types of terrain. While the gravity to cling onto aprotective
overwhelming impression is of abright white atmosphere this close to the Sun.
landscape (which is shining so brightly because of (Things are different farther out in the
reflected sunlight) there are numerous dark solar system, where the deep cold makes gas
patches across the surface, often with roughly molecules move more sluggishly.)
circular boundaries. These are the lunar maria

(from the Latin for seas -singular mare). The
brighter patches are known as the highlands.
TELLING LANDSCAPES
Telescopes reveal that the highlands are covered in
craters of all sizes, while the maria resemble rollin
plains, with ascattering of craters disturbing their
surfaces. These craters often look much brighter
than their surroundings, and are encircled by rays
of bright material extending for hundreds of
kilometres across the darker seas. Together, the
maria, highlands and craters tell the complex story
TEMPERATURE EXTREMES
The lack of agaseous blanket to preserve and
distribute heat, combined with the Moon's slow
rotation, mean that our satellite suffers from
extremes of heat unlike any on Earth. In the middle
of along solar day, temperatures can reach 123°C,
while at midnight, 14 Earth days later, they
plummet to -233°C.
Not all parts of the Moon experience both SAFE DRIVING
° T h e M o o n ' s fi r m s u r f a c e
extremes of temperature, though. Some deep
made exploring the
craters near the poles languish in permanent landscape by Lunar
shadow, and astronomers suspect they may hold Rover much safer for

of lunar history. reserves of ice mixed with their soil. Apollo 16 astronauts.

PLANET PROFILE M O O N

384.400km (238.855 miles) 0.166 times the force of gravity on Earth

D I A M E T E R AT E Q U ATO R MOONS: None

2875km (2159 miles) O R B I TA L P E R I O D

M A S S 27.3 Earth days
7.3483 X1022kg LENGTH OF YEAR
M A S S C O M PA R E D TO E A RT H 27.3 Earth days
0.012 Earths S U R FA C E T E M P E R AT U R E
S U R FA C E A R E A C O M PA R E D TO E A RT H -233°C to 123°C
0.074 Earths (-387T to 253T)
V O L U M E C O M PA R E D TO E A RT H A X I A L T I LT
0.020 Earths 5.145 degrees
E Q U AT O R I A L S U R FA C E G R AV I T Y AV E R A G E O R B I TA L V E L O C I T Y
0.1622m/s2 1.023m/s ,ip*.
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 7 ^
CO
FUTURE MOON BASES

Space explorers may eventually be CO

based on the Moon -as depicted in
this Pat Rawlings painting. m

L AVA F L O O D S
BREAKTHROUGHS O
Soon after the Late Heavy Bombardment v o l c a n i c
^THE SOUTH POLE-AITKEN BASIN
eruptions engulfed the Moon. They were triggered
a
he largest crater known in the solar system lurks at the Moon’s as its internal temperature peaked, due to heat
T south pole. The South Pole-Aitken basin, 2500km across, was caused by the tidal pull of the Earth and the decay
u n d e t e c t e d u n t i l t h e 1 9 6 0 s ( a n d n o t c o n fi r m e d u n t i l t h e of radioactive elements in the mantle. Tidal forces
1990s] because it lies mostly on the far side of
helped volcanic magma reach the surface on the
the Moon, and never filled up with basalt lava
to form alunar mare. The object that Moon’s Earth-facing side, and so basalt-rich
formed this crater 3.8 billion years ago lavas flooded out to fill up the impact
must have been more than 100km basins here. As the lava cooled and
across. Although the crater is up to s o l i d i fi e d v o l c a n i c
activity on the Moon
12km deep, it must have formed in a mslowed to ahalt, and its evolution
collision that occurred at quite low
speed -otherwise such ahuge impact essentially came to its end
would have excavated material from In the 3billion or more years since
the mantle. the last seas formed, impact craters
The basin is filled and deepened by have continued to reshape the surface
many later craters, and some of these. Most are microscopic and do little but
lying close to the south pole, have rims
r grind the regolith into ever-finer dust,
that are in constant daylight and floors In
permanent shadow. This combination, with but the occasional larger impact hollows
unceasing solar power out ahuge impact crater and may fling bright
and potential hidden deposits of ice. rays of dust far across the lunar landscape.
BIG BANG
makes the lunar south pole alikely This huge crater is the
l o c a t i o n t o b u i l d t h e fi r s t m o o n b a s e . largest in our solar system.

M O LT E N L AVA C O O L E D t o f o r m

the lunar maria seen today. Crater

eruptions flooded the impact formation continues to this day but at
basins on the near side. amuch reduced rate.
 .01
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 IIMSIDE lIMFO

THE TRAGEDY OF APOLLO 1

□
n27 January 1967, the three crew members that would have
flown on Apollo 1Virgil ‘Gus’ Grissom. Ed White and Roger
BChaffee »were testing the command module for ascheduled
launch on 21 February, Some five hours into the test, asudden
voltage change was recorded and 10 seconds later the crew
urgently reported afire. Within 17 seconds the
cabin exploded. It took five minutes to open
the hatch and as the smoke cleared it was >
c n
evident that the three men were dead. ;
>
Extensive changes were made as a C O
result, the most significant being that
>
the cabin atmosphere at launch became T )
sea-level pressure air rather than high- O
pressure pure oxygen in which abar of
aluminium can burn like wood. o
- V
■I

’Tof thrust and burned for just a

O
Jrom 150 seconds, to accelerate the | : O
spacecraft to about 9000km/h. |
^ r - :■

- >
ol- jAgreat deal of trial and error vs^ent I I I I
into ensuring that the combustion I
remained stable. The second ii. m
\M F 191
;^Sta^ consist of five 1^2 engihes.' " L

1
lii burned for ^out si)( ;
;n^tes^ ao c n
three astronauts from launch and-b^.,, ft v\^felativety1ight^g^
;
aof 24,000i^/h:any erh to splashdown. It included adocking ^il^£a|^tte^landir^ onifee Moon,
altitude of about 185km. tunnel through which the astronauts would not have been able to fly in
could transfer to the service module Earth gravity.
(SM). The SM housed arocket engine, By the end of the decade, Apollos

■The third stage, with asing

fuel, oxygen and water. 7and 9had flown into Earth orbit,
engine, put the vehicle into orbit The lunar module (LM) consisted and Apollos 8and ID had flown into
and was designed to be restarted in of two stages -adescent stage and lunar orbit. Launched on 16 July 1969,
order to perform the translunar an ascent stage. The descent stage Apollo 11 landed the lunar module
injection burn (see Glossary), had enough storage for both lunar on the Sea of Tranquillity, just over six
The command module (CM) was surface science instruments and a hours later, Neil Armstrong stepped
Ifconicalinshapeanddesignedtocarrylunarrover(fromApollo15onwards), on to the Moon's surface.

THE FLAG
Commander
John Young
jumps beside the
Apollo 16 lander.
The US flag w a s
supported by a
metal arm.

RECOVERY

The Apollo 11
command module
is winched
aboard the
USS Hornet after
splashdown in
t h e P a c i fi c O c e a n
24 July 1969.
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A
[6] LUNAR LANDSCAPE This composite photograph, taken by Apollo 17 commander Eugene Cernan, captures the magnificent desolation
of the Moon as fellow module pilot Harrison Schmitt lopes across the barren surface towards the lunar Rover. During three such Moonwalks
 MOON:
r r o m

As anear constant presence in Earth's skies,

and the only object close enough for us to
perceive as another world, the Moon has
fascinated mankind throughout history.
should have ended our reliance on
M ankind must have been
aware of the Moon it, but the Moon still had auseful
long before our role to perform in splitting up the
ancestors developed the technology calendar and helping to measure
to build astronomical monuments, the seasons. Above all, though, the
let alone to write. Moon became symbolic.
The cycle of bright and dark Bronze-age megalith builders
nights throughout each month erected monuments that recorded

would have affected the way our
hunter-gatherer ancestors lived -
TA L L S T O R Y when, for example, it was safe to
Among his many move at night, and when it was
tales, the 17th- better to remain huddled around
century Baron
Munchausen the fire for protection.
claimed to have The move into permanent
been to the Moon. settlements and towards agriculture
the pattern of its motions and
storytellers associated the ever¬
present, ever-changing Moon with
various deities -usually goddesses,
inspired by the link between the
lunar cycle of phases and the
female menstrual cycle.
FOLK TALES

BREAKTHROUGHS The obvious markings on the Moon

7THE FIRST MOON MAP
he earliest known image of the
T Moon lies hidden at the heart of a
5000-year-old burial mound in
Ireland’s County Meath. The mound of
Knowth is ahuge dome of earth,
enclosed with slabs of stone. At its
h e a r t i s a s m a l l c h a m b e r, w h e r e s u n
or moonlight can only penetrate for a
short time on afew days of the year.
In 1999, Canadian space scientist
Philip Stooke, sifting through
manuscripts and photographs in
search of ancient maps of the Moon,
recognised that aseries of arcs and
circles carved into stone slabs in the
central chamber bore astriking
resemblance to the lunar maria. Today
this is widely accepted as an early
map of the Moon, probably made for
use In some kind of ritual.
inspired speculation and folk tales
from the earliest times (see
Breakthroughs). Different cultures
tended to see different patterns
among the dark blotches of the
maria (see Glossary). Most common
was a“man in the moon” -usually
depicted as ahuge grinning face -
but Chinese observers believed they
saw ahare, and the Maoris of New
Zealand thought there was awoman
in the Moon.
 X
JOHANNES HEVELIUS (i6ii-i687)
m
CO
Polish
astronomer
around Johannes
Europe before settling Heveliustrained
back in his as
alawyer
home city of and
travelled
Gdansk in 1639.
I
There he built himself alarge private observatory with patronage from King o
Jan III Sobieski. Despite his mistaken interpretation of lunar features, his 7 0
Moon map was the most accurate of its time, and he carried this accuracy <
across to his other observations.

He was the first to measure the rotation of the Sun and record the phases
O
of Mercury, and also noted the variable star Omicron Ceti, naming it Mira,
“the miracle”. He spent many years of his life compiling astar atlas called the >
Uranographia, continuing even CO
after his observatory was burnt
to the ground in 1679. But the PO
end result was less accurate o
than it should have been,
thanks in part to Hevelius’s
stubborn refusal to adopt the O
latest observing methods.

MOON MAP Hevelius’s map of the

Moon (left). Apicture of the 17th- 0
century Polish astronomer (right),
the founder of lunar topography, and
his wife, carrying out his work from
his observatory in Danzig (now
Gdansk), Germany.

Some Muslims even believe Assyrian-born, Greek-educated

that the name of the Imam
Ali, successor to the prophet
Mohammed, can be seen written in
t h e M o o n ’s m a r i a .
But when was the Moon first
recognised as aworld in its own
right? It’s hard to tell for certain, but
in the 5th century bc the philosopher
Lucian tells of agroup of travellers
who are swept up to the Moon on
agiant waterspout as they travel
through the Strait of Gibraltar. Here
they find themselves caught up in
aconflict between the King of the
Moon and the King of the Sun over
the rights to Jupiter.

MYSTERY
ii CREATESWONDERANDWONDERISTHE
93
BASIS OF MAN’S DESIRE TO ONDERSTAND.
Neil Armstrong

Anaxagoras was already speculating ALIEN LIFE

about life on the Moon.
And when Aristarchus first
estimated the relative distances of
the Moon and Sun in the 3rd century
BC, he was certainly working from
an assumption that the Moon was a
Lucian’s Moon is populated by a
variety of unlikely inhabitants -
including flea archers and cloud
centaurs. His story was intended
more as atwisted parody of far¬
fetched travellers’ tales and the

/ ^ L U C I A N
spherical body not unlike our own. foibles of his own society than as a
This Greek writer The best known early speculation serious essay on the Moon. It is,
penned one of on the nature of the Moon comes nevertheless, the first known
^the first stories - from Lucian of Samosata, asatirist discussion of extraterrestrial life,
^of man travelling
^to the Moon on of the 2nd century ad. In his and the first work to treat the Sun,
awaterspout. ironically titled ATrue Story, the Moon and planets as objects similar

to Earth and worthy of exploration.
Lucian even describes Earth hanging
in the lunar sky in away that
prefigures the famous Earthrise
images from the 20th-century Apollo
spaceflights.
After Lucian, there was along gap
before anyone considered the Moon
as asubstantial world again. The
rise of Christianity enshrined agreat
many ideas from Greek philosophy,
and included among these was
Aristotle’s belief that the Moon,
Sun and planets were perfect,
unchanging spheres.
GALILEO'S REVOLUTION
In late November 1609, that all
changed. Italian astronomer Galileo
Galilei turned his primitive telescope
towards the Moon for the first time
and what he saw revolutionised
astronomy. The Moon was not, as
1500 years of Church dogma had
insisted, aperfect ball. The long
shadows along the terminator
between night and day revealed the
presence of mountains, valleys, and
countless craters. The following year,
Galileo publicised this and his other
telescopic discoveries in his book.
The Starry Messenger. Once again,
people began to consider the Moon
as areal world.
%
KEPLAR^S DREAM
Inspired by his reading of Lucian’s
work, and by the ongoing debate
about the shape of the Solar System,
German astronomer Johannes Kepler
made the next significant contribution
to understanding the Moon. His
book, Somnium {Dream), was
published posthumously in 1634 but
was actually written around the time
of Galileo’s observations.
Kepler begins with his hero,
Duracotus, transported to the Moon
INSIDE INFO
m s
1647,
InJohannes
Polish
astronomer
Hevelius (see Space
Stars on page 17) published
Selenographia, ameticulously
drawn atlas of the Moon. But
despite developments in
telescopes at the time, he
nevertheless sprinkled his map
liberally with oceans, and peopled
it with Moon-men or Selenites.
Just four years later, however,
Giovanni Battista Riccioli
published his own lunar map
(coining many of the names of
maria and craters still in use
today) and he was equally
insistent that our satellite was a
barren, airless ball of rock.
L
by ahelpful daemon. Apart from
that, though, Kepler demonstrated
aremarkable foresight into the
practicalities of alunar voyage.
The travellers depart, for example,
during alunar eclipse in order
to shield themselves from harsh
sunlight beyond Earth’s atmosphere.
They have to endure powerful
accelerations during “lift off’’, and they
even travel along aspiral flightpath in
order to take account of the Moon’s
own motion along its orbit.
Once on the Moon, Kepler uses
the trip as an excuse to explore the
practicalities of lunar day and night
-he recognises that each “day’’
lasts an entire month, and that one
side of the Moon faces permanently
SILENT MOVIE
away from Earth. The Moon itself is
The classic
depicted as aworld of exaggerated
image from the
Georges Melies geography, and gigantic plants and
1902 film ATr/p animals -recognising the effects that
to the Moon.
weaker gravity might have on aworld.
Kepler’s main intention was
to bolster the case for aSun-centred,
rather than an Earth-centred, universe.
Others soon followed -the Bishops of
G L O S S A R Y Hereford and Chester both published
Maria: The l a s
works on the subject in the mid-
(singular Mare] on
1600s, with asimilar mix of surreal
the Moon.
fantasy and scientific prediction, while
RICCIOLI’S MAP The 1651 map
that has stood the test of time.
 SCI-FI opinions began to change. But the
“life” debate rumbled on for
X
MOONSHOT! m
another century or more, although
erman film director Fritz Lang based his 1929 film Frau im Mond [Woman ich improvement in
on the Moon] on the latest research into spaceflight, hiring rocket scientist pe power and each new
Hermann Oberth as consultant. Although the film accurately depicted the O
ie case against life on the 7 3
effects of space travel, and showed the
Moon as abarren wasteland, it also
Moon became stronger.
One “last hurrah” for
showed the space travellers walking
around on the lunar surface without expectations of lunar
O
protective spacesuits. Its main claim to life came, nevertheless,
fame, though, is the invention of the in 1835, when US >
countdown -added to the launch by
Lang in order to build tension. The I journalist Richard
Locke wrote aseries
LO
I
lasting influence is all the more 73
of articles for the New
surprising considering that Frau im O
Mond was asilent movie. York Sun, reporting
on obser v a t i o n s o f
O
WOMAN ON THE MOON
strange alien creatures
The 1929 movie by Fritz Lang supposedly made by
introduced the idea of arocket
Sir John Herschel from
launch countdown.
the Cape of Good
Hope. Locke’s intention
0
was probably satirical rather than X
m
SELENITES The JULES VERNE intentionally misleading, but a
Moon creatures The cover of fascinated public convinced itself
in HG Wells' the great writer's
that the reports were true, and o
1901 novel, 1865 book, o
The First Men From the Earth eagerly awaited each new report.
in the Moon. to the Moon. In the aftermath of this
T l
embarrassment, no one took
the idea of life on the Moon o
seriously again, although the Moon
continued to be arich topic for the >
growing genre of science fiction.
In 1870, French author Jules >
t o
Verne wrote of atrip Around the - <
Moon in aprojectile fired from
an enormous cannon, while a o
generation later, HG Wells wrote
>
of an encounter with insect-like,
o
cave-dwelling Selenites ruled over H

by an enormous brain known as

the French poet Cyrano de Bergerac
wrote awilder fantasy that hit upon
the idea of rockets for space travel.
T H E G R E AT D E B AT E
All these works took it for granted
that the Moon could be an
inhabited world, but as telescopes
improved and the true nature of the become the strange, romantic
1 r
lunar landscape became clear.
the Grand Lunar. However, Wells’
First Men in the Moon (1901)
was intended as acommentary on
human society rather than aserious
speculation about lunar civilisation.
Throughout the 20th century,
the Moon became asubject for
serious debates about its origin
and the nature of its surface, but
even in the age of the Apollo Moon
missions, it would never again
otherworld of earlier times.

19
 ,02
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9 N I H 3 1 VA \ N O O W
 CO

>
^4 ■4
"A

, / MARE
FRiGORIS -.4^^

,f:
>
Montes Jura " O

/
Luna/17 * 0
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i M B R I U M
V O
/ O
Luna S"

"^Luna 13
ApoHo IS " >
JH^ "Aristarchus crater
fj M A R E
o
S E R E I U I TAT I S
f O C E A N U S

P R O C E L L A R U M

Luna 17 "
C R I S t U I v i
o
Montes Apenninus
4Montes Carpatus
I

rt m
t
‘V m -
f ^"Kepler
MARE ^
V A P O R U M
Luna 9 i&rater M A R E
Apafto 1S " TRAIMQUiLLiTATIS
"Surveyor 1 "Surveyor 3 . * r .
1^

:"Grimaldi crater *Ranger 8

Apollo i4 »
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' m
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M A R E
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7,:
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M A R E \ %
iUUBiUM
umbofdt clater *

1^, t .
'PaluSi

'Epidemiar

hten

Jt-

THE NEARSIDE
■
The seas are
▶
labelled with
^THE MOON
C A P I TA L S a n d

sit orbits the Earth the Moon goes the Moon lies 90 degrees from the Sun], lunar landing
A through acycle of phases, due to the then via what is termed the gibbous sites are labelled
with italics.
;fact that we see differing proportions phase, until eventually we see the Moon
%
:of its sunlit side. When the Moon is a fully illuminated.
V young crescent it will be found low down When full, the Moon lies opposite in
Iin the evening twilight after sunset. the sky from the Sun and rises as the
IThereafter it moves away from the Sun, Sun sets. It then goes through the cycle
Irising about 50 minutes later each night. In reverse, ending up between us and
IThe phase increases, first to half (when the Sun, when it is invisible.

21
TRANSIENT
PHENOMENA
, Ta H :
1 professional astronomers who have witnessed
m'- ''
.^3
LUNAR FLASH ThisTLP
flash (centre), recorded by
astronomer Leon Stuart on
15 November 1953, has
been linked to ahouse¬
sized crater revealed in
images taken by the
Clementine orbiter in 1994.
Is our satellite the dead world that it appears to be?
^Perhaps not, according to the many amateur and
1^^ strange glows on its surface.
Ithough geological activity on
A
the Moon came to ahalt
billions of years ago,
astronomers have long been vexed by
reports of strange glows of light on the
lunar surface. These short-lived outbursts
usually disappear before witnesses can
contact other observers for confirmation, and for a
long time they were considered little more than
tricks of the light or observing errors. But today
most scientists admit there is something going on
-even if they don't understand the cause. For that
reason, they have given these strange, ephemeral
glows the non-commita! name of transient lunar
phenomena (TLPs for short).
The earliest recorded TIP also seems to have
been the most spectacular. In June 1178, agroup
of monks from Canterbury, England reported that
shortly after sunset the crescent Moon seemed
t o split in tv\/o”, belching out acolumn of flame
several times. Later ones seem to have been
almost as impressive. William Herschel. discoverer
of Uranus, believed that he was seeing erupting
volcanoes on the night side of the Moon when he
recorded three red spots there in 1787.
LACK OF PHOTOS
Later experienced observers such as lunar map-
makerJuliusSchmidtandOttoStruve(famousfor
his catalogue of double stars) also recorded
unexplained patches of brightness. In our own time,
TLPs have been recorded by Patrick Moore and
French veteran astronomer Audouin Dollfus (see
SpaceStars).Manyamateurshavealsorecorded
them, but there is afrustrating lack of convincing
photographic proof, or simultaneous observations of
the same TLP by observers in different places.
Perhaps the most convincing observation so
far was made in July 1969, when reports of a
TLP close to the crater Aristarchus were rapidly
transmitted to the orbiting crew of Apollo 11, and
Neil Armstrong reported that he thought he could
see some kind of brightening in that area.
The fleeting appearances of TLPs offer some
excuse for the lack of conclusive proof, but the best
evidence is statistical. The glows seem to cluster on
certain areas of the Moon’s disc in away that they
should not if they were entirely random events or
misinterpretations of optical i s i o n s .
So what might cause the TLPs? The earliest
theory, advanced by Herschel, was that they
 X
A c c o r d i n g to the outgassing model, alarge, relatively Shockvtfaves from ameteorite impact (B) cause the “ D
rAyoung crater (A) still has small pockets of gas trapped walls of the larger crater to slump inwards and the floor
in the lunar regolith (the blanket of loose soil at the to subside, allowing the trapped pockets of gas to escape >
surface). The crater walls and floor may also be unstable. where they briefly form aTLR

m
B
u
h

1
incoming
meteorite meteorite impact

>
z
gas escapes CO

m
%
orator waif and
7trapped gas ;sHockuifaves >
/pockets lunar regoitth fioor coitapse
i t

- D
“ T

were indeed active volcanoes, but the intensive Even though the impacts probably happened
o
studies carried out before and during the Apollo SEISMIC TESTS tens of millions of years ago, the surface here
programme made it very clear that the Moon is Equipment left on the might still be unstable, and prone to landslips that
z
ageologically dead world where even the most Moon by Apollo 16 could release puffs of dust or pockets of trapped >
included an experiment to
recent lava flows are more than 3billion years old. gas (should they exist). The slips themselves might
detect moonquakes -and
Another theory is that the glows might be caused then, possibly, link them be triggered by the arrival of asmai meteorite

by trapped pockets of gas escaping from beneath the to occurrences of TLPs. nearby, or by deep-seated "moonquakes that are

surface (see Inside Info). Related to themselves caused by tidal forces

this is the idea that TLPs are caused by between the Earth and the Moon.

dust clouds briefly suspended above

the surface -although the Moon C A N T E R B U RY M Y S T E RY
has no atmosphere and barely any What are we to make of that first

magnetic field, it seems that moondust and most spectacular TIP of all,
can sometimes pick up astatic electric seen by the monks in 1178? It’s
charge that causes it to hang briefly likely that this was an altogether
over the landscape. This creates more impressive event -the
shimmering sheets with apassing formation of amajor new crater
resemblance to Earth’s northern and on the Moon. In 1976, geologist
southern lights. Jack BHartung even proposed
that they might have witnessed
CLUES IN THE DUST the creation of the young, 22km
What could trigger these unexpected crater Giordano Bruno, on the
puffs of gas or dust from the lunar extreme eastern limb of the

surface? The clustering of TLPs M o o n ’s d i s c .

around particularly young features However, the fact that no one

on the Moon offers aclue. These are seems to have witnessed the
areas where the terrain was subsequent meteor storm that
reshaped in the (relatively) recent would have followed such alarge
past by impacts from space and the impact suggests that Bruno might
formation of new craters. not be the explanation after all.
23
COMING UP IN ISSUE 12
®A„E.,

MDA^IoSi
tiiimi
SOLAR J
9

SYSTEM
Aprecision-
12)
! T i
ri/. -engineeredorrery
MARS*

marT"
M o o m

Arocky world o f

.'^spires great
'^agination

vertical support a r m

PLANET SUPPORT ARiH

Outermostoftherockyplanete^^
and the most Earth-iike, Mars has
arugged surface featuring deep
canyons, high volcanoes, wind-
sculpted dunes and plains scoured
o;.
Mars the War God ~observe the
angry Red Planet as it brings
Colour to our night sky.
Eagiemoss Publications Ltd,
C€ Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 STS

by dust devils. WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.

Keep out of reach of children. Keep this information for reference.
Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.

"Is there primitive life on Mars? And

did the Viking missions destroy the
very life they sought?
 (N) An Eaglemoss Publication Every Week UK £5.99 Malta €8.99 Australia $14.95

BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM -TL 12^

APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY

The RED PLANET

MARS
AROCKY WORLD of
extremes, deceptively
similar to EARTH,
that inspires great
imagination

f -
I

m
m - ■5
m

t i.r Tj

WITH THIS ISSUE: PLANET MARS, ITS TWO MOONS AND VERTICAL SUPPORT ARM
 «

m BUILD AMODEL M

SOLAR
#

SYSTEM.
FEATURES I M P O R TA N T
"The orrery is aprecision-engineered
kit. it must be assembled and handled
with care to prevent damage to its
3YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL parts, and stored or displayed safely to
ensure no parts a lost.
Use the exploded diagrams and step-by-step "Never use liquids or solvents to clean
instructions to assemble the parts with issues 12-16, the parts. For best care, use the '
polishing cloth and dusting brushes
supplied with the toolkit {free to
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE
0
subscriptions customers).
"When assembling parts, lay them on a
Take aclose look at the Red Planet, Mars, and Flat table and keep screws and all small
items on atray so they can't roll away
discover its many similarities to Earth. and get lost. Unpack all parts carefully.
"The publisher reserves the right to
MISSIONS alter parts and their design at any time.
"Parts not to be sold separately.
"The publisher cannot replace any
parts that are damaged or lost by the
customer without charge.
"The publisher cannot be responsible
for any damage that may occur as a
result of incorrect assembly or
mishandling of the orrery. Please ensure
you read all the instructions thoroughly
when assembling the parts.
"All tools must be used with care,
following any safety guidelines provided
by the manufacturer.
"The publisher cannot be responsible
for any injuries caused by any tools or
materials.

10
See how the Mariner programme revealed Martian
riverbeds, craters and mountains in fascinating detail

IMAGE GALLERY *

12
Awesome pictures of Valles Marineris, Olympus
M o n s , Vi c t o r i a C r a t e r a n d o t h e r M a r t i a n w o n d e r s .

16
THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY
Myth or fact? For hundreds of years many scientists
believed there could be intelligent life on Mars
*

S TA R M A P
£>

2 0
Mars, can often be seen with the naked eye from
Earth. Find out where to look.

UNEXPLAINED
2^ The Viking missions failed to find life on Mars, but
CREDITS
IMAGES: FC NASA/GSFC/Reto Mary Evans Picture Library; 18(t) %
could their tests have actually destroyed evidence? StockH; 2-3 NASA/GSFC; 6Corbis/ Mary Evans Picture Library; 18(bl)
C O N S U LTA N T E D I T O R : G I L E S S PA R R O W Jeremy Horner; 7(d) Alamy/ Topfoto/British Library/Hip, 18(br) . o
Worldspec/NASA; 7(br) Pikaia Topfoto/Topham Picturepoint;
E N D O R S E D B Y : S I R PAT R I C K M O O R E C B E F R S
E N C O U R A G E D B Y: T H E I N T E R N AT I O N A L A S T R O N O M I C A L U N I O N " Imaging; 8{tr) Bridgeman Art 19(bl) Topfoto/Topham
Library/Trustees of the Watts Picturepoint; 19(tr) Topfoto/World
Gallery; 8(bl) NASA/Landsat 7 History Archive; 20(t) NASA/
Project/APOD; 9{c) Alamy/ APOD; 20(b) Pikaia Imaging; 21 (t)
Blickwinkel, 9(t) Alamy/Barrie NASA/APOD; 21(b) Pikaia
Watts; 9{r) Corbis/Epa/Tannen Imaging; 22(b) Corbis/Jim Sugar;
Maury); 10(b) NASA/USGS; 10(tl) 22{t) Science Photo Library/David
Science Photo Library/US Airforce; RFrazier, 22(1) Science Photo 1

11 (tr) NASA/GSFC, 11 (b) Courtesy Library/Professor NRussel; 22-

Tom Hill/NASA/GSFC/USGS; 11(tl)
Science Photo Library/NASA; 12
NASA/GSFC; 13(t) NASA/GSFO
Craig Mayhew &Robert Simmon,
NASA/Jeff Schmaltz; 14-15 NASA/
GSFC/Reto Stockli; 16(bl) Topfoto/
23(b) Science Photo Library/ i
Lynette Cook; 23(br) Science
Photo Library/Sinclair Stammers;
23(b) Topfoto.
REPRO: Stormcreative

Fortean; 16{t) Topfoto/World Publishing Limited

History Archive; 17(t) Pikaia PRINTING: Century Litho (Truro)
Imaging; 17(cr) akg-images; 17(b) Limited

Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,

BeaumontHouse,AvonmoreRoad,LondonW14StS^.
WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
Keep out of reach of children. Keep this information for reference.
Applies to all isSies of 'Build AModel Solar System'.
i
©Eaglemoss Publications (2008). All rights reserved. *

♦
 .* ’ « ' ■

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r*'-
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*
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BEGIN BUILDING
) . -■ ^'i

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1?^

fr G f :■*
■
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Sta
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"The third phase of Stage 2 #

%
*^adds Mars and its two
-In-

*mOons, together with their #

support arm and ^ears. “

*«Pk: 03

03
c
I
p
"MMii

* ^
Cl
CO

" o
*

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he gear assembl^Dr Mars and its two #

-0#
rfloons (Phobos, meaning fear, and X
♦
Deimos, meaning terror) enables them to >
CO
orbittheSunonanac^fratelypac^d'pathbeyond i : :

ITHE RED PLANET *

Earth. Towards the end of the series, in Stage 3, I t With the parts suppifed CO
with issues 12 to 16,
you get avariable-spSed motor unit. This can be m
you can build the gear m
calibrated so that the orbit of Mars around the
train and support arm #

Sun
takes
68.7
seconds,
giving
acomparisbf
yy/itlt that carry Mars and its m

the orrery model of o^e second equal to 10 real fnoons in orbit beyond
the Earth.
Earth days. (Mars takes 687 Earth days to orbit
the Sun.)
Agrub screw in the gear collar enabft tht e
planet support arm to be slad<ened off so that
Mars can be aligned agajnst its symbol on the ^
base plate and top engraved gears
€

# '■

■■9

t
 Construct the Mars gear set by creating a
“sandwich”, with the 85-tooth gear (54)
underneath and the 106-tooth gear (51) on top,
and the gear collar (31) and gear spindle (33) in
the middle. Hold these elements in place with I

three crosshead self-tapping screws (M2.3S

6mm) at the top and bottom.
6 4

W A S

t
M 2 . 3 S

6mm ^ i

.IHill "t'

I
3 Create the small gear “sandwich” with the 43-
tooth gear (52) at the top, the planet gear arm
M 2 . 3 S
6 m m
5 2
(50), gear axle 1(70) and gear axle 2(71) in the
centre, and the 22-tooth gear (48) at the bottom.
Ensure gear axle 1(70) goes on top as shown. Fix
these elements in place with two crosshead self¬
tapping screws -use the last remaining 6mm
M2.3S for the top and the one longer 8mm M2.3S 5 0

for the bottom.

7 0

I ® gw

No Part Qty
0 5 MARS SUPPORT ARM 1

3 1 GEAR COLLAR 1

3 3 GEAR SPINDLE 1

4 8 22-TOOTH GEAR 1
W A S
5 0 PLANET GEAR ARM 1

5 1 106-T00TH GEAR 1

5 2 43-TOOTH GEAR 1 8 m m
M 3 G
5 4 85-TOOTH GEAR 1

7 0 GEAR AXLE 1 1

7 1 GEAR AXLE 2 1
Remove the base plate (65) from your
M A R
^previously completed Stage 2Phase 2
PLANET MARS 1
by
M M O MARS’ MOONS 1
loosening the grub screw in the column support
M 3 G GRUB SCREW 5mm 3
(66) using a2.0mm alien key -see Issue 1, page
M2.3S S E L F - TA P P I N G SCREW 6mm 7
10. (Keep the assembly upright to ensure you don’t
M2.3S S E L F - TA P P I N G SCREW 8mm 1
lose the planets -or remove the planets for safe¬
W A S PLASTIC WASHER 2
keeping while completing the next steps.)
 -<
o
7 ^
Slip the second plastic washer (WAS) onto
6 the central column and engage it around the CO
O
protruding lower rim of the planet spindle (33).
Slide the small gear “sandwich” up the central
column, mesh the two gears and secure the entire
5
stage by tightening a5mm grub screw (M3G) into CO
the planet gear arm (50). Refit the central column
(64) to the column support (66) and tighten the L D
grub screw using a2.0mm alien key.
m

O
a
m

0
CD
e

D
CO

>

r o
Now attach the Mars support arm (05) to
7 the large gear set. Feed the arm into the
M A R
” C
X

designated hole on the collar and secure with a >

CO
grub screw (M3G 5mm). Push the pin of planet MMO^ m

Mars through the hole in the collar of CO

the Mars moons (MMO), then

locate the pin at the base of
planet Mars with the hole in 0 5
the top end of the arm. I
(NOTE: All planet arms have a1
hole in one end only for the
planet’s pin, so ensure you fit
the arm with this hole uppermost.)

SlH! H0f

m
iM'hTiiir

mi "iivt-irriT
i
M 3 G
The RED PLANET
MARS
Half the size of Earth and covered
in fine rusty sand, the famous Red
Planet is deceptive -it's actually
the most Earth-like world in our
solar system.

V ars is the outermost of the rocky

planets that dominate the inner solar
system -it is larger than Mercury, but
considerably smaller than Earth or Venus. Mars is a
complex world that has been shaped by all the
same forces as our own planet. Today the two
planets look remarkably different, but in the past
Mars was probably much more Earth-like.

OUR OUTER NEIGHBOUR

Mars orbits the Sun once every 687 Earth days, at
an average distance of nearly 228 million km (142 BROWN PLANET

million miles). Unusually among the major planets, Despite looking red from
Earth, close-ups show
its orbit is noticeably elliptical (stretched), so at one Mars to be dull brown.
end it comes as close to the Sun as 207 million km, The vast canyon complex
while at the other extreme it is 249 million km n a m e d Va l l e s M a r i n e r i s i s
the predominant feature,
away. Only tiny Mercury’s orbit is more elongated. c e n t r a l i n t h i s v i e w.
The Martian orbit interacts with Earth’s so that

the distance between the two worlds is constantly O O

varying. Because of this, close approaches between /
Mars and Earth, which occur every 26 months or
PLANET PROFILE MARS
so,varybetween57millionand99millionkm.The^
asE HE
closest approaches take place every 16 years.
While the Martian year is notably different lira lili]

from Earth’s, the day and pattern of seasons are

HE
surprisingly similar -the planet rotates in 24 hours
H E
37 minutes, and is tilted on its axis at 25.2 degrees
1

0.284 Earths -125°C to +25^C

V O L U M E C O M PA R E D TO E A RT H A X I A L T I LT
0.15 Earths 25.2 degrees
E Q U AT O R I A L S U R FA C E G R AV I T Y AV E R A G E O R B I TA L V E L O C I T Y
3.75m/s2 24.1km/s
ODD ORBIT

Unlike Earth, Mars has

an eccentric orbit that 207 million km (min) 249 millii
O
ranges from 207 to 249
million km from the Sun >
and brings it as close as 7 0
57 million km to Earth.
CO

CO
H
r, . .
6 m

99 million km

u
m

from “straight up” -slightly more than Earth’s own
23 degree tilt. This means Mars goes through its
own cycle of seasons, as first one hemisphere and
then the other is exposed to more sunlight.
0
Earth’s caps are made entirely from frozen water,
most of the visible ice on Mars is simply carbon
dioxide frost, known on Earth as “dry ice”. D
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is plentiful on Mars n o

The seasons can be observed from Earth, since
they are revealed by the growth and shrinkage of
the planet’s icy polar caps. These distinctive white
spots at the north and south poles of Mars were
first noticed by astronomer Christiaan Huygens
around 1659 (see Space Stars on page 9). While
because it is the dominant gas in the planet’s thin >
atmosphere. It freezes at -79°C and is unusual in
that it bypasses liquid form and condenses directly
into solid frost. Similarly, it evaporates straight from
solid into gas (a process called sublimation). >
T O
Despite this, the carbon dioxide frost is just athin L D

layer, and the bulk of each polar cap is made of

more familiar water ice -either on the surface or

mixed with the soil. The overall extent of the caps

grows and shrinks as carbon dioxide frosts form
and evaporate in autumn and spring.

VOLCANOES, CRATERS AND CANYONS

ICY POLE
This Viking Oribiter 2
From Earth, the surface of Mars appears to be
image shows that Mars' spotted by avariety of darker regions such as Syrtis
South Pole is covered
Major, Acidalia Planitia, and brighter areas such as
in ice and frozen CO2.
Argyre and Hellas Planitia. Until the dawn of the
space age, hopes were high that the dark patches
might indicate vegetation or other primitive
Martian life -Mars was expected to be acomplex
world similar to Earth. The first space probe flyby

R U S T Y S U R FA C E
Mars has oxygen -not in
the air but locked in the
soil as iron oxide (rust).
 S U D D E N I M PA C T MIGHTY MONS
Mars' Hellas Planitia Olympus Mons, the
region is ahuge impact tallest volcano on Mars,
basin that was probably towers 17km above the

caused by astray comet Tharsis Plateau (27km

or asteroid. above the mean surface).

(by Mariner 4in July 1965) was something of a

disappointment, revealing only aheavily cratered,
moon-like landscape.
Despite two more flybys, by Mariners 6and 7,
it was afurther six years before perceptions of the
planet changed again. Mariner 9was to be the first
probe into orbit around Mars, and when it arrived
in November 1971, it found the whole planet
engulfed by one of the periodic dust storms that
sometimes obscure the surface.
As the atmosphere finally cleared, the probe
began to send back photographs of enormous
volcanoes, larger than any on Earth, and ahuge
system of canyons, far longer and deeper than
Earth’s Grand Canyon and soon named the Valles
HOW IT WORKS
^INSIDE MARS
ars formed in afairly similar region of the solar system to
M the Earth, and so it contains roughly the same mix of
material from the original cloud of gas and dust that orbited the
young Sun. As aresult, Mars has asimilar internal composition
to Earth, with anickel-iron core and amantle of silicate minerals
underlying arocky crust. The major differences are due to the
red planet’s smaller size -this caused Mars to cool down more
rapidly, so that its crust never had achance to crack apart into
tectonic plates, and its small core became completely solid early
in Martian history.
One distinctly unusual feature of Mars is that it is not truly
spherical. The Tharsis region, underlying the major volcanoes,
forms ahuge bulge rising 10km above the surrounding surface
level. Astronomers are still

Marineris. What was more, there were signs of unsure whether this “Tharsis

what appeared to be dried up river beds, and even rise’’ has been pushed
up by forces inside the
oislets formed by catastrophic flooding.
planet or is formed
from deposits of
COLD AND LIFELESS volcanic lava that

If Martian history was becoming more complex I. are layered onto

the crust.
and interesting, it still looks adry, cold and dead ■' - M i

world today. The Viking orbiters and landers of

the mid-1970s appeared to confirm this
solid iron and
impression when their tests for possible organic nickel core

matter in the Martian soil gave seemingly

negative results (although see Unexplained
pages 22-23 for another possible explanation). Silicate mantle

The Vikings were the last successful missions to *

Mars for more than adecade -NASA had other 1
rocky crust

priorities throughout^he 1980s. The old Soviet

space agency and its successors made several
valiant attempts at reaching Mars, but these
 CO
huge deposits of ice mixed in with the soil, and
possible signs that water occasionally flows on O
n the surface today. There are more volcanoes than >
suspected -many on asmaller, Earthly scale -and
rbiting around Mars are two tiny, irregular satellites ~Phobos and
0 Deimos -that went undiscovered until 1877. Close-up photos
some may still be active. And there are complex CO
from the Viking orbiters and other probes show heavily cratered cycles of weather and climate change, plains -<
worlds. They look like refugees from the asteroid belt -and almost scoured by whirling dust devils and deserts full CO
certainly are. Knocked out of the main asteroid belt by repeated run- of bizarre, wind-sculpted dunes. In the next few
ins with Jupiter’s powerful gravity, they were later captured by Mars. m
issues, we look at many of these newly discovered
Phobos and Deimos both orbit much closer to Mars than our
wonders in more detail.
Moon does to Earth. Phobos has an average distance of just
9380km and orbits in O
7hours 39 mins. Deimos POSSIBILITY OF LIFE
lies much farther out at Most enticing of all, there is the
23,500km and orbits in
a
possibility of life on Mars. Despite all our m
30 hours 18 mins. So
discoveries, the Martian environment is
even though they are only
27km and 15km long
still hostile, with athin atmosphere
dominated by carbon dioxide and no
0
respectively, each is easily
distinguished in the ozone layer or strong magnetic field to X
Martian skies. The Mars shield the surface from fierce solar m

Exploration Rovers, Spirit radiation and high-speed particles from

and Opportunity, even the Sun. But at least it is not the arid O
photographed the two
moons as they crossed the desert it was once thought to be, and “ O

Sun during partial eclipses.
Phobos’s orbit is so close
to Mars that it is unstable,
losing alittle height each
time. In about 50 million
years, its orbit will send it
plunging down onto the
surface of Mars itself.
while space probes have shown Mars to >
be more Earth-like, so discoveries on
Earth have revealed how life can develop
and thrive in far more hostile, perhaps even Mars-
MARS’ MOONS Deimos (lower
left) and Phobos (lower right) are like, environments than was once thought possible. >
7 0
thought to be former asteroids. A
C O
true asteroid, 951 Gaspra (top),
is shown for comparison. m m

seemed doomed to failure. The next US attempt.
Mars Observer, in 1992, also met an ignominious
end, losing contact shortly after reaching orbit.
BACK IN THE SPOTLIGHT
It was not until 1997 that exploration of Mars
resumed in earnest. On 4July, the lander Mars
Pathfinder parachuted onto the surface, unfolding
S PA C E S TA R S
KtV CHRISTIAAN HUYGENS (I629-1695)
utch astronomer and physicist Christiaan Huygens won his
□ place in astronomical history for aseries of discoveries he
made in the mid-17th century using his own self-made telescopes.
He was the first person to observe the surface
markings of Mars, including Syrtis Major
i
and the ice at the south pole. He also €

to release Sojourner, asmall solar-powered rover, correctly identified the structure of

which rolled around the terrain for 83 days, Saturn’s rings, and discovered Saturn’s
giant moon. Titan.
photographing and analysing the Martian rocks, In addition, Huygens played an
before grinding to ahalt. Then, in September, a important role in the development
new orbiter spacecraft. Mars Global Surveyor, jof calculus (a branch of maths),
arrived to make adetailed photographic survey. marshalled the evidence that light
:was some form of wave, and
In the decade since our explorations of Mars
restarted, more landers, rovers and orbiters explored the way in which sound
is perceived by the human ear. As
have followed these pioneers. There have been a s e l f - t r a i n e d i n s t r u m e n t m a k e r,
embarrassing failures, but more successes, and he also developed an early
our view of the planet has been transformed once form of microscope, pendulum
again. Everything about Mars now seems more clocks, and even adesign for an
internal combustion engine.
complex and more active. There are rivers and
gulleys that formed in geologically recent times.
 for missions to Mars is e s s

than half, NASA's Mariner

programme fared relatively
well, being the first to reach
Mars and Venus successfully.

eaten by Soviet space This housed the controlling

engineers into orbit and to electronics and provided abase to The 412kg
the Moon, NASA turned its which were attached an antenna spacecraft was
launched from
attention to the next challenge -the cameras, propulsion units and the Cape Canaveral
0
exploration of Mars and Venus. A power source. aboard an Atlas-
Centaur rocket
series of missions was planned and on 27 March
aspace-craft called Mariner was 1969. i
developed to carry them out. All Mariners after 4had four solar
Mariner was based on ahexagonal panels, apart from Mariner 10,
or octagonal “bus" (see Glossary). which had two. The first five i
% T

SCI-FI

MARS IN THE MOVIES \

sthe closest rocky planet in our solar system with
A the tantalising possibility of sustaining life, it’s
!
t o

hardly surprising that Mars is aaperennial subject for

m
s c i - fi m o v i e m a k e r s .

The first was ablack-and-white short, ATrip to

Mars, produced by Thomas Edison in 1904, where a
professor makes amagic potion that sees him fly to
Mars, then get blown back home by aMartian giant
Amongst the more recent offerings is the Arnold
Schwarzenegger film. Total Recall [^SSO], in which a
construction worker signs up for an imaginary holiday
to Mars that goes horribly wrong.

TOTAL RECALL Construction worker Douglas Quaid in the

process of having aMars experience implanted in his memory i n

the laboratory of the virtual holiday company, Rekall Inc. This

award-winning film was based on the book We Can Remember It
For You Wholesale, written by Philip KDick.
 SURFACE

One of the

images of the
disappointingly
barren surface

captured by
Mariner 4as it

passed within
9912km of the

planet.

>

Z
m

u i

O
G L O S S A R Y
M a r i n e r 5 w a s a n o t h e r Ve n u s
Mars. Initially, aplanet-wide dust
Te c h n i c i a n s a t Bus: The body shell of the spacecraft, >
Cape Canaveral ready to be fitted with power sources, probe but Mariners 6and 7were storm prevented the spacecraft c n
m a k e fi n a l propulsion units, antenna and science
instruments. identical spacecraft, both launched from photographing the surface.
checks to the
in 1969, that made asuccessful So controllers on Earth delayed
spacecraft before
It is placed inside dual mission to Mars. They returned capturing any images until the dust
the capsule for Mariners were launched by Atlas over 200 images of the surface. The had settled, about two months later.
launch.
Agena rockets and the last five by pictures showed clearly that the
Atlas-Centaur rockets. dark features on the surface were
The Mariners were designed to not canals as once claimed in the When the storm cleared, though,
be launched in pairs. Mariners 1 19th century. Mariner 9circled Mars for 349

and 2were Venus probes days, transmittinj

and the first Mariners
to Mars were 3and 4.
Mariner 3was lost when
its launch vehicle’s nose
fairing failed to jettison
But Mariner 4launched
successfully on 28 IMovember 1964
and reached Mars on 14 July 1965
7329 images, covering
some 80% of Mars’
surface. After
exhausting its altitude
Robert Roddaril, pioneer of iiquid-fuelleif rocketry
supply gas, the
spacecraft was shut off
The following launch window
o in October 1972. It is expected to
was in May 1971, and while continue to orbit Mars until at least

As it flew by, approaching as close Mariner 8suffered alaunch 2022. The last in the programme
as 9912km, it returned 22 images failure, its sister ship, Mariner 9 was Mariner 10, which visited
of the Martian surface. became the first probe to orbit Venus and Mercury.

®BREA
KTAHR
M RO
IU
NG
EH
S9 R E V E L A T I O N S
R I

he images returned by Mariner 9revealed riverbeds

T suggesting that liquid water might well have flowed
on the surface of the planet at one time -as well as
craters and mountains. In addition, it captured images of
agiant canyon system (the largest in the solar system),
which was named in honour of the spacecraft, Valles
Marineris. The probe also found evidence of wind and
water erosion and deposition, weather fronts and fogs.
It also took the opportunity, while Mars Itself was
shrouded in dust, to turn away from the planet to MARINER 9Martian data was
photograph Mars’ tiny moons, Phobos and Delmos. returned via the high-gain antenna dish.
 m

The WONDERS
MARS
Every new mission to Mars
has shown greater and
greater detail of the planet's
extraordinary surface.

twasn’t until the Mars Global Surveyor m i s s i o n

1997 that high-quality images began to
i n r e v e a

the true beauty of the Red Planet.

The high-resolution cameras carried by ESA’
Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance
Oribiter (MRO), along with the cameras aboard the
Mars Exploration Rovers, have taken imagery of
the Martian surface to anew level. Data collected
by the MRO, for example, can show detail on Mars
the size of adinner plate.
1
 >

0
>

spacecraft. [ 5 ] V I C T O R I A C R AT E R
An image taken by the
[3] DAO AND NIGER Opportunity Rover of the
The point where the rocky Cape Verde jutting
north-eastern Hellas from the walls of the

impact crater basin and Victoria crater.

|t^
 'V

[61

[6] VALLES MARINERIS An artist's impression of Valles Marineris at dawn, with weak sunlight casting rays through the mist. Lying just south of
the Martian equator, the valley is the result of tectonic activity several billion years ago with buffeting winds and flowing water having served
 >
G)

■-■m f
O
>

<

to widen and deepen the canyon. It is up to 8km deep, and typically tens of kilometres across -though In the distance fog can be seen pooling
in the Candor and Ophir Chasmata region, where huge landslips have broadened it to 700km. The length of the canyon system is 4000km.

M A RT I A N S
Is there intelligent life on Mars?
For hundreds of years some of
the greatest scientific minds
certainly thought so -and some
people still believe it today.
hen the US lander
w Viking 1put down on
Mars on 20 July 1976
with amission to look for signs of
life, it found an inhospitable world
with athin atmosphere and
extreme temperatures. Far from
intelligent beings, it seemed there
was no life there at all. This
shattered the belief in brainy aliens
that had been held for more than
300 years, ever since the Dutch
astronomer Christiaan Huygens
speculated on intelligent Martians
in his book Cosmotheros (1698).
MYTHS
ri
mm.: m
!S
ALIEN CANALS
Italian Giovanni
Schiaparelli (left)
was not the only
astronomer to
observe "canali"
on Mars. He
Bie^rdoppeliiii^eflderdunkelnUnienaufdemHajietenMars
thought his is&digewiessn liaypiatehiidi wahrimd isr Oppoamoaen 1882
JVSch»a.p».r«iti
drawings (right)
showed natural
waterways but
didn't rule out the L A N D S C A P E D E B AT E S the dark areas were vegetation. But
possibility that it was Italian astronomer Giovanni
intelligent aliens
In 1784, Astronomer Royal William
had built them. Herschel studied the planet and Schiaparelli who -inadvertently -
noticed polar ice caps that seemed launched the hottest debate on the
to grow in winter and shrink in subject of life on Mars.
summer, deducing from this that In 1877, Schiaparelli took
Mars must have seasons like Earth. advantage of aparticularly close
He theorised that the light and dark approach by Mars to make aseries
CCSOMESEEINTHEMTHEWORKOFINTELLIGENTDEINGS.
IAM CAREFOL NOT TO COMBAT THIS SUPPOSITION.
Astronomer Giovanni Schiapareiii, discussing his famous Martian “canaii”.
n
areas were oceans and land, and of detailed drawings. He annotated
G L O S S A R Y assumed Martians “enjoy asimilar some of the landscape features he
Opposition: situation to our own.” In 1858, had drawn using Secchi’s term
When two planets
such as Mars and
Angelo Secchi, aJesuit monk, drew canaii, again meaning natural
Earth are on the adetailed map of Mars attributing channels. This was wrongly
same side of the translated as “canals”. The Suez
the name canaii (Italian for natural
Sun and at the
closest points channels) to dark regions he saw. Canal had been completed only
that their orbits In the late 1800s, astronomers eight years before to great acclaim,
bring them to
e a c h o t h e r.
William Whewell, Emmanuel Liais and so the significance of the
and Camille Flammarion all claimed sighting was obvious: Martians had
 MAPPING MARS H
the brains and technology to build canal network carried melted polar
Schiaparelli's
far bigger earthworks than us - observations of
ice to drought-stricken regions to m
visible across the expanse of space! the planet (left) irrigate food crops.
CO
In 1894, scientist William were the Earlier comments made by
standard
Wallace Campbell conducted a Lowell had already sparked fears
reference on O
spectroscopic analysis (see Mars until the that Martians might be planning to 7D
I Glossary) that showed the Martian space age. flee their desert planet and invade -<
/ atmosphere lacked water vapour Earth, graphically described by HG
and oxygen, both thought vital for Wells in his 1898 novel The War of
o
G L O S S A R Y ~ n
\ life. But this didn’t stop astronomer Spectroscopic the Worlds (see Sci-Fi, page 19).
Percival Lowell making detailed analysis: The Newspapers now suggested >
technique used by CO
drawings of the planet that showed many scientists to communicating with the Martians,
Schiaparelli’s “cono//” linking areas identify chemical for example by lighting giant 7D
eler snts from
of vegetation, which he published their “spectrum bonfires. Radio News magazine O
as Mars (1895). fingerprint” -the claimed powerful radio transmitters
unique pattern of
He followed this up with Mars might contact the planet, and
" M r
light wavelengths o
and its Canals (1906) and Mars as that they emit London Magazine thought huge
the Abode of Life (1908) in which searchlights would do the trick.
^% he speculated that the Martian
MARS CALLING
MARTIAN FEVER
Scientists even speculated that the
0
Radio magazines
encouraged their Martians might already be using
readers to tune in >
radio to contact Earth. Renowned
to signals being CO
sent from Mars. stargazer Dr David Peck Todd,
former professor of astronomy at
Amherst College, Massachusetts,
X
decided to find out. On 22 August CO

1924, Mars would be in opposition

(see Glossary) and within 56 million
X
TODD'S ARMY km (35 million miles) of Earth -its m
Astronomer David
closest approach in over 120 years,
Peck Todd was so
and the perfect time to listen out. >
highly respected
Dr Todd asked broadcasters to y a
he could persuade
Is Mars Signaling to Us by Radio? the US military to
monitor Martian
o b s e r v e a fi v e - m i n u t e r a d i o s i l e n c e
>
On August 22d the planet Mars will be at its nearest on the hour every hour while Z
point to the earth closer than it has been for more broadcasts. c n
than 100 years! Ail over the world scientists are wireless operators -including US
preparing to communicate with our distant neighbor
by radio. Read about it in Popular Radio for August, military personnel -
now on the newsstands.
monitored signals.
IFMarsisinhabited—<»smo&iscientiststelieveittobe—themonthsofAugustand
Sejytranber will be the time when her people will be most likely to attempt ARemarkable Codebreaker William
ivmnication with us.
2-Dry Cell Tube Receiver
What our o^ti scientist and sistronomers are doing to esbiblish communication with Friedman, head of the
the Martians, and what will te their metho«ls of working out this stupendosis problem ,t miniiman* t »

oi ihh rmnrkabte 'iW

is told by Fitzhugh Green, U.S.N.. in Popular Radio for August (at all newsstands.
25 CKits),
T«b< R«ftes Receiver scfiixsd in Ra»ji>
JS Army’s code

r 1
of lb*
for Au*u«. The lievslo
P o r v u v * R a j i i o j U b o r e t i J r, . A B « > o a ;tk>nd
<feuit» given, mth photogr«t>l>» tad. dkgri
By what ciphers or code can wc most ea.sily signal to them, and they to us? Will
Professor Goddard's famous “space rocket” be able to reach the planet Mars, at its
distance from us of :i6.000,000 miles? Are radio waves likely to penetrate this vast How to Get Good Reception
section, stood by to
tlistance without Ireing scattered?

Immemely imi>ortant questiom are these, and the answers to them open up anew
8>' John V. I., Hog»n. The Sm of «new »«««» of
iftide* in PortK.,* Rajho !»>' «>n« of the fotetwwt
'■ IKBgtiveert of the nurid. PontlAM RiU»o ,»
decipher any
Tor it# »Mthoft«»tive irtteSe* by j«««i
world of ific investigation, of romance and adventure. ti,u. Read !bi» oa« ijPthe i#«Be.

In PoptiLAR Radio for August you will also find many other firtides of intor-
messages, and
Secret Pictures by Radio
est and many timely, practical suggestions for getting the l>est results from
716> radio. How to build your own set; how to improve the set you now' have;
\how to elimin.ate interfereno.% reduce static, get greater distance, louder
In lilt* irtirls by Eduird Brliti hiattdf, i» r
thr Stm tt
magazines such as
a#ip«r»t,a» fsx #rndi»y joctMre# by
explained by simple text and iilus- f*if litrtty ofm
i mu
pmU volume and dearer tone—all
\tratfxl charts and diagr.ams.
A“How to Build” Article
Popular Radio
I»m gi»d to If you are not already familiar with Poplt as Radio, “the M;iga- for Beginners invited listeners to
A?r«»iot«}o«V’ V'*^*’^*’ Cover”—beingreadeagerlyeverymonth »nd nduMve feature of Potvt^a R
of smomh» of Pontt** Xby !i quarter of amillion radio enthua&sta—simply dip the «-birh enable tJbe
tune in, too.
Raoto for

Here’# m, All** to 'coupon at the left and take advantage erf our Get cixtMiuet a^t uf hit on
' .« to. VAcquainted OtTer, It will save yoti mcmey. and will piciure. In the Au«»»t i»«ue it »h«wa bo* toj
atiniifir diy-odl tube Pout CireuU Tun»r~by L, M.
for \ bring to you ail the remaining issues of 1924, l«gm- Cockaiiay, Teyiinkal o f Ponaa* Ra»i<>.
\tiing with August, for only adollar! Radio operators
Helpful Hints for the “BCL”
(N*niei ^
H o * tave ytmt tuber, how 1 Va n c o u v e r
fw trouble, bow to

eyduHal i. and aKate of other nractica!

value It. the radio fan ate in.

627 West 43d Street New York City

stiicl* in Au*«« Poi*in,a» R by V. Z. Mut».
sorted hearing
ientified signals” -
groups of four dashes.
 @SPACE
STARS
PERCIVAL LOWELL (I855-1916)
Born
into
awealthy
Boston
family,
Percival Lowell used his
inheritance to travel extensively and
write about his experiences. From
1893 until his death, however, he
devoted his life to astronomy,
studying the sky from the observatory
he had built high on Mars Hill,
Flagstaff, Arizona where very few
nights were Interrupted by clouds.
From here, Lowell discovered an
asteroid, now named 793 Arizona.
And for some 15 years he studied
Mars extensively, making intricate
drawings of Its surface markings.
He made detailed descriptions of
UTHEFILMSHOWS...WHATAPPEARSTOBEAMAN’S
FACE. IT’S AFREAK WHICH WE CAN’T EXPLAIN.”
CFrancis Jenkins, whose radio photo machine recorded images said to be from Mars
18
what he termed “non-natural
features” of the planet’s surface, as
well as giving afull account of the
“canals”, the dark spot “oases”, and
how the Martian seasons affect
visibility of these features.
But Lowell’s larger claim to fame
is the part he played in the
discovery of the dwarf planet Pluto.
He spent the last eight years of his
life trying to find the mysterious
“Planet X”, as it was then known,
but without success. The search
continued at Lowell Observatory and
Pluto was eventually discovered in
1930 by Clyde Tombaugh.
Other operators, in London
and New Jersey,
reported “harsh notes
-origin unknown”.
\And
\
aBoston radio
enthusiast heard a
sringing sound
ending with zipp.
/Most of these
/transmissions were
subsequently
attributed to non-alien
sources, such as
atmospheric effects and
navigation beacons.
Unfortunately for listeners in
Louisville, Kentucky, their radio
station chose that date to report
on alocal military exercise -with
live commentary. Many listeners
tuned in expecting to hear dance
music. But poor sound quality
meant they heard unearthly
bangs, pops and whistles and
assumed it was the Martians.
Dr Peck saw his experiment as
agolden opportunity to try out a
SCI-FI CANALS
Percival's Lowell's drawings of
Martian canals as viewed from
Earth (above) have inspired many
w o r k s o f s c i e n c e fi c t i o n a r t
including "Canals on Mars" (left),
painted by Detlev van Ravenswaay.
 rT
new method of recording radio In 1976, the Viking 1orbiter
X
signals photographically, pioneered photographed arock formation in m
by CFrancis Jenkins, also of the Cydonia Mensae region of Mars
L n
Amherst College, called the Radio that appeared to show ahuman
Photo Message Continuous face. NASA scientist Gerry Soffen
Tr a n s m i s s i o n M a c h i n e . W h e n e v e r a
O
dismissed it as merely “a trick of 7 3
radio signal was received, the light and shadow” but this has not -<
machine flashed alight onto stopped speculation by writers
photographic paper. including Richard Hoagland that the o
n
rock is amonument built by a
M A R T I A N FA C E S bygone civilization. >
CO
Jenkins’ machine recorded a And in 2007, the Spirit robotic 1
repeating pattern of dots and explorer photographed alarge rock 7 3
dashes and, every 30 minutes, an that resembled amermaid -again O
image, interpreted by some as a prompting excited talk of Martians.
crudely drawn face. This excited the It seems belief in advanced life on
o
New York Times, which trumpeted: Mars just won’t go away.
''Mystery Dots and Dashes... Was
Mars Signalling?... What the
Photographic Film Revealed." Little
wonder that Orson Welles caused
RED MENACE
M a r t i a n fi l m s o f t h e
Photographed
ir 0
HELENACARTERARTHURFRANZJIMMYHUNT
Cold War era played "it H*

panic when he staged arealistic on real US fears of an

by Cantwiy
ft>»
>
radio play 14 years later based on alien takeover -by ::d
C O
HG Wells’ War of the Worlds. Russian Communists.

^SCI-FI X
C O
MARTIAN MARAUDERS
r
any sci-fi writers linked Mars
M with alien invaders. HG Wells
X
m

began the trend in The War of the

Worlds (1898), in which Martians
>
invaded the English county of TV
Surrey. Forty years on, Orson
Welles’ Mercury Theatre on the >
Air broadcast aradio version in Z
C O
the style of anews report of
Martians invading New Jersey.
L i s t e n e r s fl e d t h e i r h o m e s i n

terror -some covering their faces

against poison gas.
But not all sci-fi writers imagined
bloodthirsty aliens. Russian
novelist Aleksey Tolstoy wrote a
romance called Aelita (1922)
about aSoviet engineer who falls
for the daughter of the Martian ■ \ '
ruler. And in The Martian

Chronicles (1950), US writer Ray I

Bradbury describes sensitive, /

human-like people with copper-
f fl : m
coloured skin and telepathic skills.
In their case human contact is

fatal -they’re wiped out by an ALIEN WARS HG Wells’ tale has been adapted for the
Earth disease. movies several times -the best-known version in 1953.
 North Polar Cap

% -
!£ ,Tempe ^
1

MARS the OlympusMons1F!

VTharsis Montes

Daedalia
’H^num
fZ.
K a s e i Va l l e s '

V . ^ V a l T e s
^>'.^^^neris

WA R G O D
South Polar Cap

The aptly named Red Planet brings atouch of colour to

the night sky, appearing as abrilliant reddish "star" when
it is at its closest to Earth -roughly every 26 months.

he dark markings on Mars were once
thought to be patches of vegetation,
but now we know they are simply
exposed rock. They change in shape and
prominence with the Martian seasons as the
winds of Mars blow sand around, either
covering the dark areas or exposing them.
When Mars is close to Earth, small
' telescopes reveal the largest of the dark
R E D " S TA R " areas on its rusty, dusty surface. The most obvious is
The apparent
atongue-shaped formation known as Syrtis Major.
crimson glow of
Mars makes it South of this is abright circular plain called Hellas
easy to identify. Planitia, ahuge impact basin. Dust storms frequently
start in Hellas around the time of perihelion (when
Mars is closest to the Sun), and can spread across the
entire planet, hiding its surface from view. Elsewhere, around 90 degrees from the Sun.
white clouds of ice crystals form in the planet’s thin
atmosphere, notably around its immense volcanic
mountains, such as Olympus Mons.
MARTIAN SEASONS
Other noticeable features are the white polar caps.
Having asimilar axial tilt to the Earth, Mars undergoes
similar seasons, although more slowly because its year
is nearly twice as long. When the northern hemisphere
is experiencing aMartian summer its ice cap shrinks,
while in the southern hemisphere it is winter -so that
its polar cap grows -and vice versa.
Unlike the inner planets (Mercury and Venus), Mars
does not have acycle of phases. But it can appear
distinctly gibbous -not fully illuminated -when it is

LOOK SOUTH
At times of close
approach Mars
can be found in

the southern sky.

■■m
 North Polar Cap North Polar Cap
North Polar Cap

CO
4kcidalia Planitia

Cydoftta Mensae
Elysium
Mons " >
isidis
isidis 7 0
Chryse Planitia Planitia
Arabia Syrtis Maior Planum "
Planitia
Te r r a Arabia Elysium
Te r r a Planitia

N o a r c h i s
Utopia
Planitia
Te r r a
>
Tyrrhena
Te r r a
” 0
P r o m e t h e i

South Polar Cap

' ^ e r r a

South Polar Cap

0
South Polar Cap

]THE FACES OF MARS Above are just >

j E ■m four views of the ever-changing face C O
m
m * ■
of Mars, photographed at mid¬
WPLANET MARS# * " ♦ I summer in the northern hemisphere
when the North Polar Cap is much
ars is best seen around the time of Ismaller. Dust storms are common at
M opposition, when it lies on the same side of Ithis time.
the Sun as the Earth. It can then be found due >
X I
south around midnight and remains visible all
CD
night. Mars reaches opposition every 780 days,
but because its orbit is markedly elliptical not all O
oppositions are equally favourable. ^CROPS
ANDCONFLICT I'
D

When oppositions occur around the time of

the planet’s perihelion, which will next occur in ars is named after the I
2018, Mars can be less than 58 million km from M Roman god of war, for its
Earth. It then appears at its largest and can angry red colour was inevitably
reach magnitude -2.9, rivalling Jupiter. a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b l o o d s h e d . Ye t
At the other extreme, if Mars is near its Mars was originally abenign god i ,
aphelion (farthest from the Sun), at the time of called Maris, who was linked with I

opposition, as in 2012 and 2027, then more agriculture. According to legend. A

than 100 million km can separate us and surface Mars fathered Romulus, the /
'i/ /
d e t a i l s a r e m o r e d i f fi c u l t t o m a k e o u t . founder of Rome, and so was n
k.AL ,
a:
The list below gives the years when Mars is in highly regarded by the Romans. m m M
opposition and hence close to Earth: The equivalent Greek war god was
Ares. His children were Phobos iV i I

2 0 1 0 99.4 million km (“fear”) and Deimos (“terror”).

2012 100.9 million km (farthest opposition) after whom the two moons of the I ( r

r - A
2 0 1 4 92.9 million km
planet are named. I
2 0 1 6 76.2 million km
2 0 1 8 57.7 million km (closest opposition)
2 0 2 0 62.6 million km
2 0 2 2 82.3 million km €

P O P S 96.2 million km^

Mars is easily located against the zodiac

constellations. Its oppositions over the next
six years is shown above, starting in Leo in
June 2008 and ending in Virgo in June 2014.

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\

does. In many ways, this mix would be an ideal

@GILBERT
LEVIN (1924-present) internal fluid for the cells of microbes living in the
m
r
extremely cold Martian soil.
ilbert Levin trained as an engineer at Johns Hopkins University, X
G and worked in public health before returning there in 1960 to
The discovery of "extremophile" bacteria that
complete adoctorate in environmental engineering. As part of his survive the intense cold of Antarctica in just this
doctoral research, he developed the “labelled«release” system for way (though using other chemicals as antifreeze) >
detecting microbes in soil was an enormous surprise to the researchers who
samples on Earth. first discovered them just afew decades ago. And m
Achance meeting with the it has revolutionized the way astronomers think
NASA administrator a
T. Keith Glennan at aparty in
about life on other planets.
1960 led to his involvement One major benefit of the "antifreeze” theory is
in development of the Viking S
that it not only means life might exist on Mars,
experiments, and the results D
but also explains the negative results obtained
convinced him that the mission V. .
D
had indeed detected life on ^by the other Viking experiments. When the cells
of dying bacteria break down, the H2O2 released
Mars. Since 1967, Levin >
has run his own technology Iwould react with and destroy organic molecules, CO

>
company, Biospherix, developing ■effectively wiping away the evidence and keeping
7 \
innovative food additives and
medical treatments.
Ithesoil’sorganiccontenttoaminimum. r "

KILLER PROBE?
LEVIN Developed the Viking
Mars life detection experiment. In early 2007, two scientists gave apresentation to
the American Astronomical Society conference in o
Seattle on this subject. Dirk Schulze-Makuch and
RETRO ROCKETS Blasts
not biological, caused by some molecule in the soil Joop Houtkooper explained how Martian bacteria
from the rocket motors as
sample reacting with the first injection of nutrients. might survive using awater/peroxide antifreeze mix >
landers descend could
In response to the negative news, some scientists destroy any signs of life in and also how the labelled-release experiment could CO
"-0
made excuses -perhaps the retro-rockets from the the ground below. This have killed them.
could have affected
landers had sterilized the soil on which they landed Sudden exposure to liquid water, such as that
Viking data, and Phoenix
-and some questioned the methodology, but most (pictured) will also have to used as abasis for Viking’s nutrient solution,
accepted the basic conclusions. take this into account. would cause antifreeze to expand suddenly.

EXTREMOPHILE BACTERIA

However, afew isolated voices suggested a

different interpretation. Their theory cannot yet be
proven, but recent discoveries about the wide
variety of life that exists on Earth -especially living
in hostile conditions, such as extreme heat or cold
-suggest that it should not be discounted either.
The leading advocate of this view is Gilbert
Levin (see Space Stars). He has suggested a
variety of mechanisms that might give abiological
explanation for the observed results, many of
which assume the presence of hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2) in the soil. This chemical is highly reactive
(it was used as apropellant in some of the first
rockets), and is also adisinfectant, so one might
assume it would kill any bacteria. But it can be
stabilised with avariety of chemicals, and is found bursting the cell walls and killing the microbes.
G L O S S A R Y
inside many living creatures, including mammals. In this way, the build-up of radioactive gas that
Isotope: Aform erf ^
What’s more, amix of H2O2 and water can act was detected following the initial injection of
element withmorsor.j
less mass than usual.
as "antifreeze” remaining liquid at temperatures nutrients could possibly have been a"last gasp”
down to -55°C. When it does solidify, it does
ThiscanmakeJtun.^ from Martian bacteria that were destroyed by the
resulting in
not form harmful ice crystals the way pure water experiment itself.
23
COMING ISSUE

^ILDAMODeT^ IT i

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system M
dJ

13)
Aprecision
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Th e
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O '
Mars
Highs and lows o n
reaturi" aPLamc-t
and

i
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%.-

'^'TH
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he planet
'Wars gear trarv

I
106-T00TH GEAR 1
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"Dig into the geology of Mars to "Explore Mars through cameras

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BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM i

APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY

"he GEOLOGY
o’ MARS
Highs and lows on aPLANET
featuring vast CANYONS
and VOLCANOES

")

CO, l A

4'

WITH ISSUf:106-TOOTHGEARFORTHEPLANETMARSGEARTRAIN
L
 o

BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
I M P O R TA N T m
FEATURES i
"The orrery is aprecision-engineered "Parts not to be sold separately.
kit. It must be assembled and handled "The publisher cannot replace any
with care to prevent damage to its parts that are damaged or lost by the

^YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL parts, and stored or displayed safely to

See how the superior planets follow long paths around
the sky, often with complex loops and reversals.
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE
ensure no parts are lost.
"Never use liquids or solvents to clean
the parts. For best care, use the
polishing cloth and dusting brushes
supplied with the toolkit (free to
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customer without charge.
"The publisher cannot be responsible I"
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result of Incorrect assembly or
mishandling of the orrery. Please ensure
you read all the Instructions thoroughly
when assembling the parts.

0 The rocks of Mars reveal its complex geological

history, from cratering to volcanic eruptions.
"When assembling parts, lay them on a
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alter parts and their design at any time.
MISSIONS
The Viking probes were sent to discover if there is
life on Mars, but was the question really answered?

IMAGE GALLERY
Dramatic images of the volcanoes, lava streams and
boulders that suggest recent volcanic activity on Mars.

T H E S TO R Y O F A S T R O N O M Y
16 r
What did early sky-watching astrologers see that
convinced them our fate is revealed in the stars?
♦

S TA R M A P
2 0
Focus on two mythical twins. Castor and Pollux
* .
#
-together forming Gemini -and on Cancer, the crab.

UNEXPLAINED CREDITS
Are you ahigh achiever? If so, could it be that Mars IMAGES: FC Science Photo
has been influential in your development? Library/Chris Butler; 2-3 (r)
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♦Galaxy Picture Library/Damian
E N D O R S E D B Y : S I R PAT R I C K M O O R E C B E F R S
Peach, (b) Tunc Tezel; 5(tl) Galaxy
ENCOURAGED BY: THE INTERNATIONAL ASTRONOMICAL UNION
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ESA/DLR/FU Berlin/G Neukum, (b)
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 -<

SUPERIOR
o
X I
CO
o
>

PLAN ETS
X
CO .

♦-CO

O.
□ .

Planets with orbits beyond " he path which any object in the sola?'
the Earth follpw their own system takes ajpound the sky depend system model, focusing
the relatioViship of its own orbit to our .
longpathsfaroiJ^dthesky,^point of view on Earth. Mercury and Venus lie " on*Earth,^the planets
Mars, Ceres, Jupiter and
I
often Involving complex Ipops. cclosertotf^Sunthandoesourownplanet.'So, Saturn are .arranged at
conj uncti o n (farthes t *
and re’^ersals. Together ^from our point of view, their orbits are re^triaed to 1f-from Earth), opposition
simple loops on either side of the Sun, and they* (closest to Earth), ^ *
they are known as the are only ever seen in the rporning 6r eVeffing skies. eastern quadrature ^d
western quadrature.*
superior fSlanets:. They are known as the inferior planets.
^ ■ (?
 m ■ G L O S S A R Y

INSIDE INFO Synodic year: The

orbital period of aplanet
CHANGING APPEARANCES measured relative to
Earth -the time between
r
hlle the inferior planets can go through s u c c issive oppositions or
w acomplex cycle of phases as we see conjunctions.
Sidereal year: Aplanet’s
different amounts of their sunlit hemispheres,
orbital period measured
the sunlit half of asuperior planet is almost relative to the Sun and

always facing towards us, so they usually stars -the time it takes
to return to the same
appear as perfect discs. The only exception
point regj ‘ d i e s s o f i t s
to this is Mars, which is close enough to us
position relative to Earth.
that at certain times we can see alittle way L
"around the back” onto the Martian night
side. At this point the planet appears gibbous,
like our own Moon acouple of days from
full. This is most noticeable when Mars is at
quadrature.

GIBBOUS MARS Less than 50 percent of the disc visible

from Earth is in shadow during the gibbous phase of Mars.
L

The planets beyond Earth -Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Over the course of aplanet’s “synodic” year (see A P PA R E N T S I Z E

Uranus and Neptune -have adifferent kind of path. Glossary), it moves eastwards around the heavens, The diameter of Mars as

Their orbits encircle Earth’s own, so they can travel emerging from conjunction to become visible it appears in the night
sky from Earth is six
all around the sky and are not hitched to the Sun. In in the western sky shortly after sunset. It then times larger at opposition
fact, at times they can appear directly opposite the increases its distance from the Sun until it is visible compared to when it is
Sun, rising as it sets and remaining visible all night. into the night. By opposition, the planet is rising at adistant conjunction.
These images are of Mars
These are the superior planets -although asteroids, as the Sun sets, so it can be seen all night. But, as seen at varying apparent
comets and dwarf planets farther from the Sun can the time of its rising gets ever later, it eventually sizes during the 2005-
also follow superior-type orbits. becomes amorning object, rising only just before 2006 opposition.

The superior planets take longer than Earth to

orbit the Sun -their orbits are larger and they travel
more slowly. For comparison. Earth moves along
its orbit at 29.8 kilometres per second, while Mars
moves at 24.1km/s and Saturn at 9.5km/s. As each
planet orbits the Sun, it traces apath against the
stars. Because the solar system is fairly flat, with
the orbits of the planets all roughly on aplane with
Earth’s, this track stays close to the ecliptic -the
apparent path of the Sun’s motion around the
sky. As aresult, the planets, like the Sun itself, are
mostly found in the band of zodiac constellations,
which the ecliptic happens to pass through.

POSITIONS IN THE SKY

RETROGRADE MOTION
Four positions on asuperior orbit have special the sunrise and visible only in pre-dawn skies.
About every two years.
significance in the planet’s relationship with Earth. Finally it returns to conjunction with the Sun. Earth passes Mars as
At opposition, the planet lies precisely opposite Earth’s own movements add complications. they orbit the Sun.
the Sun as seen from our own world, so the planet Because our planet is unlikely to be in precisely the During this time. Mars
(digitally stacked in
is visible all night. At conjunction, the planet lies same position on its own orbit when the superior
this image) traces out
beyond the Sun as seen from Earth -the two are planet has completed one circuit of the Sun, the a"retrograde motion"
more-or-less lined up in our sky (depending on faster-moving Earth has to catch up in order to loop in the sky.

the tilt of the planet’s own orbit), and the planet reach anew conjunction. So asynodic year can
cannot be seen at night at all. Quadratures mark be longer than the planet’s sidereal year relative
points where the angle between Earth, Sun and to the Sun and stars (see Glossary). What’s more.
planet is 90 degrees (see How It Works). Earth’s “overtaking” manoeuvres as it speeds past
 -<
aslower moving outer world around opposition
can cause the planet to make an apparent o
c
backward loop in the sky -a"retrograde motion".
7 0
The major change in asuperior planet’s
CO
appearance is one of size. At opposition, the Earth
lies on astraight line between the Sun and the planet, O
so the planet is at its closest to us. At conjunction.
Earth and the planet lie on opposite sides of the Sun
and are farthest away from each other. The difference
CO
in distance between the two extremes is equivalent
to the diameter of Earth’s orbit -300 million km. CO

OPPOSITION BRIGHTNESS
The change in apparent size has little effect on
the distant outer planets that are already more
than abillion kilometres away. But for Mars and,
to alesser extent, Jupiter, the change in apparent
O
brightness and size is obvious. In the extreme case u
m
of Mars, its brightness changes from abrilliant r
magnitude -2.9 at oppositions, to aless noticeable
magnitude 1.8 around conjunction, while its 0
apparent diameter shrinks from 25 seconds of arc L D

(about Veoth the size of afull Moon) to as little as d

" U
4seconds of arc. By revealing the arrangements of m
7 ^
conjunctions and oppositions, your solar system
O
model allows you to estimate the relative sizes and T O

brightness of superior planets in various situations. ' D

IT WOl
m

W O R B I T S □F T H E S U P E R I O R P L A N E T S CO

sing your solar system

u model, it is easy to see
how the orbits of superior
Conjunction
planets interact with our own.
Precise gearing means that
the rotation speed of other
S u n
objects compared to Earth
precisely mirrors the reality of
the solar system. By studying
the way that Earth and Mars
move, for instance, you can
see how successive oppositions
are separated by more than
afull Martian year, and even
identify the constellations in
which they will occur.

USE YOUR MODEL Follow the paths E a s t e r n

of Earth and asuperior planet (such as quadrature u r e

Jupiter) and observe how the distances

between the two vary from opposition
through quadrature to conjunction,
and hence how the superior planet will
appear larger and smaller according to its
distance from Earth. Superior planet

y
<F
GEO LOGY The rocks of Mars reveal the
complex history of aplanet where

of MARS cratering, volcanic eruptions, ice

and water have all played their
parts in shaping the surface.

.... ..r-'.-',-
■ .j

h i e fl a s Planitia

MARS IN RELIEF
Two false-colour images
showing the topography
of the Martian surface.
The colours range from
bright red and white
indicating the highest
areas to purple for low-
lying regions.
G L O S S A R Y
Ithough the Red Planet is only about half
A the size of Earth, the spectacular features
of the Martian landscape are more than a
match for anything our own planet has to offer.
Mars is aworld of extremes. It boasts both the
largest volcano and the deepest, longest canyon
system in the solar system, and has asurface that
appears to divide into two distinct halves.
However, the smaller size of Mars means that it
never developed asystem of tectonic plates like
the first probes flew past Mars in the 1960s, the
images of the planet they sent back disappointed
many. They only showed the southern hemisphere,
and therefore missed out the more interesting
terrain of its equatorial and northern regions.
SOUTHERN HIGHLAND THEORIES
Today, we know that Mars’s differences are more
than skin-deep -the crust under the southern
hemisphere is alot thicker than that found

Caldera: Acollapsed pit

those on Earth, and so certain types of terrain,
at or near the peak of such as mountain chains, are nowhere to be found.
avolcano, often but not
The surface of Mars splits neatly into two
always associated with its
main lava vent. distinct types of terrain -rolling plains in the north
and heavily cratered highlands in the south. When
elsewhere. One theory to explain the difference is y
that the northern plains are actually the remains of
one or more vast impact basins, smoothed and
eroded over millions of years by the action of
water, ice and wind. They certainly have apassing
I

CO
resemblance to the more obviously impact-formed
Hellas Planitia, ahuge basin in the southern O
highlands. Images from Martian landers show they >
are typically scattered with small and medium¬
sized rocks, on asurface of fine, dusty sand. C/)
Another theory is that the southern highlands
have been pushed upwards and thickened by CO
i
an unusual pattern of circulation in the Martian
m
mantle. They may have been connected to the V \
X
\ origin of the Tharsis Rise (see Inside Info). In
fact, both mechanisms may have played apart in G)
creating the planet’s split personality.

RED IRON OXIDES

a
Despite all its spectacular terrain. Mars has one
feature that stands out to the naked eye even
across millions of kilometres of space -its colour.
0
The Martian sands get their distinctive rusty colour O

from the same source as Earthly rust -oxidized ^ i i , i■■

'A.
o
iron. Large areas of the surface are covered in soil
o
that is rich in iron oxides. As fierce winds blow
CD
back and forth across the planet, stirring up the
fine dust into storms, the redness of Mars varies, o
and the areas of darker exposed bedrock that can
be seen from Earth shrink and grow (although
RING-SIDE VIEW >
largely remaining in the same regions). 27km above the average Martian surface, and 7 D
Olympus Mons viewed CD
from above shows the several of its neighbours in the Tharsis region of
TOWERING VOLCANOES linked-ring arrangement the planet are around 25km high. On Earth, only
In terms of sheer scale, the Martian volcanoes are of its multiple calderas. the Hawaiian volcano chain can approach this size
the most impressive features on the planet. The (and most of that is hidden beneath the sea).
largest of them, Olympus Mons (named after the But, for avisitor to Mars, these volcanoes would
I
home of the gods in Greek mythology) towers be less impressive than their sheer height suggests
-for they are also extremely wide. Olympus Mons
TiSiSS -Sl j
itself is around 500km across. The volcanoes sit

T on top of the broader Tharsis Rise bulge in the

m s Martian surface.

Thehuge
.Tharsis plateauthat
volcanoes suppori^
rises Olympus
to 10km Mons
above its and the
other
surroundings, and is
hemmed in by ancient troughs that show where the surface cracked * fi f - : ^
as it lifted up, around 3.5 billion years ago. Astronomers continue to
argue over the cause of this odd deformation of the Martian crust. ■SJ.

One theory is that it was pushed outwards -and is still supported -

=¥
- a

by arising plume of hot material in the Martian mantle. Another is

. . . . . . y.

that it has built up as layer upon layer of volcanic lava erupted in the
same region over along period. As the Tharsis area grew heavier and
pushed down, the underside of the Martian crust (lithosphere) also ^ ' ■

thickened to support it, rather like the invisibie bulk of an iceberg. ■. r /

Recent simulations suggest that amantle pkime alone would nevm'

Wbe able to support the weight of the rise. But such aplume could stitt
have helped to sustain the long-lasting volcanism of the Tharsis ff
!K::.
^^region. These questions may be ansvwered when seismic tests are
carried out on Mars. This could involve setting off small explosioqs^f
the surface and using aseismometer to record the resulting ech^ bjfldWIrt^
mm from the interior and so map the planets geology. i f V ■
i..
■
;
.* ■

mifbm an i
^Kit.-
V m

fi . A
-S' m m-i .
 The combined effect means that the volcanoes
can only be truly appreciated from high altitudes,
and across much of their flanks they rise only at a
shallow gradient. In afew areas, however, there
are spectacular exceptions to this rule. Massive
landslips around the edge of the volcano have
created escarpments that in places tower up to
6km high, while the central, multi-ringed caldera
(see Glossary) has equally steep cliffs separating a
crater floor some 3km beneath its surroundings.
CCITHINKHUMANSWILLREACH
MARS, AND IWOULD LIKE TO SEE IT
HAPPEN IN MY LIFETIME.
Buzz Aldrin
INSIDE INFO
THE GRANDEST CANYDN
East of the Tharsis volcanoes, ahuge crack runs around Mars,
roughly parallel to the equator. This is the Valles Marineris, a
complex system of deep parallel canyons larger than anything Earth
has to offer. At its deepest, the floor falls away to 7km below the
surrounding terrain, while at its broadest the canyon walls are 200km
apart. The system stretches more than 4000km. By contrast on
E a r t h , t h a t ’s t h e w i d t h o f t h e e n t i r e c o n t i n e n t a l U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d t h e
Grand Canyon in Arizona is just atenth as long and afifth as deep.
The Martian canyon opened up over millions of years, probably
around 3.5 billion years ago. Although it was not formed by water,
fluid certainly flowed Into it, through anetwork of channels at the
western end called the Noctis Labyrinthus. Floods of both water and
fast-moving carbon dioxide escaping at pressure from beneath the
surface may have helped to undermine steep unstable cliffs.

H O T S P O T T H E O RY
:
The Tharsis volcanoes are truly enormous -unlike
anything else on Mars. While Olympus Mons ■ V

stands alone, the other three -the Arsia, Pavonis

a n d Ascre u s Mo n te s -form achain to its south¬

east. Martian geologists believe they probably

formed from the action of asingle “hot spot” of
material rising through the planet’s mantle and
causing eruptions at the surface.
This is the same kind of mechanism that has
formed asimilar chain of volcanoes in Hawaii,
but if the theory is correct, then something else
must be going on as well. On Earth, the chain has
formed as the Pacific tectonic plate has drifted
across the top of the hot spot over millions of years.
But on plate-free Mars, either the hot spot itself V T h e 4 0 0 0 k m Va l l e s
must have moved through its history, or the entire Marineris canyon system.
crust must somehow have slipped around the planet.

HOW IT WORKS

^SHIELD VOLCANOES
he huge Tharsis volcanoes are in fact Magma escapes As lava sets, vents push
T shallow hills, formed by molten lava through vents as up to the new surface -
molten lava
erupting repeatedly over millions of years
and solidifying to build up layers of rock.
In the case of Olympus Mons, at least,
the central caldera was not avent in its

own right. It formed when the summit

collapsed, undermined by the removal of
lava from the magma chamber
underneath. The Olympus Mons calderas
are 80km across in total. They have
s e v e r a l distinct rings, indicating that the magma chamber HARDENING The

volcanic peak collapsed in stages a s ^PUSHING

plume inArising
the mantle
steadily grows lava then sets,

magma entered and left the chamber. raises the Tharsis bulge, increasing the overall
triggering lava flows. size of the volcano.

8
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VIKINGS

The mam purpose of the Viking probes was to discover if there

was life on Mars. But while every other aspect of the mission
succeeded, that question was never answered satisfactorily.

ollowing the success of Propelled by aliquid-fuelled rocket

Mariner 9’s mission to map
Mars, NASA's next goal was
to land aspacecraft on the planet
and analyse the surface, and
beneath, for signs of life.
As usual, NASA planned to
launch apair of identical spacecraft,
engine, the orbiters carried two
video cameras and infrared cameras
for thermal mapping.
The landers consisted of asix-sided
aluminium base from which three

each consisting of alander and an legs extended. They had asingle

orbiter. The orbiter was based on rocket engine and their power came
i the Mariner 9spacecraft and was from anuclear generator. Aboard
an octagon 2.5m across and with an the landers were instruments to

W overall height of 3.29m. study the biology, chemical

Four solar panels extended from composition, meteorology,

EThe nch from Cape

laveral aboard

I Ti t a n / C e n t a u r
the axis of the orbiter, their total,
extended width being 9J5m. The
seismology and magnetic properties
of the Martian surface and

irocket on panels comprised 34,800 solar atmosphere. These were joined by

20 August 1975. cells, producing 620W of power. two 360-degree scan cameras.

r i m e among the experiments carried by the Viking landers

Pwere
those
designed
to
detect
life
in
the
Martian
soil.
Initially the results were positive with one experiment meeting all
of NASA’s criteria. But when further tests showed conclusively
that there were no organic molecules In the soil, most scientists
became convinced that the earlier results were probably caused
by chemical reactions from the extremely oxidising soil
conditions. The test results and their limitations are still the
subject of debate and so the question of whether bacterial life
exists on Mars remains unresolved (see Issue 12, page 22-23]

VIKING LANDER Amodel of the lander on asimulated Martian surface.


Dr Charles Cokell, Mars biologist, Cambridgeshire, UK
Because the Viking mission was
designed to look for evidence of
life on Mars, it was essential that
none was inadvertently carried to
the Red Planet by the spacecraft.
The assembly of the spacecraft was
performed in aclass 100,000 clean
room (see Glossary). Then, once
assembled, it was baked in an oven
for over 50 hours at temperatures
c
Vikfflif1
diffict^eyibf ^ftoosirtg
.-Oft.
LANDING SITES Chryse Pianitia V I K I N G 1 A S S E M B LY
and Utopia Pianitia, the landing Sterile conditions were needed so that
sites for the Viking spacecraft. the spacecraft took no life to Mars.
of more than 115°C -slightly hotter deployed. Seven seconds later
than boiling water.
aeroshell
thejettisoned
IV
wasand
Viking 1was launched on 20 >eight seconds after that the three
August 1975. Following a309-day ■telescopic legs were extended.
interplanetary cruise, the spacecraft At an altitude of 1.5km, rockets
was inserted into Mars orbit on 19 were fired until, 40 seconds later,
June 1976. On 20 July, the lander [■I l I l M l l at aspeed of 2.4m/s, the lander
separated from the orbiter and touched down at Chryse Pianitia.
began its descent. At an altitude Viking 2was launched on 9
of 6km, the 16m parachutes were September 1975 and entered Mars
orbit on 7August 1976. The lander
touched down at Utopia Pianitia on
3September.
Viking 1began transmitting images
25 seconds after it landed. Apart
m from the seismometer, which got
stuck, all the experiments worked
well and the craft operated until 13
November 1982 when contact was
lost. Viking 2operated on the
surface for 1281 Mars days and
was turned off on 11 April 1980
when its batteries failed.
Together the Vikings sent back
over 50,000 photographs and data
on the weather, atmosphere and
soil composition. It was the most
complete picture of Mars to date.
m g <?
y
 VOLCANOES
MARS
High-resolution images of
volcanoes, lava streams and
boulders suggest that Mars
may have seen volcanic
activity quite recently^and
may see it again in the future.

: m

etailed images captured by probes to

Mars have led scientists to believe that

the Red Planet may still be geologically

active. In comparison to the twice-as-large Earth,
Mars features many more volcanoes. Images from
the Mars Express spacecraft taken with its High
Resolution Stereo Camera show 50-100 volcanic

cones covering aflank of the North Pole, about a

million square kilometres in area.
Scientists assume that there is aconstant

cratering rate since the heavy bombardment that

terrestrial planets experienced about four billion
years ago. Yet the detailed images from the Mars
orbiters show that Mars' volcanic cones appear
fresh, with no evidence of cratering. This means
that the Martian volcanoes were probably active a s

recently as 1.5 million years ago.

12,
 >
o

o
>

m
PO

[11 HECATES THOLUS

This is the largest
volcano in the Elysium
group at aheight of
5.3km with a10km-wide
c a l d e r a . O n t h e fl a n k s
t h e r e a r e fl o w f e a t u r e s
related to water and pit
chains related to lava.

[2] BUMPY BOULDERS

Apanorama of the
Martian terrain courtesy
of the Mars rover Spirit
shows dark, volcanic
rocks -the closest being
about 40cm high.

[3] BIBLIS PATERA

Aperspective image
taken by ESA's Mars
Express on this 170km-
long, 100km-wide and
3km-deep sunken caldera
volcano.

[4] PAVONIS MONS

Mars Express captured
this image of the
collapsed lava tubes on
t h e s o u t h - w e s t fl a n k o f
the 12km-tall volcano.
 - - v ’

j-‘'.

Wijt-sftji
i'S
w ’

p
4 r

[5] OLYMPUS MONS An artist's impression of this giant volcano in the heyday of its activity. Shown as though aviewer were flying low in an
o r
biting spacecraft, much of the enormous volcanic plateau known as Tharsis, astride the Martian equator at the western end of the Valles
 >
CD

O
>

<

Marineris, is hidden beneath avast cloud of volcanic ash. Tharsis is dominated by Olympus Mons, avolcano as big as the state of Arizona.
It is punctuated by magma flowing up from the interior of the Martian crust while Ascreus Mons gently steams away in the distance.

15
 ASTROLOGY
a n a OROSCOPES
Belief in astrology is ancient, so who
were these early sky watchers? And
what did they see that convinced them
our fate is revealed in the stars?
strology is the study of the say that astrology has no scientific
A alignment of the Sun,
stars and planets in the
belief that they influence human
affairs. Traditional astrologers
prepare or “cast” star diagrams
called horoscopes that relate the
positions of the celestial bodies to
future events. Astronomers mostly
A
/ I
'■%-x .
N E PA L E S E
and Middle Eastern cultures dating
basis, calling it a“pseudoscience”.
with many convinced that the
back thousands of years. It may
Yet belief in the “stars” runs deep, have begun with the people of
Mesopotamia -the land between
A14th-century
Ve d i c b i r t h c h a r t .
alignment of the celestial bodies at the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, now
our birth influences our character in Iraq -including the Babylonians,
TA B L E T A N e o -
and personality. Chaldeans, Assyrians and Sumerians. Assyrian tablet
Astrology as practised today is a To Mesopotamian sky watchers, with observations
fusion of ideas from Mediterranean alignments that had preceded o f Ve n u s .
 m
LO
I
■y )
/ s
>-i %
o
\

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t I u t‘ '

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z
/
tr:, 4

l■"■ O
r r -

favourable events in the past, such SCRIBES
Astrological
as aplentiful harvest, would be
observations were
good omens for the future.
recorded by
Similarly, alignments occurring Babylonian
scribes.
before past disasters, such as
military defeat, were always ill O L . O S S A R Y
omens. One record, from 2300bc, Cuneiform:
Aform of writing
states: “If Venus appears in the East used in
in the month Airu and the Great Mesopotamia
that was
and Small Twins surround her...
produced by
and she is dark, then will the King pressing a
of Elam fall sick...” wedge-shaped
stylus into soft
clay tablets.
[located] one cubit four fingers Capricornus and Taurus -are still
0
>
above Eta Geminorum, Mercury used today. CO
H
being four fingers back to the Priests also recorded comets,
west.” Another explains: “Study eclipses, meteor showers, floods, o
the tablets for... the risings and earthquakes and rare weather o
first appearances of the Moon conditions. These were then
as observed each month. Watch -<
incorporated into predictions such
>
for the opposition of the Pleiades as: “If on the first day of Nisannu
and the Moon, and this will give the sunrise [appears] sprinkled with a
you your answer.” Mesopotamian blood, grain will vanish and there
priests grouped the stars into will be hardship.” O
patterns, or constellations, named Baru-priests threatened dire
O
after mythological figures. Some retribution if this knowledge was CO

CLAY TABLETS O
~including Scorpius, Sagittarius, leaked: “Secret tablet of Heaven,
o
Overtime, “baru-priests” appeared T J
m
who specialized in recording C O
INSIDE INFO
celestial alignments and
interpreting their meaning for the CHAUCER’S ASTROLOGY
king. The earliest surviving records elief in horoscopes was so well established in England
are 70 clay tablets excavated from B by the 14th century that writer Geoffrey Chaucer
the royal library in Nineveh, [1343-1400) could include detailed astrological
Mesopotamia. terminology in his Canterbury Tales and be confident his
readers would understand it. There are references to
III
W m
They are called Enuma Anu ill!
astrology in The Knight’s Tale, The Man of Law’s Tale
Enlil, or “When Anu Enlil...” the 1
and, especially, The Franklin’s Tale. .
name being taken from the first In the latter story, Chaucer describes a“wizard” S,
words of text and referring to the preparing an astrological prediction: ‘He brought Mtj ill
Rr!
gods Anu and Enlil. Written in forth his astronomical tables of Toledo... And his !
m m
table for computing the motions of the
cuneiform script (see Glossary),
the text dates from around 1600bc planets... He knew how far the star Alnath
had moved from Aries... that In the ninth
but includes observations made
m u c h e a r l i e r.
sphere is observed...” | |
One entry reads: “Night of the THE FRANKLIN’S TALE Chaucer’s story
k of a B
franklin (a landowner not of noble birth) featured astrology.
9th. First part of the night. Mercury

exclusive knowledge of the great
gods, not to be shared! To teach
it to... any other scholar is an
abomination to [the gods] Nabu and
Nisaba. May they kill with dropsy.”
HOROSCOPES
Around 1300bc, Mesopotamian
astrologers began preparing birth
horoscopes for special individuals,
such as royal babies. One dating
from 410bc was for “son of Shuma-
usur, son of Shumaiddina,
descendant of Deke” and states that
|[TraAaeocontraItAfirologi
fertile. They noticed that flooding
invariably followed when the Sun
was aligned with the dog star, Sirius
(which they called Sopdet). Priests
believed the flooding was caused by
the Sun and Sirius acting together,
and studied the sky for other such
alignments.
The Egyptians also noticed that
the ecliptic (the Sun’s apparent
path in the sky) passes through 12
constellations over the year, which
were regarded as special. These
constellations were later called the i

at his birth “the Moon was below
the ‘horn’ of the Scorpion”.
Mesopotamians laid down the
basics of astrology and astronomy,
devising asimple calendar and
identifying cycles of the Sun and
Moon, the “fixed stars” and the
planets, or “wandering stars”.
zodiac -meaning “animal shapes”
-as many depicted mythical beasts.
Aries, Gemini and Leo are all derived
from Egyptian astrology.
Modern astrology developed
in Egypt after it was conquered
by Alexander the Great in 332bc
and came under Greek rule. The

The earliest known star chart, word “horoscope” is from the

however, is Egyptian and dates Greek horosfeopos, meaning “hour
from ISOObc. It was found on the marker”. From the 2nd to 1st

ceiling of atomb in Luxor dedicated centuries bc, aGreek or “Hellenistic”

ASTROLOGER
to Senmut (see Inside Info), an system developed combining In this 15th- the time of aperson’s birth or other
Egyptian official. Knowledge of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian century image the important event, such as awedding,
astrologer holds
stars helped the Egyptians plan crop astrology. Horoscopes were based when the stars were thought
up acelestial
planting around the cyclical flooding on the “ascendant” -the sign that sphere for a particularly influential.
of the River Nile that made the land is rising on the eastern horizon at monk. Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy),
of Alexandria, in northern Egypt, set
out the basics in his work Tetrabiblos,
INSIDE INFO
{Mathematical Treatise in Four
E G Y P T I A N S TA R C H A R T Books). He explains how to apply
r ahoroscope “to events relating to
Star pattern found on the ceiling of
A atomb in Luxor, Egypt, was thought 1
i
the body and to journeys abroad...
that from the moon to affections of
to be mere decoration until Danish
researcher Ove von Spaeth identified it i 3 the soul and to marriage; that from
as astar chart recording an authentic m the sun to dignities and glory; that
configuration of the planets. The pattern from the mid-heaven to the other
has been dated to an unusual alignment details of the conduct of life, such
that occurred in 1534bc.
as actions, friendships, and the
The tomb belonged to Senmut, asenior
advisor to Queen Hatshepsut. Senmut held H a begetting of children.”
the position of calendar registrar, which
required good knowledge of the stars. The CONTRADICTIONS
chart may be based on one he made Ptolemy said astrologers must take
himself, making him possibly the earliest
into account all planetary and stellar
astrologer ever identified.
alignments for “it will come about
t h a t o n e b e n e fi c e n t o r m a l e fi c e n t
SENMUTS TOMB The ceiling displayed images of star will not rule all of them on the
an astronomical star chart, recording agenuine
configuration of the planets. same occasion... for many
m m
L contradictory events take place at
 gSPACE STARS
SPalbumasar
bu Ma’shar Ai Baikhi
A (Albumasar) was the most
renowned Persian astrologer
of his age. He authored 50
books and rose to become
court astrologer to Charles I
■■'■St'V *
X
(787-886AD)
m
CO
His most famous work,
Flores Astrologiae, explains
how to interpret planetary o
positions throughout the year,
starting in April “when the Sun
enters Aries”. His advice is still

(Charlemagne), king of the

Franks. When interest in
astrology was re>awakened in
medieval Europe, Albumasar’s
De Magnis Coniunctionibus
became the standard
reference work in universities
and royal courts.
o
followed by many astrologers
today -even though the Sun’s
position relative to the stars >
has changed. CO
I N F L U E N T I A L L I T E R AT U R E A n
7D
illustration from Albumsar's book
Introductorium in Astronomiam O
(introduction to Astronomy).

the same time. One may, for i G L O S S A R Y
Renaissance:
example, lose arelative and gain an !Aperiod in
inheritance."
The early Christian church
jEurope spanning
the 14th to 17th
icenturies when
disapproved, and by the 6th Irenewed interest
iin classical
century ad astrology was in
iknowledge led to
decline. But the works of Ptolemy Iaflowering in art
and others were rediscovered by iand science.
Arab and Persian scholars who
not only translated books such as NOSTRODAMUS
Tetrabiblios but improved them, His prophecies
were published in
using their own observations to parts from 1555
create accurate astronomical tables to 1558.
called zij, such as the Toledan
Tables prepared by Moorish
astronomer al-Zarqali.
CONJUNCTIONS
One of the most important Muslim
o
These occur every 20 years predictions are said to cover world
and forecast historical, social events occurring today.
Astrologers still look for rising
and religious change, often
accompanied by natural disasters. signs, conjunctions and oppositions
o
>
By the middle of the Renaissance but have abig advantage over their 0 0
(see Glossary) astrology was ancient counterparts. Astronomical -PD
accepted by Church and State tables can now be produced O
and many kings had their own quickly and easily on acomputer, o
astrologers to advise them whereas astrologers of old had to CT
-<
-as in ancient times. Best- work them out painstakingly using
>
known was 16th-century French mathematics. It’s not surprising,
astrologer Michel de Notredarne therefore, that they were once u
-or “Nostradamus” -whose reserved for royalty!
o
L E S
O
V R AY E S CENTURIES
U 1
o
E T o
m
PROPHETIES CO

astrologers was Abu Ma’shar AI DE- MAISTKE

Baikhi, known by his Latinized M1CHEL NOSTllADAMUS.

name Albumasar. His Book of
■Yiu fe vgit rcptefcmc tom ce qol c’eft
Revolutions of the World Years, palllL imtcn Fr,iotc, Efp'goc, 4?a1ic ,
which was translated into Latin in Anem;«gne ,Anglctctrc ,qu'autres pr-
tics in Monde.
the 12th century ad as Flores
Mcvhcs &cQTfigeei tes p'-t'-
Astrologiae, was highly influential unpm/ifCf a £ uir.r.

(see Space Stars). ijTroyes j

Cf mires.
Important signs to watch out
for, according to Albumasar, are Avee la Vie dei'Aiitcyr,

"conjunctions", when celestial Utpimfie$irsckcesC€nfnrt€sexp!$^mcc$

bodies such as the Moon and par tm Spa^ant de ce temps,
Venus appear close together in 1
the sky, and “oppositions”, when 2)t£U ae i c d o m a batt cho h LY O x H ,
J^our t‘an.0 n c o r Zvsrits*
they are at 180° to each other. Chez ATO!NEBESSON, Macduisul
Si ma prediction is touche ^> Eibraire lucTtipifl.
Most worrying are the “grand SisruLs ^racs rt 0ivinits*
jiTEC FEPfA iSii) JSi *
conjunctions” of Jupiter and Saturn.
 GEMINI and
i

CANCER i

Two mythical twins, Castor and Pollux, sit

side by side during the early part of the
year. Together they form the constellation
Gemini. Nearby crawls Cancer the crab, the
faintest member of the zodiac.

E S K I M O FA C E he twins’ names have been given to the two

Eskimo Nebula brightest stars of Gemini. When seen through a
lying just below telescope of 60mm (2.4in) aperture or larger,
Gemini is said to
look like aface
Castor -Alpha (a) Geminorum -splits into apair of
fringed with a blue-white components of second and third
fur-lined hood. magnitudes. These form atrue binary with an orbital
period of 450 years or so. Afainter red dwarf is linked
to the other two by gravity, and all three are themselves
binaries, making Castor an astounding sextuplet. By
contrast Pollux -Beta (p) Geminorum -is single and j
Greek
Inborn mythology, Castor
to Queen Leda of and
Pollux
Sparta were
but byhalf-brothers,
different fathers. Pollux,
appears orange as it is agiant star with acooler surface.
achampion boxer, was the son of the god Zeus and hence
C L U S T E R I N G TO G E T H E R
I
i m m o r t a l . C a s t o r, a s k i l f u l h o r s e m a n a n d w a r r i o r, w a s t h e s o n
of Leda’s husband. King Tyndareus, and so mortal. The pair One of the finest open star clusters in the sky is M35,
joined the crew of Jason and the Argonauts on their legendary located near the feet of the twins. On clear dark nights
search for the Golden Fleece. When Castor was killed, Pollux
it can be seen with the unaided eye as ahazy patch
refused to be parted from him and so Zeus transformed them
both into the constellation Gemini to spend eternity together. spanning the same apparent width as the full Moon. It
Cancer has aminor role in one of the labours of Heracles is easier to spot through binoculars, however. Small
(Hercules in Roman mythology). One of the hero’s 12 tasks was telescopes reveal individual stars, many forming
to kill the Hydra, amulti-headed swamp monster. While battling chains. Just below Gemini lies the Eskimo or Clown
the beast, Heracles is attacked by a
Face Nebula (NGC 2392).
giant crab, which he simply Another excellent cluster can be found in the
crushes underfoot.

The crab may have neighbouring constellation of Cancer. Known popularly

been added to the as either Praesepe, the Beehive Cluster, or the Manger,
Heracles legend it was seen with the naked eye by the ancient Greeks
to link amuch
and in the 18th century was catalogued M44 by the
more ancient
constellation
French astronomer Charles Messier. Under urban skies
binoculars will be needed to see it properly. M44 "
I
with Greek j \ v
mythology. V \ consists of about 50 stars of 6th magnitude and fainter
swarming over an area of sky three times wider than
the Full Moon. Don’t overlook another cluster of stars
in southern Cancer, M67, visible through binoculars as a
misty ellipse almost the width of the Full Moon.
20,
 ■ ■
CO
i

^®)'Gil^lNIANDCANCER >
emini and Cancer are best placed for observation in the
evening sky during the first three months of the year. They
jare both constellations of the zodiac, lying between Taurus and >
;Leo. The Sun passes through Gemini from late June to late
July, and through Cancer from late July to mid August. Both
constellations are visible throughout the northern hemisphere
and down to -55 degrees latitude in the southern hemisphere.
0
ABBREVIATION Gem
BEST SEASON

Mid winter-early spring (evenings]

#
!BRIGHTEST S TA R

>
Beta (p) Geminorum (Pollux)
SIZE RANKING 30

jPOSITION Equatorial n
>
z
IABBREVIATION
Cnc
*jBEST SEASON m
7 ^
Mid winter-early spring (ev
BRIGHTEST STAR Beta ((3) Canc
SIZE RANKING 31 #

POSITION Equatorial
L O C AT I O N MAP

AURIGA S TA R C L U S T E R

M44 -the large

Beehive Cluster

LEO MINOR LYNX in Cancer -was

1
/ first studied by
Galileo with his
0-
/
new telescope.

; T

NGC 2371
f

4: NGC 2266
I NGC 2158

/ G E M I N I
f
M 3 5 ,
!C 444 .
/ e 1
K m

I
f
^ 6
Y
t
i
NGC 2420^#^
0 V
V . *
M 4 4

f
I NGC S39a

~ 7 8 1
/ Alhena .j
/

C A N C E R Y
i /

LEO / NGC 2423

3 0
/ a :ft#
^NGC 2395 38 * ORION
Acubens
/
M 6 7
CANIS MINOR
T W I N S TA R S
NGC 2775 Gemini is best
f

4 # P ♦
identified by its
two famous stars
SEXTANS -of which Pollux

♦ is the brighter.

21
Mi
 Ithough astronomy and astrology
A developed alongside each other in the
ancient world, modern astronomers
have long since dismissed astrology as a
pseudoscience. It is, they argue, irrational with
nothing to back it up lased on amix of
coincidence and wishful
thinkingButafewpeoplejJEXTRAORDINARYCLAIMSREQUIRE
have dared to question, or
EXTRAORDINARY EVIDENCE.
at least investigate t h i s
Carl Sagan
general consensus, and
wonder whether there
might be something to astrology after all.
The most famous claim to alink between
events in the heavens and those on Earth is
the so-c lars Effect”, noted by French
psychologist ar istatistician Michel Gauquelin
(1928-1991) in his 1955 book L’Influence des
Astres (The Influence of the Stars). Gauquelin
had decided to test one of the standard tenets
22
of astrology -that athletes and warriors are
“ruled” by the influence of the warrior planet
Mars. In order to do this, he took asample of
570 successful French athletes, and calculated
the position of Mars at the time of their birth.
The results were surprising and, it seemed
convincing.
Gauquelin claimed
that successful
n
athletes had a
significantly higher
than average
chance of being born when Mars was in one
of two significant positions -either rising from
the eastern horizon, or crossing the north-south
meridian line and at its highest in the sky, its
GAUQUELIN The author
culmination (see How it Works).
o f th e Ma rs Effe ct ca l l e d
Gauquelin and his supporters soon extended his work astrobiology.
their work to other professions, claiming to find (Photo courtesy of Maria
effects linking physicians with Saturn, writers with Kay Simms.)
 the Moon, and so on.
I While the so-called “Mars Effect” has
no practical application, it nevertheless
offered Intriguing evidence that scientists
might have been too quick to dismiss
planetary influences over life on Earth.
Because the rising and setting times of
Mars vary from month to month and from year
to year in away disconnected from other cycles
'such as Earth’s days and seasons, it was easy
to dismiss some other possible explanations.
(CSICOP). The controversy rumbles on to the
present time but is unusual for a“paranormal”
phenomenon, in that it was discovered by
X
ascientist and has split even the sceptical " Q
community. Meanwhile, further studies have
claimed to confirm similar effects in other cases >
-a“Saturn Effect”, for example, among members
of the French Academy of Medicine.

CONTROVERSY
/ Although Gauquelin was convinced that he had
found areal correlation, he knew that his findings
would be controversial. So, as early as 1956, he
approached the Belgian ComIte Para (a group of
scientists formed to investigate paranorma Claims

to help verify the Mars Effect. It wasn’t until 1967

that they eventually agreed to carry out their own
separate investigation. And it wasn’t until 1976
1 that they released the results. While the
tests seemed to confirm the Effect, the
Comite concluded that the reason was

“demographic errors” in the selection of

the study group, rather than being evidence
of areal phenomenon. The result was much
MARS The Roman god
was associated with argument within and resignations from the Comite,
muscles and activity. The process was repeated by the American
version of the Comite, the Committee for the
Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal

/;5X HOW IT WORKS

GAUQUELIN'S DIAGRAM
o f o r m a c o n c l u s i v e d e fi n i t i o n o f t h e l o c a t i o n
T of Mars, Gauquelin divided the sky into 12
equal sectors -six below the horizon and six
above. He numbered them from east to west 2

so that sector one corresponded to the planet’s

rising location, sector four to its “culmination”, .. \
sector seven to its setting, and sector 10 to its
lowest point “beneath” aspecific location. 3 0 40 50 Setting
Rising 50
According to astrological tradition, these are 1
7

the four areas at which the influence of aplanet

is supposedly at its greatest. According to the
law of averages, however, the chance of any
particular person being born when acertain 8

planet Is in aparticular sector is one in 12 or

roughly eight percent.
Gauquelin found that his sample of successful
athletes had a22 percent chance of being born 1 1 9

with Mars in either sector one or sector four 1 0

-about five percent higher than expected.

COMING UP IN. .SUE 14
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WASHERS
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ISSUE;
4 3-TOOTH GBAR, ge
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SPINDLE'

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PLANET SPINDLE

Explore the complex climate and Continue tracing the story of

changeable weather conditions on astronomy with alook at new i

Mars and their differences and scientific thinking during the

similarities to Earth. 8th-century Islamic Renaissance.
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BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
FEATURES I M P O R TA N T
"The rery is aprecision-engineered
kit. It must be assembled and handled
I I ■ ■
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I

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YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL
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MISSIONS
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Join Mars Global Surveyor on its quest to map the
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IMAGE GALLERY
An amazing collection of images reveal the dramatic
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THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

16
The work of Islamic scholars that led to important
developments in our understanding of astronomy.

S TA R M A P
20
This issue we focus on the constellation of Canis
Major and its star Sirius, the brightest in our night sky.
CREDITS 1 11
S PA C E S C I E N C E
22 IMAGES: FC Courtesy of BGrimm/
Will humans inhabit alien planets one day? Find out NRenno, University of Michigan;
about the process of terraforming. 3Alamy/Kari Marttila; 4(t) Pikaia
Imaging, (b) Caltech/2MASS/
C O N S U LTA N T E D I T O R : G I L E S S PA R R O W
JCarpenter/TH Jarrett/R Hurt; 5(tl)
E N D O R S E D B Y : S I R PAT R I C K M O O R E C B E F R S
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Julian Fletcher, (b) Alamy/Matthew
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 m

To locate aay object in ytreatingtheentireskyasahollowsphere|EQUATORIALMOU||T

around the Earth, astronomers can An equatorial
tpe sky, you nefed to know measure the positions of stars and planets
telescope mount is
ideal for keeping track
where to look.. Translating withpairsofcelestialco-ordinates,much|ik» of objects as they trace
their nightly arcs across
thepositionsoftheplanetsgeographiclongitudeand{atitude,without^having the sky.
onyour
/
model
,
tolocationsworn,aboutthei,relativedistanceso,trie
. III locations mspace. The only question is what
inthenightS^kytakesanreferencestheyuseinplaceofEarthsequat^alid
understandingofhowGreenwichMeridian,Themostwidelyusedare
astronomers measure "alt-azimuth” and “equatorlar' co-ordinates.
^" . rI Alt-azimuth co-ordinates refer to an observers
co-ordinates in the sky. visiblesky-measuringthe“altitude”ofan
objectrelativetothehorizon,andthe“azimutlf’
r e l a t i v e t o a fi x e d d i r e c t i o n - d u e n o r t h . A l t i t i d e

ismeasuredindegreesfromO'(exactlyonth^
horizon) to +90° (at the point directly overhead
from the observer’s location) and -90° (at the
pointdirectlybeneaththeobserver’sfeet).
S Y S T E M S C O M PA R E D
Alt-azimuth co-ordinates
A L T A Z I M U T H Azimuth is also measured in degrees east from
CO-ORDINATE zenith
are alocal reference, S Y S T E M due north, so due east has an azimuth of 90°, due
specific to the place of south is at 180°, and due west is 270°. Given a
observation, not to the
heavenly bodies. To have particular set of alt-azimuth coordinates, then, it’s
any real meaning, such easy to work out the object’s location in the sky.
co-ordinates need to be Unfortunately, the stars are constantly in motion
given with the latitude ♦ as the Earth spins on its axis. Because the stars are
and longitude of the N

place and the exact hour moving along curved or diagonal paths, calculating
of the observation. The their co-ordinates at any one time is both
more complex equatorial altitude
complicated and fairly useless, since it will only
co-ordinate system,
however, can be used by allow you to locate the object at one specific time.
astronomers around the
horizon azimuth
world. E Q U AT O R I A L C O - O R D I N AT E S

E Q U ATO R I A L
Amore complicated but also more stable way to
CO-ORDINATE measure positions in the sky is by means of
S Y S T E M
equatorial co-ordinates. The two elements of an
north celestial equatorial position are an object’s “declination”
pole (NCPl
G L O S S A R Y
and its “right ascension”.
Celestial sphere: An Declination is analogous to latitude on the
imaginary spherical shel Earth. It is measured on the “celestial sphere” (see
around the Earth, on
which the objei ;s in the Glossary) in degrees north or south of the celestial
sky can be considered equator -the line that runs around the sky directly
to move.
above Earth’s equator. As our planet rotates and
First Point of Aries: the stars wheel through the sky, they follow circles
The point on the celest i a l
sphere where the Sun
parallel to the celestial equator, so their declination
crosses the celestial never changes even as they rise and set.
equator at the northei
celestial
right ascension Right ascension (or “RA”) is the sky’s equivalent
hemisphere’s spring (RAI
eouinox.
equator
of longitude -measured parallel to the celestial
J equator, and east from a“celestial meridian”

O T H E R C O - O D I N AT E S Y S T E M S
hile alt-azimuth and equatorial co-ordinates are by far the most G A L A C T I C C O - O R D I N AT E S
w commonly used systems of celestial measurement, it’s perfectly This infrared, all-sky, Milky
possible to fix the orientation of acelestial coordinate Way image in galactic
co-ordinates includes
system anywhere one chooses, and for
some special uses, astronomers do the fight of half a
billion stars.
just that.
Ecliptic co-ordinates, for
example, use the plane
of the Sun’s motion

around the sky as

their “equator”, and
either the Sun’s

own position, or
that of the First
Point of Aries to
fi x t h e i r “ m e r i d i a n ” .
Galactic co-ordinates,
meanwhile, use the
central plane of the Milky
Way as agalactic equator, and
the direction of the galactic centre in Image courtesy of i/UMi
>AC-Caltech/KJASA/NSF/J Ce inter.
Sagittarius for their meridian. HJarrett S. R H u r t

L
 <
HOW IT WORKS

Neptune
o
C O - O R D I N AT E S O N Y O U R M O D E L C e r e s C
TO
our model is concerned with
Y the
E a r t h

motion of the planets CO

around the Sun, so the positions o
of the planets recorded on It use U r a n u s

the “heliocentric ecliptic” system.

\
This places the Sun at the m
centre of the celestial sphere, c u r r e n t
CO
position of
with all the planets including First Point -<
Earth moving around it. of Aries CO
The directions of individual s .

planets (their “heliocentric F i r s t m

longitude”) are measured in Point of

degrees east of the vernal Aries

equinox (since the model only

shows motion around the ecliptic,
measurements In “heliocentric * I o
latitude” north or south of this
E r i s
X a
plane are irrelevant). m
r

m by the First Point of Aries (see celestial pole is directly overhead and the celestial 0
Courtesy istead of being measured, like equator circles the horizon. At the equator, the
N O A O / A U R A / N S F
o
longitude, in degrees, minutes and seconds “of north celestial pole lies on the horizon due north,
E Q U AT O R I A L M O U N T arc”, however, RA is measured, like time, in the south celestial pole due south, and the celestial
0 0
The 50-inch telescope hours, minutes and seconds. The main reason for equator arcs directly overhead.
on Kitt Peak uses an
this is that RA represents the time taken by any One great advantage of equatorial co-ordinates >
equatorial mount.
object in the sky to cross the meridian after the is that as an object’s RA and declination change
o
GREENWICH MERIDIAN First Point of Aries itself. only very slowly over time due to changes in o
The Earth's Prime Converting an object’s RA and declination into Earth’s own orbit, the co-ordinates stay roughly the I

Meridian is the line of o

its position in the local sky involves calculating same for periods of several decades, so they can po
longitude defined to be
0°, which passes through
the orientation of the celestial sphere as seen be used as easy reference for astronomers around U

Greenwich, London. from that locality. At Earth’s north pole, the north the world.
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MARIAN
W E AT H E R
Although its atmosphere is far thinner than Earth's, Mars has
acomplex climate and changeable weather similar to ours,
including enormous dust storms that can encircle the planet.
he atmosphere of Mars is almost 96
percent carbon dioxide, and so sparse that
it only exerts one percent of the pressure of
Earth’s atmosphere on the planet’s surface. From
the ground, the sky appears pinkish grey -acolour
caused by red dust in the Martian atmosphere and
also by atmospheric scattering.
Although thin, the atmosphere insulates Mars
from the worst extremes of temperature. But its
temperature still varies between around 25°C
in midsummer near the equator, and -125°C in
midwinter at the poles. With an axis of rotation
a "Endurance Crater".
.‘v.
tilted at asimilar angle to that of our own planet,
and arotation period of 24 hours 37 minutes,
Mars goes through an Earthlike cycle of night,
day and seasons, so that the climate is similarly G L O S S A R Y
C o r i o l i s f o r c e : A n e ff e c t
changing through each Martian year. Adding to produced by the rotation
that complication Is the planet’s notably elliptical of aplanet that creates
orbit, which currently means Mars is more than a d e fl e c t i n g f o r c e t o
spin weather systems
40 million km closer to the Sun around southern in different directions in
midsummer than it is at northern midsummer. different hemispheres.
Neither tilt nor orbit remains the same over
millions of years, which means that Mars can go
through long-term changes called Milankovitch
Cycles. These orbital variations, first predicted for
Earth by Milutin Milankovic (see Space Stars) c a n
GROUND VIEW
create radical shifts in the Martian climate. Amosaic of frames
taken by the
Opportunity rover show
clouds in the sky above
..
'i& ^
 SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE Omartian weather
; - <v
C4-* H-
u
- o
o
r “ 0
( 0 ^ a c
4
 AT M O S P H E R E

An artist's impression of
acolumn of the Martian
m upper atmosphere
m atmosphere.

T he most impressive Martian weather systems are the huge dust

storms that frequently scour vast areas, and occasionally grow to
envelop the entire planet. Even though the Martian atmosphere is thin
and its winds are correspondingly feeble, they can reach speeds that
are more than capable of stirring up the microscopic sand particles meteor burning up
at high altitude
that are in fact more like afine dust (a typical grain of Martian sand
is around 1-2 microns -thousandths of amillimetre -across).

26 June 2001 4September 2001

d u s t
s t o r m s
TWO FACES OF MARS These Hubble images
show how aplanet-wide dust storm (right) can w a t e r

clouds
change our view of Mars.

I
G L O S S A R Y

Sublimation: Aprocess by which asubstance can

transform from its solid form directly into agas or Isurface
vapour without passing through aliquid phase.

^BREAKTHROUGHS gas ejected from atmosphere

incoming

V X y E V O L U T I O N O F T H E AT M O S P H E R E
I
m e t e o r

he Martian atmosphere was not always so thin and

T dry -it probably started out with asimilar mix of
gases to Earth’s own original atmosphere, and by four
billion years ago it seems to have had an atmosphere A B

thick, warm and wet enough to sustain large amounts

of liquid water on the surface.
However, by about three billion years ago, Mars was
much cooler and drier -apparently fairly similar to the
planet we see today.
Several theories have been put forward to explain
the transition. The atmosphere was either blasted
away by asteroid impacts, locked away by chemical
BLASTED AWAY: One theory is that
reactions or split apart and blown into space by the 1 massive asteroids (A) blasted away
solar wind. In reality, all three processes probably the original Martian atmosphere when
played arole in the transformation. they hit the surface (B).
3
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After the enormous success of the Viking landers C

and orbiters, Mars watchers had to wait more

than 20 years for afollow-up mission -the Mars
Global Surveyor.
D E LTA n M a r s
Global Surveyor
lifts off aboard
its launch rocket on
7November 1996.

uilt at the Lockheed Martin

ff:
uJ P . - ' t - T=L

'Hi i*™'
Astronautics
—_ plant
in :
Denver, Mars Global
M

jL'-
1'^ ■*
m
t .
I ' t Surveyor (MGS) was designed to
u
map the entire Martian surface.
I The spacecraft itself comprised
\

arectangular-shaped body within

it
K i iT'
ii. ■
which were two rectangular
modules -one housed the science

instruments and mission computer;

the other module housed the rocket
i f
engines and propellant tanks.
The probe was about 3m tall and
12m across when the solar panels Orbiter Camera, alaser altimeter, a
were unfolded and it weighed in, thermal emission spectrometer and
■til
with propellant, at 1060kg. Among amagnetometer (see Glossary).
the instruments were the Mars

t I
The camera was able to produce
■

the highest resolution images ever

m captured from aMars-orbiting
nApril 2007, NASA admitted that an spacecraft. Using atechnique i n
instruction sent in error to the 10-year-old which the spacecraft rotated at a
Mars Global Surveyor caused its failure. The rate that matched the ground speed
instruction saw the spacecraft shift one of its under the camera, objects as small
solar panels, exposing one of the batteries to
as 1.5m across were clearly visible.
the heat of the Sun. When the battery
overheated, the spacecraft’s control systems Another innovation, designed
automatically went into safe mode, preventing to reduce the amount of fuel that
any further communication with mission control. the craft needed to carry, was a
technique called aerobraking. First
 BREAKTHROUGHS
DEIMOS The

C^MOQNPHOTOS smaller of the two

Martian moons.

D n10 July 2006, the Mars Global Surveyor

camera was pointed away from the surface of
the Red Planet to take apicture of Deimos, the
smaller of its two moons. The moon was about

22,985km away from the spacecraft and engineers

on Earth had decided to take the opportunity of
photographing Deimos, it being about amonth before
the 129th anniversary of its discovery by US >
Astronomer Asaph Hall. Less than aweek later, Hall CO
made the second of his major discoveries, when he
O
found the inner Martian satellite, Phobos.
O
Dd
>
ORBITER
An artist's
demonstrated in the final days of 240,000 images to Earth. Amon; surface from deadly cosmic rays. C O

impression of the Magellan mission to Venus, this the photos there were anumber of "The camera found afan-shaped C

the spacecraft involved using the opened wings of
in orbit above
the Red Planet.
the solar panels to resist the Martian
atmosphere. As the craft was
slowed, it orbited lower and lower.
However, when alatch on the
newly discovered features:
"Mars does have gullies cut into
many slopes, indicating action by
liquid water,
"The infrared spectrometer found
area that was interpreted as an <
ancient river delta, the result of m
- <
water flowing for along period in O
the planet sancient past
"Because of the life of the Global

^ f
fGlobal Surveyor
:Si-
solar panels appeared to crack, the concentrations of fine-grained Surveyor mission it was possible to
image of acrater operation was modified, taking a hematite, amineral that often forms track the changes in the ice deposits
i n Te r r a S i r e n u m
shallower and, therefore, longer under wet conditions. near the planet's south pole. The
with gullied
walls. trajectory than had been planned. "The laser altimeter revealed many shrinkage over three Martian
In this way, over aperiod of four eroded or buried craters and summers suggested that aclimate
months, Surveyor lowered the high canyons within the polar ice caps - change was in progress.
point of its orbit from 54,000km to details that had been far too subtle On December 2006, NASA
near 450km. for previous observations.
G L O S S A R Y released dramatic photos of two
Magnetometer: "The magnetometer found cratered regions called Terra
A s c i e n t i fi c d e v i c e
used to measure localised remnant magnetic fields. Sirenum and Centauri Montes. They
the strength and/ The detailed mapping operation This indicated that Mars once had a appeared to show the presence of
or direction of a
magnetic field.
was hugely successful, the ;lobal magnetic field, much like water on Mars sometime between

spacecraft returning more than Earth’s, shielding the planet’s 1999 and 2001.

A S S E M B LY

ANASA engineer
at the Kennedy
Space Center
prepares aheat
I blanket for Mars

Global Surveyor
in the run up to
the launch.

ICRATERED
ITERRAIN
I A 3km X3km
!
■V
imageofthe
Martian surface at
A r a b i a Te r r a t a k e n
with the Mars
Orbiter Camera.

j
 _/\ and Z)
Although Mars experiences no rainfall or snow
it is subject to strong and relentless winds.
These play with the fine surface dust, creating
towering dust devils and shrouds of cloud.
ata collected by subsequent missions to Mars show that the planet is
experiencing its own version of global warming. Between the 1970s
and the 1990s, recorded average temperatures of the Red Planet
have risen by 1°C. The rise IS, according to scientists, aresult of dust storms
that have exposed dark rock on the surface, which has attracted more of the
Sun's heat. This will lead to more dust storms and the temperature of the
planet will continue to spiral upwards for the foreseeable future. Some global
warming sceptics have argued this shows that rising temperatures on Earth
similarly, have nothing to do with any activity by humans

1 . - .

'll.

several kilometres high white clouds over the

[1] DUNES Much of Mars
is covered by wind- and rotating at some 30 northern (winter) pole
metes per second (that's and ashrunken south
sculpted dunes such as
these in Endurance 10 times larger than any polar cap going through
tornado on Earth). midsummer at the time.
Crater photographed by
the Opportunity rover.
[3] RED DUST STORM [4] CLOUDS Ice crystals
[2] WHIRLING DEVIL The Hubble Space form wispy clouds above
Artist Nikon Renno's Telescope collected this the volcanoes of the

impression of aMartian image on 25 October Tharsis region in this

dust devil -amonster 2005, showing red storm Mars Global Surveyor
column of sand and dust. clouds at mid-latitude. Orbiter image, June 2000.

12
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[5] ONCOMING STORM An enormous dust storm thunders toward the stillness of adried-out Martian river valley in this artist's impression.
Such storms may be triggered by airborne dust particles absorbing sunlight and warming the atmosphere in their vicinity. As the warm pockets

1
 >

>

- <

of air move into colder regions, they generate winds that sweep more dust off the ground, rapidly creating arunaway storm. Martian dust
storms can gather energy quicky and soon blanket the whole planet.
 ♦

SLAM 1C
ASTRONOMY
The rise of Islam in the 8th century led to a
Golden Age of scholarship that endured for
more than half amillennium. This Muslim
Renaissance influenced cultures throughout
Europe and Asia and saw the development
of the first truly modern scientific thinking.

V usiims consider the While north-south latitude was

Kaaba -ablack granite not hard to find, east-west longitude

stone in the Great
Mosque in Mecca -to be the most
sacred place on Earth. All Muslims
face this spot when performing
daily prayers, so knowledge of the
precise direction of Mecca was
vital. It fell to the astronomers
(funded by local rulers or mosques)
to produce tables to establish
Mecca’s direction throughout the
vast Islamic domain.
Astronomers also had to provide
accurate times for prayers, and a
calendar for religious festivals, in
which the months began with the
first sighting of the crescent Moon
in the western evening sky.
was more difficult, and necessitated
sighting astar in two places
simultaneously, afeat that could be
achieved with alunar eclipse.
HOUSE OF WISDOM
The first astronomer to publish
tables that provided such
longitudes was the Persian Abu
Ja’far Muhammad ibn Musa
al-Khwarizmi (c.780-850ad). He
was one of many who worked in a
library and translation centre in
Baghdad known as the House of
Wisdom. By the 8th century, this
had become the centre of learning
in the Islamic world. His work -the

first definitive Islamic book on IN ALIGNMENT

INSIDE INFO
Ahuge armillary
LANGUAGE OF ASTRONOMY astronomy -is thought, in part, to (or celestial)
r have been influenced by Ptolemy’s sphere housed in
any of the terms used in Some well-known star names are awooden frame.
M astronomy today are also borrowed from Arabic. Algol,
Almagest. Al-Khwarizmi also gave
the west the words algorithm (a The meridian ring
derived from Arabic (especially for example, is derived from “al- is being aligned
corruption of his name) and algebra
starting “Al”, which means “the”): |ghul”, which means The Ghoul: with aplumb line.
(from his treatise on the subject).
Algebra Cipher Aldebaran Deneb
Sine Hamal
The precision with which the
Algorithm Algol Islamic astronomers made their
Almanac Zenith Altair Rigel
Azimuth Zero Betelgeuse Vega observations revealed many errors
L in Ptolemy’s work.

16>
 l|||li^|Sli
H
HOW IT WORKS X
Wthe astrolabe m
CD
he astrolabe is acalculating SKY MAP The earliest surviving Islamic I
T device believed to have been An Islamic astrolabes date from the 9th century
O
brass astrolabe
invented by the Greeks in the second and many are works of exceptional
C.1080. 7D
century bc. It was adopted -and craftsmanship. Some, from later
-<
substantially improved -by Islamic centuries, were geared, with carved
astronomers to create aportable brass faces of extraordinary beauty. o
map of the skies. Islamic texts typically ascribe more
It comprises aseries of wood or than 40 uses to the astrolabe,
metal discs suspended from aring. including finding direction, the >
C/)
Arotating bar with sight holes - altitude of celestial bodies, sunrise
I
an alidade -was pivoted at the and sunset for any date and
7D
centre. The discs were engraved astrological and meteorological
with celestial maps, prominent calculations. It could also tell the o
stars, circles and curves time by day or night. No timekeeping
representing the horizon or altitude instrument built before the 16th

for particular geographical locations. century was as accurate as this.

o

PTOLEMrS REFORMERS Another great reformer was Abu SUN GAUGE j

y ' 0
An arable marble
I^
CO
Ptolemy’s first great reformer was Allah Mohammed ibn Jabir al-
solar quadrant
Al-Sabi Thabit ibn Qurra al-Harrani Battani (850-929ad), who was
(836-901ad). Born in present-day based in Syria. In addition to
used for gauging
the time. UMil
corrections to the movement of
.. /■ O
Turkey, this expert mathematician V'' V- ^
>
studied, like al-Khwarizmi, in celestial bodies, Al Battani CO
IN PHASE
Baghdad, and his analysis of and constructed his own astronomical AI-BirunI's '/I. X I

amendments to the Almagest, instruments, and left written notes illustrations A O

of phases of
notably to movements of the Sun on how they were made, showing a the Moon o
and Moon, are among his many disciplined scientific approach. He were used to
achievements. He is also recognised catalogued 489 stars, and observed calculate -<
as the founder of statistics. that the Sun’s distance from the dates.

Earth varied. So accurate were his

measurements of the Sun’s motion

that his work is mentioned by

Copernicus, and his calculations
were later used by Kepler, Tycho
Brahe and Galileo in their studies.

Al-Battani’s fame lies, primarily, in

his measurement of the solar year
as 365 days, 5hours, 46 minutes
and 24 seconds long.
The Islamic astronomers owed
much of their success to the

instruments they designed and

<1^

I S L A M I C O B S E R VAT O R I E S
ix observatories were built in the
Islamic world during the Golden Age of
scholarship, their construction funded by
wealthy benefactors. The first was built in
Baghdad (800-33), followed by Hamedan
(1023) and Malikshah (1074-92) in Iran,
al-Batalhi in Cairo (1119-25), Maragheh
in Azerbaijan (1259) and Samarkand
(1420). Each observatory eclipsed the
previous one in terms of Its scope and
sophistication. Maragheh, the observatory standards (see Ulugh Beg).
built, many of them huge. Abu’l-
Hasan Ali ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn
Yunus (950-1009ad) created an
astronomical handbook with tables
so accurate that his list of eclipses
was employed in the 19th century.
He reputedly used acopper
instrument similar to an astrolabe
measuring three cubits (1.5 metres)
across, and anine-ring armillary
sphere with rings wide enough for a
horseman to ride through.
O P T I C S A N D G R AV I T Y
Ibn Yunus’ contemporary, Abu Ali al-
Hasan ibn al-Haytham (965-
1040ad), known in the west as
Alhazan, furthered the study of
astronomy -and many other
disciplines besides. Born in Basra,
of al-Tusi, for example, boasted afour-
storey building and dome that was open to
the sky, a3.6-metre wall-mounted
quadrant made of copper and alibrary
containing more than 400,000 books.
What remains of these great buildings
is mostly archaeological. Excavations of
the observatory in Samarkand have
revealed its mighty quadrant -an
impressive structure even by modern
j Earth’s centre.
0
J X
-
V i
-IL .
/
S TA R G A Z E R
An ancient Arabic
astronomical
illustration from
the works of 8th-
century Moorish
ruler Abd-er-
R a h m a n e l S u fi .
A S T R O TA B L E S
Arab astronomers
drew up complex
astronomical
tables called zij.
Iraq, he wrote over 200 works, many
of which are lost. His great work on
optics included the use of the
camera obscura (pinhole camera) to
study solar eclipses.
Alhazan was unimpressed with
Ptolemy’s theories of planetary
motion, although he still believed
that the Earth lay at the centre
of the universe. He undertook an
early study of gravity, theorising
that the weight of bodies varied
with their distance from the
I
I
I
P O LY M AT H S
Such was the emphasis on learning
in the Islamic world that it was not
unusual for astronomers to excel in
many disciplines. Abu Rayhan Al-
Biruni (973-1048) was apolymath-
inventor who produced atext on
map projection, astudy of India and
atext entitled Shadows -essentially
on mathematics and physics.
His astronomical work included
the first treatise on the “planisphere”
and the sextant (in addition to
improving on its design) and
 r . i
provided the first description of
i* , y : an “observation tube” designed
t1:: -Ik m
- - j » r.
to view the crescent moon on the
tn m
'\U-«I LD
t; \ horizon by focusing on one small
: MC
part of the sky. While it had no
I lens, it was aforerunner of the later
O
f j 7 ^
I European telescope. <
i%k - I

J INFLUENCE GROWS O
I
u p t t Islamic influence spread as far as
'-'F.
China, the scholars assimilating >
f CO
knowledge of different cultures as I
I
their dominion grew.
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201-1274) O
m I
worked closely with the Chinese in
#■

the construction of the observatory

f o
of Maragheh in Azerbaijan. It was
here that he created accurate tables
'> <
■ r V ■ of planetary movements and astar
i
'\ catalogue based on 12 years of
;lanAl'C \\\y .

observations.
0
X- ,ec C O
His memoir on astronomy
I
remained the most sophisticated
extrapolation of the Ptolemaic
n
System until Copernicus in the 16th
>
century. The last of the great Islamic C O

astronomers was Ulugh Beg (see 7 0

H O LY T E X T T h e BIRTH CHART
Space Stars), agrandson of the o
great Mongol tribesman Tamerlane, z
Qur'an contains This early English
O
many references horoscope shows whose capital was the city of
t o a s t r o n o m y. A r a b i c i n fl u e n c e . Samarkand. <
i

m /J^ SPACE STARS

^ULUGH BEG (1393-1449]
lugh Beg was made ruler of
u Samarkand at 16, but his overriding
interest was science, particularly
astronomy. He built acentre of higher
education, and adrum-shaped tile-clad
W U % observatory over 50 metres in diameter.
It contained atriquetrunva marble sextant
and aquadrant so big that part of it
extended underground. Here he worked on
formulae of spherical trigonometry to
assist in his astronomical calculations
and produced the most comprehensive -
star catalogue since Ptolemy’s day.

S TA R C H A M B E R

Excavations of Ulugh Beg's

observatory revealed the marble
scales of the massive quadrant
he had designed. This statue
of the astronomer (Inset)
stands In Riga, Latvia.
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 CO
MOIMOCEROS H
>
P J
anis Major is easily located, following
c mighty Orion across the sky. The presence
of brilliant Sirius makes it unmistakable. Canis >
Major lies highest in the evening sky in January " U
and February, although it is visible at some time
in the evening from mid-November into April.
Since Canis Major lies south of the celestial o
equator, parts of it cannot be seen from >
latitudes farther north than about 55 degrees.
By chance, Sirius lies on the celestial meridian CO

(the north-south line in the sky) around midnight

at the start of each year. Sirius also forms a >
distinctive pattern with two other bright stars,
Procyon and Betelgeuse, known collectively as O
the “winter triangle”.

ABBREVIATION CMs

BEST SEASON

Mid to late winter

(evenings)
BRIGHTEST S TA R .

Alpha (a)
Canis Majoris (Sirius)
SIZE RANKING 43

POSITION Equatorial
L O C AT I O N M A P
COLUMBA

■dr^:

L'i

rJi.

(EAR. fAR
Sirius is one of
our nearest stellar
neighbours -just
8.6 light years
distant -which is
why it looks so
bright.
 FOUR BILLION YEARS AGO
Mars had many rivers, but
asudden change brought
about aglobal desert. So
could the Mars of today
be developed artificially to
support life in the future?
RRAFORM
Some scientists believe that it may be possible to modify alien
planets to make them suitable for colonisation by humans.
The process is known as terraforming.
erraforming means “Earth¬
shaping" -the process of
making other worlds more
like our own. The concept was
invented by science-fiction writers
in the 1930s (see Sci-Fi).
Although most terraforming
discussions today are focused on
Mars, the earliest target was the
far more hostile Venus. In 1961,
Carl Sagan wrote that the key to
making Venus habitable would be
to take most of the carbon dioxide
out of the atmosphere and reduce
the planet’s enormous greenhouse
effect (see Glossary).
Sagan suggested that future
astronauts could “seed” the skies
of Venus with blue-green algae
or “cyanobacteria” -similar
micro-organisms to those which
transformed Earth’s atmosphere,
removing most of its carbon dioxide
around three billion years ago.
22
Unfortunately, as we discovered
more about Venus, it became
clear that any C02-eating bacteria
released into the atmosphere
would rapidly perish closer to the
surface, releasing the gases they
had previously removed.
COOL SOLUTIONS
Today’s proposals tend to address
two separate issues -cooling and
processing of the atmosphere. The
amount of heat Venus receives W - ' i W■m
- '--
from the Sun might be reduced
using either enormous sunshades in
space, or reflective balloons in the
upper atmosphere.
Q L O S S A R Y
Greenhouse effect: The ability of a
planetary atmosphere to inhibit RED TO GREEN If the temperature of"
the Martian surface could be raised
heat loss from the planet’s surface,
thereby enhancing the surface by agreenhouse effect, water could
warming that is produced by the be released from underground ice.
absorption of solar radiation. The planet could then be oxygenated
by green plants. ; ^
 CO
SCI-FI ocean across much of the planet D
LAST AND FIRST MEN Algae and other plants could then >
be used to generate oxygen, while O
he first person to seriously address the idea an artificial sun (an orbiting mirror) m
of transforming other planets was Olaf could be used to provide amore CO
Stapledon (1886-1950), aphilosopher and
a u t h o r o f s e v e r a l i n fl u e n t i a l w o r k s o f s c i e n c e
Earth-like cycle of day and night. O
fi c t i o n . I n h i s L a s t a n d F i r s t M e n ( 1 9 3 0 ) ,
CHALLENGING MARS
Stapledon chronicles afuture history of 18 z
different species of human, with our own, the Mars presents adifferent set of o
“First Men” as the most primitive. It is the “Fifth challenges for would-be terraformers. m
Men” who decide to terraform Venus after
It is far less hostile to begin with,
Earth becomes inhospitable to life, but in order
to do this, they have to wipe out the original
but due to its smaller size and low 0
Venusians -an intelligent aquatic species. gravity (just one third of Earth s), it
m
Although Stapledon came up with the idea would be more difficult to produce
T O
of changing an entire planet’s ecosystem atruly Earth-like environment.
>
to support humans, it was the prolific US O L A F S TA P L E D O N A u t h o r o f Fortunately its greater distance
author Jack Williamson who coined the term Last and First Men: AStory of
from the Sun helps to counter this o
the Near and Far Future. y a
“terraforming” for a1942 short story.
problem, since it means that gas
molecules in the atmosphere are Z
less likely to be heated to escape o
O L . O S S A R Y
ANY
ii SUFFICIENTLYADUANGED Escape velocity: The minimum
velocity (see Glossary).
TECHNOLOGY IS INDISTINGUISHABLE speed away from aparent body that : The basic problems are the
99 aparticle must acquire to escape exact opposite of those on Venus
FROM MAGIC.
permanently from the gravitational -thickening the atmosphere and
Arthur CClarke attraction of the parent.
warming the surface -so the
answer would seem to be to create

Perhaps the most promising an artificial greenhouse effect

suggestion at the moment involves
bombarding Venus with huge
amounts of ice (taken maybe
from one of the smaller moons of
Saturn). The chemical reactions this
on Mars. Orbiting mirrors could
be used to direct more sunlight
onto the planet, while powerful
greenhouse chemicals such as
c h l o r o fl u o r o c a r b o n s c o u l d b e

would trigger would extract most seeded into the atmosphere, or

of the carbon dioxide from the perhaps produced by factories set
atmosphere and create ashallow up on the surface.

INSIDE INFO

K I C K - S TA R T i N G T E R R A F O R M I N G O N M A R S
ecent discoveries have shown that suggests using asingle powerful mirror
R Mars may not need so much not only to reflect, but also to focus the
external help. If just asmall proportion Sun’s rays onto areas of the surface. By
of the volatile materials, such as frozen heating the rock with this space-based
carbon dioxide and water ice, just below burning glass, it would be possible to
the surface were released, they could liberate huge amounts of gas and start
help to kick-start the terraforming Mars on the path to becoming amore
process. One proposal to do this Earth-like planet.

'.a ' ' .■

■a ■
■f . ■■‘ t

DWELLING^ After i^turil e s *-

of an enormously expensive ■S T.

transformation, buildings could be

erected on the fertile landscape.

■ :
COMING UP IN ISSUE 15

AMODEL
Mlfftf n

PLAR -
1 system #
Aprecision-f ■engineered
—
151

ORRERY ■' S t X .

IsthereWATER
■ !
o n

New
mars?
P'SCOVERies
vi^ IIS

1 -

Sfeii

85-TOOTH GEAR
m ,

-s-tootWgea for The

planet mars gear tra/n

■f.

5j.-
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"Find out how water has played The story of Astronomy continues
an important part in shaping the as Copernicus and Bruno kick-start
landscape of Mars. a16th-century revolution.
i

"Discover that Earth is not alone in Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,

m

C€
experiencing rapid global warming
-the polar icecaps of Mars are
revealing climate changes too!
i
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BUILD AMODEL
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SOLAR Ssar*:

SYSTEM ^
e

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APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY

s t h e r e W AT E R

o n f,1ARS? I t ;

New DISCOVERIES
tSBDBBjgJiiG^LANET'S
■ ■ ■

W A

' ■

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t i.

85-TOOTH GEAR FOR THE PLANET MARS GEAR TRAIN

 /
BUILD AMODEL

SOl/AR
SY^EM z

F E AT U R E S I M P O R TA N T
"The orrery is aprecision-engineered
kit. It must be assembled and handled
I I
with care to prevent damage to its
YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL / parts, and stored or displayed safely to
3 /
ensure no parts are lost.
The stars are shifting thanks to aphenomenon known W
"Never use liquids or solvents to clean
as the precession of the equinoxes. the parts. For best care, use the
polishing cloth and dusting brushes
supplied with the toolkit {free to
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE subscriptions customers).
"When assembling parts, lay them on a
"Parts not to be sold separately.
"The publisher cannot replace any
parts that are damaged or lost by the
customer without charge. 3
"The publisher cannot be responsible
for any damage that may occur as a
result of incorrect assembly or
mishandling of the orrery. Please ensure
you read all the Instructions thoroughly
when assembling the parts.
"All tools must be used with care,

Water has played acrucial role in shaping the flat table and keep screws and all small following any safety guidelines provided
items on atray so they can't roll away by the manufacturer.
Martian landscape -and vast quantities still remain! and get lost. Unpack all parts carefully. "The publisher cannot be responsible
"The publisher reserves the right to for any injuries caused by any tools or
alter parts and their design at any time. materials.
MISSIONS
I 1 0
Meet the remote-controlled rovers sent to explore
the surface of the Red Planet. /
IMAGE GALLERY
AStunning selection of images that bear witness to
Mars' wet and icy past. /

THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

16
How Copernicus moved the Sun to the centre of the
universe, thus turning Earth into aplanet.

S TA R M A P
\20 Discover the dazzling constellation of Leo, with its
very own meteor shower every November!

S PA C E S C I E N C E \
Why Is Mars warming up and what does this mean CREDITS I I
for the planet's future?
IMAGES: FC Science Photo Library/
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\
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other forces are at work on Earth, tugging the

precession cycle
from torqi e f o r c e
planet around alittle bit each year, so that the
25,800 years
p u l l o f S u n ’s
orientation of its axis changes. The main force at
gravity work is atwisting torque, generated as the Sun’s
gravity pulls with slightly different strengths on
equatorial opposite sides of Earth’s equatorial bulge. From
bulge
year to year, the direction of the pole changes by
less than one minute of arc (V60 of adegree).

PRECESSION
r o c a c i o n r o t a t i o n Earth does not rotate
fully upright.

ROMAN GOD Mithras is

relative to the plane of its movement around the the centre of amystery
Sun. The direction of the tilt remains essentially the religion that some
believe developed
same even as Earth orbits the Sun throughout the
from the discovery of
year. Earth’s north pole and south pole are always precession.
directed to the same points in the sky, so when
Earth is on one side of the Sun its northern DRIFTING POLES

These maps show the

hemisphere is exposed to more sunlight, and when
drift in position of the
it is on the other side the southern hemisphere north and south celestial

sees more. The precise orientation of the poles poles through the
stars -the base of the
relative to the Sun is constantly changing, and this arrow marks the current
is the origin of our planet’s cycle of seasons. position of the celestial
But over avery long period of 25,800 years pole.

NORTH SOUTH
CELESTIAL CELESTIAL
POLE POLE

"#
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 /-J\ SPACE STARS which at one time never rose above the horizon of

ipa^SIMONNEWCOMB(1835-1909) aparticular latitude now come into view, while O

e
others sink out of sight and memory.
he precise value of precession, which stood for most of the 20th But while the constellations appear to shift
T century before being superseded, was calculated by Canadian- relative to Earth, the ecliptic -the Sun’s annual CO
American astronomer and mathematician Simon Newcomb. Born in
path around the sky -remains fixed. As aresult, o
Nova Scotia, he moved to Maryland at the age of 19, and trained
the equinoxes -the points on the ecliptic where
himself in the sciences with little formal schooling. In 1861 he joined
the Staff of the US Naval Observatory, where he studied the theory of the Sun crosses from one hemisphere of the sky 7D
planetary motion In an attempt to improve navigation techniques. into the other -gradually track along the ecliptic. CO
I n 1 8 7 7 N e w c o m b b e c a m e D i r e c t o r o f t h e N a u t i c a l A l m a n a c O f fi c e This means the Sun may pass at adifferent angle
(NAO), responsible for publishing through some of the zodiac constellations, or it CO
annual tables for the positions of
may miss them completely, instead crossing 1
astronomical objects and other m
useful data, and his precise completely different star patterns. This is the
calculation methods soon became reason why we now have a"thirteenth sign” -
the International standard. the constellation Ophiuchus.
Throughout his time at the NAO, Of course, because the system preferred
h e r e fi n e d t h e v a l u e s f o r a l l t h e
by astronomers for measuring the sky using O
important astronomical constants,
equatorial co-ordinates relies on the position of
O
finding that the precession of m
the equinoxes was equivalent to the northern spring equinox to define its base
50.26 seconds of arc per year point for measurement, the equatorial co¬
(roughly V72 of adegree). ordinates of every object in the sky are changing 0
slowly too. There are several ways of coping with " U

R E F I N I N G VA L U E S S i m o n this, and computer-controlled telescopes can take

m
Newcomb was aCanadian-American
the change into account easily, but star atlases O
astronomer who worked out the fi r s t

precise value for the precession of and catalogues have to be updated every 50 L D
L D
the equinoxes. years to keep pace with this slow but steady drift
of the sky. O
z

THE CHANGING POLE O

One major consequence of this is to change the
direction in which Earth’s poles point in the sky - ACCOUNTING FOR PRECESSION X
m
and since this determines the pole stars, these
Ithough the nature of precession
change too. Polaris, the current northern pole star,
has only drifted into its current prominent position
A makes it impossible to account D
c
for completely on your solar system
over the past couple of thousand years. Back in the model, the base plate and outer
z

time of the first Mesopotamian and Egyptian O

calibration ring allow you to estimate X
astronomers, in around BOOObc, the pole star was its effects. When you line up the m
C O
Thuban (a Draconis). In the distant future the asterisk on the calibration ring with
the First Point of Aries symbol on the
brilliant star Vega (a Lyrae) will become pole star
base plate you are setting the model
in 14,000ad (although it will remain 5° from the to the present “epoch” of precession,
pole, so will still execute asmall daily circle in with the First Point lying roughly in
northern skies). And around 28,000ad, Polaris will the middle of the constellation

once again be the north polar star. Pisces.

0.
The same change affects the southern skies. The Rotating the slip ring clockwise
adjusts the positions of its
celestial pole currently lies in an empty area of sky astronomical constellations into the
marked only by the faint star Sigma (a) Octantis, past. Rotating anticlockwise moves
but in around 8500bc Earth’s south pole pointed them into the future (although it
to the bright stars of the so-called "False Cross” in cannot show how the size of the

the constellation Carina. ecliptic’s arc through the different

constellations changes). Later issues
will include atable to show settings
THE DRIFT OF THE ZODIAC
for some key dates.
As the orientation of the poles changes, so does
the pattern of rotation in the rest of the sky -stars
 . ■ ' ■

WATER on MARS
Once thought of as adry and arid world, recent discoveries have shown
that in fact Mars used to be awarm, wet planet. Water has played acrucial
role in shaping the Martian landscape, and vast quantities still remain.

ntil the arrival of the space age, most reignited their hopes. As the first Mars orbiter, WAT E R C H A N N E L

scientists expected Mars to be awarm,
wet and hospitable planet. Nineteenth-
century astronomers believed the darker patches
on the Martian surface were vegetation. They also
thought they saw channels connecting the dark
patches, and in some imaginations these became
artificial canals -part of ahuge irrigation system
built by intelligent Martian creatures.
But the early Mariner flybys of the planet
it sent back images of the planet snorthern and Above: Abird's eye view
of the Martian channel
equatorial regions for the first time, revealing R e u l l Va l l i s . E v i d e n c e
volcanoes, canyons and winding valleys with a now suggests that this
channel was once formed
striking resemblance to those carved by rivers on
by flowing water.
Earth, plus ahuge river delta apparently scoured
clean by acatastrophic flood that left water-carved
islets in its wake. Space probes that have landed
on or orbited the planet in the past decade have
bolstered the evidence that Mars was once awarm

changed all that, revealing Mars as cold and dead, and wet planet covered with shallow oceans and
with an atmosphere far too thin to prevent water f a s t - fl o w i n r i v e r s .

on the surface from evaporating rapidly. What was

more, their brief snapshots showed acratered AWET HISTORY? G L O S S A R Y
Solar Wind: Astream
Moon-like landscape, with no traces of areas The Mars Global Surveyor probe arrived at Mars in of high-speed particlei
where water might once have flowed. 1997 and sent back photographs until 2006, blowing out from the
surface of the □n a n d
Fortunately for those with amore romantic providing huge amounts of evidence for awet across thi solar system.
view of Mars, the arrival of Mariner 9in 1971 Martian past. Most impressive were the
6

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 4

the planet cooled. Athird idea was that i

chemical reactions between water, rock

and the Martian atmosphere locked
much of the water away in mineral
form.

The arrival of the Mars Odyssey

probe in 2001 appeared to
offer an answer -its gamma-ray
spectrometer instrument (see How it
Works) revealed that huge amounts of
hydrogen were hidden in the Martian
soil -and the most likely explanation for
this was that the hydrogen was locked up
with oxygen to form water ice

EVIDENCE FROM THE SURFACE

Despite these persuasive signs of ancient r i v e r s W AT E R D I S T R I B U T I O N
and seas, and potential ice still beneath the surface The orange/red areas on
today, some scientists insisted there were other this shade relief map
depict the distribution
ways that the Martian landscape could have
of hydrogen (probably ir
formed. The best developed of these alternatives IS
ice deposits) just below
the so-called “White Mars” theory, which suggests the Martian surface.

that boiling carbon dioxide gas rather than water

was responsible for most of the erosion, and that
wind-blown ash from volcanic eruptions could
have formed the “sedimentary” rocks
The landing sites of the Mars Exploration Rovers
Spirit and Opportunity were chosen in part to CHRYSE BASIN
address this doubt. The 170km Gusev Crater This image shows a
landing site of Spirit was thought to have o n c e n e t w o r k o f v a s t o u t fl o w
channels that once
been ahuge lake, while Opportunity came down drained water from the
in Meridiani Planum, on the edge of aproposed Va l l e s M a r i n e r i s i n t o t h e

ancient ocean. The rovers landed on the planet Chryse Basin.

®BREA
EK
T
NHR
DO
UU
GAHS
R NCE C R AT E R

hen the Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity

w arrived at the 130m crater named Endurance

in late April 2004, it hit ageological treasure

trove that unlocked many secrets of the planet’s
past. When the crater formed, it had exposed
Martian bedrock around its walls, revealing layers
of sedimentary rock that almost certainly formed
when the Meridiani Planum was covered in ashallow

sea. Close to the crater. Opportunity also found

ballbearing-sized spherules nicknamed “blueberries”.
Rich in the mineral hematite, these are also likely to
have formed under water.

BLUEBERRIES
Ti n y m i n e r a l - r i c h s p h e r u l e s
found in the Martian bedrock.
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L D
 DESCENT The
landers used
acombination
of parachute,
airbags and
retrorockets
to deliver the
rovers to the
surface safely.

ROVERS
Given the present cost, complexity and
danger of sending amanned mission to
Mars, the only practicable way to explore
the surface of the Red Planet is with a
r e m o t e - c o n t r o l l e d u n m a n n e d r o v e r.

rouers. The 4.5kg vehicles were Further attempts to land a

* 1 1 m m
designed to ski over the Martian rover on Mars were not made for
★

I ★

A7
m l surface while controlled remotely more than 20 years, when NASA
c Nria a1&1 ua^lical cable l a u n c h e d t h e M a r s P a t h fi n d e r
connected to the lander. spacecraft. After a7-month voyage,
on 4July 1997, the craft used a
ven at its closest approaches strange but effective method of
“to Earth, Mars is about Mars 2arrived on Mars on descent. The lander, inside an entry
:: 56 million kilometres away 27 November 1971, but the lander capsule, was first slowed with a
from our planet. There was intense crashed on the surface, destroying supersonic parachute, then with
curiosity, therefore, when in 1971, V: An artist's itself in the process. Then on the help of solid fuel rockets (see
impression of one 2December, Mars 3arrived -the
the Soviets launched apair of of the two rovers Glossary). Finally, the spacecraft
spacecraft, Mars 2and 3, both of on the surface of lander touched down safely but fell to the surface, bouncing to a
which had landers that carried small the Red Planet. ceased transmission within seconds. standstill on large airbags, which

®BREA
SK
T
OHR
JO
OU
GRHS
U NER

ojourner was named following a

Sworld-wide
competition
to
for
5-
18-year-olds. The winning name
belongs to Sojourner Truth (1797-
1883J, an African-American former
slave who travelled America

campaigning for women’s rights and

the abolition of slavery.
The rover could move about 500m

From the lander at aspeed of one

centimetre per second. During its ■i i

83 sols of operation it returned 550 I ii 4

photos to Earth and analysed the SOJOURNER TRUTH

chemical properties of 16 locations The inspiration for the name of
n e a r t h e l a n d e r. t h e M a r s P a t h fi n d e r r o v e r .
 CLEAN ROOM The Sojourner rover 3-D IMAGES Mission controllers
during final assembly at the Kennedy at NASA don special glasses to
Space Center, Florida, USA. view the first of Spirit's images.

i I I V
NASA
Adniitiistratoiv
Sean
O’leef^
iV

■■
cushioned the final impact. The ;: 100m (independent of the lander) science package, the MERs carried G L O S S A R Y

lander came to ahalt on an ancient and atotal range of about 10km. Solid fuel rockets
aPanoramic camera, microscopic Arocket with a.
flood plain called *Ares Vallis’ in The MERs had six wheels, each imager, thermal emission motor that uses

Mars' northern hemisphere. one with its own motor. Whereas '^spectrometer, aMossbauer sotid propellants,
usually in the form
On the second Martian day ■ the far smaller Sojourner rover spectrometer, an Alpha Particle of grains of fuel,
(Sol 2). the lander opened to allow carried three cameras, an Alpha X~Ray Spectrometer, arock abrasion oxidizer and

catalyst.
the exit of the Sojourner rover. Particle X-Ray Spectrometer and a tool and amagnet array.
Sojourner returned much useful
i-wm
data and although it had been
programmed to last from between
m
aweek to one month, it actually
continued to function successfully Inter on Mars means that sunlight is limited, and the rover’s solar batteries
for three months. w risk running down completely. However, NASA has developed software to help
the Mars Exploration rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, find the best location in which
to ride out the dark Martian winters.
Using data from the camera aboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and the
The following rover mission was the
Mars Exploration Rover (MER) in panoramas taken by the rovers on the surface, the software calculates not only the
best location but the best safe path to get there. In this way, in 2007, Spirit was
2003. This saw the development of able to navigate to the slope of acrater called Von Braun, which was steep enough
twin spacecraft, launched on for its solar panels to gather the low winter sunshine.
10 June and 7July 2003. Using an
adapted version of the Mars
Pathfinder descent and landing, the
Spirit rover landed on 4January
2004 and the Opportunity rover
landed on 25 January 2004.
The MERs weighed in at
185kg, over 15 times heavier than
Sojourner, and whereas the earlier
vehicle had aday range of 5m and SPIRIT Asynthetic image of
atotal range of 500m (where it had the rover created by the JPL m
shows the kind of terrain
to stay within sight of the lander), across which it had to travel

the later rovers had aday limit of t o fi n d a s a f e w i n t e r h a v e n .

'if
Orbiter, this image
captures the water-carved
>
gulley channels formed in O
acrater in the southern m
highlands of Mars.
O
[2]OUTFLOWCHANNEL]J>
This Mars Express image.
collected in February
2005, shows Kasei Valles,
one of the biggest
o u t fl o w c h a n n e l s o n M a r s .

It was probably formed by

a m a s s i v e fl o o d a n d t h e n
shaped further by glacial o
a c t i v i t y.

>
[3] CHRYSE CHANNELS
Acomposite image using
data collected by the
Viking Orbiter 2shows >
the south Chryse outflow
channels. These are cut an Q
average of 1km deep.
o
m
[4] POLAR CAP
Acquired in March 1999
by Mars Global Surveyor,
this shows the light-toned
water ice surrounded by
the darker sand dunes.

[5] SAND DUNES An MRO

image, taken in early
Martian spring, shows
defrosting sand dunes
near the north pole.
 S i

[6] WATER WORLD Some three to four billion years ago Mars was awarm world with athick atmosphere and large amounts of fast-flowing
w a t e r, s e a s and oceans. This illustration depicts asunset flight over the coast of ahypothetical ancient Martian ocean. Shallow, acidic water fills

14,
 >

CD
>

<

craters along the edge of the vast northern lowland that today forms the plains of the Vastitas Borealis. At this point in the planet's distanl
past, the atmosphere also allowed low clouds of water vapour to form.
#

SUN K\

C O P K R N l
PC

and the
PI. AND

\ \ si
.-s'**; f

STARS
In the 16th century Europe was aflame with
anew hunger for learning. Astronomers
studied old texts and made observations.
But it took apart-time astronomer from
afoggy Polish town and an heretical
philosopher to kick-start the real revolution.
HELIOCENTRIC
n1453 the city of Constantinople Copernicus. He studied philosophy, tower of Fraunberg’s fortifications, The Sun-centred

fell to the Ottoman army. geography, Latin, mathematics and overlooking the Baltic Sea. Over the model of the
universe as
Scholars fled to Italy, carrying astrology, but his overriding interest next few years he travelled to Italy,
depicted by
their Greek and Roman manuscripts was astronomy. studied medicine, and continued
Copernicus.
-including Ptolemy’s Almagest - With asafe and secure with his cosmological
with them. This academic exodus, church career in mind, investigations when his
and the flood of Classical ideas that Copernicus moved duties allowed.
COPERNICUS
came with it, inspired awhole new to the university Wk In 1514, By the time
era of study, propelling Europe of Bologna, Italy, Copernicus Polish-born

headlong into the Renaissance. to study canon HA produced a Copernicus

entered Krakow
One of the beneficiaries of law and in
H^B handwritten university his
this intellectual flowering was 1497 received book main interest

Mikolaj Kopernik, amerchant’s son his official entitled Little w a s a s t r o n o m y.

from Torun in Poland. Born on appointment ^^H Commentory,

19 February 1473, Mikolaj was just as canon at which he

10 years old when his father died. Frauenberg presented to a

Cathedral. This T AT STUDY H
His guardian, Lucas Watzenrode, Jfew friends. The Apassionate pp
then canon of Frauenberg undemanding role \ /book contained observer of the

Cathedral, planned acareer in the provided him with \ seven statements that
heavens, p | i
acomfortable living set out his astronomical Copernicus was a*,.
% .

church for Mikolaj and his brother.

They entered the university of
Krakow, where Mikolaj adopted the
Latin version of his name, Nicolaus
cleric paid by the jp**
-and enabled him to pursue beliefs (see Inside Info). The church and never
his passion for astronomy. He set book included no discussion and
aprofessional
no calculations, as he intended t"" 'J.
up an observatory at home in a astronomer.
 i
1 I
I IIMSIDE lIMFO

COPERNICAWM m
T H E L I T T L E C O M M E N TA R Y
Sv-stema
r
nvs CRH AT I and written in 1514, Copernicus’ small I I
T H K S 1 H book Commentariolus -Little I
o
CAR AITS Commentary -set out his beliefs on the I 7D
T X H I B I W M nature of the universe based on years of I -<
observation, it was aprecursor of his later I
work, and stated: I O
1. There is no one centre of the universe. I
2. The Earth’s centre is not the centre of ■
the universe. H >
CO
3. The spheres on which the planets move H
are centred on the Sun. H
7 0
4. The distance from the Earth to the Sun H
is imperceptible compared to the distance H o
to the stars. H
5. The rotation of the Earth accounts for

the apparent daily rotation of the stars.

O
6. The apparent annual cycle of
movement of the Sun is caused by the
Earth revolving around it. \S5St
0
Bjna'i
s s
7. The apparent retrograde motion of
the planets is caused by our changing
point of view on Earth. X
it is not known who the original m

CO
recipients were -Copernicus didn’t even
sign the manuscripts, although his Z
authorship was not in question. However it was
disseminated and used by scholars in astronomical lectures, one of which was >
even heard by the Pope. It was, for many, an exciting forerunner of agreat work. a
Sadly, the great work never lived up to this early glimpse.
X
m

to put these in alonger work. Z

What he described in his seven
statements was aHeliocentric -or
Sun-centred -universe. He had m

completely dismantled the Earth- C D

centred Ptolemaic system that had >

-PD
underpinned astronomical thought C O
for 1500 years and put it back
together in adifferent order.

CHALLENGING PTOLEMY

How aquiet canon making

occasional observations from a
tower in amist-shrouded Polish

town made such an extraordinary

leap of imagination has been a
subject of considerable debate.
Prevailing opinion was critical
of Ptolemy’s system, which many
saw more as apure mathematical
model than amodel of nature.

Copernicus and his contemporaries

were also familiar with Aristarchus’
 NfCot-41 C(
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him had thought these credible. In September 1539 SCO.

The Classical astronomers were Rheticus published imof.n figmim dtftnbei uccnmua cirofi

obsessed with uniform speed and Narratio Prima, or

c r
.*cai(bmuci.,qu*(ii "iSSFEr ""
'll*;'

circular motion. But in Ptolemy’s First Report, about i fl

■i.

model the planets could not actually Copernicus and his

nh i

move at uniform speeds. They only studies. Encouraged

appeared to move uniformly from a by the enthusiastic j
chosen point -Ptolemy’s equant. So Rheticus, Copernicus completed De REVOLUTIONS Very soon after, Copernicus died
reuolutionibus orbium coelestium First published of acerebral haemorrhage. Had he
long as this invented mathematical in 1543, De
point existed, the illusion of uniform {On the Revolutions of the Heavenly revoiutionibus lived, he would have found his work
speed and perfect motion was Spheres) and published it in 1543 orbium coelestium received less than enthusiastically.
maintained. with assistance from Rheticus. overturned the It was ahard read, and while his
established view
To the fastidious Copernicus, it premise was in many respects
of the Earth being
was ‘neither sufficiently absolute at the centre of correct, the mechanics of his system
nor sufficiently pleasing to the ifp.:
the universe. were flawed, just 1000 copies of De
mind.’ However, over the next revoiutionibus were printed and not
few decades, aseries of events all of them sold.

conspired to keep him from

I AUNIVERSE OF SUNS
expanding Little Commentary
-these included work on currency Copernicus’ contribution to
^mhti
reform, and administrative duties in astronomy was to move the Sun to
neighbouring districts that called him the centre of the universe, thus
i5
away from home. turning the Earth into aplanet. He
2
In May 1539, Copernicus received still subscribed to the view of a
5SS;
avisit from ayoung professor WITTENBERG closed system, with adistant sphere
from the University of Wittenberg jh The signs in the of fixed stars containing everything.
(in modern-day Germany). Georg !-ssisfr heavens above
But an outspoken Italian, born five
the university at
Joachim Rheticus was familiar with ‘ / < « > n which Joachim years after Copernicus’ death, would
Little Commentary and he wished to Rheticus taught. change all that. Giordano Bruno

BREAKTHROUGHS
-0;’
INFINITY AND BEYOND it

it c 4

h.
he concept of infinite space was stars were planets like Earth with
T not unknown to philosophers and people living on them.
'■0 M
scientists. Roman poet and author Thomas Digges (1546-1595), an
Lucretius (c99~55bc) believed in and English astronomer and Copernican
w w I
w r o t e o f ~ a n i n fi n i t e a n d advocate, also believed in an infinite r n m m m m
homogeneous universe, though he did universe “garnished with perpetual
not consider the stars to be suns shining glorious lights innumerable”,
i 1
themselves. although even he failed to recognise ■'4 \ I

The 15th-century German cardinal the stars’ true nature.

- L
*
m mm
and polymath Nicholas of Cusa \
LUCRETIUS The poet and author depicted y.

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b e l i e v e d t h a t G o d w a s i n fi n i t e , t h e on the cover of a1768 French edition of his .

u n i v e r s e a l m o s t a s i n fi n i t e , a n d t h e writings On the Nature of Things. I m
I ' M

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BRUNO'S TRIAL knowledge and gained areputation
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and the nature of the cosmos, i n
MEMORY AID
Bruno also
describing the stars as suns, each >
wrote books with its own planetary system. The CO
CIRCE.PorcuscniraeftanimalA»aua- on mnemonics. universe, he believed, was infinite
rum.B,barbarum.C,
coenofum.D,<lutum.
E,erroneum.F,foetidum.G,gulofum.H. This memory and homogeneous, as God could
hebes.K,Kapicofum.L,Libidinofum.M, wheel, for
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example, is used i
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auriculatml Z, mutabilc,
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nifimortuum.
characteristics m
Bruno sreckless disregard for
of apig. m m
studied in Naples, entering the I authority -religious or otherwise -
Dominican order at the age of 15, I H
and his ability to make enemies
but the priesthood could not hold brought him to the attention of the
B R U N O
him and he became awandering Inquisition. After several years of
His statue, eyes
philosopher, lecturing back and looking at the imprisonment he was charged and
forth across Europe. ground, stands l i burned at the stake in Rome for his

He wrote plays, had an in the Campo de' heretical (though not astronomical)
audience with Elizabeth Iin Fiori, the central
ideas. The year was 1600 -just
Roman square
England, developed techniques of where he was nine years before the creation of
mnemonics based on organised executed. the first telescope.

y <19
 ^NG of the ZODIAC
Alion and its cub prowl the
A/<tTEC-f?S The
Leonid meteor celestial plains during the
shower appears
to radiate out
first half of the year. The lion
from l-eo each is Leo, one of the most easily
November.'
recognisable constellations
of the zodiac, and its cub,
unsurprisingly, is Leo Minor.

eo has the outline of acrouching lion facing the

western horizon. Six stars known as the Sickle -

arranged in asickle or hook shape -form the

beast’s head and chest. At the foot of the Sickle

sparkles the constellation’s brightest star-Alpha (a)

^THE NEMEAN LION
eo represents the terrifying “Nemean lion” of Greek
L mythology that was the offspring of Zeus and the moon
Leonis, better known as Regulus. The name is Latin for
“little king”, in reference to the lion’s reputation as
king of the beasts.
Regulus has acompanion star of 8th magnitude,
visible with binoculars and small telescopes. The tip of
the lion’s tail is marked by the second-magnitude star
Denebola -Beta ((3) Leonis.
In the curve of the Sickle lies Gamma (y) Leonis, also
known as Algieba, an outstanding double star for small
telescopes. Under high magnification, the star splits
into two orange giants. These are calculated to orbit
each other every 500 years or so. A5th-magnitude
star known as 40 Leonis can be seen nearby with
binoculars or asmall telescope, but this is unrelated to
the other two.

goddess Selene. The lion lived in acave outside the town of
Nemea and preyed on the local population.
The hero Heracles (Hercules in Roman
mythology) was set the task of killing
and skinning the beast as the first of
the 12 labours ordered by
King Eurystheus.
The lion’s hide was so
Beneath the lion’s body lie several galaxies, although
these are not easy to pick out with standard telescopes.
Apair of spiral galaxies, M65 and M66, lie behind Leo’s
upper rear legs while three more, M95 and M96 and a
fainter elliptical galaxy, M105, lie just under its belly.
ALPHA MINUS

tough that arrows, spears Immediately north of Leo’s “sickle” and below Ursa
and clubs did no damage, Major (the Great Bear) lies Leo Minor, the lion cub, a
so Hercules strangled small constellation introduced in the late 17th century
the beast with his bare
hands. He then used the
by Polish astronomer Johannes Hevelius. Its main claim
lion’s razor-sharp claws to fame is that, although it has astar labelled Beta, there
to cut off Its hide, which { is no Alpha. This is the result of acataloguing error by
he donned and wore as 19th-century English astronomer Francis Baily. The term
an impenetrable cloak. Alpha should have been assigned to Leo Minor’s
brightest star -46 Leonis Minoris.
20.
 he two lions
T are best seen

in the evening
sky in March and
April. Leo lies in
the zodiac between

Cancer and Virgo,

but is easier to

Irecognize than
I e i t h e r o f t h e m . To
fi n d i t , e x t e n d a l i n e
down from the two

“pointer” stars that

L O C ATO R MAP
form the rear of

the bowl of the Big

O iil p p ler
i [alIso known as the Plough part of Uir s a

tMajor). These point through Leo Minor to Leo

itself. Leo is fully visible from all but the most
northerly and southerly latitudes on Earth. The
Sun passes through it from mid August to mid
September each year. Look to “the sickle” every
November for the Leonids meteor shower -due
to peak in 2008 on the morning of the 17th. / L Y N X

ABBREVIATIOIM LeO ABBREVIATION LMi

BEST SEASON BEST SEASON

Spring (evenings) Spring [evenings)

BRIGHTEST S TA R BRIGHTEST S TA R

Alpha (a) Leonis 46 Leonis

j[Regulus) Minoris

SIZE RANKING 12 SIZE FUNKING 64

POSITION Equatorial POSITION Equatorial

M66 This cluster shows

strong deformations NBC 23034^ —

through gravitational
interaction with
jDenebotax^
neighbouring galaxies.
P h o t
couHesy Jir M i s t i .
I
I
P
IMGC 36$8
MBS T ^M105
I

/ M96^ M9B

7 r
/ ‘a
P9

T 58 HYDRA /
S E X TA N S

I i
NGC 35^1

8 7 "01 L \
<P
\

J
»

\
\ C R AT E R
 MARTIAN CUM A
Mars, like Earth, is experiencing

CHANG global warming. But what is

driving it, has it happened
before, and how far could it go?

ate in 2001, NASA scientists 1999

turned the cameras on Mars

_Global Surveyor back towards

asection of the planet’s south polar
icecap they had previously
photographed in 1999. This is a
series of small pits in the permanent WARMING
carbon dioxide ice that was thought Images from
to persist even as the deeper frosts the Mars Global

of winter came and went. What they Surveyor in 1999 V -

and 2001 show

saw came as asurprise. The pits had that the pits
grown and merged together, and depressions
of the Mars
indicating that alarge area of ■■ >
i W

polar cap are

Martian ice had disappeared,
enlarging, the
sublimating into the atmosphere. result of melting
This was the first hint that Mars solid CO2.

is experiencing its own version

of global warming. Apparently
clinching proof came in 2007, when
modern probes revealed that Mars
today is 0.5°C warmer than it was
three decades ago.
This rise is roughly parallel to
Earth’s own temperature increase
in the same period (though the
Earth’s orbit: the well-known even when the eccentricity of its
“precession of the equinoxes” (see orbit is at its greatest, and the effect
POLAR CAP
How It Works, and this issue’s Your of precession on the climate is also
Amap of water
distribution at Solar System Model); agradual minimal. The presence of our huge
the northern change in the Earth’s axial tilt; and Moon also helps to keep Earth’s
Mars pole aslow flexing of Earth’s entire orbit. axial tilt from wobbling too much.
taken by a In the case of Mars, all these
spectrometer
Together, these can have asmall
aboard Mars but noticeable effect on the amount variations can be far more

two have very different causes),
and if it continues, it could result in
Mars losing its south polar cap ^
altogether.
VA R I AT I O N S
Odyssey. of solar heating received by extreme, and have afar more
different parts of the planet. significant effect on the global
In Earth’s case, the energy balance. The Martian orbit
change is insignificant. is highly eccentric -currently it is
Our planet is fairly close to its most elliptical. When
immune to the the orbit’s eccentricity is at its i, ■■

At the root of it all V effects of the smallest, the orbit can be an almost
lies aseries of slow “Milankovitch perfect circle. At the moment,
cyclic variations Cycles”. Its then, the southern hemisphere
in planetary iorbit is not experiences warmer summers and
orbits, discovered Ifar from colder winters, while the northern

by the Serbian [circular, so hemisphere sees the opposite.

geophysicist the variation As the 175,000-Earth-year cycle
Milutin Milankovic between of Martian precession rolls around,
aphelion and this situation will reverse, while the
(see issue 14, page V
■isi

7). He discovered perihelion (see 100,000-year and 2.2-million-year

three variations in Glossary) is small cycles of eccentricity will gradually
22

*
 r CO
B I - O S S A R Y act to heat both hemispheres more
HOW IT WORKS
Aphelion: The equally. Finally, without amajor
point on a MILANKOVITCH CYCLES >
planet's elliptical moon to keep it stable, the planet’s O
orbit wt 'e it is
axial tilt varies agreat deal more here are three key Milankovitch Cycles, each of which m
farthest from the
Sun. over its 124,000-year cycle and T works on adifferent timescale: CO
so at times the seasons will be far
Perihetion: The
1. Eccentricity cycle: The orbit of aplanet can change its O
more extreme than they are today. shape between more or less circular and markedly stretched
point on aplanet’s m
or elliptical. This affects the overall amount of sunlight received ^
orbit where it is Some estimate that the longer-term Z
closest to the and, alongside precession and obliquity (see below), the
cycles might vary the tilt between
strength of seasonal effects. o
extremes of 0° and 60°.
2. Precession cycle: Forces exerted by the Sun on the planet’s m
equatorial bulge cause its axis of rotation to wobble slowly.
2001 FEEDBACK MECHANISMS This has the effect of changing which hemisphere of the planet 0
On their own, the Milankovitch is directed towards the Sun at each point in the planet’s orbit.
3. Obliquity (axial tilt) cycle: The angle of the planet’s axial
Cycles can clearly affect Mars more >
tilt can vary back and forth. When the planet is upright, it
than Earth -but on both planets experiences no seasonal changes. When it is tilted steeply, the
the situation is exaggerated by seasons are at their most extreme. >
natural feedback mechanisms.

One element of the climate system 100,000 years and O

circular orbit
2.2 million years
will affect another, reinforcing or
counteracting the original change. >
The Martian south pole provides m

agood example of this. As carbon O

dioxide from the polar cap is X
>
transformed into gas, it will thicken
the atmosphere. This will trap more p n n A n m r
o
of the Sun’s heat and increase m

planetary warming. This in turn

will lead to higher winds that scour
the surface clear of dust and reveal tr-
K i t northern summer

darker underlying rocks. The darker m at aphelion

■ r
rocks will in turn absorb more heat
from the Sun.

Eventually, the south polar icecap

GLACIER This
might disappear completely, and
hourglass-shaped Mars could become warmer and 175,000
structure is the
y e a r s
result of ablock wetter. But as the Milankovitch southern summer
northern summer
at aphelion
glacier that filled cycles reverse, new feedback at perihelior
fi r s t t h e 9 k m -
mechanisms will kick in, and Mars
wide crater, then
fl o w e d d o w n i n t o will return to its cold, arid state, as
t h e 1 7 k m c r a t e r. it has many times before.

i ^ ‘ ^ 4 - s

t i l . ‘4,

precession

cycle
cycle _
COMING UP IN ISSUE 16 H
i

S E L F - TA P P I N G GRUB
SCREWS SCREW ®a„e.

^'LD'AM(55ir
i

ft?'

M.

PLAR _
m
system M
APREC -
'^lON-ENGlN ^ 16)

A
EERED orrery
1

LIFE o n

Mars
Could LIFE
- nI a v e onc^M
evolved

:^2-T00TH GEAR evensurviveTODAYr*S

V

1 i

GEAR AXLE 1 PLUS n

^gear and g
eararmtocomplete mars phase

%
a

"Was there once life on Mars? Does F r o m r o b o t m o l e s t o h e l i u m fi l l e d

life still exist there today? We balloons -innovative technology for
look at the evidence that has been J\lasa’s future missions to Mars. ns
i

puzzling astronomers for decades.

Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,
C€ Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 STS
"Discover double stars and stunning WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
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1
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BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY

LIFE on

MARS
Could LIFE have onceii
m
evolved on the RED m

PLANET, and might ft®

even survive TODAY?®
p

I
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X

IWITH THIS ISSUE: 22-TOOTH GEAR AND GEAR ARM TO COMPLETE MARS PHASE
 m

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m
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BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR t

SYSTEM ■m

F E AT U R E S I M P O R TA N T
"The
kit. It
rrery is aprecision-engineered
lust be assembled and handled
! I
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Discover what astronomers mean by "retrograde "Never use liquids or solvents to clean for any damage that may occur as a
9
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MISSIONS
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Track the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter mission and

learn about the plans for future missions.

IMAGE GALLERY
121
ySee for yourself some of the most detailed, feature-rich
images of the surface of the Red Planet.

THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

16
Between them, Johannes Kepler and Tycho Brahe
changed the way we look at the universe.

S TA R M A P
20
Take alook at Lyra, the lyre, and the adjoining
constellation Vulpecula, the fox.
m

UNEXPLAINED
2^ It began as ajoke, but even to this day there is
CREDITS
IMAGES: FC NASA/JPL; 2-3
11

Observatory, Edinburgh; 18-19(tl)

II I

continued controversy over the "Face on Mars". Galaxy Picture Library/Michael
C O N S U LTA N T E D I T O R : G I L E S S PA R R O W Stacker, (r) Eaglemoss/Simon
E N D O R S E D B Y : S I R PAT R I C K M O O R E C B E F R S Anning; 4-5(bl) Tunc Tezel, (tr)
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«
 RETROGRAD
MOTION
Every so often, some of the planets appear to stop in their
tracks across the sky, reversing their paths for afew weeks or
months and tracing out aloop against the background stars.

etrograde motion is simply the

R astronomical term for the “backward”

loops some planets make against the

background sky. These loops affect only the
#

* "
#
superior planets -those orbiting farther from the
Sun than our own Earth. They affect Mars most of
all, but the Red Planet takes less time to go
through its retrograde loops than some of the more
distant planets, which may spend several months
of each year moving backwards against the stars.

O V E R TA K I N G M A N O E U V R E S
Because all planets orbit the Sun in the same
general direction (anti-clockwise as seen from
“above” the solar system), the superior planets
tend to circle the sky from west to east, moving
through the background constellations so that they
return to where they started relative to the Sun and
stars after one whole orbit. This is known as a m
m
planet’s sidereal year. But because our point of
view on Earth is also in constant motion, the time
taken for the planet to return to the same position RETROGRAPE MARS
relative to Earth is different -this is known as its In this series of digitally
stacked images from
synodic year. Depending on the speed of the more 2003, Mairs appears to
distant planet, its synodic year can be significantly trace its retrograde Iqop
5gainst the unmoving
longer, or alot shorter, than the sidereal year.
background stars. The
At the start of each synodic year. Earth, the Sun changing size of Mars
and the planet lie along astraight line, with Earth can be clearly seen -the*
positioned between the planet and the Sun. This planet was in opposition,
closest to Earth, at the
event is known as opposition, and also marks the bottom of the loop.
point where Earth is closest to the planet. Because Coincidentally, the
smaller dotted line in
planets more distant from the Sun move along
the background traces*
their orbits more slowly than planets closer in. Uranus, also in the *
Earth will be moving faster than asuperior planet. middle of aretrograde
loop.
 iM <
HOW IT WORKS
o
^FINDING
RETROGRADE
MOTION d

our solar system model makes it easy to study the

Y interactions of planetary orbits that cause
CO

retrograde motion. Precise gearing means the rotation o

periods of the planets mirror those in the real solar
system proportionally, so the outer planets move more
slowly than Earth.
As Earth “catches up” with asuperior planet such as CO
Mars close to opposition, it’s clear how the changing
alignment of the two worlds causes the outer one to C O
move backwards relative to Earth. Conversely, when I
Earth is on the opposite side of the Sun to the planet, m
around the time of “conjunction”, the relative motion
of the planets is at its greatest and the planet speeds
from the morning to evening sky.

U S I N G Y O U R M O D E L Yo u r s o l a r
O
system model illustrates perfectly
a
m
■n
that "retrograde motion" is actually
an illusion.

0
RETROGRADE ORBIT
SO from our viewpoint, the planet will appear to Mars loops As Mars approaches H
move backwards in the sky, just as aslower vehicle backward against
stars .
opposition and Earth 70

appears to move backward as you overtake it in

"overtakes" the slower- O
moving outer planet, o
afaster car. Because the planets’ orbits do not all the angle from which we 'TO

line up in the same plane, each planet’s retrograde >

see Mars is constantly
Mars approaches O
motion usually follows aloop rather than asimple oppositioh changing, causing
Mars to make aloop
direct zig-zag back along its previous path.
against the more distant
background stars. The O
RETROGRADE PERIODS precise shape of the loop
The amount of time each planet spends in its depends on the position o
of both planets on their z
retrograde loop depends on the relationship orbits around opposition.
between its orbit and Earth’s own. Mars orbits the

Sun every 687 days, and completes its synodic

year every 780 days. As it nears opposition and
Earth begins to catch up with it, the eastward
motion of Mars against the stars slows to acrawl,
reversing about 36 days before opposition itself.
Mars then moves into retrograde motion for
around 10 weeks, looping back across about 5-10°
of the sky, before resuming its forward motion.
Mars shows by far the most obvious retrograde
motion, although the exact duration and size of the
loop may vary because Mars has afairly elliptical
orbit and can be at varying distances from Earth
around opposition.
The retrograde loops of more distant planets
tend to be smaller because of Earth’s greater
distance from them. However, their frequency and
duration actually increase, as the Earth’s orbit has
more influence on aplanet’s synodic year than the
motion of the planet itself. So Jupiter’s retrograde
motion typically covers about 7° of the sky and
lasts about four months, but the interval between
oppositions is just 399 days, so the planet spends
much more of its time in retrograde motion.
The more distant an object, the more time
it spends in retrograde motion, and the less
overall progress it makes around the sky between
oppositions. In the case of Neptune, which spends
158 days of its 367-day synodic period moving
backwards, the planet only progresses by alittle
more than 2° from one opposition to the next.
 MARS
Mars is the most hospitable of the rocky planets, and
in the past it was probably even more Earth-like. So,
could life once have started to evolve here, and might
it still survive today?
he potential existence of Martian life has
fascinated astronomers for centuries,
though early sightings of shifting patches of
"seasonal vegetation" and artificial-looking "canals'
were soon dismissed as optical illusions. Improved
observation techniques suggested that Mars had
only athin atmosphere and arelatively cold
surface. Despite this, hopes for widespread
primitive life on Mars hung on almost until the
dawn of the space age.
The first flybys suggested that Mars was acold,
dry and dead world. But it was only with the arriva
of the first probes to land on Mars in the mid-
ilfttK: .S'-
:»iL ^
’»»
r%.s
^1
1970s that scientists were able to investigate the
existence of life in detail.
Each of the Viking landers that touched down on
Mars in 1976 carried with it asuite of experiments
to test for life. In both cases, the results apparently
proved negative, although one of the experiments
did not behave exactly as expected. This has proved a
source of long-running controversy (see Unexplained
in Issue 12). The Viking orbiters, meanwhile,
were revealing countless signs of ancient water
-evidence that the planet once had athicker, warmer
atmosphere. Even if Mars has no life today, could it
have fostered life in the distant past? EXPLORING FOR LIFE
In summer 1996, headlines around the world Apanorama of the
Martian surface, taken by
exploded with news of afantastic discovery the Mars Exploration
-possible traces of life in an Rover Spirit, shows the
ancient Martian arid landscape in which
NASA has been looking
for signs of life.
1
 These structures

resembling microbial suggested that these could be microfossils -the O

cells were found inside
the Martian meteorite
ALH84001.
preserved remains of tiny bacteria, far smaller than
>
any known from Earth at the time, TO
The scientific community subjected this claim CO
to the harshest scrutiny. Some lines of evidence
collapsed as scientists found alternative ways
s o o n CO
of producing the same chemicals without organic
m
intervention. Others, such as the “microfossils”.
were generally discarded because they implied the
existence of tiny “nanobacteria”. o
There were good reasons for this life as
we understand ft has alower size limit purely
a
because any cell has to contain certain amounts of
m
proteins and DNA in order to exist and replicate
However, as yet, no experiment has perfectly
replicated the worm-like structures by
0
other means, and recent discoveries have
boosted the evidence for nanobacteria m

meteorite. The meteorite was known on Earth. o

as ALH84001 (ALH for the Allen Hills of
' '
Antarctica, where it had been found). ^MINERAL DEPOSIT REMAINS
It had fallen to Earth around 13,000 The strongest evidence that life might >
. - i 7 D
years ago, after approximately 15 million once have existed in ALH84001 comes C O

years orbiting in interplanetary space. The
explosion that had thrown the rock into
space had left it fairly unscathed, and the interior
preserved asample of Martian rock unchanged for
more than four billion years.
Traces of minerals and chemicals were found in
the rock that, on Earth, would usually be accepted
as evidence for the existence of bacteria. Most eye¬
catching, though, were the electron microscope
images of worm-like structures preserved in the
rock, typically just afew tens of nanometres
MARTIAN METEORITE
This is the so-called
Martian microbe
meteorite found in the
Allen Hills of Antarctica
in 1996.
from the presence of minerals -deposits
of carbonate and magnetite -in distinct
patterns that suggest they are the ghostly remains
of ancient bacteria. In 2001 asecond NASA team
claimed to have successfully mimicked these patterns
without the need for organic processes, and while
using conditions similar to those once found on Mars.
However, the original group stand by their results
and insist the comparison is not accurate.
Although the weight of modern scientific opinion
is generally sceptical, the debate will probably not

THE MARS DECEPTION

T he discovery of meteorite ALH84001

Brown (now better known for The Da
inspired author Dan
Vinci Code] to write
the 2001 thriller Deception Point. In it, intelligence analyst
Rachel Sexton is called in to investigate afictionalized NASA’s
discovery in the Arctic Ice Shelf of adense “meteorite”
containing unknown fossil organisms.
I
The meteorite proves to be afake -aterrestrial rock from
the deep-sea Marianas Trench, planted by NASA in an effort
to secure its funding -and Sexton finds herself in danger from
people who will stop at nothing to conceal the truth.

DECEPTION POINT Dan Brown’s

fast-paced thriller revolves around a
possible Martian meteorite that is
teeming with microscopic life.

■ ■
i
■■:4

end until more sophisticated robot landers RIO TINTO This iron-rich, has been paralleled by the discovery that life on
acidic river in Spain has
reach Mars, or another meteorite of similar age Earth can cope and even thrive in far more extreme
been used by Mars
turns up. researchers as aparallel conditions than we once thought
For most scientists, the discovery of life in for apossible Martian
the ancient Martian past would be astaggering habitat. EVOLUTION ON MARS

"breakthrough, but there are plenty who wonder Any organism clinging to existence on Mars would
if life might still persist there today. The growing have to cope with extreme cold, briny or acidic
evidence that liquid water might exist beneath the waters, and damaging solar radiation that the
surface, making Mars far more hospitable to life. upper layers of soil would only partly block.
However, recent advances have revealed
“extremophile" creatures (generally bacteria) on
HOW IT WORKS
Earth that are capable of coping with such
^THE PLANETARY challenges. If life on our planet is so hardy, and
FOURIER SPECTROMETER capable of exploiting almost any ecological niche,
is it possible that Martian bacteria could have
ars Express’s spectrometer instrument (known as the PFS)
M is aspecialised camera that splits radiation from the evolved to cope with all these issues?
Martian atmosphere into aspectrum, measuring the intensity of The big question must be -even if life could
specific wavelengths of light. The instrument looks down through survive on Mars -did it ever evolve in the first
the column of atmosphere place? Some of the most intriguing
directly beneath the orbiter and evidence has come from the European
records the levels of infrared
and microwave radiation. Space Agency’s Mars Express probe
-an orbiter that arrived at Mars in
As sunlight enters the
atmosphere, different late 2003 and carried acomplete
molecules absorb different suite of remote sensing instruments
wavelengths of light depending similar to those used on Earth-orbiting
on their structure, and warm
satellites. One of the most advanced
up, emitting infrared (heat)
radiation at equally specific is the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer
wavelengths. By analysing the (see How it Works), capable of
precise range of wavelengths analysing the Martian atmosphere
emitted from the atmosphere, with unprecedented accuracy.
scientists back on Earth can
One of the probe’s first discoveries
detect tiny traces of different
WATER VAPOUR AMars Express was the presence of methane in the Martian
gases in the atmosphere, and
even map their distribution on
map showing the concentration of atmosphere -an unexpected find since radiation
water vapour close to the soil around
the surface. should cause molecules of methane to break down
the Martian equatorial region.
in just afew centuries. If methane is present on
Mars, it must be renewed, and the only plausible

Put together on acomparative shoestring budget of £66 million, by
aconsortium of academic researchers and industrial partners led
by Professor Colin Pillinger of the Open University, the probe was
carried to Mars aboard the Mars Express arbiter.
Beagle’s instruments were designed to collect and analyse rocks
on and beneath the Martian surface, looking for evidence of Martian
life both past and present. Unfortunately, following its release from
Mars Express In December 2003, Beagle 2lost contact with Earth
before reaching the surface -most likely avictim of asystems failure
or simply an unfortunate landing.
BEAGLE 2An artist's
impression of the lander
looking for signs of life on the
Martian surface.
CO
sources for the gas are microbial life forms or
volcanic activity. O
Ayear later, in February 2005, formaldehyde
was discovered in the Martian atmosphere. This
is another short-lived gas that could be constantly CO
replenished by either volcanism or life. The
fact, however, that both gases are found in the CO
same areas, with associated water vapour and
m
subsurface ice, could indicate that microbes are the
more likely source.
O
NEW PROBE d
The question of life on the planet will not be fully
u
resolved until asuitably equipped Martian probe
lands on the surface. Britain’s Beagle 2(see Inside
Info), was the first mission designed specifically to
look for life, but it failed on arrival.
Phoenix, aNASA probe intended to land near
the Martian north pole in May 2008, should be m

able to investigate the ice-rich soils of its landing O

site. No single mission in the near future is likely to
give aconclusive answer, and, despite 30 years of
landings on the Red Planet, we still cannot rule out >
the existence of microbial Martians. C/)

LAKE MONO This salt

lake in California may

resemble early lakes on
Mars -and, surprisingly,
extremophlle bacteria
have been found here.
 Now that Mars has been mapped in detail
and rovers have crawled on the surface,
future missions plan to fly over it, burrow
beneath the surface and aim to bring
Martian soil samples back to Earth.

he Mars Reconnaissance

Orbiter (MRO) was launched

by NASA in August 2005 and
went into orbit around the planet on
10 March 2006. After five months oi

aerobraking (see Glossary) it entered f k

i ts “ s c i e n c e ” o r b i t.
1%
MRO carries the most powerful
camera ever flown on aplanetary
exploration mission, capable
of viewing dinner-plate sized
objects on the planet surface. The
spacecraft also carries asubsurface
water sounder. This will be used

in selecting landing sites for future

Mars missions.
The other scientific instruments
aboard the craft are beinp used

An artist s

impression
of the Mars
Reconnaissance

Orbiter during
the 25-minute
to monitor the daily weather and
surface conditions and to host a
new telecommunications system.
NASA’s plans for the future
exploration of Mars involve flyovers,
mining and asample return
mission. There are two proposals
for exploring Mars from the air.
NBREAKTHROUGHS
WTELECOMS
he MRO carries the best telecom system ever sent into space. Its main,
T three-metre antenna is used to transmit data through the Deep Space Network.
Maximum transmission speed from Mars is likely to be as high as 6Mbit/s, arate
that is 10 times higher than previous Mars arbiters. Two smaller antennas are
installed on the spacecraft as back-up In case the main dish is pointing away from
Earth. They can receive and
transmit data from any
direction. The MRO plans to
' C

Because the Martian atmosphere is serve as the first part of an

so thin, atake-off from the surface “interplanetary internet”, a m
by aremote airplane would need a service for future spacecraft
a n d t h e fi r s t l i n k i n a
large wingspan or to involve agreat C O
communications bridge
take-off speed. The alternative is to 7
back to Earth.
CO

have the airplane drop from an o

Z
entry vehicle as it descends through I AERIAL The MRO boasts alarge,
C O
three-metre, high-gain dish.
the atmosphere. The wings of the
airplane would unfold in mid-air. o
Either powered by batteries or as
an unpowered glider, such acraft have to descend to the surface at study the layers of ice there. >
G L O S S A R Y T O
could fly for about an hour. night, it could take to the air again Returning asample to Earth Aerobraking: i n

For alonger, if less controlled, and continue with its mission the Tilting the
would involve first sealing it in a spacecraft in
flight, NASA is also considering a following day. container, then taking it back into orbit so that

Mars balloon. After inflating then
detaching from aparachute, the
balloon could fly at aconstant
altitude day and night, carrying
atool kit of science instruments.
Mars orbit aboard asmall rocket solar wing panels
act as an
called aMars Ascent Vehicle. This airbrake, slowing
NASA also has plans for arobot vehicle could rendezvous with and so lowering
the orbit of the
mole which will be able to drill an orbiter, which could either vehicle without
hundreds of metres into the Martian return itself or set the rocket on an using its rocket.

One proposal is ground and bring intercept trajectory with Earth.

a h e l i u m - fi l l e d
samples to the
balloon. Another surface for analysis.
option is asolar Buzz Aidrin The vehicle
\
“Montgolfiere” would weigh
hot-air balloon, which could use about 20kg and be able to drill at a
the Sun to heat the air and provide rate of 10-20m aday. Such amole,
lift. While this version would drilling the polar cap of Mars, could

DRILLING One i
%
proposal for
afuture Mars
t
mission is a

remote drill to
retrieve material
i
deep below the
surface. r
I I

f
L A U N C H D E L AY

The encapsulated
MRO atop its
Atlas Vrocket i|:- .....
at the Kennedy »
I
Space Center in
August 2005.
I
 \

■r :
J -:/r‘
.1:
^■4;

MARIAN
SURFACE
As exploration of Mars has become technologically more sophisticated,
astronomers have been rewarded with extraordinary images from its surface.
 ameras orbiting around Mars and

K .

M l
c rovers crawling on its surface have
taken thousands of images that allow
scientists to piece together this planet’s
>
o
m
geological history. The more information that
is uncovered, the more fascinating the Red o
Planet becomes. >
Mars has two areas of markedly different
types of terrain. Meteorite impacts have left
the south of the planet heavily cratered, while
giant volcanoes, with their smooth, low-lying
plains, dominate the northern hemisphere.
The other striking Martian feature is the
1
network of canyons and valleys that slices
across the centre of the planet. Rift valleys.
such as the vast Valles Marineris, w e r e

formed by tectonic activity that split the

planet’s surface. Strong winds, landslides and
fast-flowing water then shaped the valleys and
channels that can be seen on Mars today.
With all this activity. Mars has been left
with asurface of grand texture and an
k m
intriguing landscape that, for the most part
has remained unchanged for millions of years.
.V [1] VALLEYS OF WATER
m 1
m These valleys and
- m .
m i i l l channels of the Melas

m Chasma were thought

% to have been formed by
w a t e r t h a t fl o w e d d o w n
■t
m m to abasin to the south¬
east of this image.
Ji:
[2] CRYPTIC TERRAIN
Springtime outbusts
m m
m m of carbon dioxide
t n
have sculpted intricate
1
patterns into this rock
near the south pole.

[3] BEDROCK This

image was taken by the
M MER Opportunity as it
explored alayered ring
of rock within Victoria

Crater (see image 6).

r s [4] LAYER UPON LAYER

T h e fl o o r o f t h e H e l l a s
Basin in the southern
hemisphere is made
m
up of complex folds of
layered rock.

[5] AVALANCHE ACTION

Part of acliff in the north

'tit; polar scarps cascades

■■ ■% down to lower slopes,
forming acloud of dust
t h a t s e t t l e s i n t h e a i r.
* IS]

13
 [6] INSIDE THE CRATER This image, taken by apanoramic camera on the Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity, reveals astunning view of
Victoria Crater from an alcove on its western portion called 'Duck Bay'. The far side of the crater lies about 800 metres away from the rover.

1
 >
o
m

O
>

m
7 0
<

Opportunity's aim was to study the layers within aband of rock that lies around the interior of the crater. Scientists hope that these layers
will reveal arecord of past environmental conditions from agreater time span than rocks that have been examined in previous missions.
 NEW
ASTRONOMY
In the early 1600s, astormy collaboration between an impoverished,
short-sighted teacher and afiery nobleman-astronomer resulted in
three laws that changed the way we understand the universe.

B
orn to aProtestant family in SOLAR SYSTEM

December 1571 in Wiel der Kepler's Sun-

Stadt, south-\
Johannes Kepler was
He was nevertheless

bright and determine

on to graduate from 1
of Tubingen at the ag
Areligious man, K
anticipated acareer e
clergyman, but in 15!
was offered apost as
teacher in mathemati

and astronomy in
Gratz, Austria. His
duties included

the preparation
of astrological
forecasts, atask he i
undertook purely
to supplement his j
pitiful teacher’s 1
income.
Unlike most

of his generation,
Kepler subscribed
wholly to the
Copernican heliocent
view, and in 1595, w
lecturing his students
hit upon an idea that would Mysterium Cosmographicum
influence the next 35 years of his
FIERY
{Mystery of the Uniuerse) and GEOCENTRIC
Tycho Brahe and
life. He envisaged auniverse based the younger
sent acopy of the book to several Tycho himself did not subscribe to
on symmetrical objects, an idea Kepler -astormy astronomers, including Tycho Brahe the Copernican view. His
based on the five Pythagorean or collaboration. in Denmark. uncomfortable compromise of a
 ®BREA
TK
T
YH
RO
C HU
OG
’H
SSO B S E R VAT O R Y X
m

CO
In
1576, Tycho
observatory began work
Uraniborg, onthe
named castle-
after the
I
Greek goddess Urania, muse of astronomy, O
and thereafter Stjerneborg, its
underground neighbour.
Today, only woodcuts survive, showing
extravagant buildings, exquisitely planted
O
gardens and huge instruments, including a
4.26m quadrant. The island’s works were >
magnificent, perhaps unsurprisingly CO
considering they were estimated to have I
cost one per cent of the entire Danish state m 7D
budget. B lltlllllllltl llllHilfhllll ^ o
T Y C H O ’ S O B S E R VAT O R Y B u i l t
on aDanish island -agift of
the king -its name meant O
“castle in the heavens”.

In 1599, Tycho and his students aged 52 -wanted Kepler’s almost

theory held that the Earth lay at the
centre of the universe, orbited by resettled -at the invitation of mystical ability to make sense
o
the Moon and Sun, while the Sun Rudolph II of Bohemia -in Benatek of them; and each wished to X
m
was encircled by the planets. His TYCHO BRAHE castle near Prague. He and Kepler consolidate their own theory. So,
measurements, though, were The Danish had been corresponding for two in February 1600, the ever-ailing z
m
nobeiman became
meticulous. For the next 20 years, years and Kepler was desperate to Kepler arrived at Benatek, and
the greatest
Tycho mapped the positions of observational meet the legendary astronomer. found not atemple of quiet study >
1000 stars with the precision of one astronomer since Kepler wanted Tycho’s but chaotic castle renovations, CO
H
minute of an arc (1/60 degree). Hipparchus. observations, and Tycho -now hostile co-workers and serious y o

ATAT B m A N N O i a C O M P L E TO o
m m

i qvo posrBlviiMVMiN fatria KEPLER’S BOOKS

EXILIVM liPIRTATiDBir»ERA134
?DiViMO FROViW epier published three great works. Astronomia Nova (New
K Astronomy), 1609, received little fanfare but became a
springboard for the scientific developments of Newton and others.
Harmonice Mundi [The
Harmonies of the Worfd] was
essentially awork of mysticism
on geometrical forms. It
featured Kepler’s third law,
which describes mathematically
how asingle orbit worked.
His final great astronomical *>*cri
**^*»M»*c
work was Epitome Astronomiae
e
Copernicanae, the most
important since Ptolemy’s
Almagest, since it sets out the
basic workings of the universe
as we understand it today.

4,^
A S T R O N O M I A N O VA
Apage from Kepler's Astronomia
Nova (New Astronomy) -the result
of 10 years observation of Mars.

L
 KMVISTBI TOTI VS
iVl T Y C H O N I S
PLAK O
i VA I - B . r t
funding problems from the
somewhat shaky state.
The two astronomers bickered
-each had their own agendas.
Initially kept away from Tycho’s
computations, Kepler was eventually
given the study of the motion of
Mars, atask that had flummoxed
Tycho’s chief assistant. An uneasy
peace reigned, but in October 1601
Tycho went to alavish banquet and
KEPLER’S GENIUS
spier’s instinctive brand of genius
extended to several other areas
associated with astronomy.
4* He explained how the forerunner of
the camera -the
worked in his book Optics in 1604.
The book also described the workings
of the eye and how glasses could
correct poor vision.
4In 1610 he borrowed atelescope
and wrote atreatise on it, using the
word dioptrics to describe the
science of lens refraction.
% T
EX HTPOTHESl 4
B R A H E I I l ^ r
11 days later he was dead (perhaps EARTH-CENTRED
from mercury poisoning). In Tycho's model
(above), the Earth
Two days later, Kepler was lay at the centre
made the Emperor Rudolph’s court of the universe.
This contrasted
mathematician and astrologer.
with Kepler's view
His duties included drawing up as described in
astrological tables and completing The Rudolphine
Tycho’s huge star catalogue -The Tables (right.
from the book).
Rudolphine Tables. Kepler illegally
appropriated Tycho’s measurements
for the task; though had he not they
}i
■i
4 H e w a s t h e fi r s t t o c l a i m t h a t t i d e s
were caused by the Moon.-;
He coined the word ‘satellite’. )
^ H e w r o t e o n e o f t h e fi r s t s c i e n c e - '
fi c t i o n s t o r i e s ~ S o m n i u m - a b o u t a
camera obscura - journey to the Moon. It was
■ published posthumously in 1634. 1;
MAN OF VISION Pausing in his Work on
;astronomy, Kepler took time to make an ,
investigation on optics. This is apage from
his Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical ■-l-
Part of Astronomy), illustrating the structure
of eyes. It is recognised as the foundation of
modern optics.
m m p
T
 H
CCby the study of the orbit of mars, uve must fe. HOW IT WORKS

EITHER ARRIUE AT THE SECRETS OF ASTRONOMY OR ^KEPLER’S LAWS m

FOREVER REMAIN IN IGNORANCE OF THEM.” CO

Johannes Kepler
Kepler’s
three
laws
of
planetary
motion
underpin our modern understanding of O
planetary movement in the solar system.
They state:

may never have been put to use. and held the universe in place. This
early outline of gravity went against
1. The planets move in elliptical orbits, with O
In the meantime, Kepler continued the Sun at one focus.
with his studies of Mars, trying millennia of thought, in which a
to rationalise its complex visible mystical, not physical, force caused >
second focus
CO
movements with acircular orbital universal movement. planet
of ellipse —" "+"
theory. His solution, in 1605, was Kepler died in 1630 of afever, PD
Tc e n t r e
that the orbit was not in fact circular in much the same circumstances
S u n
ellipse
of

but elliptical around an off-centre
Sun, and that the closer the planet
got to the Sun, the faster it travelled.
KEPLER’S LAWS
These realizations led to the first
two laws of planetary motion. They
also helped him rationalise a
concept he had been sure of for
some time -that aforce given out
.
o
as he lived; short of money and
surrounded by political and o
religious insecurity.
He is held to be ahero of the 2. The planets move in such away that the
line between the Sun and the planet sweeps I -<
early scientific revolution, yet he out the same area in the same time no
was above all devout and aman
of his time. He believed that the
matter where in the orbit. This means that 0
aplanet travels faster when it is close to H
universe was made wholly by the Sun. X
m
God; all he sought to do as an equal areas swept
astronomer and mathematician was z
out of equal times
m

by the Sun drove the planets’ orbits understand it.

>
u i

O
3. The square of the period of the orbit of a
planet is proportional to the mean distance
from the Sun cubed. This means that larger
orbits have longer periods, and that the
speed of aplanet in alarger orbit is lower
than aplanet in asmaller orbit.

faster motion slower motion

closer to Sun farther from

the Sun

ALASTING LEGACY This monument

dedicated to Kepler was erected in
the market place of Weil der Stadt in
Baden-Wurtemberg, the city in which
he was born on 27 December 1571.
 Earth, down to about
latitude 40 degrees
south. Vulpecula
can be seen down to

BO degrees south. T O

THE DUMBBELL >

The Dumbbell >
nebula, found in L O C AT I O N MAP

the constellatior D
of Vulpecula, is <
:ABBREViATiom Lyr ABBREVIATION Vul CZ
about 1.5 light
years m BEST SEASON BEST SEASON

d i a m e t e r.
July -August August -September
o
: B R I G H T E S T S TA R BRIGHTEST S TA R
CZ
EASY TO FIND ;Vega (a) 0.0 Alpha [a] 4.4
The group of RANKING 52 SIZE RANKING 55
stars known as
POSITION Equatorial p o s m o Equatorial
Brocchi's Cluster
or the

Coathanger is
easy to find with
binoculars

/
"31
NGC 6940

" 3 0

V U L P E C U L A

i NGC 6830
\

1 2 \ 1
, 2 9
Brocchi’s
Cluster
9

m
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DELPHINUS SAGITTA
21
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human eye snatural tendency to look
for patterns, they found them. Soon
the Cydonia region was imaginatively
filled with pentagonal pyramids and X
Guardian" for example, takes the form
outlines of buried cities.
of aNative American head complete
with feathered headdress. >
THE FACTS BEHIND THE FACE Needless to say, the conspiracy
The arrival of Mars Global Surveyor i n theorists were not satisfied. Some
orbit around the Red Planet in 1997
suggested NASA had doctored the a
finally offered an opportunity to study the lage, or photographed an entirely
surface again, this time at much greater
a
different area of the surface. Others insisted
of detail.
against all evidence, that the mesa was artificial.
0
Mars Global Surveyor flew over Cydonia and sent CArS FACE This feature,
resembling acat's face,
its images back to Earth, where they were released NEW PUZZLES
was imaged by the
to the public in 1998. Illuminated by sunlight from European Space Agency's While the new photographs resolved the issue for >
adifferent angle, the face dissolved into nothing Mars Express orbiter, and most people. Mars Global Surveyor sent back a O
is located in the Cydonia
but arocky outcrop topped with abumpy plateau. slew of new images to puzzle over. Some of the
region of Mars.
Landslips across the middle helped to create the most intriguing include the so-called "glass O
vague impression of features, but there was really worms" and “petrified forests”.
no hint of anything artificial about it. In most cases, these structures can be attributed
>
Other images proved the rest of Cydonia was to tricks of human perception (see How It Works) 7 D
C O
equally natural. In fact, the entire landscape turned or to misunderstood or newly discovered natural
out to be acollection of similar rocky mesas (see GLASS WORMS So-called processes on Mars. In particular, the formation
Glossary) sticking out of lower-lying plains along "glass worms" are the and sublimation of frosts seem to be able to create
what may be an ancient coastline. result of our eyes playing
tricks. They are actually some remarkably elaborate patterns. None of this,
valleys illuminated from of course, will discourage those who still dream of
the "wrong" direction. Intelligent life on Mars

^HOW IT WORKS
1 ^sunlight
^ D O M E O R C R AT E R ? from top
of image

any of the apparently artificial

M features on Mars are caused
by the human eye mixing up
elevated features with valleys and
other depressions. This is usually o r a t o r s

valleys
the result of ascene being lit from and ridges
an unexpected direction. Because a p p e a r

our brains are attuned to expect c o r r e c t

illumination to come from above, we

find it easy to tell indentations
(which will have shadows on their
upper edge) from elevations (which 2

will catch more light on their upper

edge). sunlight
When we see an image of Mars, f r o m m
bottom of
our brains interpret it in the same
image
way, so features with shadow at

crators,

iialleys
and ridges
appear
reversed
COMING ISSUE

^ILDAMODEL~" 5T? f A r

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(A precision ~
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CERES SUPPORT ARM

"Embark on ajourney of discovery "Far from random fragments

to the asteroid belt and explore of debris, many asteroids are
the two largest of the countless .* apparently related to each other.
rocky worlds -Ceres and Vesta.
Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,
C€ Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 STS
"Follow Dawn’s mission to the WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
Keep out of reach of children. Keep this information for reference.
asteroid belt to unlock the secrets Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.
of planet formation.
"Find out about the work of the
modern-day asteroid hunters.
 An Eaglemoss Publication. AWeekly Publication. UK £5.99 ROI €9.99 Malta €8.99 Australia $14.95

BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM ^ 17

APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY

T H E A S T E R O I D B E LT *

CERESand VESTA -it

REMNANTS of afailed planet- *

forming process orbiting,
between MARS and JUPITER 4

i ■

. ' f

i f %

#
♦

4 ‘

V m

■m

■WITH THIS ISSUE; CERES, ITS 106-TOOTH GEAR AND ARM BEG
 BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
«

FEATURES I M P O R TA N T
"The orrery is aprecision-engineered
kit. It must be assembled and handled
with care to prevent damage to its
^YOUR SOLARSYSTEMMODEL
«
parts, and stored or displayed safely to
ensure no parts are lost.
Use the exploded diagrams and step-by-step "Never use liquids or solvents to clean
instructions to assemble the parts with issues 17-20. the parts. For best care, use the
polishing doth and dusting brushes
supplied with the toolkit (free to
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE subscriptions customers).
"Parts not to be sold separately.
"The publisher cannot replace any
parts that are damaged or lost by the
customer without charge.
"The publisher cannot be responsible
for any damage that may occur as a
result of Incorrect assembly or
mishandling of the ery. Please ens i r e
you read all the Instructions thoroughly
when assembling the parts.

0 Discover the asteroid belt's two largest rocky worlds

"When assembling parts, lay them on a
fiat table and keep screws and all small
Items on atray so they can't roll away
"All tools must be used with care,
following any safety guidelines provided
by the manufacturer.
-the dwarf planet Ceres, and the bright Vesta. and get lost. Unpack all parts carefully. "The publisher cannot be resp i s i b l e
"The publisher reserves the right to for any injuries caused by any tools or
alter parts and their design at any time. materials.
MISSIONS
10
See how the Dawn mission to the asteroid belt is
aiming to unravel the mystery of planet formation

IMAGE GALLERY
Pore over the incredible detail of MESSENGER'S high
resolution images, captured as it flew by Mercury.

T H E S TO R Y O F A S T R O N O M Y
16
Find out how the Spaceguard Survey team keeps an
eye on the sky for asteroids heading for Earth.

S TA R M A P
2 0
Learn about Ceres and Vesta and find out how you
can spot asteroids among the stars.

S PA C E S C I E N C E
2 2
Many asteroids share acommon origin. See how CREDITS
astronomers trace their family history. IMAGES: FC Science Photo
C O N S U LTA N T E D I T O R : G I L E S S PA R R O W Library/Mark Garlick; 2-3 Hubble
E N D O R S E D B Y : S I R PAT R I C K M O O R E C B E F R S Heritage Team/NASA/ESA; 3-5
E N C O U R A G E D B Y: T H E I N T E R N AT I O N A L A S T R O N O M I C A L U N I O N TA U Eaglemoss/Julian Fletcher; 6-7 (tl)
Science Photo Library/Mark
Garlick, (tr) Hubble HeritageTeam/
NASA/ESA, (br) Pikaia Imaging;
8-9 (tl,bl) Pikaia Imaging, (tc)
Science Photo Library, (tr,br)
Hubble Heritage Team/NASA/
ESA; 10-11 (cl,bl,bc,br) NASA/JPL,
(tc) NASA/UCLA/William
Hartmann, (tr) NAS/VKSC; 12-15
Tucciarone, (br) Alamy/Jason
Rothe; 18-19 (tl) Courtesy of MIT
Lincoln Lab, (bl) Courtesy of Orion
Books, (be) Science PhotoLibrary/
Gordon Garradd, (c) Rex Features/
PB/KMLA, (tr) Science Photo
Library, (br) Science Photo Library/
JHUAPL; 20-21 {tl) Hubble
Heritage Team/NAS/k/ESA, (tr)
NASA/JHUAPL, (b) Pikaia Imaging;
22-23 (bl,br) ISAS/JAXA, (c)
NASA, (tr) Pikaia Imaging, (cr)
NASA/NSSDC.

NASA/Johns Hopkins University

Applied Physics Laboratory/
Carnegie Institution of REPRO: Stormcreative

Washington; 16-17 (bl) Galaxy Publishing Limited

Picture Library/LPI/D Roddy, (tr) PRINTING: Century Litho (Truro)
Science Photo Library/Joe Limited

Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,

Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 8TS
WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
Keep out of reach of children. Keep this information for reference.
A l I^fes to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System', J
agiemoss Publications (2008). All rights reserved.
 #

■i t

BEGIN BUILDING o
c z

CD 0

O
>
73
i n

PHASE-4
#
♦ ! : £ i

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The fourth phase of Stage 2 n
adcJsthedwarfplanet inBBUI; i l l 0 *
Ceres, together with its , 1 W«»‘
support arm and gears. f e
II » Ja? Ii
1

%
A k I *

>W0*

HU
m miMit I

he gear assembly for Ceres enables it to

orbit the Sun on an accurately paced path
beyond Mars. Towards the end of the
series, in Stage 3, you get avariable-speed motor ICERES With the parts
unit. Once this is calibrated so that the orbit of supplied with issues T7

Earth around the Sun gives acomparison of one I to 20, you can build the |
gear train and support
second equal to 10 real Earth days, then the
arm ^t carry the dwarf
orbits of all the other planets -including that of plan^Ceres in orbit
I
Ceres -will be paced to the same proportional beyond Mars.
I
speed. Agrub screw in the gear collar enables
the planet support arm to be slackened off so %
that Ceres can be aligned against its name on
the base plate and top engraved gear.

I t

V
 Construct the Ceres gear set by creating a
I I

sandwich”, with the 83-tooth gear (60)

underneath and the 106-tooth gear (51) on top,
and the gear collar (31) and gear spindle (33) in
the middle. Hold these elements in place with
three crosshead self-tapping screws (M2.35 6mm)

f\A2.3S\
^6mm J

3 Create the small gear “sandwich” with the

45-tooth gear (57) at the top, the planet gear
arm (50), gear axle 1(70) and gear axle 2(71) in
the centre, and the 22-tooth gear (48) at the
bottom. Ensure gear axle 1(70) goes on top as
shown. Fix these elements in place with two
crosshead self-tapping screws -use the last 5 0

remaining 6mm M2.35 for the top and the one

longer 8mm M2.35 for the bottom.

7 1

No Part Qty
(M2.3S
\^mm
0 4 CERES SUPPORT ARM 1

3 1 GEAR COLLAR 1 4 8

3 3 PLANET SPINDLE 1

4 8 22-TOOTH GEAR 1

5 0 PLANET GEAR ARM 1

;51 10S-TOOTH GEAR 1

5 7 45-TOOTH GEAR 1

6 0 83-TOOTH GEAR 1

7 0 GEAR AXLE 1 1

7 1 GEAR AXLE 2 1
yRemovethebaseplate(65)fromyourpreviously
^completed 5tage 2Phase 3by loosening the
CER PLANET CERES 1
grub screw in the column support (66) using a
M3G GRUB SCREW 5mm 3
2.0mm alien key -see Issue 1, page 10. (Keep the
M2.3S S E L F - TA P P I N G SCREW 6mm 7

assembly upright to ensure you don’t lose the planets

M2.3S S E L F - TA P P I N G SCREW 8mm 1

WAS PLASTIC WASHER 2

-or remove the planets for safe-keeping while
completing the next steps.)
 CER

-<
6 Slip the second plastic washer (WAS) onto
the central column and engage it around the O
c
protruding lower rim of the planet spindle (33). 7D
Slide the small gear “sandwich” up the central
CO
column, mesh the two gears and secure the entire
stage by tightening a5mm grub screw (M3G) into o
the planet gear arm (50). Refit the central column
0 4
(64) to the column support (66) and tighten the
grub screw using a2.0mm alien key. CO
-<
■
CO
5 4 H
f
m
6 4
W A S

rr^r^r^7
Slip one plastic washer (WAS) onto the
5 protruding top of the planet spindle (33)
O
of the large gear “sandwich”. Slide the entire 1
a
“sandwich” up the central column (64) and
mesh the upper 106-tooth gear (51) with the
22-tooth gear (48) on the underside of the
planet gear arm previously assembled in 0
Phase 3.
W

D
W A S
CO

>
O
m

”T3
Now attach the Ceres

7 support arm (04) to the

X
>
0 0
large gear set. Feed the arm into
the designated hole on the collar
and secure with agrub screw
(M3G 5mm). Push the pin of
M 2 . 3 S
6 m m 5 7
planet Ceres into the hole in the
top end of the arm. (NOTE: All
planet arms have ahole in one
^ 7
end only for the
I
planet’s pin, so
ensure you fit
5 0 the arm with
7 0
this hole

uppermost.)

71

4 8

M2.3S^ J
^Smm^y *y
 %

» CERES An artist s

impression of the dwarf

planet Ceres, surrounded
by numerous other
objects of the asteroid
belt -the region of
space between the
planets Mars and Jupiter.

CERES and VESTA

Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter lies e be looking at the asteroids in
aring of countless small, rocky worlds -the general in Issue 18, but Ceres and
asteroids. Largest among them are the dwarf Vesta are unique and complex worlds
planet Ceres and the bright-surfaced Vesta. that are worth exploring in more detail. What’s
more, if all goes well, each will be visited in the
quite near future by NASA’s asteroid probe
O O O DAWN. This should reveal alot more about these
DWARF PLANE
PROFILE CERES rocky bodies that together account for more than
45 percent of all the mass in the asteroid belt.
Wi]
[ ■ i m s f fi CERES

Ceres was discovered as long ago as 1801.

However, its small size and considerable distance
from Earth meant that it was only in the past
decade that anew generation of powerful
telescopes turned Ceres from astar-like point of
light into the disc of aworld with mysterious
surface features.
m
Ceres shares many similarities with so-called
“C-type” asteroids -worlds whose spectra (see
 CO
Glossary) reveal asurface covered in carbon-rich
minerals. These worlds are thought to be leftovers O
from the birth of the solar system -clumps of the B u m
initial material from which the planets formed, h e n C e r e s w a s fi r s t d i s c o v e r e d , a s t r o n o m e r s e m b r a c e d i t a s t h e
essentially unchanged for some 4.5 billion years. w remains of the predicted (but since discredited) “fifth planet”. CO
But analysis of Ceres’s spectrum reveals Even when other bright asteroids such as Pallas, Juno and Vesta were
differences, too -its crust contains large amounts found, they too were initially treated as planets. It was only when CO
of “hydrated” minerals that have molecules of the number of worlds between Mars and Jupiter continued to rocket
ever upwards that William Herschel (discoverer of the planet Uranus)
water locked away in their structure. This suggests suggested that they be
that the material from which Ceres was formed
treated as anew class

was rich in ice and water vapour, and some of that of object -asteroids, O
water probably survives today in the form of ice. from the Greek meaning 0 e
“star-like”.

ON THE SURFACE
But the recent a
discovery of Eris, an icy
The powerful gazes of the Hubble Space Telescope world larger than Pluto,
(HST) and other giant observatories have revealed
afew features on the surface of Ceres -most
forced astronomers to

r e t h i n k t h e i r d e fi n i t i o n s ,
0
notably dark patches with bright centres that are adding anew class of n
“dwarf planet”.These
probably craters. One prominent bright spot on the
worlds are large enough
surface is probably alarge region of reflective ice. C D
to be spherical, but too
Intriguingly, photographs taken at different small to have cleared >
times have shown variations in the light and dark their orbits of other
D
patches. There is also some evidence that Ceres bodies. As aresult,
Pluto, Erls, and Ceres are now classed as “dwarf CERES TURNS <
might have athin atmosphere of water vapour.
planets” (though Ceres remains an asteroid as These Hubble images CO
Considering its distance from the Sun, Ceres is of Ceres, taken over
well). Vesta itself may one day be reclassified as >
surprisingly warm, with surface temperatures adwarf planet if astronomers decide that it is
aperiod of 2hours
20 minutes, show it
reaching around -35°C at times -just enough for only the huge south polar crater that prevents it making aquarter of a
ice to evaporate directly from the surface. being truly spherical. rotation.

If this theory is correct, then the changing patterns

S U R FA C E D E TA I L T h i s

artist's impression of
Ceres shows surface ice

glinting from the

equatorial bright spot.

PV'
 B L . C J S 5 A R Y

Spectrum: Arainbow¬
like band of different

wavelengths of light
producea or re scted
from an obiect, which
may reveal details of
composition.

Planetesimal: Asmall

world formed in the early

days of the lolar system
a s 3stepping-stone to

che formation of larger

planets.

of brightness on the surface could be due to
evaporation and condensation of frost. With all
these unique characteristics, Ceres is perhaps more
like aplanet than simply an outsized asteroid. This
is why it falls within the new official definition of a
Despite its rough diameter of 560km, Vesta is
not spherical -which is surprising considering that
much smaller moons of the outer planets still have
enough gravity to pull themselves into spheres.
When the HST turned its attention towards Vesta

“dwarf planet” (see Inside Info).
Ceres is almost certainly the largest remaining
planetesimal (see Glossary). This would-be planet
never got the chance to grow into alarger world in
its own right. Many of its siblings fell into elliptical
orbits that either threw them out of the solar
in 1996, it revealed the reason why Vesta has
V E S TA R E V E A L E D A n
amore oval shape. The asteroid’s south pole is artist's impression of
scarred by an enormous impact crater that has Vesta, showing the huge
gouged out ahuge hole in the surface. This crater south polar crater.

system completely or saw them absorbed into the

other rocky planets. Ceres, on the other hand, has
survived essentially intact, thanks to its location in
acircular orbit delicately poised between the inner
and outer solar systems.

V E S TA
The second largest and most massive object in the
asteroid belt, Vesta is avery different world from
Ceres. It is aV-type asteroid with an unusual
surface mostly covered in volcanic basalt rocks # 1

similar to those that erupt from volcanoes on

Earth. These rocks are much brighter and more
reflective than the carbonaceous minerals that y

cover Ceres. They make Vesta not only brighter

than Ceres but also the brightest of all the
asteroids, just visible to the naked eye if one
knows where to look.
 [3

^HEINRICH OLBERS (1758-1840)

["li]

erman astronomer Heinrich Olbers was born near Bremen,

G and worked as aphysician in the city for most of his life, while
devoting his spare time to his passion for
the stars. He made several important
contributions to astronomy -working out 1
amethod for calculating comet orbits m
and discovering the large asteroids
Pallas (in 1802) and Vesta (in 1807].
As it became clear there were more
asteroids in the belt between Mars
and Jupiter, he proposed that alt these
worlds might be fragments of alarger
planet, long since destroyed. This idea has
since been discredited, but Olbers is most
famous today for the “Olbers’ Paradox”
3
-an ingenious demonstration that the
darkness of the night sky proves
the universe cannot be both
R]
infinite and unchanging.

HEINRICH OLBERS The

R] R]
German astronomer who
has a200km-diameter
d a r k r e fl e c t i v e f e a t u r e o n
Ve s t a n a m e d a f t e r h i m .

R]

R] R]

[i]

R]

1
R]

R]

Rl

R] R]
[STSf^l

R]
["l«i

["iFI

R]
 /

Dawn's mission is to travel back in time to

the very beginnings of the solar system to
unlock the mystery of planet formation.

aunched on 27 September ranging from basaltic lava flows

2007, Dawn is heading for a
rendezvous with two very
different asteroids, Ceres and Vesta.
Both are situated in the asteroid
belt -* the large region between the
orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Both
were formed extremely early in the
history of the solar system, so will
engine have retained arecord of events
and nine solid
to adeep crater feature near its
southern pole.
Ceres, on the other hand, has a
primitive surface and evidence of
water, which has led some scientists
to believe it has acoating of surface
ice. So, while Vesta is physically
similar to one of the rocky, inner
planets, Ceres is typical of the ice

boosters fire up and processes from the formation moons of the outer planets.
to launch the of the rocky planets, some 4.5
Delta rocket
billion years ago.
carrying Dawn NASA’s Dawn mission is the first
Vesta appears to be dry and
from Cape
Canaveral on 27 differentiated (see Issue 10, pages time that aspacecraft will orbit, as
September 2007. 22-23). It has surface features opposed to fly past, two distinct

ION PROPULSION

conventional spacecraft burns about 300kg of

A propellants in about 20 minutes to achieve a
velocity of some 1000 metres/second. Dawn’s ion
engine, on the other hand, provides amaximum
speed of 10 metres/second by burning 0.25kg of
xenon (its propellant) per day. So, aspeed of 1000
metres/second, although not achievable, would
need just 25kg of fuel. What would take the
conventional spacecraft 20 minutes, though, will
take Dawn 100 days. But the overall saving In
terms of rocket technology, size and propellant, is
significant, and ion propulsion opens up awhole
new range of space exploration that would today be ION ENGINE The core of the
otherwise unaffordable. motor propelling Dawn.
m :

EXPLORER
m An artist's

impression of
D a w n w i t h Ve s t a
(left) and Ceres
(right) against a
cocoon nebula.

A S S E M B LY T h e

and developed by the Planetary Society invited

-
W-:-
enthusiasts to submit their names. The fans
spectrometer to examine the importantly, how did water affect
plus the mission team and all the names on
the Vietnam War Memorial in Washington elements that make up the outer the formation of planets?
were engraved on the microchip. The nickel- parts of the asteroids. Also carried As part of the push towards an ..
;sized chip was then installed above the forward is an instrument to measure the efficient and sustainable space
thrusters of the spacecraft. gravity fields. This will be able to programme, NASA took the
show details of the interiors. decision to use an ion propulsion
Scientists are hoping that the system on Dawn rather than the
targets. It is currently en route to data collected by Dawn will help conventional chemical propulsion
Mars, where it will get agravity answer anumber of important system. Ion propulsion provides
assist (see Glossary) in February questions. What role, for example, atiny proportion of the thrust of
2009. It will then fly on, continuing did size have in determining aconventional spacecraft so the
to orbit the Sun until it arrives at how planets evolved throughout spacecraft will take far longer to
Vesta in August 2011. the solar system? And, just as reach Its destination.
Dawn will orbit the asteroid

for nine months before departing

its orbit in May 2012 to journey
on to Ceres. It will arrive there in

February 2015 and orbit it for six

months, before leaving in July.
The spacecraft is carrying a
science payload consisting of
two cameras and avisible and This
illustration shows
infrared mapping spectrometer to Dawn in orbit
reveal the surface minerals. It also above the dwarf

features agamma ray and neutron planet Ceres.

 MESSENGER FLYBY
of MERCURY
In January 2007, the MESSENGER probe
made its first flyby of Mercury. Equipped with
an impressive array of technology, it offered
new views of the inner most planet that far
surpass the 30-year-old images of Mariner 10.
V ESSENGER’s camera system is known
as the MESSENGER Dual Imaging
System (MDIS). It comprises acolour-
capable Wide-Angle Camera (WAC) and
monochrome Narrow-Angle Camera (NAC). The
extreme solar radiation at Mercury means that the
science package is always shielded so the MDIS is
mounted on apivot to be aimed at its subject.

♦ ‘ \
'-‘v

4 I

A.''YY.'ff.Vi ' \

I
 >

CD
>

[1] DARK HALOS The

darkened crater rims and
partial "haloes" of dark
material surrounding the
craters near Mercury's
south pole suggest they
are relatively young
geological features.

[2] TERMINATOR A
MESSENGER image,
captured in January
2008, shows the line
between sunlit and night
s i d e s - t h e t e r m i n a t o r.

[3] THE SPIDER This

MESSENGER image
shows aset of radial
troughs, centred o n
a40km crater, on the
fl o o r o f t h e C a l o r i s
basin. It was nicknamed
"the spider" by mission
scientists.

[4] CALORIS This

MESSENGER image
features the Caloris
basin in the northern
hemisphere of Mercury,
one of the largest impact
basins in the solar
system.

[5] MERCURY MOSAIC

This false-colour image
of the planet is amosaic
of nine images captured
by MESSENGER'S Wide
Angie Camera, part
of the Mercury Dual
Imaging System (MDIS).
[6] MESSENGER FLYBY An artist's impression of the MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging -known as
MESSENGER -spacecraft flying over Mercury. The Sun is up to 11 times brighter at Mercury than we see on Earth and surface temperature can
ASTEROID
HUNTERS
One thousand asteroids pass through our region of space -some
big enough to devastate Earth. Luckily for us, the Spaceguard
Survey team keeps an eye on the sky to save us from disaster.
steroids are lumps of
A orbiting space rock ranging
from afew metres to
hundreds of kilometres across. They
are relics of the formation of the solar
system (see Inside Info). Asteroids
were unknown until the early 19th
century when the largest one, Ceres,
(now called adwarf planet) was
spotted by accident by astronomer
Giuseppe Piazzi. Since then, more
than 200,000 have been identified.
:
but there may be abillion in total. that flattened 20,000 square km of
Most asteroids orbit the Sun
at an average distance of around
400 million km. But some have
forest in Tunguska, Siberia, in 1908.
Any asteroid over 140m across
can punch through the atmosphere
elongated orbits that bring them and strike with the explosive force
perilously close to our planet. The of 100 megatons of TNT -or 7000 ARIZONA This
vast majority of these are small and, atom bombs. One more than a 1200m-diameter
if they get too close, burn up in kilometre across would have the crater was
created 50,000
Earth’s atmosphere. An asteroid of power of 50,000 megatons of TNT
years ago by a
40m across or more may explode in (four billion atom bombs) triggering 50m meteorite,
the atmosphere, however, creating global earthquakes and tsunamis, travelling at some
Massive asteroids have caused 20m/sec.
the sort of devastating air blast
A'fe ". A
it-
■■
 ^ "

based in Arizona and New Mexico H

in the USA, and in New South
m
i Wales, Australia. Thousands of
CO
amateur astronomers also take part
-they can name the asteroid, if
O
they spot it first. 7 0
-<
HUNTING THE SKY

Asteroid hunting is apainstaking

O
T l
business. Astronomer s o b s e r v e a n d
% *
photograph the sky and compare >
CO
their pictures with past images of
the same region to identify new TO
%
objects. They also carry out follow¬ O
1 up observations on past sightings.
This is important for smaller
ASTEROIDS o
mass extinctions. Evidence in the Congress has set NASA an even Agroup of asteroids, which may change orbit
fossil layer of large amounts of more ambitious goal -to identify all asteroids closes in as aresult of the “Yarkovsky effect”
on Earth in this
iridium -amineral rarely found on NEOs over 140m across by 2020. caused by solar heating.
artist's impression
Spaceguard also makes use of
Earth -suggests that an asteroid
strike 250 million years ago
Spaceguard’s telescopes are
operated on behalf of NASA by the
of anear-Earth
the 70m radar dish at Goldstone
0
approach.
destroyed 90 per cent of animal University of Arizona, either directly Observatory, in the Mojave Desert, X
m
and plant species. This cleared the or in partnership with others, and California, and the giant 304m
way for the rise of the dinosaurs. >
0 0
AlOkm-wide asteroid 65 million
CCOVERLONG
TIMESPANS,IMPACT
CATASTROPHES
AREINEVITABLE.WHAT m
years ago, then wiped them out.
HAPPENEO TO THE OINOSAORS CAN HAPPEN TO OS.” O
THE BIRTH OF SPACEGUARD David Morrison, NASA Astrobioiogy Institute u
X
NASA regards any asteroid as
d
“potentially hazardous” if it is over Z
150m in diameter and comes IIMSIDE INFO H
m
within 7.5 million km of Earth. So BIRTH OF AROGUE ASTEROID T O
0 0
far, 931 potentially hazardous steroids are rocky debris left over from the birth of the Solar System, 4.6 billion
asteroids have been identified, but A years ago. The rocks would have become aplanet but for Jupiter’s strong
there may be over 1000. gravitational pull. Most asteroids lie within the Main Belt, between Mars and Jupiter.
David Morrison, senior scientist As they orbit the Sun they often collide, changing course and breaking up. Such
encounters set two groups of asteroids, the Atens and Apollos, onto new paths that
at the NASA Astrobioiogy Unit,
now bring them within striking distance of Earth. Even their fragments pose a
Ames Research Center, USA,
threat. In 2007, apiece of asteroid just one metre across gouged a13m-wide
chaired acommittee that looked
crater in the ground (below) near Lake Titicaca, Peru.
at the threat. He told US Congress,
“The impact hazard is real, and is
of amagnitude at least as great
as many other natural hazards.”
The result was aCongress-funded
programme called Spaceguard
Survey -the name taken from
abook by science fiction writer
Arthur C. Clarke (see Sci-Fi).
Spaceguard’s original aim was
to spot 90 per cent of all asteroids,
and other Near-Earth Objects
(NEOs), over one kilometre wide
by the end of 2008. Now the US

<1^
 LINEAR One of a
dish at Arecibo Observatory, Puerto pair of telescopes
Rico. These measure an approaching at Socorro, New

asteroid’s velocity, size, shape and Mexico, part

of the Lincoln
density. Computers at the NEO Near Earth
Program, based at the Jet Propulsion Asteroid Research

Laboratory, Pasadena, California, use (LINEAR)

programme. It
this data to work out aprecise orbit. aims to detect
Once anew NEO is discovered, asteroids that

observatories throughout the world threaten Earth.

are alerted to monitor its progress.

Updated asteroid information is
published on the NEO Program
website -http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov.

MILITARY TELESCOPES

High hopes are pinned on four

powerful Hawaii-based military
telescopes set for completion in
2010. Run by the US Air Force, the
Panoramic Survey Telescope and
Rapid Response System (Pan-
STARRS) should spot 99 per cent of
all problem asteroids. NASA may
also use its Wide-field Infrared
Survey Explorer (WISE) satellite, due
by the Smithsonian Astrophysical
Observatory, in Massachusetts, to
check against its record of known
space objects.
The system is not yet foolproof.
In 2007, the MPC issued an urgent
350m asteroid, 99942 Apophis, was ARMAGEDDON
said to pose a1:37 (2.7 per cent) An advert for
risk of striking Earth in 2029. At one t h e 1 9 9 8 fi l m
on the side of
point it was rated Yellow 4on the
aLos Angeles
Torino Impact Hazard Scale (see hotel. In the
Inside Info) -the highest ever. It still movie, astronauts

for launch in 2009, to detect NEOs. warning about an object seen poses aslight risk of impacting in destroy an
asteroid on
Under construction is the Large- hurtling towards Earth. It turned out 2036 -current odds are 1:45,000.
collision course
Aperture Synoptic Survey Telescope, to be the European Space Agency’s with Earth using
capable of detecting 90 per cent of Rosetta spacecraft -swinging by en PA N I C anuclear device.

NEOs over 200m wide. route to visit acomet. The discovery of a500m asteroid,
All sightings are relayed to the Recent events show the threat 2004 ASl, caused momentary panic
Minor Planet Center (MPC), run is very real. In December 2004, a in January 2004 when one estimate
APOPHIS This
suggested a1:4 (25 per cent) risk it multiple exposure
would strike Earth in less than two shows the
^SCI-FI 350m-wide near-
P R O J E C T S PA C E G U A R D days. This turned out to be afalse
Earth asteroid
alarm and It passed by at adistance (centre) against
paceguard Survey is an example of life imitating art -the of 12 million km. In February 2008, abackground of
novel Rendezvous with Rama (1972) by Arthur C. Clarke. Set an asteroid 8-15m across passed stationary stars.
in the future, it tells of an
SF MASTERWORK-S
-asteroid that devastates large
"RENDEZVOUS WITH RAMA
parts of Italy. Shocked into
action, world governments set
ARTHUR C. CLARKE
up “Spaceguard” to monitor
the sky for more rogue
asteroids and divert spacecraft
' fi t

^to intercept them. The US

fCongress did not wait for
■d i s a s t e r t o s t r i k e b e f o r e
setting up its own
Spaceguard. The 1998
films Deep Impact and
Armageddon, coupled with
1.
6 NASA’s dire warnings,
were scary enough.

N
between Earth and Moon, having
been spotted two days earlier.
Andrea Milani and his
colleagues, of NEO Dynamics,
Pisa University, Italy, developed a
program to predict the paths of
rogue asteroids and assess any
risk they pose. Milani believes the
likelihood of anewly identified
asteroid being on direct collision
course is slim. Before that
happened its orbit would take it
into aseries of near-Earth passes
that get progressively closer with
each orbit. This would happen over
decades, giving scientists plenty of
time to act.
How an approaching asteroid
would be made safe is open to
debate. According to Donald
Yeomans, NEO Program Officer
at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
I
Pasadena, “An asteroid predicted
to hit Earth might require a
change in velocity of only 3mm
per second if this impulse were
applied 20 years in advance.” It
could then be steered off course
X
INSIDE INFO
m
T H E TO R I N O S C A L E
CO
1
he Torino Impact Hazard Scale indicates DANGER An
T the danger posed by an asteroid or estimate of the
O
other near-Earth object. It grades the risk asteroid Apophis's
possible error in close approach on 70
of the object striking Earth and the level of calculation i
13 April 2029.
damage caused if it did The scale is colour
coded and numerical, from White 0(no o
risk} to Red 10 (global disaster}. n
The only asteroid that the Minor Planet
Center has rated higher than Yellow 2is
>
asteroid CO
99942 Apophis. In December 2004, it path E a r t h
I
briefly reached Yellow 4(more than 1:100 TO
-1per cent -risk of regional devastation}
O
before it was downgraded to White 0. In
the same year, 2004 VD17 reached Yellow
2-remote collision risk -before it, too,
was demoted to White 0. No other asteroid
o
has so far reached higher than Yellow 1.
-<
by gravity traction, using the slight the 33m-long 433 Eros. But a
0
gravitational pull of aspacecraft similar attempt by the Japanese
hovering over it. craft Hayabusa (“Peregrine Falcon”)
in 2005 to dock on a540m-long
NUCLEAR SOLUTION asteroid, 25143 Itokawa, failed.
Alternatively the asteroid could be More asteroid landings are
rammed, or deflected by attaching planned. The information gleaned
anuclear bomb to it (a technique will help scientists decide how to
used in the 1998 film Armageddon) deflect an asteroid set to strike
-or by detonating one nearby. Earth. But Yeomans warns, “These
In 2001, the robot space probe techniques cannot be effective if
NEAR Shoemaker successfully we’re taken by surprise. The first
landed on anear-Earth asteroid step is to find them early!”
EROS The
NEAR probe
investigated
this near-Earth
asteroid.
 CERES and VESTA
Between the planets Mars and Jupiter orbits aswarm of small bodies
called the minor planets or, more commonly, the asteroids. Several of - 1

these can be seen through amateur telescopes or even binoculars.

despite its smaller diameter than Ceres of 530

km, is because its surface has ahigher albedo
(see Glossary) than Ceres and the other large
asteroids.

T H R O U G H AT E L E S C O P E
True to their name, asteroids are merely star-
like points of light when seen through all but
the largest telescopes. But it is as well to be
Ceres, 24 January 2004 Ve s t a , 1 4 M a y 2 0 0 7
aware of their presence, because an asteroid’s
l _
unexpected appearance in astar field can give
the false impression of anova.
swell as being the first asteroid to be Darker and lighter patches in the surface of

A
ASTEROIDS

Although smaller discovered, Ceres is the largest, with a asteroids, as well as their elongated shapes, cause
than Ceres,
diameter of some 950 km. Yet it is not the
Ve s t a l o o k s changesinbrightness^theasteroid^tates.Thesdl
brighter due to brightest. That honour goes tq Vesta, the fourth asteroid brightnessuhanges can be measured by arrifteur
its greater discovered, which can reach magnitude 5.5 at best, just astronomers to produce %ht<kjrves like those of
reflectivity.
within naked-eye range (although it would be an variablestars.Themostelongatedasteroid^suchas
achievement to spot it). Vesta’s greater brightness. KleopatraandEros,canvarybyamagni^olormore,

eres was the Roman

c equivalent of the Greek
harvest goddess Demeter.
One day Hades, god of the
Underworld, abducted her
daughter, Persephone. Demeter
scoured the world for her missing
daughter, during which time the
crops failed. Eventually Zeus, brother
of Hades, ordered that Persephone
should divide her time between Hades
in the Underworld and her mother on

Mount Olympus. Every spring, when

■#
Persephone rose from the Underworld
to Olympus, the Earth came to life, but ♦
the vegetation died again each winter ♦ ♦ ♦ SAGITTARIUS SCORPtUS
^4
when she returned below ground. ♦
C e r e s i s s o m e t i m e s i d e n t i fi e d w i t h t h e ♦
♦
constellation Virgo. ♦

20
♦
G L O S S A R Y

Albedo; a
measurement
that indicates the
extent to which an

object’s surface
reflects light from
t h fi S u n

ospot an asteroid, first find the area of sky in which it lies from a
T planetarium programme, an almanac published by an astronomica
society, or online.
It will probably not be possible to distinguish the asteroid from the
background stars, so sketch the field of view and compare the sketch
with the same field of view acouple of hours later. The asteroid will EROS This
be the dot that has moved.
banana-shapei
The following list shows when you will be able to find Ceres asteroid is
a n d Ve s t a : 33x13x13km
and is the
1. March 2008 11. September 2010 second largest
2. June 2008 12. December 2010 near-Earth
asteroid.
13. March 2 0 11
3. September 2008
4 . December 2008 14. June 2 0 11

5. March 2009 15. September 2011

6. June 2009 1 6 . D e c e m b e r 2 0 11

7. September 2009 17. March 2012

dicember 2009 18. June 2012

9. March 2010
ASTEROID
A M S i

Many asteroids seem to share acommon origin, with stelescopes improved

related orbits around the Sun and often similar mineral
compositions -but how do astronomers trace the
A throughout the 19th
century, the number of
asteroids known to orbit between

history of these asteroid "families", and what do they Mars and Jupiter shot up from a
reveal about the origin of the asteroid belt? handful to many thousands. Some
astronomers hoped these asteroids
PA C E R O C K
shared acommon origin in the past
VISITING PROBE bis meteorite. -the original “fifth planet” predicted
This is an artist's om Vesta's
in some (now discredited) models of
impression of the jrface, is made
om the mineral
the solar system.
Japanese space
yroxene, which
But unfortunately the asteroids’
probe, Hayabusa,
visiting the common in key “orbital elements” such as the
asteroid Itokawa v a fl o w s .
eccentricity, semi-major axis (see
to investigate its Glossary) and tilt or “inclination” of
the orbits were all very different.
So for along time, it
seemed they were simply
A* random fragments of
debris left over from

the early days of

.

- V. A '

the solar system. It

turned out that this
was far from the truth.

F I N D I N G T H E FAMILIES
Around 1918, Japanese astronomer
Kiyotsugu Hirayama realised where
his predecessors had gone wrong.
G L O S S A R Y
The orbital characteristics they had
Semi-major axis:
Akey orbital been comparing were not constant
element -half the
over time, but were “osculating
distance along
the long axis of elements” -subject to change in
an elliptical orbit. long cycles under the influence of
Eccentricity: A
the Sun, planets and even more
measure of the massive neighbours.
degree to which
Since it is all but impossible
an elliptical orbit
is “stretched” to calculate the changes to the
from aperfect osculating elements over such
circle.
enormous periods of time.

HOW IT WORKS
^TRACKING
THE
FAMILY
TREE
he “proper elements” of any orbit
T are equivalents of the osculating
elements, known as the “proper semi¬
major axis”, “proper eccentricity” and
“proper inclination”. Hirayama
I calculated them using complex
equations to approximate the various
disturbances each asteroid would
experience over long periods.
These days, computer models can
more accurately calculate the effects
Osculating elements
Hirayama instead identified another
set of orbital elements that remain
stable over tens of millions of years
or even longer. These are known as
proper elements”. When Hirayama
and later astronomers analysed
the distribution of proper orbital
elements, it soon became clear that
roughly one third of all asteroids are
clumped together in “families”.
Each asteroid family is known
by the name of its first discovered
member. In total, more than two
dozen groups are known -they
include the Pallas, Vesta and Hygiea
families.
VIOLENT ORIGINS
The scattered clumps in which
asteroid families are found suggest
that each family originated in a
single larger world, broken apart or
heavily cratered in an interplanetary
collision with its neighbours.
CO
the many fragments that form
the Vesta family of asteroids and >
J-f
meteorites. Other worlds seem to
O
of gravity on an object through many have shattered but, without enough m
thousands of orbits. In most cases strength to fly apart completely, CO
the difference between the osculating their weak gravity was just enough O
and proper elements can be very to pull them back together, creating m
small, and individually negligible, but
low-density “rubble pile” asteroids
when large numbers of asteroids are such as Mathilde and Itokawa.
plotted together on agraph such as O
t h e o n e s h o w n b e l o w, c o n c e n t r a t i o n s Most asteroid families share the
m
in the distribution of asteroid orbits, same composition because the
invisible for the osculating elements, worlds in which they originated 1
become suddenly clear. were the same all the way through >
C O
-this sometimes allows meteorite
H
m
experts to relate the fragments of
Proper e rock that fall to Earth with asteroids o
Still in space. The families that D .
originated on Vesta and in similar T i
>
worlds with differentiated, well-
separated interiors are exceptions
to this -their composition depends
C O
on whether they come from the
core, mantle or crust of their parent
body. In these cases, it is only the
clue of shared orbital elements that
allows experts to reconstruct the
composition of along-lost world.
Although asteroid collisions are rare
on ahuman scale, they are
inevitable in the longer timescales
of solar system history.
The strength of an impact strong
enough to destroy an asteroid
varies depending on the asteroid’s
composition -Vesta, for instance,
was dense enough to survive the
huge collision that formed its
south polar crater and released
B AT T E R E D
The craters and
angular shape of
Mathilde suggest
ahistory of heavy
bombardment.
F L O AT I N G R U B B L E
Itokawa is just a
loosely packed
pile of rubble that
collected after a
collision between
asteroids.
€
 »■

COMING UP IN. ISSUE 18 *

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S E L F - TA P P I N G S C R E W S

Take atrip inside the asteroid The Planet Vmystery -are

belt, home to some of the most asteroids the shattered fragments m

bizarre worlds in the solar of alarger ancient world?

system.
Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,
Sir Patrick Moore gives us his top C€ Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 STS
WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
ten space probes of all time. Keep out of reach of children. Keep this information for reference.
Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.
Learn how Galileo’s fantastic
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greatest theological controversies.
 aioNids i3Nvid QNv dviioD dV3D 'dV30 Hiooi-917 igfiSSI SI HI H
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 BUILD AMODEL

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SYSTEM
FEATURES I M P O R TA N T
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MISSIONS
10
Milestone missions: Sir Patrick Moore's top ten space
probes to have ventured out into the solar system.

IMAGE GALLERY
Anew collection of stunning space images. This time
enjoy the unique and strange world of the asteroids.

THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

16
Galileo's 20-times-magnification telescope was a
revelation that brought him fame and misfortune.

S TA R M A P
2 0
Discover the stellar charioteer of the night skies, CREDITS
Auriga, and its neighbouring constellation. Lynx.
IMAGES: FC NASA/Spitzer; 3 (bl) Alamy/Mary Evans Picture
UNEXPLAINED Science Photo Library/John Library, (be) akg-images/Johann

2^ What is the origin of the asteroids? Could they be

Sanford; 4-5(tl) NASA/TRACE, (bl)
Alamy/Mary Evans Picture library,
the remnants of an ancient fifth planet? (be) Topfoto/World History
Brandstetter, (tr) Bridgeman Art
Library/Look and Learn, (br)
N O A O / A U R A / N S F / TA R e c t o r & I P

Archive, (tr) Pikaia Imaging, (br) Dell'Antonio; 18-19{tl,bl) akg-

C O N S U LTA N T E D I T O R : G I L E S S PA R R O W
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2
 -<
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OCCULTATIONS ;
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L O

RANSITS anc m

ECLIPSES O
a
m

The constant movement of solar system objects often brings them o

into close proximity with each other or, more rarely, creates precise o
O
alignments that can be fascinating and revealing. z

o
ecause every object in the solar system The orbits of the other planets are inclined at
moves around the Sun at adifferent various slight angles from the ecliptic. They cross o
speed, and all of the major planets orbit the ecliptic just twice in each orbit, so the chances L D

in roughly the same flat plane, close encounters are that even when they lie in the same direction
P L A N E TA R Y
in the sky are frequent and inevitable. For as another object, they will appear above or below O
CONJUNCTIONS n
simplicity’s sake, the plane of Earth’s orbit around it in Earth’s skies. Such events, when two or more
Taken just after sunset, n
the Sun is treated as the flat plane of the solar celestial bodies come close to each other in the this photograph
system. Projected into Earth’s sky, this plane sky, are called conjunctions. shows various planets,
including Venus, >
becomes the line of the ecliptic, along which the Aplanet can come into conjunction with
Mercury and Saturn,
Sun appears to circle against the background other planets, the Moon, or stars, but the term in conjunction in the
Z
stars once every year. "conjunction" is also used specifically to describe evening sky.
c n

♦ >
z
C O

C O

>

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C O
m
C O

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’**>-*'

whenaplanetliesontheoppositesideoftheSun|TRANSITOFVENUS is silhouetted against the more distant one).

from Earth (and is therefore usually invisible in
Earth’s skies).
Conjunctions can be impressive and beautiful
sights, with perhaps several bright planets and
stars clustered together in the sky. Ancient
astrologers saw them as portents of significant
events on Earth, but although attractive, they have
little real significance for astronomers.
On rare occasions, however, aplanet or other
solar system body can line up precisely with
Ve n u s c r o s s e s t h e f a c e o f
Occupations of bright stars are rare because only
t h e S u n . T h e n e x t Ve n u s
transit will be in 2012. afew lie close to the ecliptic, but when they do
happen, they can be impressive events because
the stars are so immensely distant that they are
effectively just points of light, and even asmall
moon or asteroid can completely block them out,
if only for an instant, like alight being switched off
G L O e S A R Y
and then on again.
Inferior conjunction:
Unlike conjunctions, occupations and transits
The point where an
inferior planet [Venus can reveal new information to astronomers. The

another celestial object, so that one passes in front or Mercury) passes length of time one object takes to pass in front
between Earth and the
of the other. These chance events are known as of another can be used to calculate its precise
Sun, and is at its
occupations (if one object completely blocks the closest to Earth. speed and refine its orbit or its diameter, while the
other from sight) or transits (if the nearer object way that the closer object affects light from the

S PA C E S TA R S

JEREMIAH HORROCKS (ibi8-i641)

p"
nglish
first astronomer Jeremiah
person to predict and Horrocks was the
observe atransit
of Venus across the face of the Sun. Kepler i
had predicted that Venus would have a“near- 3
m i s s of the Sun during the inferior conjunction
[see Glossary) of 1639. Horrocks refined his 1

calculations and showed that the transit would

in fact occur, on 24 November. By projecting the m

Sun’s image through asmall telescope onto acard
he was able to see Venus’s silhouette track across

the face of the Sun, allowing him to estimate the

planet’s size and distance.

TRICKY CONDITIONS Although the weather was cloudy

□n 24 November, Horrocks managed to see the tiny shadow of
Ve n u s c r o s s i n g t h e s u n f o r h a l f a n h o u r u n t i l s u n s e t .
 more distant one can reveal features such as an

atmosphere or even planetary rings.

By astaggering coincidence, the two most
prominent objects in Earth’s sky happen to have
roughly the s a ime apparent diameter: the Moon I S
about 400 times smaller than the Sun, but the Sun
is about 400 times farther away. As aresult, the
interaction of the Sun, Moon and Earth can create
7 ^
spectacular events known as eclipses
LO
An eclipse happens when the three bodies - <
line up precisely arare event thanks to the

aTHEMOONWASASTHOUGH
99
DRENCHED WITH BLOOD.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

O
orientation of the Moon’s orbit relative to the □
ecliptic. The alignment can only happen when a
full Moon or new Moon happens to coincide with
the Moon’s crossing of the ecliptic. If this happens 1
at new Moon, then our satellite appears to pass
directly in front of the Sun, creating asolar eclipse
If it happens at full Moon, then the Moon passes
through Earth’s shadow, creating alunar eclipse.
Because the match in sizes of the Sun and

Moon is so precise, atotal solar eclipse requires

a
exact alignment that can only be seen across a
narrow strip of Earth’s surface. Lunar eclipses are
far more common than solar ones (because Earth
I S
larger so the alignment need not be so precise).

eclipse. Moon crosses the ecliptic.

o
CO

HOW IT WORKS

WFINDING ALIGNMENTS >

he accurate gearing of your solar
T system model makes it possible
CO

to predict conjunctions and other CO

alignments in Earth’s skies simply look >

For points where the positions of the
planets appear to line up in the same a
direction as seen from the location of
the Earth. The accurate rotation of O
the Moon also reveals when new and
" Q
Full Moons will occur and eclipses are C O

possible -though the nature of the C O

model means that it cannot predict if
such an event will definitely happen
 9
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 G L O S S A R Y
Kirkwood Gaps: Circuiar
zones at certain key
distances from the Sun,
where an asteroid’s
orbital period is aneat
ny asteroid foliowing an elliptical orbit that
A takes it outside the “Main Belt” is living on fr ;tion of Jui;
CO
End of an Asteroid). Their presence shows that
something must be replenishing the supply of NBAs, O
and this is probably linked to the "Kirkwood Gaps”
>
(see Glossary) in certain regions of the asteroid belt.

11,86-year orbit. Any

;er ’s own Astronomers use two different methods to
CO
borrowed time. Inevitably, it will make regular asteroid venturing into
classify asteroids into groups. The most meaningful -<
close encounters with the powerful gravity of one of the gaps ^ i l ! fi n d technique identifies "families” of asteroids CO
the planets, and, over millions of years, this will itself repeatedly brought whose orbits share similar features. These shared
back into identical m
sentence It to destruction or exile. It may coni gurations with characteristics indicate ashared origin -probably in
collide with the Sun or aplanet, be flung out of Jupite the fragmentation of alarger planetesimal. Families
the Solar System altogether, or be pushed into are named after their lowest-numbered asteroid.
a“Trojan” orbit, sharing Jupiter’s orbit around O
the Sun, but keeping asafe distance from it. In afew cases, such as the Vesta family, the largest
member is in fact the parent world, surviving more
a
or less intact despite battering impacts that have
flung out its family companions.
O
>

C?)

>
Amor (Mars- C O
crossing orbit)

A* o
o
C O

Main belt

.v’/

m
-f.
y r

-4.:
Trojans
Apollo (Earth-
crossing orbit) - - 4 -

ASTEROID ORBITS The

main asteroid belt lies
between the orbits of
Mars and Jupiter while
the Trojan asteroids
share the orbit of Jupiter.

IDA AND DACTYL Dactyl
is the 1.4km asteroid
moon that orbits the
asteroid Ida once every
1.54 days at an average
distance of 108km.
G L O S S A R Y
Spectrum; Arainbow-tike.
band of light formed by
splitting an object’s light
through aprism or other
device so that different
colours and wavelengths.
follow different p6 ; h s .
Differentiation: The
proce of separation
that causes the materii
inside aplanet or other
large body to form layers
according to their density.
HOW IT WORKS
^ASTEROID EVOLUTION
ach of the different asteroid
Efamilies
probably
derived
from
the break-up of alarger body.
Similarities of surface type tend to
c o n fi r m t h i s , b u t i n s o m e c a s e s
they reveal afamily composed of
several different types.
However, the majority of
main-belt asteroids are not family
members. Many are probably
small worlds that grew in the early
days of the solar system. The bias
toward S-types close to the Sun
and C-types farther away probably
Although about 35 percent of known asteroids
s e e m to fall into one family or another, and more
than 20 individual families are now known, that
still leaves 65 percent of asteroids unaccounted for.
Fortunately there is another way of making sense
of asteroids that involves studying their surface
composition by the way that they reflect sunlight. To
do this with accuracy, astronomers need to obtain a
spectrum (see Glossary) for each asteroid. t
Broadly speaking, asteroids fall into three main
groups, which used to be known simply as the
C-type, S-type, and M-type. C-type asteroids are
“carbonaceous” -they have surfaces covered i n
carbon-based molecules, and tend to be dark and
light-absorbing. S-types are “silicaceous they
have brighter surfaces, their spectra reveal silica
based rocks and minerals and they tend to be found
closer to the Sun. M-type asteroids are metallic
apparently they are large fragments of iron or
other metallic elements. These three main classes
steroids are unique as the only
A celestial objects that their discoverer
can name with little consultation. Each
asteroid bears anumber indicating the
order of its discovery (hence 1Ceres,
4 Ve s t a , e t c . ) . F o r m o s t o f t h e 1 9 t h
century astronomers stuck to the names
of classical gods, but as hundreds more
asteroids came to light, the rules were
relaxed. As aresult, there are now
asteroids with such diverse names as
2985 Shakespeare, 3834 Zappafrank, F R A N K Z A P PA T h e r o c k
6758 Jesseowens, 2309 Mr. Spock, and musician was the inspiration
9007 James Bond. for the name of aRterniri 3834
r e fl e c t s d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s o l a r
nebula from which they formed.
Other unattributed asteroids may
be fragments from “lost” families,
disrupted and scattered across
the belt during its long history.
The metallic asteroids for
example, must all have come
from inside the cores of larger
differentiated (see Glossary)
worlds. And many of the S-types
show signs that they have been
transformed by melting, probably
majority are not family members.
within alarger body.
 CO
SCI-FI
t o
W A S T E R O I D B E LT S
he asteroid belts beloved of science
T fiction movies are far from reality -
TO

at least in our solar system -and even CO

."A'
Z AT H U R A A m o v i e
adventure in the asteroid
belt that starts with a
magical board game.
around other stars, any region as
CO
crowded as the one that the two m
brothers in Zathura dwell in would
m
rapidly collapse into just ahandful of
larger planetesimals.
Some scientists estimate that the ITOKAWA
chances of an accidental collision while This has be
G)
crossing our local asteroid belt are scrutinized by
abillion to one, but mission planners Japan's Hayab
mission. a
still try to take the presence of known m
asteroids into account. This is mostly
so they can send spaceprobes safely of asteroids show arelationship to the three main
between them, but also to gather
types of meteorite found on Earth.
0
information from an asteroid flyby.
Despite this broad simplicity, there are many >
Close encounters with asteroids are

not just photo opportunities, either. additional complications -and to add to the
O
The effect an asteroid’s gravity has on apassing probe can confusion, there is not even asingle agreed list of
reveal its mass, and therefore its internal density. asteroid classifications. As measurement techniques o
improve, there are sure to be new subdivisions and
X
shifts of allegiance.
Of course both of the current classification
>
EROS A"gravitational map" CO
made by the NEAR probe systems ignore some of the key asteroid features,
was used to create this simply because we cannot yet measure them en 7 ^
contour map -reds are highs masse. Densities, for example, vary wildly among o
and blue lows. _
the few worlds so far measured. Two superficially D
CO
similar surfaces, for example, may hide the
difference between afairly solid world and an
m
orbiting rubble pile riddled with internal voids. It
seems clear that the many different features of
asteroids hint at complex histories we can only
begin to unravel (see How it Works).
-V
W

c o r e

undifferentiated
smaller asteroid

INTERIORS Large interiors m a i s t e r o

2 separate into layers, small 2FRAGMENTS Impactfrom

produces fragments Fragmented by glancing blow
ones remain uniform throughout. different regions of interior. re-forms into a"rubble pile".
GAGARIN On 12
April 1961, this Soviet
c o s m o n a u t b e c a m e t h e fi r s t
man in space and the first
to orbit the Earth.
Patrick Moore on the Apollo It Moon landins
“The Eagle has landed.” The gap
between the two worlds was
successfully bridged; Earth was no
longer isolated, and aLunar Base
became areal possibility.
In 1971, Mariner 9captured the
first detailed pictures of the great
volcanoes of Mars -for the first
time we started to find out what
the Red Planet is really like.
My next favourite probe is
Voyager 1. In 1979, this captured
the first really good, close-range
pictures of Jupiter, with its Great
Red Spot. Voyager 2followed, and,
in 1981, by-passed Saturn, sending
back images of the planet and its
satellites. The ring system proved to
be amazingly complex, with many
hundreds of narrow ringlets and
minor divisions.
In 1986, Giotto got close-up to
Halley’s Comet. The first close-
range images of acometary nucleus
were not in the least like what
many people had expected! It was
dark, with icy “fountains”.
The year 1990 saw the launch
of the Hubble Space Telescope. It
has enabled us to look farther into
HUBBLE Launched on the
Shuttle Discovery in April
1990, the space telescope
gives astronomers an
unsurpassed view of space.
space than ever before,
and has given us information
about the universe, which no
Earth-based telescope has been
able to do as yet Despite some
teething problems at the start of
the mission (see Breakthroughs) it
was still functionin in 2008, well ugens transmissions
probe got within
beyond its scheduled lifetime. 600km of Halley's surface revealed aworld with lakes
My ninth favourite probe is Spirit, Comet in March of methane and ethane, quite unlike
1986.
which landed on Mars in 2004. The anything else in the solar system.
Bearing in mind that Saturn is
Apollo 11 marked
almost 900 million miles from the
■M t h e fi r s t h u m a n Sun, and that Huygens had to be
exploration of carried by the Cassini probe before
rthe Moon.
being released automatically, this
was possibly the most technically
r This
difficult mission attempted to date
probe landed on
jSaturn's moon, It’s easy to appreciate the elation at
ITitan, in 2005. 1NASA when the mission succeeded.
 " o

ASTEROIDS
Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, billions of space rocks spin apath
around the sun in adougnut-shaped region called the asteroid belt.

steroids are dry, dusty objects too small

A and irregular in shape to be classified as

proper planets. Hundreds of thousands
of asteroids have already been discovered within
the solar system and there are millions more out
there. At present, the rate of discovery is around
5000 per month!
Despite the huge number of asteroids in the
main belt, they are quite well dispersed, and
unmanned spacecraft have been able to traverse
the belt without incident. Many asteroids have
been photographed by spacecraft en route to
other destinations, but the first dedicated asteroid
probe was NEAR Shoemaker which photographed
253 Mathilde in 1997 and landed on the surface of
433 Eros in 2001.

12
 >
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'■4- ■■■
[1] EARTH VIEW fc ’'J;

This computer-generated
image depicts aview of
■4
Earth from the surface of
=.Vi.
asteroid Toutatis, which /s> 1

approaches our planet

once every four years.
m C

[2] ASTEROID CLOSE-UP m

The rocky surface of
asteroid 433 Eros taken
#
by the NEAR Shoemaker
spacecraft.

V? -i.
[3] CHIP OFF THE OLD
BLOCK Ida and Gaspra
shown to the same

scale. Both appear to

be 'chips' made by a '■f4k
S i i
collisions between larger
asteroids.
i:4
- vl-JKtT
■
[4] COLOURFUL IDA
These exaggerated #
colour images of asteroid
243 Ida taken from

different angles clearly

show its irregular shape 6'

and cratered surface.

[5] PLANET LEFTOVERS

This artist's impression
of the asteroid belt
s h o w s t h e fi v e i n n e r m o s t
planets of the solar
system orbiting the Sun.
The asteroid belt lies
between the orbits of
Mars and Jupiter.

"13
 CD

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after abad pass. Discovered in January 1989, Toutatis revealed some interesting surface features, including two half-mile-wide craters and
three prominent ridges that form atype of mountain range -no doubt the outcome of violent collisions.
 K
GA
GA
Galileo's new telescope led to both
fame and misfortune as his studies of
the heavens brought him into conflict
with the Church.

G
GALILEO Born in alileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Pisa in 1564, the was born in the town of
great scientist
was known as the Pisa, Italy, the eldest son
"father of modern of an accomplished musician and
observational music theorist, Vincenzo Galilei.
astronomy".
Galileo’s interest in science arose

from watching his father

demonstrating the
mathematical
connection between

alute string and the

note it produces.
At 17, Galileo
enrolled at the

University of Pisa
to study medicine
but then switched
to mathematics.
I

Legend has it he
became fascinated

by the laws of
motion while

watching aswinging
chandelier in Pisa
Cathedral. He
worked out that the
G - a l i l e o ’s P e n d u l u m .
time apendulum
takes to swing back
CLOCK At the
age of 77, Galileo and forth (its period) does not
briefed his son to depend on the distance it travels
sketch aclock
(amplitude). As the time taken
mechanism based
on apendulum.
remains the same however large
the swing of the pendulum, Galileo
reasoned that this was the perfect
way to regulate aclock.
16.
 lowed that
X
II objects equally
m
leir mass. He
CO
Idifferent sized
I
maramp and
l o g r a p h e r Vi n c e n z o Vi v i a n i c l a i m e d G a l i l e e O
B demonstrated gravity’s effect by dropping two they took. This 7 3
metal balls of different mass from the top of Pisa’s le teachings of the
Leaning Tower. They landed together. The same :ician Aristotle, who
would be true of aheavy weight and afeather - that heavy objects
O
but only In avacuum, otherwise air resistance
would slow the feather down.
^ht ones.
>
Apollo astronaut David Scott tried this on the CO
airless Moon, using ahammer and feather, saying: I
“That proves Mr Galileo was correct in his out this and other
7 3
findings.” TV viewers saw the objects hit the lis book De Motu
ground simultaneously -luckily. In rehearsal, static
O
1592, he was
had caused the feather to stick to Scott’s glove 5Sor of
O
T E S T I N G G AV I T Y I t i s s a i d t t o t G a l i l e o ^adua University,
showed the effect of gravity by dropping with his scientific
two different sized metal balls from the
3ted by technology.
lematical
actical effect for
0
 m m
♦
m

I mM. celestial bodies were perfect. Galileo

INSIDE INFO also confirmed that Venus showed a
GALILEO’S TELESCOPE complete set of phases, waxing and
r
waning like the Moon.
aiiieo’s 20-times-magnification telescope proved
G arevelation, although by modern standards it’s He was now entering dangerous
awonder he saw anything. It was along tube with a territory as his observations clearly
smaller focusing tube attached. Unlike modern supported the views of Polish
types, it had two simple lenses: aconcave ocular astronomer Nicholaus Copernicus.
lens and aconvex objective lens. As Venus orbited the Sun, different
Lens-making was primitive and even the best
had agreenish tinge and air bubbles. The field of proportions of the planet would
view was just enough to see aquarter of the full reflect light, ranging from acrescent
M o o n . Ye t t h i s w a s t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f c h o i c e f o r Venus, when the planet was close to
two decades, until the true astronomical telescope Earth, to a"full Venus”, when it was
with combination lenses was adopted, giving an near the far side. This conflicted with
improved -but inverted -image.
the “geocentric” belief of the Roman
GALILEO’S MODEL A Catholic Church -that everything
revelation for the time, the moved around Earth at the centre of
first of Galileo’s telescopes
the universe.
magnified only 20 times. f‘

L.
EVIDENCE

In 1609, Galileo began designing his his observations about Saturn’s rings, Sceptics of the Copernican theory
own telescope. Within six months he which he recorded in 1659.) had said that if other planets were
made one that magnified 20 times. Galileo was one of several like Earth, why didn’t they have
He first turned his attention to observers to see sunspots, now moons too? Galileo now knew that at

least one -Jupiter -did. Although a

CCALLTRUTHSAREEASYTOUNDERSTANDONCETHEYARE devout Catholic, Galileo could not
DiSCOUERED;THEPOINTISTODISCOVERTHEM.” DIALOGUE In this ignore the evidence.
Galileo Galilei With awealth of observations and
book, Galileo
made the mathematical calculations, Galileo
revolutionary
the Moon and once again proved known to be cooler, turbulent
claim that the was now ready to publish in support
Aristotle wrong. The mathematician regions on the Sun’s surface. This Earth revolved of aheliocentric (Sun-centred)
had maintained that celestial bodies again disproved Aristotle’s claim that aound the Sun. universe but was warned against it
were perfect and hence smooth.
Galileo studied the line on the Moon
D I A L O G O
D I S C O R S I
that divides lunar day from night (the E

D I
terminator) and concluded that the D I M O S T R A Z I O N I
Moon’s brighter regions must be M A T E M A T I C H E ,
GALILEO GALILEI UNCEO
M AT E M AT I C O S O P R A O R D I N A R I O
uneven because they cast shadows, intorno adue nuoue [cienz^e DELLO STVDIO DI PISA.
Atcencnti alia
whereas darker regions were flat EFilofofo) eMafematico prtmArto del
Mecanica &i Movimenti Locali,
because they did not. From this he del Signor
S E R E N I S S I M O

deduced that the Moon had plains GALILEO GALILEI LINCEO,

GR.D VC ADI TOSCANA.
Filofofo cMatcmatico primario del ScrcnilTimo
and mountains like Earth. G r a n d D u c a d i To f c a n a . Doue ne icongrelfidi quattrogiomatc fi dilcorre
fopra idue
Next he studied Jupiter and saw Con vn4 jipfendice del centre digranite d'alcnni Soltdi.
MASSIMI SISTEMI DEL HONDO
three -and later four -little “stars” TOLEMAICO, ECOPERNlGANOj

in attendance. He correctly reasoned 'Brefiomdo mdeterminatamente leragioni Tilofefiche, eNaturaU

tantoper Fvna»quanto per tultra parte.
these were moons (now known
as Galilean satellites) orbiting the
planet. Saturn was more of apuzzle, C O N VILEGI.

presenting astrange “jug handled” IN LEIDA,

appearance, which he took to be Apprcflb gli Elfcvirii. m. d. c. xxxviii.
two large companions. (The Dutch IN FIORENZA,PcrGio:BatiIULandini MDCXXXII.
N r. 1 0 0
astronomer and physicist Christiaan CON UCENZA DE SVFEl{IORI.

N r. 9 9
Huygens later solved this puzzle with
 I
m
CO
I
O
<
O

>
CO

7 3
O

-<

o
o
>

O
O
INQUISITION
>
The Inquisition
demanded that
Galileo recant his m
the Sun, Moon, planets (“wandering stars”) and
blasphemous Sun-
true (“fixed”) stars. Ptolemy adapted this theory to c e n t r e d v i e w.
match the observable movements of the planets -
which seem to slow, stop and go backwards.
He claimed each sphere also held asmall off-
centre sphere (epicycle) on which its planet
revolved. Copernicus’ system was much like
Ptolemy’s (including spheres and epicycles) but he
put the Sun at its heart and Earth and the
planets in their correct order. It took Galileo and
his telescope to prove this was right.

PHASES OF VENUS Galileo’s observations of the planets,

such as this study of Venus (bottom), convinced him that the
Copernican view of aSun-centred universe was correct.
L
A C C E P TA N C E
by Cardinal Roberto Bellarmino, on Systems), published in 1632, openly It was not until

behalf of Pope Paul V. In 1623, a favoured the heliocentric view. the 20th century
Under threat of execution, Galileo that Pope John
more open-minded pope. Urban Paul II moved to
VIII, was elected and Galileo was recanted this view. All of his works correct the 350-

permitted to discuss the Copernican were banned by the Church and he year-old
condemnation of
theory as amathematical concept. was put under house arrest for life. Galileo.
provided he gave equal weight He was allowed to move on one

to both sides. But his subsequent occasion, to be nearer the doctors

work, Dialogo dei Due Massimi treating his failing sight. Galileo died
Sistemi del Mondo {Dialogue in 1642 at his home near Florence.

Concerning the Tvuo Chief World By then he was totally blind.

19
AU Rl GA and LYNX
Acharioteer circles the northern celestial
1

pole in the shape of the constellation

Auriga. Adjoining him is one of the faintest
constellations in the sky. Lynx.
I
uriga sleading star is Capella, the

A
CLUSTERS

sixth-brightest star in the entire sky at Auriga contains

three open
magnitude 0.08. Capella actually consists of a clusters, visible
pair of yellow giants, too close together to be seen with the naked

individually through telescopes on Earth. eye: M37 (left),

IVI33 ,
f
the largest but
In folklore, Capella represents the goat that suckled faintest; M36 «
the god Zeus when he was an infant. In the sky, the (centre), the
goat’s own youngsters are represented by the stars Eta most easily seen M 3 6

and Zeta Aurigae, known as the Kids. and M38 (right),

the most
Between Capella and the Kids lies one of the most scattered.
extraordinary stars known. Epsilon Aurigae. It is an " M37
*

immense supergiant, about 200 times the Sun’s

diameter and 50,000 times as luminous. Alarge, dark
companion eclipses it every 27 years, the longest
known period for any eclipsing binary. During eclipses
the star’s brightness halves and remains like this for
over ayear before gradually returning to normal again.
The dark companion may be aclose binary concealed
within an extensive disk of dust. The next eclipse of
Epsilon Aurigae is due to begin in August 2009.

CLUSTER TRIO
Dotted across Auriga are three star clusters that are
ideal for observation with binoculars. M36, the middle
of the trio, is the smallest but also the most prominent
because its stars are the most densely concentrated. he ancient Greeks

M38, the northernmost, is the most scattered, and its T usually identified the
constellation of Auriga with
brightest stars seem to aform across when seen
Erichthonius, alegendary
through atelescope. M37 is the largest and contains king of Athens who is
the most stars but they are the faintest. All three credited with the invention

clusters lie about 4,000 light years away in a of the four-horse chariot. In

neighbouring spiral arm of our Galaxy. recognition of this advance

in transportation, Zeus
S P O T T I N G LY N X placed Erichthonius among
the stars where he is seen
Between Auriga and Ursa Major lies Lynx, a holding the reins, although
constellation introduced in the late 17th century by the without the chariot or
horses. The Greeks did not
Polish astronomer Johannes Hevelius. He said that it
explain why he is depicted
would be visible only to the lynx-eyed on account of its
carrying agoat, Capella,
faintness. Lynx consists of azigzag of faint stars and and her two kids.
includes some interesting doubles for telescope users.
notably 12 Lyncis and 19 Lyncis
 *

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I N\ C A M E L O PA R D A i r S
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♦12
2 4 r 2 i \ \
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8'*
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PERSEUS
L Y N X
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NGC 2281 UU
6 3 M 3 8 NGC 1907

e% IVI36
1C 405

"16 I
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X
M 3 7

Einath M

TAURUS

uriga lies in the Milky Way between

Perseus and Gemini, almost directly north
□f Orion. It is highest in the evening
sky between December and
February, although you will
need to be north of about
y
latitude 30 degrees south
!to see all of it.

Lynx lies in the dark

ispace between Ursa
Major and Auriga. It is \

highest in the evening

sky between February and
!March and is visible north of
ialatitude of 28 degrees south. L O C AT I O N MAP

I
iABBREVIATION AUP ABBREVIATION Lyn I
BEST SEASON BEST SEASON

December to February February to March

BRIGHTEST S TA R BRIGHTEST S TA R

jCapella (a) Alpha (a)

of dust and gas of I0.1 3.1
nebula 1C 405. left, is
!SIZE RANKING 21 SIZE RANKING 28
lit up like a b u r n i n g
flame by the massive, jPOSITION Equatorial POSITION Equatorial
.hot star AE Aurigae.

21
 PLANET VIts surface

still glowing with

volcanic energy, the
hypothetical Planet V
looms out of the
darkness, causing chaos
and collisions in the
asteroid belt about 4
billion years ago.

PLANET
Eighteenth-century astronomers were inspired to discover the asteroids by
their belief in afifth planet between Mars and Jupiter. Was there anything to
their ideas, and could there ever have really been afifth rocky planet?

hen William Herschel discovered

W Uranus in 1781, he kick-

started aplanet-hunting
craze that continued for acentury and a
half. This new world happened to follow espite Planet Five ssomewhat patchy
an orbit that matched almost precisely D reputation, NASA scientists John
with the predictions of the so-called Chambers and Jack LIssauer revived the

Titius-Bode Law, an apparent basic theory in 2002. They wanted to explain

mathematical relationship between
planetary orbits. If Uranus proved that
the Law was true, then it left agap in the
middle of the solar system.
The Titius-Bode Law (explained in detail
in Issue 2of Build aModel Solar System)
predicted that planets should orbit the Sun at
certain intervals between 0.4, and 10 astronomical
units (AU), corresponding closely to the true orbits
of the known planets. The next step out from here
the Late Heavy Bombardment that pounded
the inner solar system with asteroid-sized
impacts around 3.9 billion years ago.
According to their “Planet V” suggestion,
the fifth planet formed between Mars and
the asteroid belt, and was disrupted around
4billion years ago into an elliptical orbit. As
close encounters with asteroids sent them
JOHANN TITIUS
plummeting towards the Sun and the inner
The German astronomer
solar system. Planet Veventually became
whose law predicted a unstable and plunged into the Sun itself.
fifth planet.

2^
 r*

chariot and was cast down X

to hi<; death. running out of control across the sky and crashing
to his doom in the River Eridanus. Krinov was

fascinated by tales of potential meteorite impacts >

and other respected scientists have noted how the
Phaeton myth could be interpreted as arecord of m
a n
encounter with arogue asteroid or comet a
But today, the Planet Five hypothesis itself

■)
I S largely discounted, believed only by afew

was 19.6 AU NBIRU According to

almost precisely matching the orbit
of Uranus, and so this raised an obvious question
about a“gap” in the sequence at 2.8 AU, between
Mars and Jupiter.
When Giuseppe Piazzi (see Space Stars) spotted
Ceres in roughly the right area of the solar system,
he was heralded as the discoverer of the missing
fifth planet. But as Ceres was joined by other
worlds including Pallas, Juno, and Vesta -each far
smaller than any known planet -it became clear
something was wrong.
Heinrich Olbers, discoverer of Pallas and Vesta,
was the first to suggest the present-day asteroids
might in fact be remnants of asingle, larger world
Zechariah Sitchin,
Sumerian tablets relate
how astronauts from
another planet, Nbiru,
told the ancient peoples
of the destruction of the
fifth planet.
alternative scientists and New-Age groups
adaptation of the basic theory, controversial writer
Zechariah Sitchin claims that Sumerian myths of
ancient Mesopotamia record the destruction of
Planet Five under the name "Tiamat".
This hidden knowledge, Sitchin claims, was
brought to the Sumerians by astronauts from
the lost planet, Nbiru. Most of these claims,
unsurprisingly, collapse under the slightest scrutiny
i

-Planet Five -broken apart long ago by some m

catastrophe. Olbers also predicted that many
more asteroids would be found around the orbit
a i
of this former planet. This prediction soon proved m i
correct but the rapidly diminishing sizes of newly
discovered asteroids showed that his suspected m

debris belt was not as substantial as he had hoped 5*.

m m

■i, r
T H E FA L L O F P L A N E T F I V E r

Throughout the later 18th century. Planet Five was rilTil

'■

gradually displaced by the so-called "accretion i

theory" -namely that instead of being shattered
I M i
fragments of alarger world, the asteroids are A
. . t o .
\ ;
potential pieces of aworld that never was. ^ X

Olbers’ idea, though, was still taken seriously

enough in the mid-20th century for the Soviet
scientist Yevgeny Leonidovich Krinov to give his
.23
COMING UP IN ISSUE 19 i

' * "

■U i : ■.‘’i 'M

^/LD
AMODEL m i l f T f n

sHAR i u

system jf
^precision "
E^^GI^/EEREDDRRER Y
19)

deep

'arauRd fhe
solars5^tem

V ■■

^ ■ .

PLUS
&
83-TOOTH GEAR

-9t
\
83-
tooth Gear POR THE
:CERESGEAR t r a i n

"Find out how impact craters shape
the surface of every solid world in
the solar system and what they tell
us about aplanet’s history.
"The ancient civilisations of
central America farmed to
precise calendars. Discover their
astronomical methods.
Ride with the IMEAR space probe
as it makes aclose encounter with
agroup of near-Earth asteroids.
♦
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C€ Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 STS
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BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM ft
m

19

APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY
#

DEEP
%

-fe.-

IK /IDA
kTi

r » i a r R ' V C S r f n l t i ff n a r l b ' / - -.i

aroufid the solarsystem .“F ?

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iWITH THIS :83-TOOTH GEAR FOR THE CERES GEAR TRAIN

BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
r^TURES M P O R TA N T
"The orrery is aprecision-engineered
kit. It ust be assembled and handled
"Parts not to be sold separately.
"The publisher cannot replace any
with care to prevent damage to its parts that are damaged or lost by the
3YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL parts, and stored or displayed safely to
ensure no parts are lost.
customer without charge.
"The publisher cannot be responsible 1
-The early astronomical devices that shaped our "Never use liquids or solvents to clean for any damage that may occur as a
knowledge of the solar system. the parts. For best care, use the result of incorrect assembly or
polishing cloth and dusting brushes mishandling of the orrery. Please ensure
supplied with the toolkit (free to you read all the instructions thoroughly
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE subscriptions customers). when assembling the parts.

0 We investigate craters and the high-velocity

"When assembling parts, lay them on a
flat table and keep screws and all small
items on atray so they can't roll away
"Ail tools ust be used with care,
following any safety guidelines provided
by the manufacturer.
impacts that cause them. and get lost. Unpack all parts carefully. "The publisher cannot be responsible
"The publisher reserves the right to for any injuries caused by any tools or
alter parts and their design at any time. materials.
MISSIONS
10
The NEAR-Shoemaker spacecraft's unmanned voyage
to one of Earth's closest asteroids, Eros. #

IMAGE GALLERY
yThis issue we're back down to Earth to show some
of our planet's most awe-inspiring impact craters.

THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

16
The importance of star-gazing for the ancient -
peoples of the Mayan and Aztec civilisations.

S TA R M A P
20
Agiant with awrithing serpent in his hands depicts
the constellations of Ophiuchus and Serpens.

UNEXPLAINED CREDITS
"IMAGES: FC Science Photo Library, (br) Science Photo Library/
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 o
c

CO
O

NS
::d
CO
MODEL SOLAR SYSTEM -<
"■'i CO
The interlocking,
moveable rings of the i

armillary sphere illustrate m

the motions of the Sun,
Moon and planets.
Your model solar system, or orrery, is part of a
rich heritage of astronomical devices that have
helped improve our understanding of the o
4 universe over two thousand years or more. a
m
r

0
M easuring and predicting the positions
of stars and planets has always been
the cornerstone of astronomy - m

without the ability to make precise measurements, >

G O
it is impossible to develop any theory of our place e

in the universe or the motions of celestial objects.

O
EARLY INSTRUMENTS
The earliest practical measuring instrument we 31
m
know about was the cross-staff, the first versions
X
of which probably date back to the Middle m

Eastern astronomers around 400bc. The cross¬ >

<
staff relied on trigonometry to calculate positions m

(see How it Works). Using this device, Greek G O

astronomers Timocharis and Aristillus charted the

positions of the brightest stars. Hipparchus of

Nicaea used it to recognise the precession of the
equinoxes (see Glossary) around 150bc.
Around 204bc the mathematician and

astronomer Eratosthenes of Cyrene introduced a

new instrument, the armillary sphere, which used
rotating, moveable measuring rings and sights to
bring new precision to his measurements. Over
the centuries the armillary sphere developed
into an educational aid -acomplex model of the
celestial sphere around Earth.
Hipparchus, meanwhile, introduced the
astrolabe -acircular disc that acted a s a d e v i c e
M for locating and predicting the position of the
stars (similar to amodern planisphere). It also
included asighting bar called an alidade, which
could be used to measure angles in the sky.
♦
/SsX HOW IT WORKS
^THE CROSS-STAFF
he cross-staff consists of two rods joined in across shape,
T so that the shorter “transom” can slide up and down the
main staff. The observer simply looks along the staff and slides
the transom so that its bottom aligns with the horizon and its
top with the object being measured. Because the transom and
main staff together form aright-angled triangle whose sides can
be measured, it’s easy to work out the altitude (alt) of the UNDERGRdUNb'^
target object using the formula shown. OBSERVAribWPart
of agiant, 40-metre
high sextant at Ulugh
Beg's observatory
In Samarkand. The ^ A

above-ground portion A
of the observatory was
tanqent fait/21=:x/v destroyed shortly after ^^
the astronomer's death

in 1449. This surviving

underground chamber
was excavated In 1908.

In the second century ad, another Greek-Egyptian

astronomer, Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy),
produced far more accurate tables of stellar
positions. He used an armillary sphere, but he may
also have been the first to use aquadrant (see
TO'SSE::*^
How it Works), asimple tool used to measure
D I S TAT 11 S R 1 M A R D 1 S . With arange of angles
covering one sixth of
vertical angles of separation. By measuring an
acircle, Tycho Brahe's object’s elevation as it crossed the meridian line
sextant helped plot the (see Glossary), and also recording the time of this
positions of the stars
"transit”, it was possible to work out its true
and planets with more
accuracy than ever celestial co-ordinates. The quadrant eventually
before. grew to enormous size and precision.

r
HOW IT WORKS

^THE QUADRANT
he quadrant, as its name suggests,
T is aquarter-circle, with a
measuring rod equipped with a pivots
sighting bar called an alidade.
T h e r o d i s fi x e d a t o n e e n d
but the other end can move

up or down through a90° hsights

aligned
to star

arc. In the portable example

shown, aweighted
plumb-line is used to
hold the quadrant
upright, and the
alidade is pivoted
until it lines up with
the target star or I
weights hang
planet.
i vertically
 Q L O S S A R Y
Precession of the
equinoxes: The 25,800-
year cycle of stellar
m o v (
lused by r
the wobble of Earth’s
axis of rotation.
Meridian line: Aline
that runs from due north .
to due south across
the sky at an observer’s -
location, passing
through the point directly
overhead. Objects reach
their highest point in the
sky as they cross the
meridian.
AIRrS TRANSIT CIRCLE
Designed by George
Bidden Airy, the alarge version, which was mounted on the side
transit instrument at
of awall and known as a“mural quadrant". Later
Greenwich was the
most accurate yet built. versions sometimes measured asmaller range of
Airy later oversaw angles: asextant covered one sixth of acircle (60°);
the establishment of
Greenwich as the basis an octant covered one eighth of acircle (45°).
of the global longitude
system. observatory of Uraniborg were more than 3m in
-<
IIMSIDE lIMFO o
THE ORRERY’S TALE | 7D
our Solar System Model is a
Y modern interpretation of the orrery,
CO
a n i n s t r u m e n t a s s u m e d t o h a v e fi r s t O
been built by English clockmaker George
Graham around 1704. Graham’s model 5
PD
solar system was mainly used as an
educational tool and to demonstrate the CO
solar system. The orrery cannot Itself
be used for measuring the sky, but it can make CO
accurate predictions of celestial movements. Ancient H
Greek astronomers seem to have developed similar m
models -Archimedes apparently built one that was
taken to Rome after his death in 212ec, and Pappus
of Alexandria wrote abook on their construction. It’s
possible that the mysterious Antikythera Mechanism
(see Issue 3J, an ancient Greek astronomical
MODERN MODEL O
calculator, is actually afragment of one of these
Your orrery Is part U
of along tradition of
ancient orreries. m
Isolar ^stem models. r —
0
The 9th-century Arab astronomer al-Battani built radius and allowed precise measurements down
to aminute of arc (Veo of adegree). It was the m
precision of Brahe’s planetary measurements >
i f )
that allowed Johannes Kepler to unlock the laws d
7 D
of planetary motion for the first time: and it was
these laws that allowed the precise modelling of O
Tycho Brahe’s mural quadrants at his island the solar system displayed in the first orreries and H
inherited by your own solar system model. X
m
X
TELESCOPE TECHNOLOGY m
The arrival of the telescope in the early 1600s >
<
revolutionised astronomy. As well as bringing m
fainter objects into view it also magnified an G O
image, allowing finer details to be discerned and
separated. This revealed awhole range of new
cosmic wonders.
In 1638, English astronomer Williiam Gascoigne
invented ameasuring device for the telescope -a
micrometer eyepiece. By aligning two thin plates
of metal to the positions of two objects in the field
of view, it could measure their precise separation.
Telescopes were also applied to the early
technology of the quadrant, resulting in the "transit
instrument" -atelescope mounted so that it was
precisely aligned with the observatory’s meridian
line. It could only swing up and down, with its
precise elevation indicated by ameasurement
arc on one of the supporting walls. Transit
instruments, combined with accurate clocks,
allowed the best measurement yet of the positions
of stars, and led to the development of the precise
star atlases we use today.
<F
 Impact craters shape the surface of every

CLUES solid world in the solar system, and provide

some important evidence for working out
the history of the planets.

from CRATERS
t’s hard to believe today, but there was atime,
not too long ago, when most astronomers GROVE K.GILBERT ri843-i9i8] -
doubted the possibility of craters formed by
impacts from space. Up until the space age, of
course, there were few clues that craters were so
widespread in the solar system the only heavily
cratered world we knew about was the Moon.

Telescopes revealed only the largest lunar craters -

those which could realistically have been formed as
volcanic calderas (see Glossary).
The impact explanation, first proposed by
Grove K. Gilbert in 1893 (see Space Stars), gained V

some ground through the early 20th century, as \

geologists started to identify some impact craters

on Earth (see Breakthroughs). But the true extent

M A R T I A N C R AT E R T h e
M a u n d e r C r a t e r,
captured by ESA's Mars
Express. Although large
-90km across -it is very
shallow -barely 900m
deep. Much deeper
when it was formed, it
h a s s i n c e b e e n fi l l e d i n
:■
with surface material.
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o S H a n o u H i m ^ u a

VtCTORVACR KThis
800m-wide Martian crater
has distinctive scalloped
edges, caused by erosion.
INSIDE INFO
T H E L AT E H E AV Y B O M B A R D M E N T
m
Si
M A R E O R I E N TA L E
This lunar "bull’s
"eye” was the result
of impact by an
asteroid-sized object.
HOW IT WORKS
C R AT E R F O R M AT I O N
his sequence
T shows what
happens when a
10km-wide meteorite
hits arocky planet or
moon. The crater is
much larger than the
impactor and the
meteorite usually
vaporises on impact.
Some fragments may
be left at the site.
back through the impactor itself, with equally S AT U R N ' S M O O N
lapetus is heavily
devastating results. Typically the incoming body
cratered -the largest
is ripped apart, melted, and splattered across the (bottom left) is over
walls of the growing crater. 500km wide with a
Finally, as the shockwaves dissipate and the 15km-high rim.
interior of the crater starts to cool and solidify, its
bottom rebounds, rising back up to flatten out the
initial bowl shape. In some cases this pushes up a
central peak. Meanwhile, gravity reasserts itself
-above acertain size, the steep-sided crater
walls are simply unsustainable, too heavy to
support. In this case, the crater walls can
slump inward, creating terraced edges.
So what can craters reveal about
the surface on which they have
formed? Their most important
l i
here are several theories to explain the wave of major
T impacts that coincided with the sudden drop tn the
Irate of cratering across the inner solar system, ^out
%3.9 billion years ago. The simplest theory is that by
this time most of the material in the solar ^^stem had
accumulated into larger bocfies -the preseet-day pten^
and moons, and anumber of substantial “planeteslmaJg“.
tens of hundreds of kilometres across. Only afew
planetesimafs in the asteroid b^ sun^d imact.
Avariation on this idea suggests that asmatlp fifth
planet, between Mars and the asteroid belt, became
unstable at this time, sending asteroids turning into the
^inner solar system before it eventuafly ptiaiged into the
^Sun [see Issue 18. Unexplained}.
Other theories blame the bombarcfrnent on astow drift
in the orbits of the gas giants, or on the late formation of the planets
Uranus and Neptune. In both cases, the bombardment ««5uld have been
caused by icy objects from the outer edge of the“SDter s^em, rath®*
than by rocky asteroids.
incoming impactor
impact
shockwave shockwave
r o u n t a i n
expands
APPROACH The I M PA C T A s i t l a n d s , E X PA N S I O N T h e
1 impactor approaches 2 the meteorite creates 3 shockwave expands,
the surface at several ashockwave through the throwing material out of
kilometres per second. surface of the site. the site in afountain.
 VA L H A L L A T h i s c e n t r a l
part of the 3800km-wide O
multi-ring impact crater
%
on Jupiter's moon.
Callisto, is 600km across.
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role is undoubtedly in dating different strewn solar system and the current situation n

surfaces. Because they accumulate happened i n a short period about 3.9 billion years
over time, it’s easy to see that the ago. Most of the left-over material was swept up i n CO

longer aparticular terrain has been
exposed to bombardment from
space, the more craters it will have
D AT I N G C R AT E R S
Thanks to rock samples collected on
the Moon by the Apollo missions, we
can elaborate on this basic idea. Since
the first 600 million years after the planets formed,
7 D
culminating in the “late heavy bombardment o
afinal hailstorm of asteroid-sized objects that
formed the huge craters now filled by the lunar n
seas. Since the end of this bombardment, cratering
>
has continued at amuch slower and steadier pace.
Ejecta blankets and rays thrown out by acrater’s T O
CO
formation can “sea any features below them

there are only limited amounts of debris proving that they are older than the crater itself.
floating around the solar system, and it Features formed on top of acrater’s ejecta i n

obviously gets “used up over time, we contrast, must be younger. Detailed crater counts
would expect the rate of cratering to have can help determine the rate of cratering with
been heavier when the planets were young surprising accuracy, so the age of asurface can
Using atechnique known as radiometric dating. often be dated to within afew million years.
geologists were able to establish the exact age
of rock samples from different landscapes. They
found that the change between an early, debris

s h o c k w a v e surface central peak

rarefaction

l a v e

DEPOSIT The ejected DISPERSAL The SETTLEMENT The

4 material lands in a 5 crater floor rebounds, 6 crater cools and
blanket around the pushing up acentral s o l i d i fi e s a n d t h e w a l l s
impact site. peak as material settles. slump inwards.

9
The first of anew generation of space
probes, NEAR met and exceeded its
scheduled expectations -at afraction of the |
cost of the usual unmanned space mission.

aunched as the Near Earth neighbours in space after the Moon.

Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) This was the first of NASA's

on 17 February 1996, the Discovery Program launches (see

probe was renamed NEAR-
Shoemaker in honour of Gene M.
Shoemaker (see Space Stars).
The purpose of the mission was
to study the asteroid Eros from
orbit for about one year. Thousands
of times bigger than some of its
neighbours, Eros is part of agroup
known as the near-Earth asteroids
(NEAs). They are believed to have
Inside Info). It was also the first
planetary mission controlled by
anon-NASA centre -the Johns
Hopkins University Applied Physics
Laboratory.
The spacecraft, which was roughly
the same size as acar, included a
device to measure the asteroid s

broken away from the main asteroid magnetism, aspectrometer to

belt, which lies between Mars examine its composition, an
and Jupiter, and are our nearest electronic camera and alaser

G L O S S A R Y

Prograde: Also
known as direct

motion, t t h e
movement of a
satellite in tf
same direction as
the rotation of the

object it is orbiting.
Retrograde: This
is the moveme of
asatellite in the

opposite direction
to the rotation of

the object is it
orbiting.

An image of
Psyche, the
largest crater i i
on the asteroid,
a s N E A R fl e w his has been planned as series of small-scale
100km above
the surface in
T spacecraft designed to go from development
to flight within three years for atotal cost of less
September 2000.
than $150 million. It was founded to implement a
radical vision of “faster, better, cheaper’
planetary Discovery missions proposed by NASA
N E A R a d m i n i s t r a t o r, D a n i e l S . G o l d i n .
was launched Discovery missions may be proposed by any
on 17 February organisation in industry, businesses, government
1996 from laboratories and universities. NEAR-Shoemaker
Cape Canaveral cost $220.5 million, atotal which included
aboard athree-
$43.5 million for the launch vehicle and $60.8
stage Delta II
rocket.
million for mission operations after the launch.
 IN ORBIT This

artist's impression
shows NEAR as it
orbited asteroid
433 Eros.

PRE-FLIGHT Last-
minute checks
were made on
the probe at the
Kennedy Space ^
Center before it ^
was encapsulated
for launch.

imaker space probe

magnetometer

Finally, it was^cfecided to attempt

iThe spacecraft alanding on tlie asteroid. This was
was mechanically
simple and achieved on 12 February 2001, just
■g e a r e d to the south of asatWle-shaped
towards ashort
feature, called Himeros. Incredibly,
development and
test time. the spacecraft was undamaged
and operatonal, and continued to
transmit until 28 February 2001
before it was shut down.

(1928-1997)

rangefinder to survey its precise
shape. The mission called for NEAR
to cruise around the Sun, making a
©SPACE
STARS EUGENE M. SHOEMAKER
5September. Further manoeuvres in
mid-October led to aflyby to within
just 53km of the surface of Eros.
G ene Shoemaker was aplanetary geologist
who was well known for his work on

extraterrestrial impacts and for his

flight adjustment in March 1997, Following this close flyby, the collaboration with his wife, Carolyn, in
then get agravity assist from Earth in spacecraft moved out to a200km the study and discovery of
January 1998 to fly past Eros in circular orbit. The orbit was also comets. He became known to

December 1998. In January 1999, a modified from aprograde (see the wider public when m

rendezvous manoeuvre was carried 1993, he co-discovered the

Glossary) near-polar orbit to a
Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9
along with his wife and
t h e C a n a d i a n a s t r o n o m e r,
David Levy.
Shortly after his tragic
Dr. Andrew F. Cheng NEAR Project Scientist death in acar accident

In Australia in July
1997, his ashes
out to put NEAR on a13-month retrograde (see Glossary) n e a r -
were launched In a
heliocentric orbit, which closely equatorial orbit. By 13 December capsule aboard the
matched the orbit of Eros. On 14 2000, NEAR returned to a35km Lunar Prospector
February 2000, NEAR was finally low orbit. Starting on 24 January spacecraft to the
Moon.
inserted into an Eros orbit. 2001, the spacecraft began a s e r i e s
The orbit was slowly decreased to of passes to within 5-6km of the SHOEMAKER The
would-be astronaut in
a35km circular polar orbit by 14 July asteroid surface. On 28 January, honour of whom the NEAR
and was then increased back out in NEAR passed extremely close ~to probe was renamed.

stages to a100km circular orbit by within just 2~3km of the surface.

EARTH CRATERS
Despite its protective
atmosphere, Earth is not
immune to meteorite impacts,
and craters can be found on
every continent of the planet.

arth’s atmospheric shield destroys the

majority of extraterrestrial bodies that
come hurtling towards our planet. Most
so small and travelling at such great speeds that
they boil away on their incoming journey. But a
meteorite with amass greater than 10,000 tons
can puncture our atmosphere quite easily, creating
on impact acrater that is usually 20 times larger
than its own size.

Every million years. Earth experiences at least

impact large enough to produce a20km-wide
o n e

crater. Tectonic activity has changed much of the

planet’s surface, erasing many of the craters that
were formed, but about 170 have been identified
 [1] INDIAN IMPACT
[3I1
■ 4 «
A s a l t w a t e r l a k e fi l l s t h e

50,000 year old Lonar

b ' V '
K

i,:-' crater in Maharashtra,

>
India. The crater is nearly G)
two kilometres across

and 170 metres deep.

CD
[2] METEORITE >
REMAINS
h The Wolfe Creek crater
■ m
in Australia still has
remains of the meteorite
that formed it on site. - <
Curious balls of rock,
containing fragments of
the nickel-iron meteorite,
lie scattered around the
crater rim.

[3] RING CRATER

The Aorounga crater in
the Sahara was originally
covered by sediment,
* which was then partially
eroded to reveal
the crater's ring-like
appearance. -if/ '
'i >">
*

■ .

[4] FIRST PROVEN

Sunrise illuminates the
Barringer Crater in
Arizona, USA. At 1.2 ■ / ■

kilometres wide, it was

formed 50,000 years ago
by anickel-iron meteorite
50 metres across.

.%V'i -
■SSK F>:
■ r

^./ "

- V

>■: r
^ ■
 ci,»5'«»*i.
f t

-ts-sew-
W .
M

(51 " r

[5] DEVASTATING IMPACT: 65 million years ago, amountain-sized asteoroid, about 10km in diameter, collided with Earth at Chicxulub on
the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. This formed a200km-wide crater and threw up trillions of tons of dust into Earth's atmosphere, cooling it
 >
CD
m

CD
>
r
m

<

significantly. The shock waves would have triggered global wildfires, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and alayer of dust and particles could
have covered the entire surface of Earth for years. Some believe that this huge impact was responsible for the mass extinction of the dinosaurs.
 M AYA N a n a

ASTRONOMY
Mayan and Aztec life revolved around asacred calendar.
Keeping this as accurate as possible required aknowledge of
astronomy that matched anything the Old World could offer.

he Mayan and Aztecs were year. This is known as its zenith maize, their staple food crop,
the two greatest civilisations transit and was identified by placing and, interestingly, the time they
to arise among the peoples astick vertically in the ground and estimated the average pregnancy to
of “Mesoamerica” -central America noting the days on which the stick last (actually 266 days).
EYE TO VENUS
-during the period before the did not cast ashadow.
This observatory,
Over time, aclass of Mayan
Spanish conquest. Mayan astronomy Between one zenith transit and in the Mayan ruins astronomer-priests appeared
of Chichen Itza in
arose from the early farming the next, the Sun rises 260 times. who were both sky-watchers and
Mexico, is aligned
communities, who saw the rhythms This was also how with the motions keepers of time. They developed a
of life reflected in the cycles of the long it took the o f Ve n u s . calendar called the Sacred Round
Sun, Moon, stars and planets. farmers to 'tzolk’in”, based on the 260-day
In Central America, the Sun plant and cycle. This was linked to a365-day
harvest calendar and inter-meshed to form
passes directly overhead twice a

■m
 BOOK OF
j;.. H
ASTRONOMY
The Dresden
I
C, 0-0 Ginommtsm :lS " " # " » «
mmmm"

Codex is one of m
a>(s«oi0
10:110; ano I only three codices CO
■i 0 ' 4 0 | D } 0 f e
:mOiOl(£) 77 S S' S t=T T=" f<
nggp
to have survived 1
£a.\ ^ " fl o - H from the Mayan
v, \ a m w ' ^ 0
iV’0|©.!Q '0 ;£S> :© ."© "O) -0-0 g... era. Written just
o
fi ® ;O:0iO S=: before the
iai0i© s . - oa i Q '
"O " Spanish invasion,
it contains
o
C. "; "

astronomical data
inscribed in ~ n
■^ ^ 1 ~ glyphic text along
t
with depictions of
>
_ ;G>.-||o.-eDiOH0 to liS,■
7 ^"B©-IO-©i(C!3- CO
oai^sW: foiioaota-lio\es> various Mayan
:iti£?:i0:oilGi[i gods.
"te"o.:/o:c>.fe ?o c
"IIG>;i(J7.'0-«Oj.| 7D
" » " o O

adual calendar, which ruled all
aspects of Mayan life (see Inside
Info -The Dual Calendar).
Unlike the Old World, the Maya
did not base their dates on solar
years and lunar months alone. As
asolar year takes slightly less than
365V4 days and alunar month
so acalendar based on the Sun Mayan astronomical tables
o
and Moon becomes increasingly record the phases of the Moon over
inaccurate over time. Instead, 11,960 days (405 lunar months).
the Maya chose to regulate their This was significant as 11,960
dual calendar through long-term divided by 405 is 29.531 days -the SOLAR ECLIPSE
0
observation of the Sun, Moon, >
average lunar cycle accurate to three An artist's
N
impression of
planets and stars, adjusting as decimal places. The Maya linked
Mayan people m
necessary to iron out celestial their astronomical observations with
observing asolar O

lasts slightly more than 29V2 days. inaccuracies. their 260-day calendar. eclipse. >
z
o

>
THE DUAL CALENDAR -<
>
he Mayan calendar was Calendar Round of 18,980 days z
T based on the 260-day (or 52 years -aMayan >
Sacred Round or tzolkin. Each C O
lifespan). Special dates were H
day was given one of 20 names recorded on the "Long Count”, a 7 3

plus anumber from one to 13, continuous calendar starting in o

making 260 combinations. A
second calendar, the haab*,
consisted of 18 twenty-day
periods [veintenaj plus five
“unlucky days” (uayeb), making
the 365-day solar cycle.
By linking the tzolk’in and
haab’ the Maya created a
31 14bc. This was intended to Z
record all Mayan history but the o
last date marked was 18
- <
January 989.
CELESTIAL CALENDAR
Afragment of aMayan astronomical
table depicting the eclipses.

. 1

SJ AO-^CD
If o

^nv y r . i 1 *
040 oialies -^'iOO'CH©
* "

io o*<s»-H0":©
\
O'-Q
i ^ =90 i£3'0*0

*^1*] %' M M W W

S f
 #
®BREAMAYAN
KTHROUGHS
ASTRONOMY
m m m m
0 1 2 3
# "
6 7
5
1 0 1 1 1 2
1 5 1 9 1 7
The Maya attached particular
importance to the appearance of
Venus, first as the morning star and
then as the evening star, giving it
equal status with the Sun. They
charted its appearances over 65
“Venus periods” -the complete
cycles of its various phases.
Meticulous observation was
necessary to maintain the accuracy
of their dual calendar, as the
movements of the celestial bodies
were regarded as indicators of the
universal forces that impacted on
the Mayan life.
iiASTREAMOFCOMETS,VISIBLEINTHEOAYTIME,THAT
RACEOFROMWESTTOEAST,SHOOTINGOFFSPARKSOF
FIREWITHSOCHLONGTAILS,THEYFILLEOTHESKY.”
Fourth bad Aztec omen
Astronomer-priests studied the
sky for any signs that might indicate
auspicious or inauspicious dates so
that their kings could plan rituals,
festivals and battles around them,
often far into the future.
The Maya also produced asolar
eclipse table based on a177-day
cycle. They needed to estimate
when one might occur in order to
prepare for it. Eclipses were seen
as atimes of extreme peril for the
s>
D AY S I G N S A
The Aztec solar
TECHNiUUES
year had 18
months that were 1
20 days long.
he Maya proved what can be achieved with Each of the days
T complex maths and simple instruments. were given a
4
Mayan maths was based on 20 rather than 10,
using asystem of dots and dashes that could
number and also
asymbol, shown y
cope with numbers up to many thousands. They here on the right.
" " " "
were among the first cultures to use zero.
8 9
To chart the sky, astronomer-priests used a
cross-staff, adevice known to the Ancient
Greeks. (For adetailed explanation of across¬
staff see page 3How it works.) Centuries of I
1 3 1 4 observation enabled the priests to calculate
celestial movements with great precision.
H E AV E N LY
" " " "
I
TOWER The
MAYAN MATHS By using three symbols -adot. abar astronomical
1 8 1 9 and azero symbol (usually ashell) -the Maya created a observatory at
number system that was far more effective than the the Mayan ruins
European Roman numeral system of the same period. of Palenque in
Mexico.
Maya -possibly signalling the end
of the world.
To this end, they built special ■■■■ 'm-
structures to observe the sky, such
as the circular Venus Observatory
at Chichen Itza, the Observatory
Tower at Palenque, and the zenith
tube (used to view celestial objects
directly overhead) built into an
artificial cave at Xochicalco.
Surviving Mayan illustrations
show that many of the techniques
they used to chart the sky were well
known to the Ancient Greeks (see
Mayan Astronomy Techniques).
The Classic Period ended in
bloodshed and environmental
disaster. The Toltecs appeared next
and absorbed Mayan beliefs into
their own. Then, from the north,
came the Mexica, or Aztecs, who
adapted Mayan-Toltec culture
to fit their own mythology. The
Aztecs used the 260/365-day dual
calendar but, as Sun worshippers,
regarded the solar year as more
important. Like the Maya, they
 mjm:p.r4. \

I i 4 T
m
AZTEC SUN STONE
LD
he ornately carved Aztec Sun Stone was 1
1
T
i n
m i
3.6m across and weighed 24 tonnes. The
central face depicts the Sun god, its tongue
O
shaped like asacrificial knife and its claws -<
holding the hearts of two human victims. Aztecs
believed the world was in its fifth epoch, having O
been destroyed four times before. These past
I I
epochs are depicted in the four squares around
■]
m j ^ the face. Surrounding these are 20 day names, >
V V CO
which are combined with 13 numbers to create
I
260 dates. Other symbols on the stone have
7D
astronomical and mythological significance,
including the seven stars of the Pleiades. O
believed the last five days of the
year were unlucky and never ABLOODY END? It is not clear

ventured outdoors at that time. how the Sun Stone was actually used o
but some believe it may have been a
The Aztecs feared dawn as atime s a c r i fi c i a l a l t a r .

when the Sun might fail to rise.

So, ritual sacrifices were used to
ensure the Sun was well nourished
0
with sacrificial blood to sustain its

journey across the sky, m

Aztec rule was brought to a O
violent end by the arrival from >
z
Spain of Hernan Cortes and his
u
Conquistadors. This event came
as little surprise to the Aztec >
» -

S T O N E D AT E priests, however. They believed the r<

>
Astone carved downfall of their king Moctezuma
with symbols
had been foretold, having already * i
>
showing adate
witnessed celestial omens - U 1
from the sacred H
A z t e c c a l e n d a r. including acomet -in the sky. 7 0

BREAKTHROUCHS
/^JS O
^END OF THE WORLD -<

T heAztecs.
end of the world was very real to the
They believed it had been
destroyed at least four times before. This is
depicted in their most famous artefact, the
Sun Stone (see Inside Info -Aztec Sun
StoneJ. Their main ritual was the New Fire
Ceremony, when priests looked to the sky
for signs that the Sun would continue to
rise. This festival always coincided with the
passage of the Pleiades constellation
directly overhead.

SACRED LIFE This leaf from the

Bourbonicus Codex, housed in what was
formally the Bourbon Palace in Paris,
depicts the New Fire Ceremony ritual.
 )PHIUCHUS and
SERPENS 1

too faint to see without atelescope. It has the largest

proper motion of any star, crossing the apparent
diameter of the Moon every 180 years.
EAGLE NEBULA
This giant cloud
FLYING WITH THE EAGLE
of interstellar

gas and dust is a The head of the serpent (Serpens Caput) precedes
conspicuous Ophiuchus across the sky, while its tail (Serpens
region of active
star formation. Cauda) follows. And it is in the tail that the sensational
Eagle Nebula lies, surrounding the star cluster M16. If
you view the region of sky through asmall telescope
only the cluster will be seen, covering an area similar
to that of the full Moon. Photographs through the
Hubble Space Telescope and other large telescopes
have revealed dark columns of dust within the nebula,
Agiant with awrithing serpent bestrides termed "pillars of creation” by NASA.
the evening skies of northern summer. Near the tip of the serpent’s tail lies 1C 4756, an
even larger cluster best seen with binoculars. In the
The giant is the constellation Ophiuchus head of the serpent, close to the border with Virgo,
and the serpent he holds is Serpens, the lies one of the finest globular clusters in the northern
only constellation that is divided into two, sky, M5, about half the apparent size of the full Moon.
It can be seen through binoculars as asmudgy patch,
one half on each side of Ophiuchus. but telescopes are needed to show its brightest stars.

nthe far south of Ophiuchus, just north of Antares,

lies Rho Ophiuchi, aremarkable multiple star. ivS/REVIVI^ DEAD
Binoculars will show that it has two wide companion
stars, one on either side. Turn asmall telescope on it he ancient Greeks

and, under high magnification, the central star can be

T identified Ophiuchus
with Asclepius, their god of
seen as aclose double. Photographs show that ahuge
medicine. Asclepius is said to
cloud of nebulosity envelops this stellar family, and
have had the power ^
extends over the border into Scorpius. to revive the dead, a
Move north to find 70 Ophiuchi, awide double of technique he reputedly i
learned when he watched
yellow and orange stars divisible through the smallest
one snake revive another by
telescopes. The pair orbit each other every 88 years.
placing aherb on its body. In
the sky, Asclepius holds the
FA I N T N E I G H B O U R
snake -asymbol of rebirth
Amore obscure celestial celebrity in Ophiuchus is from the fact that snakes

Barnard’s Star, second only to the Alpha Centauri triple shed their skin every year.
system in its proximity to the Sun. Although it is only
5.9 light years away, Barnard’s Star is ared dwarf and
20.
 \ ! CORONA BOREALIS N

/ i
/
/
/

/
/
\
\ \
4 k

Rasalhague a

P^QUtLA

SCUTUM \

a o n

Sun passes through

Ophiuchus in the
M5. Tills iI S fi r s t h a l f o f
perhaps the December but
most spectacular
despite this the
globular cluster constellation is
visible irom
the northern not regarded as
amember of the
hemisphere.
zodiac.

E
L O C AT I O N MAP

ABBREVIATION Oph ABBREVIATION Ser

BEST SEASON BEST SEASON

June-July June-August
I- *
BRIGHTEST S TA R BRIGHTEST S TA R

Rasalhague [a] 2.1 Unukalhai (a] 2.6

2

SIZE RANKING 11 SIZE RANKING 23

<
POSITION Equatorial POSITION Equatorial
 The TUNGU5KA On 30 June 1908, amysterious explosion

EVENT devastated ahuge swathe of remote Russian

forest, yet left no crater. Theories still abound
about what caused the "Tunguska Event".

he first the outside world knew about this

cataclysmic explosion came from earth
tremors and awave of atmospheric
pressure that rippled round the planet in the hours
that followed. It wasn’t until 1921, though, that
anyone thought to investigate,
Suspecting that the cause w a s
probably a
meteorite impact, Leonid Kulik (see Space Stars)
led an expedition in 1927 to find and investigate
the site of the blast. The journey led them through
difficult countryside where the inhabitants still
remembered the blast from 19 years before

UNDISCOVERED DEVASTATION
The site of the blast lay in the middle of remote
forest that was avoided by superstitious locals, so
Kulik’s team were the first to witness the scene of
devastation. Vast stretches of forest had been
completely flattened around the impact site

22
 X

>

forming abutterfly-shaped area some 30km across. MOMENT OF IMPACT liTHERESULTSOFEVENACURSORY

WhentheRussiansreachedthecentreoftheblast, This series of artist
impressions shows the EXAMINATIONEXCEEDED
ALL
THETALES
theyfoundnosignofacrater,andmanytreessti final moments of a OFEYEWITNESSESANDMY
Standing,thoughcharredandstrippedoftheir meteorite heading
WILDEST
EXPECTATIONS. H

branches. It seemed that whatever caused the towards Tunguska

Leonid Kulik
fireballhadexplodedbeforeitreachedtheground.
THEORIES BEHIND THE BLAST andtheeffectsreportedatTunguska.Another
important parallel with nuclear ex plosions came
Intheabsenceofanobviousculpritforthe from the blast pattern —at both Hiroshima and
explosion, scientists and enthusiasts made iHr.m
some imaginative suggestions. Some Tunguska,objectsdirectlybeneaththeexplosion
had remained
upright. Laboratory tests using
blamed objects such as antimatter and
black holes. The use of the first atomic
bombs in 1945 produced another
1 smallerexplosivechargesandmatchstickforests
s u
iggested that the object which caused the
theory, as similarities were seen between Tunguska Event had exploded at an altitude of
around 8km.
theaftermathofHiroshimaandNagasaki
4 .
Foralongtimethemostwidelyaccepted
* V
' 4 ^ theory blamed the expll o s i o n on acomet breaking
aboveSiberia.Acomet,withitsicycoreand
& i
small amounts of dust and dirt, seemed the ideal
explanationforthelackofdebrisattheimpacts i t e .
WAS IT ALIENS? In 1959, This idea began to unravel in the 1950s as n e w

Alexi Zolotov claimed to expeditions discovered glassy spheres of material

have detected abnormal
in the nearby soil. These seemed to be solidified
levels of radioactivity In
the soil at Tunguska, dropletsofmaterialmeltedintheexplosion.They
fuelling speculation of were rich in nickel and iridium -elements often
UFO activity. found in asteroids and meteorite s .
f'SilF- f
M

®BREAINSIDE
KTHROUGH
S
COMETS
S

Thefinal
blow to
the
spaceprobes comet
have theory
revealed has
morecome
aboutin
recent
the decades,
structure of comets
a s

-■W i t
and asteroids. Meteorite experts have as aresult been able to
calculate the effect of objects entering Earth’s atmosphere, and
proved that no comet could survive intact to aheight of just 8km
above the surface -instead, it seems clear that the Tunguska
explosion was probably caused by arocky meteorite that exploded as
’V.:
materials inside it were heated to boiling point during its fiery descent.
-iSt
4

<^3
 OMING UP IN ISSUE 20
S E L F - TA P P I N G GRUB
SCREWS SCREW
■ \ .

£
ii£
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build amodel

SOLAR ^
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1 ORRERY

meteors and
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PLANET GEAR ARM^.

Even after the first manned Moon Discover how asign in the sky was
landing, the Apollo programme responsible for an ancient battle
continued to push the envelope of .that changed the course of history.
lunar exploration. Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,
C€ Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 STS
"Find out how the scholars of WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts,
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"See what meteorites can tell us
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 (N) An Eaglemoss Publication -AWeekly Publication. UK £5.99 ROI €9.99 Malta €8.99 Australia $14.95 New Zealand $16.99 South Africa R89.95

BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM T- 20'^

APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY

METEORSand
METEORITES
Constantly BOMBARDING
EARTH with fragments of
.CELESTIAL BODIES

■WITH THIS ISSUE 22-TOOTH GEAR AND GEAR ARM TO COMPLETE CERES PHASE
 #

BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR 0

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FEATURES
AY O U R S O L A R S Y S T E M M O D E L
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^What was the sign in the sky that inspired aRoman
emperor to win avital battle?
/
I M P O R TA N T
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SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE flat table and keep screws and all small following any safety guidelines provided

0 We are constantly bombarded by meteorites. Find out

what they can tell us about other celestial worlds.
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,MISSIONS
‘Apo O S
12-17 explored the Moon in detail and
overcame near-disaster. Find out how. CREDITS II I

IMAGE GALLERY IMAGES: FC Pikaia Imaging ;2-3 Forman Archive/Naprstek

Take alook at the spellbinding light shows in the sky,
courtesy of meteor showers.
THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY
Find out how the ancient civilisation of India gave
birth to mathematical astronomy.
S TA R M A P
Turn your eyes towards the constellations of Aquila
NASA GSFC, (r) Eaglemoss/Simon jMuseum, (br) Corbis UK/Lindsay
Anning; 4-5(tl) akg-london/Jean- Hebberd; 18-19{tl) Wikimedia
Louis Nou, (bl) akg-london/Peter |Commons, (bl.tc) TopFoto/Charles
Connolly, (tc) Eaglemoss/Julian Walker, (cr) NASA/HSF, (br) akg-
Fletcher, (tr) Alamy/ArkReligion. london/Ria Novosti; 20-21(bl)
com, (be) Alamy/ReligiousStock, Science Photo Library/Eckhard
(br) Pikaia Imaging; 6-7(tl) Galaxy Slawick, (bc,tr) Pikaia Imaging, (br)
Picture Library/John Costello, (bl) Galaxy Picture Library/Michael
TopFoto, (tr) Science Photo Stacker; 22-23(tl,br) Courtesy of
Library,(cr)SciencePhotoLibrary/|MichaelFarmer/meteoritehunter.
Detlev van Ravenswaay, (be) com, (tr) Kobal Collection/
Science Photo Library/Pascal Universal, (cr) Science Photo

the eagle -and Scutum -the shield. Goetgheluck/Francois Robert; 8- Library/Alfred Pasieka (be)
9(tl) Robotics Institute/CMU, (bl) Courtesy of Mike Baillie, (br)
NASA/JPL.
THE UNEXPLAINED Galaxy Picture Library/Robin
Scagell, (be) Galaxy Picture
Is it possible that disease on Earth is caused by Library/UWO/UnIversity of While the publishers have made
m i c r o - o r q a n i s m s from distant space? Calgary, (tr) Pikaia Imaging, (br) every endeavour to find the
TopFoto/Phottri; 10-11 NASA/ copyright holders of the
MSFC/HSF, (bcl) Rex Features/ photographs featured in this
SNAP; 12-13(bl) Science Photo issue, we would be pleased to
Library/John Foster, (c) Galaxy hear from anyone we did not
Picture LIbrary/Juan Carlos manage to contact.
Casado, (tr) Corbis UK/Reuters/
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i
A N . - - LOUIS CALMELS
C O f J S U LTA N T E O H . . ^ V G I L E S S PA R R O W
S Y t s i r PAT R I C K M O O R E C B E F R S
e V i T H E I N T E R N AT I O N A L A S T R O N O M I C A L U N I O N

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WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
Keep out of reach of children. Keep this information for reference.
Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.
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I
j . . r
■<
o
c
i

c n

TO

R: CO
-<
CO
H
m

With this issue you can

complete the fourth
phase of Stage 2of the o
solar system model and D
m
add Ceres to the already
completed Phase 3. 0
o
o

ou have now collected all the

components to build the fourth phase of

Stage 2of your solar system model, in
CO
which you add the dwarf planet Ceres along with
the gear set that drives it. You can also attach the >
Q
gear chain that will link to Jupiter in the next m
phase. The assembly instructions for this phase h O

are on pages 3-5 of Issue 17 of Build AModel T l

Solar System.
>
Agrub screw in the gear collar enables the C O
m
planet support arm to be slackened off so that
Ceres can be aligned against its name on the base
plate and top engraved gear. Gently re-tighten the
grub screw once Ceres is aligned.

CERES The completed

Phase 4of Stage 2
of your solar system
model. This drives the
dwarf planet Ceres
in orbit within the

asteroid belt, beyond

the planet Mars.
#

SIGN
in the STARS
In ad312, abattle between would-be Roman emperors
changed the course of history -but could asign in the
heavens be partly responsible for its outcome?

ncient chronicles and folktales often speak former emperor and apowerful figure in his own

A of signs in the sky that foretold of great

events on Earth. It is all but impossible to
identify what might have been afleeting celestial
visitor -apassing comet or even abright meteor in
the sky. And even if we can identify what it was
those ancient people saw, any supposed link
between events in the
C O N S TA N T I N E T h e
right. Constantine had been declared emperor by
his own troops at York in the distant province of
Britannia, and this battle would be the culmination
of along period of civil wars.
In theory, the two sides were evenly balanced,
but on the eve of battle, something happened
that may have given

Roman emperor
heavens and those on CCINTHISSIGNSHALLYOUCONOUER.” Constantine the edge.
who ended the state Earth is down to As reported by Eusebius of Caesarea, Father of Cburcb History It is said that the
persecution of Christians. superstition and anxious general had
astrology. Or is it? avision of agreat cross in the sky, and heard a
In late October ad312, two rival Roman emperors voice declare that he would win the battle. He
SWigliKl
 G L O S S A R Y

HOW IT WORKS Staurogram: Ac ' O S S

with acrescent at its
O
i#RECREATINGTHEMILVIANCGNJUNCTION head -combining [%}
and rho (p) in asingle 7 3
sing your solar system sign -(see below).
u model, you can set the
CO

following co-ordinates to O
recreate the conjunction that
preceded the Battle of the
Milvian Bridge in ad312. 7 3
CO
E a r t h
-<
CO
Object Setting I
Mercury 2 1 5 ° m
Venus 3 5 7 °
Earth 3 4 °
M o o n Equivalent to 337°
M a r s 3 4 5 °

Jupiter 2 8 2 °
IVIercury
O
Saturn 2 8 3 ° D
Uranus 2 6 7 ° Neptune m
Neptune 1 9 4 ° r
Pluto 3 0 9 ° S TA U R O G R A M T h e
sign of the cross that 0
soon began appearing H
all across the Roman X
Empire. m
ayear, he had passed laws on the toleration of unmistakable cross by the presence of two bright
CO
Christianity, beginning its rise from apersecuted stars, Fomalhaut and Altair, flanking it to either side. CD
sect to the official state religion. Its new symbol, the As if to confirm the favourable sign, Jupiter, Saturn MEDAL This shows
interlocked Greek characters chi (%) and rho (p) was and Venus soon closed to within 3degrees of one the staurogram, the
soon appearing all across the empire. another in one of the most remarkable conjunctions sign of Jesus Christ,
flanked by the Greek
of the period. X
letters symbolising the
REAL OR IMAGINED Was this conjunction the sign in the heavens beginning and the end.
CO
According to the account of Eusebius it was this that spurred Constantine to change the course of
symbol -the first two letters of the Greek word history? We can never know for certain, but with >
kristos -that Constantine saw in the sky “above the your completed solar system model, you can assess SIGN IN THE SKY A CO

Sun”. Another account, written by Lactantius, says the evidence for yourself. Do this by manually simulation of the "Chi-
Rho alignment" that
he saw the Christian staurogram symbol (see adjusting the positions of the planets to see how
occurred in the Euopean
Glossary). But can we ever really know they appeared in the skies above Rome that skies on the eve of the
whether Constantine saw something fateful night (see How it works). battle of Milvian.

real in the sky, or if it was an

entirely personal vision?
According to an intriguing
new theory, perhaps we can.
It transpires that the late
October skies of ad312 saw

i aremarkable conjunction of
bright planets and stars.
Venus was just appearing in tf
evening sky after sunset, close tc
star Nunki in Sagittarius, and ma
line of planets stretching across t
sky. On the eve of the battle, this
through Jupiter, Saturn and Mars
the first-quarter Moon, making a
What was more, the line was tra
S o u t h - W e s t
 ROCKS from the
Many tonnes of materfal fall from space every day, but only afew small
fragments make it to^Earth as anything bigger than dust*particles. These are
the meteorites -fragments of other worlds. !

FIREBALL The Leonid
fi r e b a l l s e e n f r o m t h e
USA as it streaked across
the night sky on 18
ook up on any clear, dark night and you may asteroid belt between Mars, and Jupiter and found
i
see abrief streak of light across the sky -a itself swept up as its own orbit around the Sun
shooting star or meteor. The vast majority of ^intersected that of Earth. Such objects create much
these short-lived celestial fireworks are caused by brighter and longer-lasting meteor trails, and can
particles little larger than aspeck of dust. They sometimes reach the surface in asmouldering
enter Earth’s atmosphere at speeds of several lump of charred stone. Rocks from spaceThat
kilometres asecond and land on Earth are
burn up due to friction CCASTONECANNOTFALLFROMTHESKY known as meteorites.

November 1999. with the thin gases.
Most of these particles
are small fragments of
rock or ice left behind in
G L O S S A R Y
the wake of comets, and they present no threat to
Planetesimal: Asmall
-FOR THERE ARE NO STONES IN THE SKY.
19
Because they
Antoine Lavoisier, 18th-century French Scientist and Nohleman
originate from small
worlds unchanged
in 4.5 billion years,
this means they can reveal agreat deal about

world formed in the early
solar system -one of
t t building blocks of the
ine1
people on the ground below. the origins of our solar system. Occasional rare
Occasionally, though, alarger and more meteorites have crossed the void from other
substantial chunk of rock enters the atmosphere planets, and offer scientists avaluable opportunity
-usually aboulder that has strayed from the to study their rocks in an Earthbound laboratory.

I
*1 BREAKTHROUGHS / i

^FROM WORLDS BEYOND /

■■
nthe early 1980s, meteorite The most famous Martian
meteorite is ALH 84001. In this ■
experts analysing ameteorite
from the Allan Hills of Antarctica particular case, ateam of NASA
codenamed ALH 81005 noticed scientists detected what could j

its strong resemblance to Moon be traces of ancient Martian

rock. It turned out we had Moon life (see Issue 16, Solar System
rocks on Earth all along without Guide). I
realising it. The same thing I

happened with Mars after the

MOON ROCK Afragment of lunar
Viking landers sent back the first meteorite that was found at
detailed information about Antarctica. It was sold in auction I

Martian rocks. for several thousand dollars.

i
6
*

I
 V d

suggests that carbonaceous chondrites have never o

been heated to even moderate temperatures, and >
so preserve material in the most pristine state TO
The next most common type of meteorite is CO
the achondrite class, accounting for eight percent
of all discoveries. As their name suggests, these c n

meteorites lack chondrules -they often resemble

igneous rocks found naturally on Earth. They show
C l e a r signs that they have been “processed” by

geological activity such as melting and volcanism O

inside larger worlds. It seems clear that the
achondrites originated in the crust of large
a

There are several different types of meteorite

each of which has adifferent tale to tell of its

origins among the asteroids. By far the most

common are the chondrites. These account for up
to 86 percent of all meteorites. Outwardly they are
dark and crusty (from the charring and melting as
they entered the atmosphere). But their interiors
are filled with small balls of (usually) silicate
minerals -chondrules -melted at the edges and
clumped together to form the larger meteorite.

ASTEROID BELT
These chondrules are thought to be preserved
material from the original solar nebula out of which
the planets formed. Although silicate minerals tend
to be the commonest type, five percent of
chondrites are “carbonaceous” rich in water and

carbon-based organic molecules. The fact that

BIRTH OF THE PLANETS body in the asteroid belt. In other cases, the
This artist's impression of original planetesimal may be lost forever -either
the formation of the
solar system shows the catastrophically shattered by amajor col i s i o n

source of the most or absorbed into one of the other worlds of

common meterorites -
the solar system. Ahandful of achondrites are
the chondrites.
thought to originate from the Moon and Mars (see
Breakthroughs).
The third major type of meteorite are the i r o n s .

They account for five percent of all meteorites

CHONDRULE SECTION
This microscopic section
shows the interior of a
and their metallic appearance makes them
particularly easy to spot. Although dominated by
they often contain traces of nickel, which
iron.

stony meteorite, or makes them very similar to the cores of the rocky
chondrite. planets. The outer surface of iron meteorites is
 ith the exception of the iron
w meteorites, most of the rocks that
fall from the sky are, at first glance, hard
to tell from any other rocks found on
Earth. Unless someone happens to see
their descent, they can be very hard to
find and identify.
In the 1920s, American meteorite
collector Harvey Nininger realised there
was asimple solution to this problem
-namely to look for meteorites in
landscapes with no natural stones. Taking
his lead, meteorite hunters now scour
some of the world’s harshest terrain,
including the deserts of Australia, North
NOMAD This robotic vehicle w a s
America and North Africa, and even the
used to search foArre t e o r i t e s i n
icy wastes of Antarctica. the wastes of Antarctica.

usually transformed by their high-temperature

CCl
WOULD
RATHER
BELIEVE
TWO
YANKEE
PROFESSORS
WOULD
plunge through the air. Their interiors normally n

survive intact, and frequently display criss-cross LIE, THAN THAT STONES HAVE FALLEN FROM THE HEAVENS.
Thomas Jefferson, 3rd President of the United States of America
lines known as Widmanstatten patterns. These
show that the metal grew into large crystals as it
solidified, cooling over several million years. This
suggests the iron meteorites originated in the
cooling cores of large planetesimals.
One final type of meteorite is the "stony-iron
class. These account for just one percent of all
known meteorites, and contain amix of metal
and stony achondrite material. It seems that they
are fragments of material from the boundary zone
between the core and the mantle of large, we
d i ff e r e n t i a t e d a s t e r o i d s .

Roughly 500 separate meteorites hit Earth

every year. Their descent usually creates abrilliant

*- * ‘T

IRON METEORITE

Agood example of s
relatively rare iron
meteorite.
 M E T E O R I T E S AT N I G H T
Meteors and meteorite
falls are more common
for any location after
midnight than before.
This is because between
midnight and midday the
location is on Earth's
"leading" hemisphere,
facing into any incoming
debris. Conversely,
before midnight any
debris entering the
atmosphere must first
"catch up" with Earth's
own 30km/sec orbital
speed.
FROZEN METEORITE
Ascientist holds arare
carbonaceous chondrite
meteorite, frozen within
ablock of ice .This
example comes from the
meteorite shower in the
Yukon Territory on 18
January 2000.
V per cent of the world’s nickel.
CD
O
more particles collide
>
few particles are fast enough head-on with Earth
to catch up with Earth —,
CO
CO
m
midnight
O
1— particles graze
Earth’s atmosphere
a
m
0
meteor known as afireball, and if an object is wider the strewn field. In one case, fragments of
o
large and robust enough to survive into the dense the same meteorite have been found in both
o
Australia and Antarctica. 7 s
lower atmosphere, it is often slowed in its descent, C O
However, the speed of any meteor encountering The lower density of these meteorites also
7 0
Earth depends not just on its speed along its orbit, means that they tend not to form craters where
O
but also on the angle at which it meets Earth. they land. Usually only large dense iron meteorites
cause that kind of devastation. One rare exception
STREWN FIELD to this rule was the 2007 Peru meteorite -a
The composition of ameteorite can affect the way chondrite that broke up during its descent. It
CO
it reaches the ground. Even large chondrites and was moving so fast that its fragments remained
-<
achondrites tend to break apart during their together, and hit the ground with enough force to
descent through the atmosphere. These result in make asubstantial crater (see Unexplained).
meteorite showers that are scattered across an
N E X T:
elliptical area known as a“strewn field”. The higher THE
the atmosphere ameteorite breaks up, the
eteontes have been used as valuable
M sources of pure metal since the earliest
times. Native Americans and Inuit are
j r
among the peoples that used meteoritic iron
to make tools and weapons, and, in more
modern times, the prospect of mining metals
from meteorites has attracted many keen to
make aprofit.
Although Daniel Barringer’s mine (see Issue
19, Solar System Guide) was the first and
most famous, the most successful are the
modern mines in Canada’s Sudbury Basin.
Here, the remnant of a10km-diameter
impact 1.9 billion years ago, still supplies 90
MINE WORK Aminer # '
drills the nickel meteorite
3t Sudbury Basin.
 Overcoming each and every one of
the challenges thrown at them, the
Apollo missions made manned flight
to the Moon, to the uninitiated at
least, look almost routine.

mission to boast acolour TV Lovell, John L. jack Swigert and

camera, but it was accidentally Fred W. Haise -used the Lunar

pointed directly at the Sun Module as a“lifeboat”. Making a

destroying the vidicon tube single pass around the Moon, the
immediately. Following two moon crippled spacecraft was piloted
walks, the spacecraft returned back to Earth for what was assessed
to Earth on 24
I I U ' i I
N o v e m b e r.

The third planned Jim Lovell, Apollo 13%

lunar landing mission

was Apollo 13. It was launched on as a“"successful failure". Its

11 April 1970. Two days into the
mission, though, the spacecraft was
iseverely damaged by an explosion
i n the Servi ce Modul e. Wi thout
oxygen and electrical power in the
Service Module, the crew -James
dramatic story became the subject
of asuccessful feature film (see
Sci-Fi).
It was with some trepidation
therefore, that the next Apollo
mission, 14, was launched on

APOLLO 13

n1995 amovie, based on praised as acompelling

the book Lost Moon by Jim drama of agenuine space
Lovell and Jeffrey Kluger, was event. Most of the dialogue
P e t e released. Starring Tom Hanks between the controllers and
Conrad (left). ollowing the success of the as commander Jim Lovell, the crew was taken directly from
Dick Gordon and Apollo 11 mission in 1969, fi l m s h o w e d t h e r e s c u e o f the mission transcripts.
Al Bean pose in NASA’s Apollo pro: r a m m e Apollo 13’s crew following
front of aLunar HIGH DRAMA In this scene, the
continued successful Moon landings the explosion in the Service characters film the damaged Service
Module mock-up
until 1972. Module. The movie was widely Module after its release.
during training at
Cape Canaveral. Just over three months after the
historic first Moon landing, Apollo
12 was launched with acrew of

Pete Conrad, Richard Gordon and

Alan Bean.

After alaunch on 14 November,

the second Moon landing occurred
on 19 November, with most
of the descent being achieved
automatically. This was the first
10
 he LVR, built by Boeing, had It had a200W electric motor

T been in development since driving each wheel and could

1959. Popularly known as the carry two astronauts and their
Moon Buggy, it was designed equipment at speeds up to
to fold into aspace 1.5m by 19km/h. Four rovers were
0.5m and weighed in at 209kg. built, but only three were used

Amid the

celebrations at
Houston Mission
Control, Flight
Director Gene
Astronaut Eugene
Kranz enjoys a Gernan checks out
well-deserved theTOver (^mg
cigar on the t h e fi r s t o f t h e

recovery of the m i s s i o n ’ s E VA s ;

Apollo 13 crew.
31 January 1971. There were
several problems that challenged
both mission controllers and
crew, including afaulty docking
mechanism shortly after launch and
potentially disastrous computer
problems on the Lunar Module
shortly after separation. The first
was solved with some tricky flying
manoeuvres and the second by the
manually entering asoftware patch
that required eighty keystrokes just
in time to prevent the ascent stage
from separating from the descent
stage. The nine-day mission ended
successfully on 9February 1971.
rover (see Inside Info), which
greatly enhanced the EVAs (see
Glossary). Apollo 16, the tenth
Apollo launch and the fifth to land
on the Moon, was also the first to
land in the highlands, at Descartes.
Apollo 17 was the final mission
to land aman on the Moon and

Lunar Module pilot, Edgar Mitchell,
The final Apollos were planned as
long-duration stays with greater
emphasis on the science
experiments. All three missions
featured the addition of alunar
was also the first night launch, on 7
December 1972. The programme
had been planned to Apollo 20, but
the last three were cancelled due to
ashrinking NASA budget.

APOLLO 14 The
Saturn Vrocket
is launched
on 31 January
1971 from Cape
Canaveral.
Aboard were
Alan Shepard,
Stuart Roosa and

Edgar Mitchell. J

APOLLO 16
Commander John
Young salutes the
flag during one
of the astronauts'
three Moonwalks. |
■4 . . ’

m
 \

METEOR DISPLAYS
Few sights are more beautiful or thrilling to behold in the
night sky than the fleeting streaks of bright light known as
meteors or shooting stars.

[1] NOVEMBER NIGHTS

V eteoroids are small pieces of rock or dust floating around in space

-the debris lost from comets or asteroids. Upon entering Earth s
The Leonid meteor

shower occurs every year

atmosphere, ameteoroid leaves atrail of light, or meteor, as it around November 17.

burns up on its inward journey. Travelling at thousands of kilometres per hour, This image shows Leonid
meteors in the night sky
these tiny objects are not visible to the human eye. In fact, ameteor is the above Japan.
visible event of light created by the heated atmosphere around the meteoroid,
[2] WHAT'S IN ANAME?
rather than the object itself. Few meteoroids survive the journey to Earth’s
Meteor showers appear
surface. Those big enough to do so are known as meteorites. to emanate from a
At certain times of the year, our planet crosses ameteoroid stream -a radiant, and are named
after the constellation
trail left by acomet as it orbits around the Sun. As Earth passes through the
where that radiant is
meteoroid stream ameteor shower ensues. The most spectacular of the found. The Leonids
meteor showers is the Leonids, which produce ameteor storm every 33 years appear to start in the
with hundreds and thousands of meteors appearing every hour. constellation of Leo.
 \\ .
>

Q
>

- <

meteors fell per hour in

this meteor shower on
14 December 2004.

[4] FALLING FIREBALL

Apair of Leonids streak
through the sky. One is a
fireball, which is more
dazzling than atypical
meteor. Afireball usually
has amagnitude of -3 or
brighter, seen at zenith.
[5] SUPERSONIC GRAINS OF SAND Aswarm of meteors creates bright fireballs in Earth's upper atmosphere, high above the Indian Ocean.
As awave of compressed air builds up ahead of the supersonic meteoroids, each one no larger than agrain of sand, it heats the particles to
 NDIAN
ASTRONOMY
The world owes agreat debt of gratitude to
the ancient Indian scholars. Their discoveries
in maths and astronomy pushed forward the
boundaries of scientific thought.

ndian civilisation has one of the harmonise solar and lunar cycles.
longest continuous histories of At first, mythology and astronomy
astronomy of any culture. were combined. Astronomer-

References to astronomy appear in priests regarded the Sun, Moon

ancient sacred Hindu texts called and planets as gods who influenced
the Vedas, dating from 2000bc or the seasons, weather and human
possibly much earlier. fortune. To find auspicious dates for
The sacred rituals,
aWHEN ONE SUN SINKS
earliest Indian they studied
calendar was BELOW THE HORIZON, ATHOOSANO the sky for
based on SUNS TAKE ITS PLACE.”
conjunctions
the Moon’s Sanskrit verse and

phases but oppositions

was later combined with asolar
calendar divided into six seasons
-spring, summer, autumn, winter,
and "rain” and "cool” seasons -to
plan optimum times for planting
and harvesting. The standard year
lasted 12 months, with an extra
month added every five years to
of the celestial bodies. The sky was
divided into 12 sections for the
Sun and 27 or 28 sections for the
Moon. The zodiac constellations
were named after real or mythical
creatures, such as the elephant,
crocodile, tiger and unicorn.
As astronomer-priests began
ASTROLOGER to focus on the mathematical
An illustration of
relationships they noticed between
an astrologer
from aIndian Earth and the motions of the
manuscript. celestial bodies they developed
mathematical astronomy. Even
sacrificial altars were built on
S TA R C H A R T A
H i n d u " Ya n t r a " o r geometrical lines.
astronomical map. Early Indian sky-watchers were
the first to note that the Sun is a

*
A star and that eclipses are regular,
predictable events. The sage
1!

Yajnavalkya (c.ISOObc) devised a

I |s jaoffcjo <a sooodv
;}
95-year cycle to synchronise solar
I
m
ii-
m s o n m and lunar cycles, and the ancient
' 'tmaom wlmamn
astronomer Laghada (c.1350bc)
^^3
,fm used aform of geometry to track
I planetary movements.
i I W lE
1
THE CLASSIC ERA
r-

3 ; I
In ad427, amajor observatory -
-■"V. . ^ ^. a::.
'j
li "Khagola” (meaning star-sphere) -
J.r "

was built at the Buddhist University

 ■r

BREAKTHROUGHS

©INDIAN
MATHEMATICS
C O

Indian
mathematicians
maths, developed
geometry and trigonometry much
so the
of H

necessary to carry out the complex O

measurements and calculations used in 7D

astronomy. In Europe, arithmetic was once

called the Modus Indorum or Indian method.
o
Geometry developed In India by using cords
(shulba) to design geometric shapes for
s a c r i fi c i a l fi r e a l t a r s a n d i s k n o w n a s s h u l b a - >
sutra (cord rules) today. Hindu scholars C O
combined zero with nine numerals to create I
70
modern decimals. They were also the first to
use powers of ten, and invented the basics of E A R LY T E C H N O L O G Y A n a s t r o n o m e r o
algebra, calculus, quadratic equations -and surrounded by his equipment, including an ted light, eclipses
much more. astrolabe, zodiac tables and an hourglass hadows cast by, or
O
and lunar phases
are due to the Moon’s position in
of Nalanda, in Bihar state. Northern A S TA R P U P I L relation to the Sun and Earth -

India. The Indian name for

astronomy, “khagola-shastra” (star-

Khagola’s star pupil and later the
university’s head, Aryabhata
knowledge far ahead of the West at
that time.
0
sphere-system), comes from this. (ad476-550), is India’s most N A L A N D A Aryabhata realised that Earth
celebrated astronomer O B S E R VAT O R Y D
The building of Khagola spun on its axis, and that the
The ruins of >
marked the start of the classic mathematician (see Space Stars). apparent movement of the stars Z
Nalanda, one of
period of Indian mathematical His best-known work, Aryabhata- t h e w o r l d ' s fi r s t was afalse impression: “Just as a >
astronomy. Scholars built ingenious Siddhanta {or Aryabhatiya), written universities.
man in aboat moving forwards CO

instruments to map the sky, such in ad499, was acompendium of sees stationery objects as moving
O
as armillary spheres and precision past wisdom and new g
|j| k. backwards, so... stars are
Z
sundials, as well as devising discoveries. The seen to be moving.’’ o
mathematical formulae to explain Aryabhatiya explains ^He correctly
their observations. Their discoveries that the Moon calculated day
were set down in texts called planets length at 23 hours
“siddhantas’’. wi th 56 minutes 4.1
 7

v v f 1425), made many contributions

A R YA B H ATA I (AD47B-550) to maths and astronomy. His
formula for calculating pi (the ratio
ndia’s most famous astronomer and ^ of the circumference of acircle to
I mathematician, Aryabhata, was born in Pataliputra its diameter) as an infinite series
(modern Patna). His greatest work, Aryabhatiya, was was re-discovered by the scientist
written when he was just 23. Aryabhata believed in
James Gregory and is now called the
proving theory by observation and put science above
everything -even cultural taboos. As ahigh-caste “Madhava-Gregory series”.
Brahmin he was forbidden to look at an eclipse or put Madhava founded aline of

to sea. He did both, observing the ad519 solar scholars that continued unbroken
eclipse from aboat off the coast, as this gave the until the 1700s. Among them,
best view and alevel horizon to work from. He is the
Parameswara (1360-1455) wrote
father of the Hindu-Arable number system which has
become universal today and has had asatellite and
30 works and produced the most
lunar crater named after him. accurate observations of planetary
motions until Danish astronomer
R E M E M B E R I N G A R YA B H ATA T h i s Tycho Brahe (1546-1601).
statue of Aryabhata stands in the grounds
of the University of Pune in the western
Indian state of Maharashtra. O B S E R VAT O R Y E X PA N S I O N

From 1526, India entered aperiod

of Muslim Mughal rule. One effect
seconds, ayear as 365 days 6hours Pradesh. Among its was to fuse Indian and Islamic

12 minutes (just 3minutes out) and famous teachers was astronomy methods. Maharajah Jai
Earth’s circumference at 39,959km Brahmagupta (ad598-668) Singh II (1688-1743), ruler of Jaipur,
(actual: 40,067km). who wrote the Brahma- built five stone observatories and

sphuta-siddhanta other astronomical instruments to

A F T E R A R YA B H ATA
Followers expanded on Aryabhata’s
work and made further discoveries.
Varahamihira (ad505-587) wrote
(ad628), which
introduced negative numbers.
Nalanda University was destroyed
by Muslim invaders in 1197, but by
rival those of the great Islamic
astronomer Ulugh Beg, including a
CHAKRA
giant sundial, Jantar Mantar -
Y A N T R A
accurate to two seconds.

about the force that holds objects
onto Earth and keeps celestial
bodies in position -pre-dating
Newton’s theory of gravity by 1000
years, and Bhaskara I(ad600-680)
was the first to use decimals with
zero represented as acircle.
Aryabhatiya was translated
into Arabic in ad820 by Muslim
scholar Al-Khwarizmi, and later into
Latin. This and later Indian works
influenced the Golden Age of Islamic
Science and Europe’s Renaissance,
and led to the development of the
Hindu-Arabic numerals we use
today. Aryabhata’s computation
the Middle Ages, India’s centre of
learning had moved to the School
of Astronomy and Mathematics in
the western coastal state of Kerala.
Its head scholar, Madhava (1340-
This ringed From the 1750s, India increasingly
instrument was
came under British rule. European
used for finding
the ascension and
traders needed better maps of the
declination of sub-continent, so observatories were
planets and stars. built for geographer-surveyors to fix
their position precisely by the
stars. The first was at Madras,
followed by the Calcutta
Observatory, the Royal
Observatory at Lucknow, and
Takhta Singhji Observatory.
Many were equipped with
astronomical clocks, and
spectroscopes (to examine the
chemical composition of stars)
and also used for scientific

methods were closely followed by research.

the compilation, by the 11th-century Following the Madras

Muslim scholar Al-Zarqali, of the famine of 1886-87, an
Tables of Toledo -the standard star observatory was opened at
guide for centuries. Kodaikanal in 1900 to find

Mathematical astronomy alink between drought and

was also practised at Ujjain sunspots (solar magnetic
Observatory, in the state of Madhya storms). While based
18
 GIANT SUNDIAL here, astronomer John Evershed
The sundials at X
discovered the radial motion of
the Jantar m
sunspots.
Mantar Royal CO
Observatory was
built on avery MODERN ERA
large scale O
Work by Indian astronomers TO
to improve the
declined under British rule, but was -<
accuracy of
readings. revived by interest in the 1898 solar
eclipse, visible from India, and
O
1910’s re-appearance of Halley's
comet. Universities at Calcutta, >
CO
Allahabad and Benaras offered
1

0
D
>

>
CO

X )
O

FIRST WOMAN astronomy courses and, by -<

ndia fi r s t used ro l e r i ng
as weapons against
Kalpana Chawla
the Anglo-Mysore Wars of 1792 and ’99. Captured rockets w a s t h e fi r s t
independence in 1947, India was
were adapted by William Congreve for use by the British against Indian woman in once more in the forefront of space
French and American troops. After gaining independence in space. Born in science. In 1952, the Indian
1947, India began anew India, she moved
Astronomical Society was founded
rocket programme. India’s to the USA to
become an and India’s first radio telescope was
Space Research
astronaut. built at Kodaikanal.
Organisation (ISRO), founded
i n 1 9 6 9 . s e n t i t s fi r s t Tragically, she was Anew era began with the launch
killed in the
satellite, Aryabhata, into of India’s first satellite in 1975
Columbia Shuttle
space on 19 April 1975 disaster in 2003. (see Inside Info). In 1984, Rakesh
aboard aRussian SL-8
Sharma became the first Indian
rocket. India now builds its
own launchers (the latest “gaganaut” (from the Sanskrit word
being the Geosynchronous “gagan” meaning sky), spending
S a t e l l i t e L a u n c h Ve h i c l e ] t o eight days aboard Salyut-7 space
put communication, station. India now plans its own
surveying and research manned space-flight programme,
satellites into orbit.
beginning with atwo-crew low-
Earth orbit (LEO) mission scheduled
for 2015, with the aim of putting
S AT E L L I T E L A U N C H gaganauts on the Moon by 2020.
India's first satellite, From Moon-watching to Moon
Aryabhata, atop arocket
landing -Indian astronomy has
ready for launch at a
Russian space centre. come along way in 4000 years.
AQUILA and SCUTUM
An eagle spreads its wings in the skies of northern summer. This is
the constellation Aquila, an ancient figure known to the Greeks.
To its south lies amore modern constellation, Scutum, the shield.

quila sbrightest star is Altair, one of the three CELESTIAL SHIELD

A stars that make up the so-called Summer

Triangle (the other two are Vega in the
constellation Lyra, and Deneb in Cygnus). Altair is the
most southerly member of the triangle. Its name comes
from the Arabic meaning “the flying eagle”. On either
Rich Milky Way star fields lead south from Aquila into
Scutum, aconstellation introduced in 1684 by the
Polish astronomer Johannes Hevelius and intended to
represent the shield of the King of Poland, John
Sobieski.

side of it lie two fainter stars, Alshain and Tarazed, One of the brightest parts of the Milky Way lies in
which help identify it. Scutum and is known as the Scutum star cloud. This

cloud -actually amass of distant stars -is about six

BRIGHT CEPHEID degrees across, 12 times the apparent width of the
AQUILA
Other than Altair, the constellation’s leading object for Moon and shows up well on photographs.
The blue-white amateur observers is Eta Aquilae, one of the brightest Near the northern edge of the star cloud lies one
star Altair sits examples of aCepheid variable, the type of pulsating of the treasures of this part of the sky: the star cluster
just left of star that provides astronomers with adistance scale in Mil, popularly known as the Wild Duck cluster
centre In this

image of the space. Eta Aquilae rises and falls between magnitude because it appears V-shaped like aflight of wildfowl
constellation of 3.5 and 4.4 every 7.2 days, changes that are easily when seen through asmall telescope. There is a
Aquila. detected with the naked eye. brighter orange star near the apex of the V. Binoculars
show the cluster as amisty patch half the apparent
size of the Moon, but the V-shape is not noticeable
 \
/
/
/

/
VULPECULA

IBSS m
AQUILA AND §GUil!lM***
S A G I T TA
DELPHINUS
<D quila and Scutum are highest in the sky on

- ♦
e
M A evenings in July and August. They lie in the
Milky Way between
y
V Cygnus to the north
Ta r a z e d
# and Sagittarius to
a ^ me 6803 GC 6709 the south. Being
a
Altair
almost on the
"n
Alshaih
NGC 6755
celestial equator,
AQUILA
p OPHIUCHUS
o both constellations
are visible from
NGC 6790
Tl virtually all the
V
^NGC 6760 ^ 4
inhabited globe.
.71 e « I
!
(
" 6 9
7 0

L O C AT I O N MAP
M SCUTUM
*26 ^1^':
nil ABBREVIATION Aql ABBREVIATIOH Sct
" K

BEST SEASON BEST SEASON

NGC-
6 7 1 2
July-August July-August
BRIGHTEST S TA R BRIGHTEST S TA R

GAPRICORNUS
f Altair [a] 0.8 Alpha la] 3.8
4
/
S A G I T TA R I U S SIZE RANKING 22 SIZE RANKING 22

POSITION Equatorial POSITION Equatorial

-V*. S TA R C L O U D
Called the gem
m..:
't*. of the Milky
■if-
*s
' P Way, the Scutum
‘ . 1 star cloud is one
"r^ , iV) V of the densest

i
stellar regions in
X.ti \ .

the galaxy.
.1
'i,

t
l
s c
^?A f
§
m
%

T. -

V.:vv;*:
V v

>S:>- -V<:
i *
*
 C A R A N C A S C R AT E R

METEORITES
Onlookers study the
infamous impact crater in
Peru. Locals feared it was
created by a'disease-
ridden' meteorite.

and MICROBES
In 2007 people who visited the site of arecently crashed
?meteorite in Peru suffered from violent sickness soon
Tafterwards. Was this mass hysteria or evidence that
—-meteorites can bring disease and destruction to Earth?
n15 September 2007, people living in world converged on the site.

O the village of Carancas near Peru’s Lake

Titicaca were alarmed by the sight of a
brilliant object streaking through the sky and falling
rrto Earth with aresounding bang. Curious locals
^dashedtothesite,atfirstfearinganaircraftcrash.
Fortunately this was no disaster; all that was found
There has been along-held suspicion about
the effects of objects falling from the heavens
(see Sci-Fi). Might this meteorite have been
radioactive, or carried some toxic mineral or
METEORITE FRAGMENT
deadly space microbe? With up to 600 people Apiece of the meteorite
reporting symptoms, doctors and scientists visited that fell in Carancas.

at the impact site was asmoking crater 15m across the crater and tested it for an array of possible
-evidence of anewly fallen metre-wide meteorite. causes -but each test came up negative. The
The story might have ended there except for meteorite was by all accounts harmless.
what happened next. Within hours, some of the Over the next few days, the illness subsided G L O S S A R Y

Amino Acid: Any of

people who had visited the site began to feel ill, and the panic died down. The entire incident was agroup of organic
developing headaches, nausea and vomiting. The almost certainly atextbook case of mass hysteria, c h e m i c a l s t h a t a 'e the

building blocks of life as

“meteorite sickness” spread rapidly through the and the disease symptoms entirely psychosomatic we know it.
local population, and reporters from around the although one alternative explanation was that the
22
meteorite crash had coincided with, or perhaps SCI-FI

even triggered, an escape of arsenic fumes from

THE ANDROMEDA STRAIN
the local groundwater.
X
Although this particular case seems closed, a his breakthrough novel of the late
long trail of circumstantial evidence throughout T 1960s by Michael Crichton (author
“ D

history appears to link meteorites with outbreaks of Jurassic Park] is achilling story of
of plague and disease. Perhaps the Peruvian locals the race to combat aspace-borne
microbe that falls to Earth. In this
actually had alucky escape? V. f .

s c i e n c e - b a s e d t h r i l l e r ( fi l m e d i n 1 9 7 1
and made into aTV mini-series in a
SEEDS OF LIFE 2008), acollision with asmall lump of
The idea that micro-organisms travel to Earth on space rock sends asatellite plummeting
lumps of rock and ice falling from space is not a to Earth in Arizona. When the recovery 0
team arrives, they discover that a
new one. Since at least the 18th century, this idea
nearby town has already been wiped
has been put forward as apossible explanation for out by anew and deadly blood- clotting
the existence of life itself on our planet. The theory disease. And they soon learn that the o
is known as "panspermia”, and the discovery of “Andromeda Strain” has asecret 7 D
PA G E T O S C R E E N
quite complex organic chemicals such as amino weapon -the ability to evolve at Crichton’s novel was made

acids in space (see Glossary) has given it a unprecedented speed. i n t o a fi l m a n d t v s e r i e s . CO

significant boost in the past decade or so. >

But could panspermia have
D
negative effects? Could disease global cooling and restricted vegetation growth
causing bacteria also be falling on the one hand, and momentous events such
n
to Earth at irregular intervals? as earthquakes and outbreaks of plague on the
Certainly afew respected other. Most audaciously of all, Baillie suggests O
CD
scientists think it’s
that the Black Death might have emerged from a m
C O
apossibility. Most % comet crash in China around the mid-14th century.
prominent of these Although long identified as Bubonic Plague, it had
is Mike Baillie (see many characteristics that don’t match up with this
Space Stars). Baillie disease. Baillie also cites reports from the time of
believes that manly
earthquakes, fires from the sky, and noxious air .

widespread plagues and MOLECULE OF LIFE Even if debris from acomet turned to steam in the
Amolecule of amino
diseases of historic times could have originated in upper atmosphere, it’s just possible that it might
acid -one of the
debris falling to Earth, or at least being dispersed have brought adeadly pathogen (a disease-causing
building blocks of life on
through our planet’s atmosphere. His major Earth -has also been micro-organism) into Earth’s air.
evidence for this is alink between periods of found in space.

S PA C E S TA R S
'V '
MIKE BAILLIE ' . /

I I Professorofpalaeoecology(thestudyofg
ancient environments) at Queen’s £
University, Belfast, Mike Baillie is aleading
" 9 expert in dendrochronology -the dating of
b1
ancient wood samples based on their unique ^ M?*' 'cr
pattern of annual growth rings. He first g If

became interested in the possible ■ r V

extraterrestrial causes of Earth-bound "

catastrophes when he noticed apparently global environmental crises D E A D LY C O M E T S ?

CLUES Mike Baillie with a
piece of bog oak -clues
for the ad540 event were
found in its ring patterns.
in particular years dating back to the third millennium bc. He linked Awoodcut showing the
d e s t r u c t i v e e ff e c t o f a
the last of these environmental downturns in ad540 to the apparition
4th-century comet from
of acomet at this time. Samples from Greenland confirm alarge
Stanislaus Lubienietski's
deposit of ammonia ice from the same period, possibly originating Theatrum Cometicum
from the comet. Baillie and others suspect this ad540 event could be
(Amsterdam, 1668).
connected to the collapse of civilisation in Europe’s “Dark Ages”, which
also coincided with aplague.

23
 4

COMING ISSUE
1

t
\

^ILD
AMODEL n

SOLAR _ J
4

JUPITER’S MOONS SYSTEM

PRECIsCfO
21)

engineered orrery

JUPITER
A
great GAS GIANT
andtheLARGES planet
'n our solar s y s t e m

m
. . .

JUPITER .. :%"

PLUS
with this ISSUE: P L

MOOfV/SAND SUPPORTARM

1%
&

JUPITER’S SUPPORT ARM

"Introducing the king of planets "Join us on another historic

-Jupiter. Find out more about
this gas giant and its unique and
multi-coloured atmosphere.
"The story of Sir Isaac IMewton
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Agreat GAS GIANT

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WITH THIS ISSUE: PLANET JUPITER, ITS FOUR MAJOR MOONS AND SUPPORT ARM
BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
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F E AT U R E S I M P O R TA N T
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■

IMAGE GALLERY
Time to face the giants and get up close to mighty CREDITS 11 ■■ I I
Jupiter, the largest planet in the solar system.
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i
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 Loosely thread two grub screws (M3G 5mm)
into the gear collar (31) as shown. Construct
the Jupiter gear set by creating a“sandwich”, with
the 85-tooth gear (54) underneath and the 106-
tooth gear (51) on top, and the gear collar (31) and
gear spindle (33) in the middle. Hold these
elements in place with three crosshead self-tapping
screws (M2.3S 6mm) at the top and bottom.

2 Lock the gear

collar (31) to the
gear spindle (33) by
tightening the grub
screw (M3G 5mm).

3 43-tooth gear (52) at the top, the planet gear

Create the small gear “sandwich” with the

arm (50), gear axle 1(70) and gear axle 2(71) in

the centre, and the 22-tooth gear (48) at the
bottom. Ensure gear axle 1(70) goes on top as 5 0
shown. Fix these elements in place with two
crosshead self-tapping screws -use the
last remaining 6mm M2.3S for
the top and the one longer
8mm M2.35 for the bottom.

N o Part Qty
0 7 JUPITER SUPPORT ARM

3 1 GEAR COLLAR

3 3 PLANET SPINDLE 8 m m

4 8 22-TOOTH GEAR

5 0 PLANET GEAR ARM

5 1 106-T00TH GEAR

5 2 43-TOOTH GEAR

5 4 85-TOOTH GEAR

7 0 GEAR AXLE 1

7 1 GEAR AXLE 2
y/Removethebaseplate(65)fromyour
^TpreviouslycompletedStage2Phase4by
J U P PLANET JUPITER
loosening the grub screw in the column
J M O JUPITER’S MOONS

support (66) using a2.0mm alien key -see

M 3 G GRUB SCREW 5mm 3

Issue 1, page 10. (Keep the assembly upright

M2.3S S E L F - TA P P I N G SCREW 6mm 7

M2.3S S E L F - TA P P I N G SCREW 8mm 1

to ensure you don’t lose the planets -or
W A S PLASTIC WASHER 2
remove the planets for safe-keeping while
completing the next steps.)
HI 1LLK II

-<
Slip the second plastic washer
6 (WAS) onto the central column O
c z
and engage it around the protruding
lower rim of the planet spindle (33).
t n
Slide the small gear “sandwich” up the
central column, mesh the two gears O
and secure the entire stage by
tightening a5mm grub screw (M3G) 7D
into the planet gear arm (50). Refit the CO
central column (64) to the column -<
support (66) and tighten the grub CO
screw using a2.0mm alien key. H
m

5 Slip one plastic washer (WAS)

onto the protruding top of the
O
a
planet spindle (33) of the large gear m
“sandwich”. Slide the entire

“sandwich” up the central column (64)

and mesh the upper 106-tooth gear o
(51) with the 22-tooth gear (48) on the
underside of the planet gear arm
previously assembled in Phase 4.

0 7

7 support arm (07) to the

Now attach the Jupiter

large gear set. Feed the arm into

the designated hole on the collar
and secure with agrub screw
(M3G 5mm). Push the
pin of planet Jupiter
(JUP) through the
hole in the collar of

the Jupiter moons

(JMO), then locate the pin
at the base of planet
Jupiter with the hole in the
top end of the arm. V
(NOTE: All planet arms
have ahole in one end only M
for the planet’s pin, so
ensure you fit the arm with
M 3 G
this hole uppermost.)
B m m
 "CING of the
SOLAR SYSTEM A

„Named after the King of the Gods, Jupiter is

the largest planet in the solar system -it is
big enough to swallow all the other planets
with room to spare. The first of the gas
giants, this stately world is usually ^
the third brightest object in
the night sky.

Imost as soon as the telescope was

A invented, astronomers realised there was

something different about Jupiter -for
one thing it had aslightly oval appearance, and for
another, its most prominent features were dark and
light bands across its surface. Dutch observer
Christiaan Huygens published the first drawing of
these bands in 1659, and afew years later the great
Italian astronomer Cassini discovered what seemed
to be apermanent storm on the surface of the
planet. Jupiter’s bulge happened to match Sir Isaac
Newton’s predictions on the appearance of aliquid
planet and throughout the 18th century astronomers
gradually came to realise that Jupiter was in fact
cloaked in adeep and impenetrable atmosphere.

PLANET PROFILE JUPITER

L

□l A M t T E R AT E Q U ATO R IIVIC run UIMC KUiAIIUlM

142,984km 9hours 55 minutes

MASS LENGTH OF YEAR
1.899x1027km 11.86 Earth years
M A S S C O M PA R E D TO E A RT H C L O U D - TO P T E M P E R AT U R E
317.8 Earths -110°C
S U R FA C E A R E A C O M PA R E D TO E A RT H A X I A L T I LT
121.9 Earths 3 . r
V O L U M E C O M PA R E D TO E A RT H AV E R A G E O R B I TA L S P E E D
1321 Earths 13.1km/s
E Q U AT O R I A L C L O U D - T O P G R AV I T Y
24.82m/s2
 CO
/T\ breakthroughs Voyagers 1and 2followed up with ground¬
^RINGS OF JUPITER breaking flybys that transformed our understanding O
of the planet and its four major moons. In the mid- >
oone suspected that Jupiter might have rings until the 1990s, the Galileo mission became the first probe
N Voyager 1space probe turned back to photograph the in orbit around Jupiter, studying the entire system
7 ^
CO
planet’s retreating night side following its flyby In 1979. With
in much more detail over the course of eight years.
the Sun eclipsed by Jupiter’s own enormous bulk, Voyager’s CO
photographs revealed arazor-thin blade of light emerging from
FAST SPINNING GIANT
behind the planet -the result of sunlight reflecting off the ring
particles. Despite their apparent brightness in these images, the Today, we know that Jupiter is an enormous ball of
rings are in fact made of small particles of dusty material. Closest hydrogen and helium in both gas and liquid form,
to Jupiter lies adoughnut-shaped “halo ring’’, then the thin “main mixed with traces of some other colourful chemicals
ring”, with the moons Metis and Adrastea on its outer edge. Two
O
outer “gossamer rings” are relatively thick, and fill the space inward that create the vibrant upper cloud layers. At its
from the orbits of Amalthea and Thebe. centre there may be asolid rocky core about the size
of Earth, but scientists are far from certain about this
a
RING OF LIGHT m
Asimilar image, (see How It Works: Inside Jupiter).
taken by the NASA The planet spins on its axis once in just under
spacecraft Galileo, of
one of Jupiter’s rings 10 hours, giving it the shortest day and night of
0
7 ^
illuminated against an any planet in the solar system. The combination
eclipse of the Sun.
of rapid spin and gassy composition gives Jupiter's o
equator apronounced outward bulge -the
o
diameter across the equator is 9000km more than
the diameter from pole to pole.
This rapid rotation is also responsible for Jupiter’s
banded weather systems, creating high-speed jet C O
TRUE COLOURS Nineteenth-century telescopes revealed Jupiter’s streams that run in opposite directions, wrapping o
This portrait of Jupiter banded appearance in more detail, with light and their clouds all the way around the planet parallel
was taken by NASA's >
dark storms that came and went over weeks and to the equator. Different colours of cloud form at 7 D
Cassini spacecraft in
CO
2002. It is constructed months. At the same time, the planet’s system of different heights and temperatures where varying -<
from nine different shots CO
known moons began to grow rapidly. chemical vapours condense out of the atmosphere.
of the planet, each
imaged in red, green and It was not until the first space probes visited High-altitude clouds have lighter colours and m

blue to show the planet's Jupiter in the 1970s that the planet began to are called zones. Between the zones run parallel
colours as ahuman eye surrender some of its mysteries. Pioneers 10 trenches or clearings called belts, which reveal
would see them.
and 11 carried out abrief reconnaissance, and darker-coloured clouds at deeper levels. In areas of

^HOW IT WORKS

^INSIDE JUPITER

B eneath Jupiter’s colourful outer g a s e o u s

atmosphere, the planet is hydroger

and helium
almost entirely composed of
hydrogen and helium, the two
lightest elements. About 7000km
beneath the surface, pressure from liquid

the atmosphere above is so high hydrogen

and helium
that these gases condense into
liquid form. Deeper still, the
pressure and temperature are high
liquid metallic
enough to break hydrogen
hydrogen
molecules (pairs of hydrogen atoms)
apart, creating asea of electrically
charged “liquid metallic hydrogen”.
solid core
Beneath this, there could be an
Earth-sized core of rock and ice.

FA M I LY
Jupiter and its four
moons from top to
bottom -lo, Europa,
Ganymede and Callisto.
^HOW IT WORKS
HOW TO BUILD AGAS GIANT
he solar system’s gas giant planets formed in an
T outlying region of the disc-shaped planet-forming
nebula that was rich in hydrogen and helium (closer to
the centre, the young Sun either pulled these gases
into itself, or blew them away on asolar wind). Volatile
chemical “ices” with reasonably low melting points
were also plentiful in the cooler regions of the outer
solar system.
Astronomers still aren’t exactly sure how the gas
giants formed. The two rival theories build the planet
from the inside out or the outside in. In the “inside out”
version, arock/ice core formed in the same way as the
inner rocky planets, and then pulled in large amounts
of gas from its surroundings. In the “outside in” model,
the entire nebula split into separate clouds that then
collapsed to form the gas giants -differentiation
(see Glossary) formed the solid cores later.
unusually high pressure such as the famous Great
Red Spot, bright red clouds can form at very high
altitudes -see the next issue for more on Jupiter s
w e a t h e r.
Despite the numerous space probes that have
surveyed the planet, we still know relatively little
about the chemical soup that colours Jupiter’s
upper atmosphere. However, we do know that
many of the yellow and brown colours come from
sulphur compounds.
Another of Jupiter’s big unanswered questions
is the nature of the power source that pumps out
heat from inside the planet. Jupiter’s cloud-top
temperature of -110°C is considerably warmer than
it should be if heated by the Sun alone, so there
must be an internal power source of some sort
find out more on this in next issue’s Unexplained
THE JUPITER SYSTEM
Fittingly for the king of the solar system, Jupiter
exerts its power over alarge region of space
governing aminiature solar system of rings and
satellites. The deep ocean of electrically charged
metallic” hydrogen that swirls around inside the
planet generates apowerful magnetic field that
envelops both Jupiter and its nearby moons. Particles
swept up from the passing solar wind ricochet back
and forth in doughnut-shaped zones of deadly
radiation larger and more dangerous than Earth’s
PORTRAIT own zones of radiation, the Van Allen belts. The solar
wind also distorts the shape of the magnetic field,
creating along “magnetotail” that points away from
the Sun and stretches to the orbit of Saturn.
rocky planets f
gas-rich
‘douqhnut
rock/ice
protoplanets
gas pulled in
by gravity .
Rocky planets form aIn one model,
1 near the Sun, 2 rocky cores form first
leaving aring of gas- then pull in gas from
rich debris farther out. their surroundings.

s c i fl
^ODYSSEY TWO
In
his1982
Space sequel
Odyssey, to2001:
visionary A
sci-fi
author Arthur C. Clarke tells the
story of what happens when a
rescue mission discovers the
mysterious alien monolith in
orbit above Jupiter. At the
c l i m a x o f t h e b o o k, the monolith,
which has been monitoring the
development of life in Europe’s
oceans, engineers the
transformation of Jupiter into a
G L O S S A R Y
Differentiation: The
process by which gravity
sifts aplanet’s interior
into distinct layers, with
the densest nnaterial at
the core, and lightest
near the surface.
bGradually the
2 planet takes shape
around the core.
CO
O
J
5
second Sun, capable of melting
the icy moon’s surface and m 4 CD
allowing the Europans to -<
emerge. Mankind gets to benefit CD
as well, as the explosion ejects
Jupiter’s core [here avaluable
diamond of compressed carbon
the size of Earth] into an
accessible orbit around the Sun.
O
H O L LY W O O D A S T R O N A U T c
Dr SChandra travels to Jupiter in the
Space Odyssey sequel 2010.
m
Jupiter’s thin rings were only discovered in 1979 250km long, with abright red surface.
0
7 \
(see Breakthroughs), but its largest moons were Beyond the Galilean moons lie at least 55 more
the first known satellites of another world, and small satellites (making 63 in total). These outer G)
were recorded by Galileo Galilei in early 1610. The moons are small and irregular, orbiting many
O
quartet of “Galilean” moons -fiery lo, icy Europa, millions of kilometres from the planet and often
frozen Ganymede and cratered Callisto, are in highly tilted orbits. They are split into groups
complex worlds in their own right, and ones that named after certain moons -the Himalia, Ananke,
we will revisit in later issues. Carme and Pasiphae groups. CO
To either side of them lie countless smaller All these satellites except for the four-strong O
objects. Closest to the planet are the sma i n n e r Himalia group orbit Jupiter in the wrong direction >
moons -Metis, Adrastea, Amalthea and Thebe compared to the system’s general rotation -these 7 Q
CO
-whose gravity helps constrain the shape of the retrograde moons are almost certainly asteroids
CO
rings. The surfaces of these inner moons, pounded captured by Jupiter’s immense gravity.
by the impact of countless tiny meteorites drawn in
by Jupiter’s enormous gravity, supply new material
to keep the rings fresh. The largest of these inner NEXT: CLOSING IN ON JUPrTER'S WEATHER PATTERNS TO I
satellites is Amalthea, acratered, irregular object FINDOUTWHATPOWERSITSRELENTLESSSTORMS,.^.J
separating
clumps of gas
%
aIn an alternative
3 model, the gas bDenser materials
separates first into huge 3 gradually fall towards
clumps that slowly the centre, building up
collapse inwards. into asolid core.
 An ambitious and challenging mission, Galileo was the first
spacecraft to orbit an outer planet, the first to launch aprobe
into Jupiter's atmosphere and the first to fly by an asteroid.

Ithough Jupiter had Along the way, the spacecraft,

already been looked at by named in honour of the 17th-

the two Voyager probes, century astronomer, Galileo Galilei,

Galileo, launched aboard the Space returned data on two asteroids it

Shuttle Atlantis in October 1989, passed -951 Gaspra and 243 Ida.
not only took amuch more detailed It also discovered Dactyl, the
look at the planet but also collected moon of the main belt asteroid

data on the whole Jovian system. Ida. While still en route to Jupiter,
Significantly delayed as aresult of Galileo captured aspectacular view
The Galileo

spacecraft was
launched from
Earth aboard the
Galileo Galilei
Space Shuttle
Atlantis on 18
October 1989. modifications to the Space Shuttle of Comet Shoemaker-Levy as it
in the wake of the Challenger crashed into the gas giant planet
disaster, Galileo was released from in July 1994. i

the shuttle’s cargo bay into an Given Jupiter’s distance from

[iiiTg
Earth orbit. Its upper stage booster
rocket was fired to begin asix-year
journey, which was not without
incident (see Inside Info) via several
gravity assists (see Breakthroughs).
the Sun, solar panels were not
apractical source of power.
Instead the spacecraft had nuclear
generators, providing electricity
that was unaffected by either low

A S S E M B LY
Galileo being
readied for launch

=at the Kennedy

Space Center. .#4

ghortlyafteritswere
controllers firstflyby ofEarth,
greatly mission
concerned at the
failure to deploy Galileo’s high-gain antenna
(shown folded on right). This umbrella-like antenna
had stuck half closed and, despite attempts to
make it open fully, remained like that, unable to
transmit data as designed.
Fortunately, the spacecraft carried alow-gain

Kantenna
that,
although
significantly
slower
(able
,to transmit at 8to 16 bits per second as against
mthe high-gain’s 134 kilobytes per second), meant
m
all was not lost. By using data compression
jH techniques and upgrading the receivers on Earth,
mission controllers were able to increase the
ir’
speed to 160 bits per second.

temperatures or high radiation.
Galileo arrived at Jupiter in
/December 1995, having deployed
the separate atmospheric probe
(see Issue 21, Missions). There
were anxious moments as the
spacecraft fired its main engine to
enter Jovian orbit but its success
meant that the main part of the
mission was underway. In addition
to a29.7kg digital camera, Galileo
carried afull complement of
scientific instruments, recording
data throughout each of its two-
JUPITER A R R I VA L An artist's
impression of Galileo arriving at
Jupiter on 7December 1995.
month-long elliptical orbits (see
Glossary). The result was adetailed
picture not only of Jupiter itself but
also the planet’s major moons-
Europa, Ganymede and Callisto.
Scientists had feared that the fierce
radiation belts surrounding Jupiter
would damage the spacecraft’s
electronics. Incredibly, Galileo
proved much more durable, lasting
over eight years in the Jovian system.
As the mission extended beyond
D A R I N G F LY B Y G a l i l e o i n o r b i t
around Jupiter's moon, lo, passes
above the Pillan Patera volcano.
/ B R E A K T H R O U G H S
W G R AV I T Y A S S I S T S
alileo employed three gravity assists on its
voyage to Jupiter. Close flybys of Venus
(once) and Earth (twice) produced an 11.1km/
sec change in the spacecraft’s velocity. Without
Ithe slingshot effects from Venus’ and Earth’s
gravity, Galileo would have needed an extra
10,900kg of fuel -about 12 times what the o
craft actually carried into space. In the same >
way, taking advantage of gravity as It toured
Jupiter and its moons, Galileo saved another m
3600kg of fuel. o
Six hours after schedule, the probe was gradually
launch, Galileo brought closer to Jupiter. In January
was released
2002, aseries of close flybys with
from the Shuttle's 1
cargo bay. the Jovian moon lo saw radiation
finally destroy the cameras.
Amongst the mission’s
achievements were an increased
understanding of the volcanic
lO; activity on lo, confirmation of a
global ocean beneath Europa’s icy
crust, and hints of similar oceans on
Ganymede and Callisto. To avoid
the risk of polluting these intriguing
moons, Galileo was steered
towards its destruction in Jupiter’s
,atmosphere on 21 September 2003.
: r -
i-
 ■■

[ 1 ] C A S S I N I F LY B Y
This image, taken by
Cassini on 1January
2000, shows the Jovian
moon, lo, floating some
350,000km above
Jupiter's cloud tops.
z

[2] JUPITER RISING An E

artist's impression of the

magnificent gas giant
rising above the horizon J
of one of its moons.
u

3) SOUTHERN POLE
This photograph of «

Jupiter's southern pole is u

amontage, made of 36
separate images, taken
by Cassini on 11 and 12
December 2000.

i
 >
o
m

>

<

UPTER
Observing Jupiter is well within
the scope of Earth-bound
astronomers but only with the
visit of space probes have we
really begun to understand it.

upiter was first visited by aspacecraft in 1973,

when Pioneer 10 flew within 200,000km of ■‘-i

the Jovian cloud tops. That was followed by

si
Pioneer 11, the two Voyager spacecraft, Galileo
(which also sent aseparate probe into the
atmosphere), Ulysses, Cassini-Huygens and New
m *
Horizons. Between them, they have returned many ■' V I
v-‘■

tens of thousands of images and detailed data on ^ ‘

both Jupiter itself and the moons that make up the

Jovian system. Planned for launch in 2011 and
Jupiter arrival in 2016, Juno will survey the gas
giant from apolar orbit with asuite of instruments
[3]
designed to study the planet’s core.
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[4] THE RINGS OF JUPITER This illustration is from the viewpoint of an interstallar probe, flying through Jupiter's rings, which were, before
their discovery by Voyager 1in 1979, unknown. Comprising dust-sized particles knocked from the four inner Jovian moons, the system is made
"^?**-.*.
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of three parts. The main ring is 7000km wide and less than 30km thick. Outside this is the 850,000km-wide flat gossamer ring. On the inside
edgeofthemainringisthe20,000km-thickdoughnut-shapedhalo,thedustgrainsofwhichreachdowntoJupiter'scloudtops.
NEWTON a n a
Newton's theory of gravitation

GRAVIT Y
and laws of motion not only
changed the way we saw the
universe but, ultimately, helped
put astronauts on the Moon.
to predict the motion of all objects hands of bullies, but eventually got
-from an apple to an asteroid. the better of them and blossomed
as apupil.
THE YOUNG NEWTON At 19 he won aplace at
Three months after the death of his Cambridge University where he
father, Newton was born devoured all the scientific works

prematurely on Christmas Day, of his day. He bought abook

1642 (according to the Julian on astrology, learning geometry
calendar in use at the time) in a and trigonometry in order to
small manor house in Woolsthorpe, understand it.

Lincolnshire. Tiny enough to “fit into
aquart pot’’ the fatherless child was
not expected to survive.
When his widowed mother later
remarried, the infant Newton was
left in the care of grandparents. He
was ahot-tempered, obstinate and
lonely boy -but also independent,
ambitious and competitive.
At 12 Newton was enrolled at
boarding school. He suffered at the
PORTRAIT OF A
ir Isaac Newton was the first
Four years later, the Great
Plague forced the university’s
closure. Newton then spent two
highly productive years back at
Woolsthorpe. He made discoveries
on light and optics, using aprism
to find that white light comprises
aspectrum of colours that can be
split and recombined yet remain
unchanged. He worked out that
light is made up of fast-moving

s
4

SCIENTIST
scientific superstar, achieving Aportrait of Sir
international acclaim while Isaac Newton by
Sir Godfrey
relatively young. He is regarded by K n e l l e r.

the Royal Society, England’s oldest

scientific body, as even more
influential than Albert Einstein.

Newton discovered light’s

particle-like and spectral nature
and invented aform of reflecting m m .
telescope. His greatest work was
BIRTHPLACE
the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Woolsthorpe
Mathematica (the Mathematical Manor in

Principles of Natural Philosophy) Lincolnshire,

Newton's
-“Principia" for short. This defined
childhood home,
his theories on gravitation, motion, with the famous
mass, force, weight, inertia and apple tree in the
acceleration. It enabled scientists foreground.
particles (“corpuscles”), which is
X
why it travels in straight lines and
m
casts shadows. He also developed
CD
integral and differential calculus
(“fluxions”), adapting Archimedes’
principles of geometry to study the
O
forces of change and acceleration. <
Newton invented areflecting
telescope, using aparabolic mirror o
n
and another angled mirror that
projected to the side. This boosted >
CO
magnification without distortion.
So involved was he in his work, 7 0
Newton even invented the cat
O
flap, so his cat could come and go
without disturbing him!
O
ANEW THEORY
-<
Most famously, Newton thought
about gravity. He later told his niece
that, while sitting by the window, grauitas, Latin for “weight”. It was
LIGHT AND
OPTICS
1
z
he saw an apple fall and thought, gravity that kept the Moon and The illustration
m
above shows
“Why should gravity’s powers be planets in orbit, he realised.
Newton using
limited to Earth? Why not as high The next two years were spent aprism to break o
white light into
aspectrum.
CCNATUREANDNATURE’SLAWSLAYHIDINNIGHT. >
z
GDD SAID, ‘LET NEWTDN BE!’ AND ALL WAS LIGHT.” a
Epitaph suggested bg poet Alexander Pope o
:xi
>
as the Moon?” Newton then <
lecturing on light and lenses
NEW DESIGN
realised gravity was apulling force (“opticks”). His tutor, Isaac Barrow,
Newton's original
found in all objects (not afalling was so impressed he resigned his reflecting
force). He took the name from post in favour of the younger man. telescope.

So, in 1669, aged 27, Newton

INSIDE INFO
became Cambridge’s Lucasian

r
NEWTON’S PRINCIPIA fPRir O S O P U r ZI? Professor of Mathematics.
Newton did not disclose
ewton’s Principia was nearly lost
N to history. The scientist delayed his thoughts on gravity until
publication for years until persuaded visited by his friend, astronomer
to do so by astronomer Edmond Edmond Halley. Halley believed
Halley. Newton then changed his mind acomet seen in 1680 had
when Robert Hooke demanded to

be acknowledged. The Royal Society appeared before. (It was later

later agreed to fund its publication
but backed out after losing the
(thenj huge sum of £389 7s 5d on
De Historia Piscium [The History of
Fishes] alavishly illustrated book by
William Willughby. Finally Newton’s
friend Halley paid for publication.
Principia was an international hit.
L receded. Halley asked if Newton
named Halley’s Comet after he
correctly predicted Its return in
1758, 16 years after his death.)
^This meant the comet was in
along orbit around the Sun
and obeyed the same forces as
BEST-SELLER Principia is widelyf the planets. It accelerated as
regarded as the most important
s c i e n t i fi c w o r k e v e r w r i t t e n .
it approached and slowed as it
could explain this. He could. gravitation worked with his three "Second law Objects change
N e w t o n ’s t h e o r i e s o n laws of motion: speed or direction according to the
motion and gravity owed i k"First law Objects stay at amount and direction of the force

much to other scientists, m Arest or move at the same applied -that is, if something
such as the German speed in astraight line changes you can measure the force
astronomer Johannes unless acted on by aforce - involved.

Kepler, who described that is, if something "Third law To every action there is
mathematically changes then something an equal and opposite reaction -
how planets follow else caused it to change. that is, change is resisted by an
an elliptical orbit.
and Robert Hooke,
the brilliant curator of

experiments at the Royal

Society.
Hooke thought gravity might
obey an “inverse square law’’: if NEWTON'S A L LY

Edmond Halley,
two objects are placed twice as astronomer and
far apart, the force between them friend of Isaac

becomes four times weaker (2^ N e w t o n .

or 2X2=4). If 10 times farther

ORBIT CONCEPT
apart, the force is 100 times weaker This artwork
(10^ or 10 X10 =100). Hooke also shows Newton's

suggested that objects continue in a theory that,

w h e n fi r e d a t
Straight line unless pulled off course the correct
by an external force -the principle velocity from a
of inertia, and the basis of Newton’s certain height.
first law of motion. acannonball
would fall at the
same rate as the
UNIVERSAL LAWS Earth's curvature.

Newton’s genius was in integrating and thus fall

his own ideas and those of other indefinitely. This

is the basis of
scientists he respected into aset of how aspacecraft
rules. Newton’s theory of achieves orbit.

equivalent force. Forces always

come in pairs.
It was arevelation. Newton called
them “universal” laws because they
ewton sIdeas made the Apollo
N landings possible. Takeoff from apply everywhere, in his study or
Earth involved accelerating to break outer space. They show that nature
gravity’s grip. Gravity then steadily follows uniform rules that can be
weakened but didn’t vanish so the
deduced mathematically and tested
astronauts were never “weightless”
experimentally.
but in slow free-fall. At apoint between
Earth and the Moon the gravitational Although Principia was written in
forces balanced. The craft then entered Latin (the language of academia)
free-fall towards the Moon. By balancing not English, it still brought Instant
the Moon’s pull with the craft’s forward fame to Newton and he was invited
momentum they entered the Moon’s to give lectures at home and
orbit. As gravity is related to an object’s
mass, the astronauts who landed were
abroad. Principio was summarised
lighter than on the more massive Earth, in handbooks and supplements and
MAN ON THE MOON It’s 20 July 1969,
forcing them to hop, not walk, on the mechanical devices, such as
and thanks to Newton, Apollo 11’s Buzz
surface. Aldrin is about to ‘hop’ onto the Moon. "Newton’s Cradle", were built to
J demonstrate its theories.

i j
THE BIG CRUNCH
Conceptual artwork of
matter falling in on itself.
newton's feuds
In aletter to Halley, Newton
acknowledged Kepler’s contribution:
“I can confirm that Igathered [the law
ofgravitation]fromKepler's
theorem,” he wrote, but refused to
credit Hooke. “If Ihave seen alittle
further it is by standing on the
shouldersofGiants,”hetoldtheRoyal
Society curator.
AtfirstNewtonhadbeengrateful
to Hooke, but their rows escalated.
One such row was over Newton’s
as yet unpublished work Opticks.
Newton thought light was aparticle
(“corpuscle”). Hooke said it was a
wave. In fact, light spreads like awave
but interacts like aparticle, so both
were right.
When Hooke demanded
recognition in the Principia, Newton
lefttheRoyalSociety,vowingnever
to return while Hooke was there.
When Hooke died in 1703, Newton
Originally used to demonstrate
apopular executive
been toy.
MAGIC AND SCIENCE
Newton has been described as the
first of the great scientists -and the
ravity is as mysterious today as in Newton’s last of the magicians. And, indeed,
G time. Scientists have since measured the his mind was always open to new
“gravitational constant” at precisely 6.6740 x ideas -however bizarre.
Nm^ kg-2, using 13 tonnes of mercury. Alongside orthodox science,
Einstein incorporated gravity into his theory of
relativity, correctly predicting that large masses he practised alchemy, seeking the
secret of eternal life. Little of this
bend space. But quantum physicists have yet to
research survived afire at his home
find ahome for gravity in their "unified theory”.
Gravity is almost too weak to detect at atomic but it may have contributed to a
level yet is felt universally. One day, if the Big mental breakdown in 1693 that
Bang goes into reverse, as some scientists
ended his experimental work.
predict, gravity may drag the whole universe
back into one Big Crunch -and annihilation. In 1696 he became Warden and
later Master of the Royal Mint,
working hard to stop counterfeiting.
FURTHER Agrateful nation knighted him in
PUBLISHING returned as the Society’s president, 1705 and, when he died in 1727,
The title page, removingalltraceofhisenemy honoured him with afuneral at
Inset below,
for the second
-even his portrait. Westminster Abbey. The world of
edition of Newton also feuded with the science made the newton (N) the
Newton's co-discoverer of calculus, German standard international unit of force.
Opticks. mathematician Gottfried Leibnitz. After his death his body was
Newton kept his work to himself found to contain high levels of
untilLeibnitzpublished,leadingto arsenic and mercury -chemicals
accusationsofplagiarism.TheRoyal commonly used in alchemy
Societyinvestigatedand,pressuredby-probablythroughtastinghis
Newton, accused Leibnitz of fraud. own potions.
ACADEMIC LIFE
.4
Inside the
Great Court at OPTICKS' OR, A
Trinity College,
t r e a t i s e
Cambridge,
where Newton
OF THE
reflexions, refractions,
was given the inflexions and COLOURS
O F
post of Lucasian
L I G H T. ,
Professor of
Mathematics in
.ALSO ^ -
/Two TREATISES
1669. OF THU
SPECIES and MAGNITUDE
0 F
!Curvilinear Figures.
JUPITER
Abrilliant creamy-white "star often disturbs the familiar constellation
patternsofthezodiac.ThisisJupiter,largestoftheplanetsandsecond
n

o n ly In brightness to Venus as seen from Earth.

ven a humble pair of binoculars will bring into
v i e w the four brightest moons of Jupiter -lo,
Europa, Ganymede and Callisto looking like
faint stars. They change position from night to night as upiter, the god of the sky,
theyorbittheplanet.Discoveredin1610byGalileo j was the Roman name for
Galilei, the quartet is now known collectively as the the god known to the Greeks
Galilean satellites. as Zeus. The astronomical

Binoculars will reveal the rounded disk of Jupiter, symbol for the planet [X] is a
stylised representation of the
but atelescope is needed to see features in the god’s lightning bolt. He was
e v e r - c hangingcloudsthatcomprisetheplanet’s regarded as the leader and
.isible surface. Most noticeable are dark belts of
VI most powerful of the ancient
cloud north and south of the bright equatorial zone. gods. Jupiter was married
to his sister Juno (known as
From time to time, dark and bright spots break out,
Hera to the Greeks), but was
lastingforweeksoryears,whilethevariousbeltsand noted for his extramarital
zonesundergolong-termchangesinintensity,colour affairs which resulted in
and structure. many famous offspring. The
Features are carried rapidly across Jupiter’s disk moons of Jupiter are named
as the planet rotates. It turns once every 9hours 50 after his paramours and
daughters.
minutes in the equatorial region (the fastest rotation
of any planet in the so lar system) and about five
minutes slower at higher latitudes. As aresult of this
fast rotation Jupiter bulges at the equator, giving it a
noticeably elliptical outline.

GREAT RED SPOT

JUPITER IN SCORPIUS Seen
Thelongest-lastingfeatureinJupiter’scloudsisthe below in the constellation of
Great Red Spot in the southern hemisphere, first seen Scorpios, Jupiter is the brightest
i n 1831 although asimilar feature was seen in the point of light, just right of centre.
17thcentury.TheRedSpotisarotatingstormcloud
largerthantheEarththatgetsitscolourfrom q p h i u C H U S

chemicals such as phosphorus and sulphur. It is

currently shrinking in s,ize and intensity and may
eventually disappear.
♦

1 2
7
9

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* SAGITTARIUS
f
#
 JUPITER'S MOONS Jupiter and three
of its moons (circled) -from left to
right -Europa, lo and Ganymede.

ASwith
seenall
theouter
around theplanets, Jupiter when it is
time of opposition,
is best

Iclosest to Earth and remains above the horizon

II night. Jupiter reaches opposition every 13
a

jmonths. Because of the ellipticity of the orbits

=of Earth and Jupiter, the planet’s distance and
brightness vary somewhat between oppositions,
as shown in the table below. At opposition, a
magnification of around 40 times will enlarge the
planet to the same size as the Moon appears to
the naked eye.
Listed here are the oppositions of Jupiter
juntil 2020, with its distance from Earth and I

I
Imagnitude on each occasion:

:Date
Distance from Earth Magnitude
(million km)
;Jul 92008 622.5 - 2 . 7

jAug 14 2009 602.6 - 2 . 9

Sep 21 2010 5 9 1 . 5 - 2 . 9
; O c t 2 9 2 0 11 5 9 4 . 3 - 2 . 9
■D e c 32012 609.0 - 2 . 8
"Jan 52014 630.0 - 2 . 7
IFeb 62015 650.1 - 2 . 6
BANDS OF COLOUR jMar 82016 6 6 3 . 4 - 2 . 5
Jupiter's colourful belts IApr 72017 6 6 6 . 3 - 2 . 5
and zones can only be May 92018 6 5 8 . 1 - 2 . 5
s e e n
through atelescope. iJun 10 2019 6 4 0 . 9 - 2 . 6
Jul 14 2020 6 1 9 . 4 - 2 . 7 1 7

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1: Marcff2008
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12: December 2010 023: Sfptember 201 dT .
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positiBn of Jupiter 3: September 2008 1 4 : J u n e 2 0 11 25: March 2014 "
against the o
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«VIRGO backgroun(J stars of 5: March 2009 1 6 : D e c e m b e r 2 0 11 27: September 2014
the zodiac over the 6: June 2009 17; March 2012 28: December 2014
course of the next September 2009 18: June 2012 29; March 2015

Q > few Years. '8: December

9: March 2010
2009 19: September 2012
^0: December 20i2
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0
MAGNETIC
agnetismiseverywhere
w we look in the solar
system and beyond. It
drives the 11-year cycle of sunspots
and solar flares, and protects Earth
from bombardment by deadly
radiation.
AFUNDAMENTAL FORCE
At its most basic, magnetism is a
force generated between two
objects that each have amagnetic
field. It is probably most familiar to
us on Earth from its effect on the
alignment of compass needles, or
on iron filings around abar magnet.
However, magnetism is also
intrinsically linked with electricity,
and both forces are aspects of the
same fundamental force of nature,
electromagnetism (see Inside Info).
MIGHTY MAGNETISM Jupiter has the most
powerful magnetic field of any planet. This
image shows auroral lights produced by
high-energy electrons following the planet's
magnetic field down into the atmosphere.
Many objects in the solar system have
magnetic fields -but what are they,
where do they come from, and what else
c a n they tell us about these objects?
MAGNETICTOTHECORE?
Of all the materials able to generate
EARTH'S MAGNETISM
magnetic fields, iron is probably the direction of
strongest and the most familiar. Earth’s rotation
external
Since Earth’s core is made of large magnetic field
amounts of iron, with some nickel
mixed in, our planet acts rather like convection
of molten
agiant bar magnet. However, much solid inner outer core
of Earth’s magnetism is due to the
c o r e
molten conditions around the core.
As the vast interior ocean of
electrically charged molten iron
in the outer core spins (at afaster
rate than the rest of the planet),
the dynamo effect (see Glossary)
creates apowerful field that i n t e r n a l
emerges through the surface at the magnetic
magnetic poles and forms huge
loops stretching far out into space.
Most other worlds with
substantial metallic cores also have
 c /
"C
>
r
Iarge-scalemagnetismisultimatelycausedbytheproperties I T
I— of individual electrons -subatomic particles that are found in c r
every atom of matter. Every electron behaves like asmall magnet,
but in most materials they all point in different directions and so r
tend to cancel one another out. However, in iron and some other I T
crystalline materials, the z
electrons line up when exposed
to amagnetic field, and remain
n
m
aligned when that field is
removed, giving the iron its
own magnetism.
Solid iron and other
^"ferromagnetic” materials >
are the only permanent o
magnets, but any moving
charged particles that create
an electric current will O
also generate atemporary
magnetic field around m
themselves. Earth’s own
D
■i magnetic field ultimately G O
arises from the currents that
swirl In its molten Iron core.

MAGNETIC FIELD Iron

filings align themselves along
the magnetic field lines that
j> surround abar magnet.

magnetic fields of some sort, but
Earth sis the strongest. Mercury's
core has just one per cent the
magnetic strength of Earth's, and
is probably generated by aweak
electric current
offluidisproducingthemagnetic from arotating
OTHER MAGNETIC FLUIDS field -in theory any chemical that magnet.
Elsewhere in the solar system, breaks down into large quantities Ion: An atom or
other fluids generate magnetic molecule that has
ofchargedions(seeGlossary)
fields. Swirling oceans of “metallic”
had one or more
could be responsible. In later electrons added
hydrogen deep inside Jupiter and issues, we'll be looking in more to or removed

dynamoeffect,sinceitscoremay Saturn can create dynamo effects detail at Jupiter's moons, whose from its normally
neutral structure,
still be partially molten. The core of even stronger than Earth’s molten own magnetic fields seem to be causing it to take
Mars has long since solidified, but iron.Electricallychargedhydrogen on an electric
generated by oceans of liquid water charge.
the rocks on its surface still contain is also responsible for the Sun’s beneath the surfarp
ajumbled “remanent" magnetic
field, locked into their solidified,
magnetized iron.
Venus is apuzzle -at roughly the
same size as Earth, it should still
have some molten iron in its core,
yet it has no internal magnetism
whatsoever. One theory to explain
this absence of magnetism is that
Venus's slow rotation and lack of
plate tectonics (see Issue 6) meant
the core solidified far sooner than

Earth’s,
andhigh
temperatures
on Galileo called
Gilbert "the foi i d e r

planet's
te of experimentalisi
,23
remanentfieldleftinthecrust.
COMING ISSUE
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THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

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AV E B U RY HENGE

ORRERIES
Older and on a
I
larger scale than >
Stonehenge, Avebury o
Henge is thought m

to have its stones

O
positioned according to 'XI
astronomical alignments. X 7

Your model solar system records and predicts the motions m

of the planets in Earth's skies, but could prehistoric people m

0 0
#
around the world have built structures with the same purpose?
It?

M any of mankind’s earliest surviving

monuments are undoubtedly linked to
complex cycle of lunar motions -the cycle of major
and minor “standstills” (see Glossary) that repeats G L O S S A R Y

astronomy. The idea that prehistoric every 19 years. Harder to measure in the first place, Standstill: Apoint in
the movements of a
people were meticulous skywatchers, once the these are also harder to predict, but useful because celestial body through
domain of afew eccentric archaeologists, is now they can help foretell events such as eclipses. the sky where it reaches
an extreme limit and
widely accepted. Perhaps the most reverses its motion.
However, most of the complex ancient parallel
stone circles, temples and aSTONEHENGE
PRESENTS ONE OF Ecliptic: The path of
to an orrery that is
other structures that seem MAN’S FIRST AHEMPTS TO OROER HiS the Sun through Earth’s

I f
widely accepted is skies over the course

to include astronomical VIEW OF THE OUTSlOE WORLO. the system of “Aubrey of ayear -aprojection
of Earth’s own orbit into
alignments are focused Stephen Gardiner, 16th-century English hishop and politician Holes” at Stonehenge space.
on the movements of
-aseries of pits Trilithon: Astone
one object -the Sun. With their alignments to associated with the very earliest building work at monument incorporating
the Sun’s rising and setting points at the solstices the site, around BIOObc. two vertical “uprights”
supporting ahorizontal
and equinoxes that mark Earth’s seasons, these There are 56 holes in total, named after 17th- “lintel”, with adoor¬
monuments have an obvious function as acalendar century antiquarian and Stonehenge investigator, shaped hole in the
c e n t r e .
-whether for practical or ritual purposes. John Aubrey. In 1966, maverick British astronomer
Afew monuments appear to track the more Fred Hoyle (see Space Stars) showed how they
could be used as an ingenious aid for predicting
lunar eclipses. Stones or other markers representing SIR FRED HOYLE (1915-2001]
the Sun and Moon would be moved in various
directions around the circle at different rates. This orkshire-born astronomer

would allow accurate predictions of the occasions Y Fred Hoyle was one of
when the Sun and Moon lined up precisely at full or the best known, and most
controversial, astronomers
new Moon, and an eclipse was likely to occur.
of the 20th century, with
areputation boosted by a
successful second career writing
There are many other objects in the heavens s c i e n c e fi c t i o n . F o r m o s t o f h i s

and, from the earliest written records, we can see life he worked at the Institute

that astronomers were interested in these too. of Astronomy in Cambridge,

eventually becoming its director.
They divided the sky into star patterns or He was the first person to
constellations, and tracked the movements of the
suggest that the nuclei of heavy
“wandering stars” -the planets -with interest. So atoms were created in the

is there any evidence that earlier prehistoric cores of stars. He was also an

astronomers were also interested in the outspoken advocate of both the

“Steady State” theory (a rival to
wanderings of the planets?
the Big Bang) that stated the
From our point of view on Earth, the outer or universe had always existed in
“superior” planets appear to drift through the some form, and of panspermia -
OVERLOOKED? Many thought Fred Hoyle
background constellations, close to the line of the the belief that life evolved among should have been awarded the 1983 Nobel
ecliptic (see Glossary), making acomplete circle the stars and was brought to Prize for Physics, but the award went to his
Earth by comets. collaborator William Fowler instead.
after the planet has completed one orbit. But since
the overall path of the outer planets follows that
of the Sun, it is almost impossible to distinguish
Hi MOON
between alignments to one or the other.
This diagram shows how
For the inner or “inferior” planets, there is more
Stonehenge was used to
chance of finding alignments. Their orbits take track complex lunar cycles
them in relatively wide loops around the Sun. and predict eclipses.

Moon marker moves line through

trilithons may Heel Stone to
represent planets — anticlockwise by two
M i d s u m m e r ’s
holes each day
s u n r i s e kfT'-

‘ m

Aubrey Holes

new and full ivioon Bun marker moves anticlockwise by

move round by three holes two holes every thirteen days
every year

■if?

SILBURY HILL This
The combined effects of these movements with Neolithic man-made
those of the Sun create aseries of well-defined mound stand 40 metres
high above the ground.
extreme points or standstills. Venus would have
Its exact purpose is
been aparticular focus of interest. Not only is it the unkown, but some
brightest object in the sky after the Sun and Moon believe it was used
-<
There is good evidence that the ancient
astronomers did indeed record the movements O
c
of Venus. From the earliest times the symbol
7D
of the pentagram was associated with the
CO
planet, indicating awareness that Venus’ inferior
conjunctions (its closest approaches to Earth) O
make afive-pointed pattern in the zodiac (see
How It Works). 7 ^
CO
FURTHER EVIDENCE
-<
Venus’ pattern in the sky also governs its rising and CO
setting points along the horizon, so that the planet
m
reaches asouthern standstill in the sky once every
eight years. This event was of great significance to
the ancient Maya. They constructed temples at
Caracol and Uxmal with precise alignments to the
start of Venus’ “Great Year”. O
As to whether the stone-circle builders of a
m
Europe were interested in Venus and other r
planets, the question is still open to debate.
According to one intriguing theory, the five major 0
“trilithons” (see Glossary) at Stonehenge each C O

as agiant sundial to
but also it spends months rather than days in the represent the planets. The smallest ones, closest o
determine seasons and
evening or morning sky during each loop. the length of the year. in alignment to the famous “Heel Stone” and
m
the rising Midsummer Sun, symbolise Mercury
S TA N D I N G S T O N E S and Venus. The second pair symbolise Mars and >
Q
Stonehenge was Jupiter, and the largest “Great Trilithon” Saturn. m
built so that on
But any such parallels could only have been O
Midsummer's morning,
the sun rises directly over symbolic, since the trilithons have no significant 7 D
the Heel Stone. alignments with the positions of the planets. m

m
C O
HOW IT WORKS

^TRACING
THE
VENUS
PENTAGRAM
Dnce
is your
model
complete, solar
you system
too will be
ible to trace the “Venus

)entagram” that fascinated

he ancient astronomers. By
irogressing the model through
ive successive “inferior

conjunctions” -alignments where

fenus passes between the Sun
ind Earth -you can trace out
m
he five points of the star on
he ring of the zodiac.

INFERIOR CONJUNCTIONS
T r a c e t h e fi v e i n f e r i o r
conjunctions of Venus, to
reveal the "Venus pentagram'
on your model.

<F
L
 CO
o

LO
- <

CD

U
BAND?This m
[mage of Jupiter, from
data returned by Cassini,
graphically shows Its
coloured clouds being
blown in zonal bands by
high speed winds.

deeper levels of the atmosphere, while the creamy-

white “zones” were in fact areas where clouds

piled up at higher altitudes.

Like any planetary atmosphere, Jupiter’s is nOctober 1935, the Galileo atmospheric
governed by the tendency of warmer air to probe plummeted Into the outer layers of
circulate towards cooler regions of the planet. On Jupiter ’s atmosphere. At first, astronomers n a z e

Earth, each hemisphere is dominated by three were puzzled by data from the probe
major “cells” that see warm air rise up closer to the although it showed winds of up to 725km/h,
it found few clouds, no sign of
equator, cool off at high altitudes, and sink back
water vapour, and only
down nearer the poles. Jupiter’s bands reveal the distant lightning.
presence of similar cells (see How It Works), but Later analysis confirmed
they are much more numerous. that the atmosphere is
as shown (right) and that
WINDS AND STORMS the probe had happened to
descend through a“hot spot’
Weather in each belt or zone is driven around the
in the Jovian sky.
planet by high-speed “zonal winds” that move in
opposite directions -eastward in the zones, and bright ammonia
westward in the belts. The winds are strongest clouds

near the equator -some astronomers believe that

they are driven by gas movements deep inside the brown*red ammonium

hydrosuiphide clouds
planet, while others think they may simply be a
result of Coriolis forces (see How It Works).
The different colours of cloud that help highlight low-level water-ice

the different bands within Jupiter’s atmosphere clouds

are the result of acombination of temperature

gaseous ‘soup’ of
and pressure. Just as water vapour in Earth’s hydrogen/helium/methane/
atmosphere can condense into crystals of water or ammonia/water

ice, so various chemicals in Jupiter’s atmosphere

also condense. The general cloud composition CLOUD LEVELS This slice of
at different levels is now quite well understood the Jovian atmosphere shows the
-there is adeep and usually unseen level of levels of different cloud types.

water-ice clouds, capped by layers of ammonium

16Jul.9S

14 Oct 99 FA o1 BE
\ *
* ^ ♦
\

02 Sept. 00 BA

C L I M AT E C H A N G E
hydrosulphide and ammonia (see Inside Info:
Hubble images between
Probing the Atmosphere). 1997 and 2000 show the
The boundaries between belts and zones give merger of two of
rise to some of the most complex Jovian weather. Jupiter's three white
ovals. Scientists say this
The jet streams running along each boundary
suggests aglobal climate
Strip away streamers of light cloud into ragged shift may occur within
swirling “festoons” that appear above the deeper the next decade.

neighbouring cloud layers. With no solid surface

to provide friction, the swirling eddies of gas that
begin life along these boundary regions can persist
for along time, growing into continent-sized
thunderstorms with lightning bolts athousand
times more powerful than those on Earth.
THE RED SPOT This
mosaic of Hubble
MAJOR STORMS images, taken between
just as on our planet, the combination of wind 1992 and 1999, tracks
the changes in shape.
speeds, coriolis forces (see Glossary) and size and colour of
temperature gives each band of the atmosphere its Jupiter's most prominent
own unique weather patterns. The most prominent storm system.

gmce thestart
second ofthisknown
red spot, century, Jupiter
technically ashashad
“Oval a
BA” but
nicknamed “Red Spot Junior” or the Little Red Spot. This
new storm, which has grown to roughly the size of Earth,
was formed by the merging of three large, white oval
storms that had previously orbited to the south of the
Great Red Spot for several decades.
Two of the ovals joined in 1998, before swallowing
the third in 2000. But it wasn’t until 2005 that the

“superspot” began to change colour, turning red as

Jupiter material dredged up from the depths surfaced.
HST ACS/HRC
April 25, 2006 OVAL BA An image of the small spot,
captured by Hubble in April 2006.

I M PA C T S There
were eight impact
sites from the
n o m R t .
nft
of these features are major storms, but there is an
intriguing difference between Jupiter’s storms and
those on Earth. While our storms are low-pressure
areas, Jupiter’s are actually high-pressure areas.
Small storms are constantly coming and going
over periods of days or weeks, but larger and
more prominent ones tend to be rarer. They may
last for years or decades, occasionally absorbing
smaller storms and intensifying. Major Jovian storms
normally appear as “white spots” -they usually
sit between pairs of opposing zonal winds, so the
prevailing winds along their northern and southern
edges help to spin them around.
o
V. yCOMET SHOEMAKER-LEVY 9
hen the broken fragments of acomet PD
w collided with Jupiter in 1994, it provided CO
astronomers with arare glimpse into the unseen
depths of Jupiter’s atmosphere. CO
Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9had already been
broken into a“string of pearls” strung out
along the same orbit by an earlier encounter
with Jupiter. As the fragments slammed into
Jupiter’s atmosphere, they created the biggest G)
explosions ever witnessed in the solar system.
Later studies of Jupiter’s spectrum (see
Glossary) allowed the detection of new a
chemicals on Jupiter, such as carbon disulphide m
and pure sulphur molecules, as well as hydrogen
sulphide and ammonia. These discoveries
Strengthened the evidence that Jupiter’s colours 0
come largely from different forms of sulphur. CO
THE GREAT RED SPOT IS THE MOST POUVERFOL STORM ON
55
JOPITER, INDEED, IN THE WHOLE SOLAR SYSTEM.
Dr. Glenn Orton, JPL astronomer
>
The largest storm is the famous Great Red Spot 7 D
an anticyclone larger than Earth, circling Jupiter o
between the South Equatorial Belt and the South
Tropical Zone. The Spot has been recorded since the
19th century, and probably as far back as the 1660s, " D
though changes in its size and colour mean that it is
easier to see at some times than at others.
THE GREAT RED SPOT
The Great Red Spot towers more than eight
kilometres above the general level of the cloud
bands, but sits in a“hollow” that plunges to adepth
of 50km, allowing us to peer into some of Jupiter s
lowest visible cloud layers. It rotates roughly once
every seven days, with wind speeds along its edges
G L O S S A R Y
reaching 430km/h. It is thought to sit on top of an
Spectrum: The rainbow
enormous updraft that draws up asoup of band created by splitting
chemicals. These stain the spot’s uppermost cloud light from an object
through aprism or
layers red as they are modified by exposure to other device to reveal
ultraviolet light from the Sun. the strength of light at
different wavelengths and
Despite its apparent longevity, the storm is colours. Spectra can be
constantly changing, and is smaller and more muted used to reveal an object’s
in colour than it was afew decades ago. In the past chemical composition.
it has been known to fade away almost completely, Coriolis force: Aforce
leaving only the “hollow” to mark its position. generated by aplanet’s
rotation, which deflects
t h e m o t i o n o f fl u i d s s u c h
^EXT; DEU/E»rp,1 as liquids and gases.
THEdDVEMIMOQ^
9
 Having travelled to Jupiter as one
spacecraft for six years, in July 1995 Galileo
released an independent probe that began
asolo flight into the planet's atmosphere.

taround the same time The 1.3m-diameter probe was

that the Galileo spacecraft
went into orbit around
model of the Jupiter, the probe that it had
atmospheric released 147 days earlier plunged
probe and into the upper reaches of the
drogue
parachute a r e planet's atmosphere. For two
tested in awind minutes it free fell, the gradually
tunnel at the
thickening atmosphere acting as a
Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, brake, slowing the entry speed of
California, 170,000km/h to about 640km/h.
The forward shield was subjected
to temperatures of nearly 13,727°C
and must have lost about 60 per
cent of its 152kg mass.
tested at NASA's Giant Planet
Facility to simulate the heat load,
which was similar to an ICBM (see
Glossary) descending straight into a
t h e r m o n u c l e a r fi r e b a l l .
Once the probe had reached
subsonic speeds, adrogue
parachute was deployed and
explosive bolts fired to release
the aft cover. This pulled out and
stripped off the bag containing the
main parachute; the whole process
taking less than two seconds.
The science package of the probe

BREAKTHROUGHS

M O V I A N W E AT H E R

hile scientists were expecting to find

w wind speeds of up to 350km/h, the
Galileo probe actually detected afar more
volatile environment with winds typically gusting
up to 530km/h or more. As the probe r

descended through the Jovian atmosphere, the "\

high wind speed remained fairly constant. \
Jupiters winds seem to be driven mostly by d--'
internal heat radiating up from deep within the
planet’s interior (see Unexplained]. The
r
difference in sunlight between equator and
poles, and the heat released by water
/
condensation, both of which play amajor role
on Earth, are less significant here.

10.
 FA L L I N G T h e

atmospheric
entry saw the
probe endure
extreme stress.
losing over half
the mass of
its 152kg heat
shield.

DESCENT The

probe, glowii n g
white with
the heat of

atmospheric
e n t r y, s e p a r a t e s
from the drogue
chute and cover.

G L O S S A R Y
once more to free fall. After 40
i C B M
Intercontinental
i j .
minutes, the aluminium parts
■lL
Ballistic Missile: would have melted. The titanium
Along range (over l/tfesley Huntress, NASA space sctence administrator
SOOOkm) missile, components would have lasted a
typically designed further six hours before the high
for delivering
nuclear "heads
included six instruihentsr.fB stronger than anything found on pressure would have crushed them.
"an atmospheric structure Earth, with speeds up to 720km/h. Once their critical temperature
instrument group for measuring Around 30 minutes into its had been reached, they would
temperature, pressure and descent, the intense temperature have vaporized. As aNASA official
deceleration; would have melted the parachute said, “Its fate will be to join the
"aneutral mass spectrometer and the probe would have returned atmosphere it came to observe.”
The to analyse the chemistry of the
probe separates atmosphere;
from the
"ahelium-abundance
spacecraft four
months before interferometer to provide additional
reaching Jupiter. analysis of the atmosphere; t' -
"anephelometer for cloud location ]:;
and cloud-particle observations;
" a n e t - fl u x r a d i o m e t e r f o r ?

Imeasuring electromagnetic
radiation;
"alightning/radio-emission
instrument for measuring light and
radio emissions associated with
lightning in the atmosphere.

As the probe descended through

152 km of the top layers of the
atmosphere it found it drier than
anticipated, with afew clouds and
lightning in the distance. Mission
controllers later learned that the

probe had descended through a

.Jovian “hot spot". The winds grew

\

VIOLENT WORLD i
From Earth the alternating bands of cloud
swirl hypnotically around the Jovian gas giant
with rapid grace. Get up close, though, and
you can see the storms raging with violence.
12
{
hen viewed naturally through a
w telescope, Jupiter’s weather bands
appear brown and white. But, by
applying colours to the images with acomputer, it
is possible to map Jupiter in different ways.
Such, false-colour images can illustrate the
chemical make-up of the weather systems,
the varying heights of the clouds and even the
temperatures of individual features.
 iS’''

>
o
m

O
>

- <

nj TELESCOPE IMAGE
This image, taken in
infrared through the
Gemini Observatory
telescope in Hawaii,
shows Juipter's two Red
Spots passing each other.

[2] WEATHER BANDS

Afalse-colour mosaic
of Jupiter's northern
hemisphere clearly shows
the alternating eastward
and westward bands
between the equator and
northern pole.

[3] GREAT RED SPOT

This image of the Great
Red Spot taken by
Galileo's imaging system
shows it to be higher
than the surrounding
dark collar of cloud.

[4] RED SPOT DETAIL

This false-colour image
of the Great Red Spot
and apassing white oval
was created from data
collected by Voyager 1.
[5] CLOUDY JUPITER Flying down into the atmosphere of the gas giant to the level of the cloud tops affords aunique perspective into
Jupiter's awesome appearance, as this artist's impression shows. The colossal weather systems and changing clouds blanket the entire planet,
 >

>

■<

giving it its form. There are no mountains, valleys, volcanoes or rivers, and no boundary between land and air -just avast ocean of dense gas
and cloud. The weather system, however, creates a"landscape" of its own, with mountainous cloud peaks towwering above deep canyons.
m-
ONGITUD
QUES
nee early 18th-century
O seafarers lost sight of
land, there were no
fixed points to take abearing on.
For accurate navigation, mariners
needed to know the ship’s latitude
and longitude. Latitude is shown on
charts as lines running parallel with
the equator. Longitude is indicated
by “meridian” lines running north-
south, from pole to pole.
Finding latitude was afairly
The greatest scientific problenn of the
18th century was to find areliable
way to navigate at sea. The solution
lay in astronomy and clock-making.
Straightforward task. Mariners
used across-staff to measure the
Sun’s angle with the horizon at
noon. They then consulted tables to
HOW IT WORKS
FINDING LONGITUDE
he Earth turns 360 degrees every 24
find the Sun’s angle relative to the
equator at noon that day. From this
T hours so 1hour represents 15
degrees (360/24 =15). The time
they calculated the ship’s position difference between noon at their present
as so many degrees north or south location and “home” time could be used
of the equator. to fix the ship’s position as so many
Finding longitude involved degrees east or west of port.
knowing the exact time at afixed
point on land, usually the home T R A G E D Y AT S E A
Misjudging longitude
could spell disaster
.1
 Observatory in Greenwich Park in
I
1676 to “rectify the Motions of
m
the Heavens and the Places of the
CO
fixed stars for perfecting the Art of
Navigation.” The first Astronomer
o
Royal was John Flamsteed, who 7D
devoted 40 years to creating a <
catalogue of 3000 star positions.
The missing piece of the puzzle o
was atimepiece, and help eventually
came in the shape of aself-taught >
CO
Yorkshire clockmaker, John Harrison. I
He entered acompetition, run by
the British Board of Longitude, O
to find away of navigating from
England to the West Indies within
O
an error margin of less than half
adegree (50km). The prize was
£20,000 (£2 million today).

port (see How it Works). The seconds per day, the Observatory
GREENWICH
The Royal
Harrison’s first attempt,
H-1, completed in 1737, passed
0
H
point where latitude and longitude could fix longitude precisely -but Observatory in its sea trials with flying colours.
Greenwich Park
m
intersected on the chart gave the only on land. was designed by
ship’s position. But getting the Marine navigation still remained Sir Christopher
o
Wren.
correct time to do this was tricky. problematic. Navigating by the z
CD

CC
NOW
WOULD
IGIVE
ATHOUSAND
FURLONGS H
»
OF SEA FOR AN ACRE OF BARREN GROUND. D
Gonzalo, Act 1, Scene 1, The Tempest
D
T I M E K E E P E R d
Even the best clocks performed Moon and stars was thought to Christiaan
C O
badly at sea, due to wave be possible but the details of Huygens invented
the pendulum
motion and changes of pressure, their positions were not accurate clock, which was a
temperature and humidity. On enough. King Charles II, keen to breakthrough for
along voyage an error of afew solve the issue, founded the Royal timekeeping.
degrees could put aship ahundred
miles off course. Unsurprisingly, all
the major seafaring nations were
desperate for asolution.

PERFECTING ASTRONOMY
■Vfy.
In 1669 Italian astronomer Giovanni
Cassini became director of the Paris

Observatory at Faubourg St
Jacques. He had spent 16 years
' f t
studying the movements of Jupiter’s FAITHFUL GUIDE

Explorer James
moons as apossible “universal Cooke {1728-
timekeeper” and had published 1779) called his
detailed tables in 1668. £450 copy of H-4,
made by
Using Cassini’s Jovian moon clockmaker

tables and Dutch mathematician Larcum Kendall,

“our faithful
Christiaan Huygens’ new clocks, guide”, taking it
which kept time to an accuracy of J on all his voyages.

17
 BREAKTHROUGHS

^HARRISON’S TIMEPIECES
he culmination of John Harrison*s work perfecting his marine
T timepieces was H-4. This used diamonds and emeralds
as frictionless bearings, bi-metal strips (different metals
I ilsl welded together) to resist temperature effects, and featured
1 amechanism to keep the clock going while being wound. The
m m
m Longitude Board, who favoured their own lunar distance method,
%
obstructed Harrison at every turn and awarded him only half the
m prize -£10,000. But agrateful Parliament added £8750.
m

/ i t HARRISON’S
/¥* m % 1 m m
CLOCKS
H a r r i s o n ’ s fi r s t

navigational clock.
the H-1 (left), was
huge ~about the
size of asmall
t e l e v i s i o n . T h e fi n a l
version was much
%
smaller and could
be held in the

hand. To the right

is adrawing of
the layout of
the internal
mechanism of
the H>4.

G L O S S A R Y But the Yorkshireman said he

Chronometer: could do better. Over the next 23
An extremely
precise years, he built three more and his
timepiece, such final version, H-4, became the
as those used for
benchmark for all future marine
determining
longitude and “chronometers” (see Glossary).
location.
But there was asnag. H-4 cost
Lunar distance hundreds of pounds to make.
method: A
method for
Even cheaper copies made by
determining watchmakers John Arnold and
absolute time Thomas Earnshaw cost £60 to £80
(and hence
longitude] from -too expensive for most mariners.
the position of The best practical hope still lay
the Moon against
with the lunar distance method
the background
s t a r s . (see Glossary). Flamsteed had
catalogued the stars so the next
challenge was to plot the Moon.
Although the Moon only takes
29V2 days to go through its phases,
it is influenced by the pull of both
Earth and the Sun, taking 20 years
for one full cycle through the
HARRISON heavens. Sir Isaac Newton’s theory
Aportrait of of gravitation, published in 1686,
John Harrison
now made it possible to calculate
holding his H-4
version of the the Moon’s path, but years of lunar
c h r o n o m e t e r. observations lay ahead.

18,
 In 1755, aGerman mapmaker
Tobias Mayer sent aset of lunar
tables, on which he had been working
for years, to the Board. His tables
even included aformula for correcting
errors due to the refraction of light
through the atmosphere. Mayer s
widow was later awarded a£3000
share of the Longitude Prize and
Leonard Euler, aSwiss mathematician
whose formulas Mayer had used,
received £300.
C O M P L E X C A L C U L AT I O N S
In 1731, the quadrant was invented
by John Hadley. This gave accurate
elevations of the Sun, Moon and
stars, and distances between them,
even at sea. With Flamsteed’s star
catalogue, Mayer’s lunar tables and
Hadley’s quadrant, it was now
possible to find longitude at sea to
within half adregree -as required
by the Longitude Act.
Unfortunately, mariners still
needed to spend hours on complex
calculations, by which time their ship
■■■ t
INSIDE INFD
M A S K E LY N E ’ S H U M A N C O M P U T E R S
f » 1
;r.i
i fi
% when wireless telegraphy enabled
INSIDE INFO X
m
G R E E N W I C H S PA C E T I M E
CO
y1881 there were 14 H
B “prime meridians” based o
all over the world, so in 1884
TO
aconference was convened in
-<
Washington, USA, to decide on
just one. As 70 per cent of world O
shipping used Britain’s Nautical n
Almanac, most delegates opted
for Greenwich, London. The ■W >
CO
French opted out. Their Nautical # -
I
Almanac (Connaissance du I
TO
Temps) was based on Paris
and they continued to use It for m O
decades. Greenwich Is also home Hi 1
t o “ M e a n Ti m e ” , o n w h i c h a l l
time zones are based. Mean
o
Time is now recorded by an
atomic clock based at Meridian
I t
House in Greenwich. It is also I
the standard for space time J
-Universal Time (UT). H
\ '
\
■
t
PRIME MERIDIAN The line of j
0“ Longitude passes through the
f \
O
courtyard of the Royal Observatory
i z
In Greenwich.
o
e
u
m
would have moved on. But in 1765,
anew Astronomer Royal, Neville D
Maskelyne, said he had the answer. m
CO
V eville Maskelyne’s lunar tables were Human “computers” (see Inside
N ahuge undertaking. They gave daily Info) would do the calculations in
positions of the Moon, planets and stars, advance and their data would be
and distances between them, five years printed in lunar tables in an annual
in advance. Each entry required adozen Nautical Almanac and Astronomical
Vseven-figure calculations, yet one error
Ephemeris.
could spell shipwreck. They were produced ^
by anetwork of human “computers” and | The almanac cost six shillings and
checkers. Maskelyne’s star computer was ^ anewly improved variation on a
aShropshire widow called Mary Edwards, quadrant, called asextant, cost £20
who performed calculations in athird of - f a r l e s s t h a n a c h r o n o m e t e r. L u n a r
the time that the other computers took.
tables were used to find longitude
She supported herself and two daughters
In this way for 30 years. After her death,
until the late 19th century, when
in 1815, her daughter Eliza took over her chronometers became cheaper.
role as acomputer. Even then, mariners continued
to use the tables until 1906,
mariners to use radio time signals
i
to calculate longitude. Today’s
NAUTICAL ALMANAC Apage from mariners use satellite navigation or
Maskelyne’s Nautical Almanac showing several
tables of precomputed calculations, given in a radio-based systems. But many still
form that was easily accessible for navigators. carry achronometer and sextant
J -just in case.
 w

MONOCEROS and
Unicorns are mythical creatures,
but one can be found in the sky
in the form of the constellation
CANIS MINOR
Monoceros. Next to it lies the m f

smaller of the two dogs of @THP AKER’S DOG

Orion, Canis Minor. Ithough often visualised as one of the dogs of Orion,
A Canis Minor is also said to represent adog called
Maera, owned by Icarius, an early Greek wine-maker.
(though often overlooked in favour of its

A Icarius held awine-tasting among some shepherds who,

flashier neighbours such as Orion and Canis unused to the alcohol, rapidly became drunk. Thinking that
Major, Monoceros is asurprisingly large Icarius had tried to poison them they killed him. Maera the
constellation well-stocked with objects of interest. A dog led Icarius’ daughter, Erigone, to his body. Both
grief stricken, Erigone hung herself from atree,
good place to start is Beta Monocerotis, rated as
and Maera leaped off acliff. In this story
perhaps the finest triple star in the sky, consisting of an
Erigone is represented by Virgc
arc of 5th-magnitude stars, which can be seen while Maera is Canis Minor.
individually with small telescopes. Monoceros was

introduced in the early

CLUSTERS AND CLOUDS 17th century by the Dutch
cartographer Petrus
The prime exhibits in Monoceros are its clusters and Plancius and there
nebulae. Foremost is the Rosette Nebula, aloop of gas
are no myths
surrounding the star cluster NGC 2244. The brightest RRRnnintpd with it.

stars in the cluster form arectangular group that is

easily visible through binoculars and small telescopes.
However, the flower-like beauty of the surrounding
nebula is apparent only on long-exposure photographs
and CCD images.
Another cluster with associated nebulosity is NGC
2264 in the north of the constellation. As is frequently
the case with such objects, the star cluster is an easy target for binoculars and small telescopes but the
surrounding nebula is too faint to see with these aids.
<
South of the cluster, photographs reveal adark wedge
z

■: X known as the Cone Nebula silhouetted against the

^ i i

3
brighter nebulosity behind it.
<

O
In the southern reaches of Monoceros lies the star
<

. i
o
Z cluster M50. It is visible with binoculars as ahazy
4 '
patch about half the size of the full Moon, but
?**""*■
" r

telescopes with an aperture of 100mm or so are

needed to discern individual stars.
'"ml

L O N E S TA R C O N S T E L L AT I O N
ROSETTE
"‘nk. N E B U L A Next to Monoceros lies Canis Minor, asmall
The radiation
:, J*'-
S'*: constellation whose only star of note is Procyon, the
pressure from
the central star eighth-brightest star in the night sky. Procyon forms
1^3
. 4
cluster NGC one corner of atriangle with Betelgeuse and Sirius, the
2244 is said to
brightest star in the sky. The name Procyon comes
> * , form the hole in
the middle of
from the Greek meaning “before the dog” from the
the Rosetta fact that it rises earlier than the dog star Sirius.
" #

♦.* Nebula.

"" #
 NEIGHBOUR
MONOCEROS AND CANIS MINOR Procyon, the
brightest star in
onoceros and Canis Minor are best Canis Minor is

M placed for observation in the evening actually abinary

,star system.
sky in January and February. Both are fully
comprising
visible from all latitudes on Earth except the
extreme north and south. Procyon Aand
Procyon B. It is
Monoceros lies in the
bright because
Milky Way within of its closeness
the triangle to our Sun.
formed by
Betelgeuse,
Procyon and
Sirius.

L O C AT I O N MAP

iABBREVIATION Mon ABBREVIATION CMi

BEST SEASON BEST SEASON

January -February February

BRIGHTEST S TA R BRIGHTEST S TA R

Alpha (a) 3.9 Procyon (a) 0.4

SIZE RANKING 35 SIZE RANKING 71

POSITION Equatorial POSITION Equatorial [S)

MYSTERIES of
JUPITER
A L L W E AT H E R W h i l e
scientists know much
about the stormy
atmosphere that blankets
Jupiter's surface, they
know little about what
exactly drives it.
Despite visits from
several space probes,
the solar system's largest
planet still poses many
unanswered questions.
upiter’s strange and stormy weather systems
lie at the heart of its mysteries. For example,
we still don’t fully understand the mechanism
that drives its high-pressure storms, the origins of
its chemical colouring, or even the source of the
winds that drive its belts and zones in opposing
directions. Some of these puzzles, if we manage to
solve them, will have far-reaching consequences
for our understanding of not only Jupiter but all the
other giant planets.
INTERNAL POWER
Perhaps the single biggest mystery is what powers
Jupiter’s weather. The planet receives just four per
cent of the sunlight that Earth absorbs every day, yet
the high-speed zonal winds move far faster than
similar winds on Earth.
Infrared images also reveal that the planet is
radiating more than twice the heat that it absorbs
from the Sun. This is mostly from within the belts, and
from occasional dry “hot spots’’, such as the one the
Galileo atmospheric probe fell into (see page 11)
It seems clear that Jupiter has its own internal
power source but what is it? The most widely
accepted theory is that the heat comes from the
on-going compression of the planet’s interior.
As denser molecules settle towards the gas
giant’s core, the friction generated as they drift
downwards releases excess heat.
STORM POWER
Another of the big questions is just how Jupiter’s
storms can survive for years, decades or even
centuries. The lack of asolid surface to create
friction helps, but the turbulent atmosphere should
still be enough to disrupt any storm over amuch
shorter period. So some mechanism must be
continuing to drive the storm.
Currently, there seem to be three plausible

stronomers got asurprising
A glimpse of the link between
Jupiter’s internal heat source
and its surface weather during
March 2007, when two bright
new storms suddenly erupted in
the middle of the northern
hemisphere, growing from
400km across to more
2000km in just 24 hours.
Infrared images of the
eruptions showed that they
coincided with bright “hot spots’
heat escapes
mostly through
belt regions
THE POWER
SOURCE Some
scientists believe that
the internal power source
of Jupiter is aresult of
differentiation (see Issue
10, Space Science).
G L O S S A R Y
State change: Achange
in the state of matter
between solid, liquid or
gas jally associated
with the absorption or
release of energy.
Plasma volcano: An
upwelling of electrically
charged gas (plasma)
that some scientists
believe could occur at
the top of Jupiter’s
metallic hydrogen ocean.
on Jupiter. They seem to have
been driven by heat from within
the gas giant. This caused a
sudden upwelling of material from
the base layer of water-rich
clouds, 100km inside the planet.
The storms rapidly dissipated
but left many questions -not
than least whether they are linked to
similar eruptions in 1975 and
1990. Also, is there some hidden
cycle that drives such eruptions
to happen every 16 years?
inward
of
particles
outward fl o w
of heat
explanations. The simplest is that the storms are
simply held together and kept spinning by the
motion of the opposing Jetstream winds to their
north and south -rather like adiabolo is spun by
the swift movement of the string around its axle.
Another Idea is that the storms are powered
from within by aforce that warms material and
causes it to rise upwards. This might be the heat
generated by the “state change’’ (see Glossary)
where the atmospheric gases condense into liquid
or It could be something more exotic, such as
“plasma volcanoes’’ (see Glossary) deep inside
Jupiter’s metallic hydrogen mantle. If something
X
>
m
a
0
ERUPTIONS This image of two continent-sized
storms, captured by Hubble’s infrared telescope in -<
March 2007, shows that internal heat plays a CO
s i g n i fi c a n t r o l e i n J u p i te r ’s w e a th e r s y s tem s . H
P D
CO
beneath the storm can generate ahigh-pressure o
drift region with acontinuously rising current, Jupiter’s
denser
Coriolis forces (see Glossary on page 9) wi
“ D
natura set it spinning.
H
Athird model suggests that the major storms m
grow and maintain themselves by swallowing
up countless smaller storms that are themselves
generated by local regions of rising gas. This
idea is supported by the discovery of countless
electric storms in regions that give rise to larger
storm activity. As far as we can tell from space
probe observations, laboratory experiments and
computer models, it’s likely that all three of these
processes have arole to play.
CLIMATE CHANGE?
One final question, though, is exactly how long
friction
generates those storms will keep going. According to one
heat near
c o r e
intriguing theory, various recent changes on the
giant planet are signs of aglobal climate cycle.
Currently, Jupiter has amore or less uniform
temperature from equator to poles. But computer
models developed at the University of California,
Berkeley, suggest this is largely due to turbulence
created by its white spot storms. The recent
merging of three of these major storms to form the
“Little Red Spot’’ could turn off this mechanism,
creating abarrier that prevents heat from reaching
the south pole, causing it to cool while the equator
g r o w s w a r m e r.
Similar mergers could do the same near the north
pole. The change in heat flow could eventually
disrupt the smooth flow of the zonal winds, creating
vortices that would eventually give rise to anew
generation of storms. In this way, Jupiter could have
acomplex climate cycle lasting acentury or more.
23
COMING ISSUE

®A„E33„

^ll-DAMO^
'"'■rnffi
PLAR
43-TOOTH GEAR
m
- S E L F - TA P P I N G S C R E W S

■ ^ .
system M
Aprecis/on-e ^GINEERED
23)
ORRERY

I:...* GRl
JUPITER^
VOLVANIC
MOON :S?r

■■ .;>5^ 10
^°Hdofpits,
plumes and
sulphurous lava
GEAR COLLAR

THIS ISSUE* 43-tooth gear

' c o l l a r a n d
planet spindle
V . .

■. ' !

W A S H E R S

"An insight into lo -the innermost What is “tidal heating” and how
satellite of Jupiter and one of the does it affect celestial bodies in the
most volcanic objects in the solar solar system.
system.

"Sir Patrick Moore is back to C€

Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,
Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 STS

champion his favourite heroes of WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
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a s t r o n o m y. Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.

"Discover the ingenious workings of

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instruments -the armillary sphere.
 ®An Eaglemoss Publication -AWeekly Publication. UK £5.99 ROI €9.99 Malta €8.99 Australia $14.95 New Zealand $16.99 South Africa R89.95

BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM a
23)

APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY

I N V E S T I G AT I N G
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ACOLOURFUL and
EVER-CHANGING m -

world of pits,
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SULPHUROUS lava

■■■

IWITH THIS ISSUE: 43-TOOTH GEAR, GEAR COLLAR AND PLANET SPINDLE
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SYSTEM # ■

FEATURES I M P O R TA N T
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YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL "Never use liquids or solvents to clean for any damage that l a y o c c i i r a s a

0 The armillary sphere -the attractive and

sophisticated ancestor of your solar system model.
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE
D Visit Jupiter's sulphurous moon lo -the most
volcanically active body in the solar system.
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result of incorrect assembly or
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MISSIONS
10
Pioneer 10's daring mission into deep space took it to I
the edge of the solar system and beyond.

IMAGE GALLERY
^Get up close to lo's colourful surface with this latest
gallery of spectacular space probe images.

THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

16
We ask our own cosmic hero, Sir Patrick Moore, to
select his five personal heroes of astronomy.

S TA R M A P CREDITS ■ I I
20 #
The constellation of Cygnus agraceful swan with IMAGES: FC NASA/JPL; 2Hubble Picture Library, (c) akg-london, (br)
fabulous nebulae that adorn its wings. Heritage Team/NASA/ESA; 3 Science Photo Library/Sheila Terry;
Alamy/Visual Arts Library, London; 18-19 (tl,cl,bl) Science Photo
4-5 (tl) Science 8c Society Picture Library, (tr) Courtesy of Jodrell
S PA C E S C I E N C E Bank, University of Manchester,
it- ■. Library, (bl,bc,tr) Alamy/Visual
Investigate the huge tidal forces that squeeze and Arts Library, London, (ter) Science (br) akg-london; 20-21 (tl) Galaxy
stretch the interiors of planets and moons. Photo Library/Gianni Tortoli, (br) Picture Library/Philip Perkins,
4
Mary Evans Picture Library; 6-7 (bl,tc,br) Pikaia Imaging, (tc) TA
NASA/JPL; 8-9 NASA/JPL, (br) Rector/University of Alaska
i 4^ Pikaia Imaging; 10-11 NASA; 12- Anchorage &WIYN/NOAO/AURA/
13 (tl) Corbis UK/Clark Dunbar, (tc) NSF; 22-23 (bl) Courtesy of #
Science Photo Library/US Stanton Peale, (tc) NASA/JPL, (br)
Bra
Geological Survey/NASA, (b,r) Pikaia Imaging. I
NASA/JPL; 14-15 Science Photo
Library/DavidAHardy/Futures:50|REPRO:Stormcreative
Years in Space; 16-17 (tl) akg- Publishing Limited
london, (cl) Rex Features/Nils PRINTING: Century Litho (Truro)
Jorgensen, (be) Mary Evans Limited

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 o

ILL ARY c
7 3
CD
O

7 3
CO
-<
CO

m
The armillary sphere is adirect ancestor of your solar system
model -asophisticated instrument, designed to study and
A demonstrate the motions of objects in the heavens.
o
a
m
narmillary sphere is one of the most

A
r
attractive of ancient astronomical
instruments and still one of the most
0
familiar, thanks to its modern afterlife as a
>
decorative object for homes and gardens. But :xi

modern eyes, which see such objects as little

f —
more than an appealing curiosity, are unaware of
the sphere’s history as avital tool for
astronomical observation and teaching.
CO
“ D
M O D E L O F T H E H E AV E N S
■ J r
m
'.jAt its most basic, an armillary sphere
m
jg gmodel of the celestial sphere CO
around Earth -the idealised spherical
shell on which astronomical objects can be
thought to move for the purposes of measuring
their co-ordinates and plotting their motions.
The celestial sphere is marked with several
significant circles. The most important of
fthese are the celestial equator, which is a
yprojection of Earth’s equator into the heavens,
and the ecliptic, which is aprojection of
Earth’s orbit around the Sun and the line on

which the Sun appears to move through the

sky over the course of ayear.
VFixed rings on the armillary sphere
mmirror the positions of these celestial
lines in the sky, while the ring’s central
jaxismirrorsthewaythattheskyappears
W^'Jf to rotate around the north and south
celestial poles.
Acelestial body’s position in the sky can
be measured by any one of anumber of co¬
ordinate systems (see Issue 14, page 4). The most
significant of these are the horizontal or

A
 ♦

“sphaerae” that were used to model the heavens,

IIMSIDE lIMFO
although it is not certain they were describing
THE TORQUETUM armillary-type spheres. What is known, however,
longside the armillary sphere, is that from the earliest times, spheres appeared
A amedieval astronomer ’s observatory to follow two distinct types: demonstrational and
might well have included alesser- observational.
known instrument, the torquetum. First
appearing in the late 13th century (though D E C O R AT I V E V I S U A L A I D S
probably developed from earlier Islamic
instruments], the torquetum consists of a The Greek astronomer Eratosthenes of Gyrene (276-
series of interlocking circular planes that 194bc) is said to have built the first demonstrational
parallel important circles on the celestial sphere, while Archimedes of Syracuse (287-212bc)
sphere. As with the armlllary, its is also credited with its invention.
principal use was to convert between Demonstrational spheres were visual aids to the
measurement systems, and like Its
understanding of the celestial sphere -either for
spherical equivalent, this could
be done either “after the fact” private study or for use in lectures. They usually
using ademonstrational model, incorporated more decoration and additional
or during the observations rings parallel to Earth’s tropics and the Arctic and
themselves, with the addition of
Antarctic circles. They often had asmall model of
an alidade for sighting. Earth mounted at their centre, and their rotation

TORQUETUM The
could be driven by clockwork or hydraulics.
torquetum took and ' With the decline of the Roman Empire,
converted measurements V
demonstrational spheres disappeared from
made in three sets of
co-ordinates: horizon, view for several centuries before resurfacing
equatorial and ecliptic. in 10th-century Europe. From then on, they

alt-azimuth system (relative to the observer’s I L L U M I N AT E D

INSTRUMENT
horizon), the equatorial (relative to the celestial
In this 14th-century 1-
equator and the First Point
of Aries -the point
where the celestial
illuminated manuscript,
an astronomer observes

^the sky using an

vJiSIS
armillary sphere.
equator and the
4
c?
ecliptic cross) i

and the ecliptic

(relative to -V) V -
■.z9v
the ecliptic
and the Sun §

.3 ¥4
or the First
c
Point of Aries). t 9

Movable rings or I 13* ©X,„

5

\ r r
pointers on the
I t;X':3X5!3,v!S.<:4X
sphere can be used to <

indicate points in the sky

in any co-ordinate system.

ANCIENT ORIGINS
The origins of the armillary
sphere are lost in ancient history. PTOLEMAIC SPHERE
“Armilla” is Latin for ring or This 17th-century
bracelet, and various classical armillary sphere is
writers from the 1st . esigned on the
Ptolemaic, or Earth-
century bc onwards
describe
centred, cosmic
system. KU0 ifnc rta
3
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o

CO
o
- r .

5
I) 1P 7D
CO

i\-: CO

o
II a
ANCIENT SPHERE m
The armillary sphere Using acorrectly adjusted observational sphere, r
at the Beijing Ancient an astronomer could measure the position of an
Observatory. object in the sky, and instantly read off its position 0
in equatorial or ecliptic co-ordinates.
>
COPERNICAN SYSTEM
Armillary spheres were used for almost T O
This unusual armillary
two millennia. It was only the arrival of the
sphere (above left)
shows the heliocentric telescope and the increased need for accuracy in
>
(sun-centred) model of measurements that saw them relegated to apurely T O
ft
the solar system, and -<
ornamental role. Ironically, some the most ornate
m incorporates the orbits of C O
became important tools for astronomy classes in the five closest planets to and attractive armillaries were built as objets d'art ~ o

universities, and also had asignificant influence on the Sun. for wealthy princes with pretensions to philosophy.
depictions of the heavens in everything from book T O
S PA C E S TA R S m
illustrations to poetry. C O
JOHANNES DE SACRDBOSCO (1195-1245)
PA R E D D O W N A N D P R A C T I C A L
The observational armillary has adifferent history
T he mysterious Johannes
de Sacrobosco was the
-it was popularised by Ptolemy of Alexandria,
a u t h o r o f t h e m o s t i n fl u e n t i a l
r A i
who wrote of how to build adevice for measuring astronomical texts of medieval
r e v co-ordinates in his influential Almagest. Ptolemy’s times, which enshrined the use
y r .
six-ringed armillary sphere measured an object’s of the armillary sphere, despite
I ecliptic longitude and latitude -the same not mentioning it explicitly.
measurement system used in your own solar Sacrobosco was reputedly an
system model. Englishman, but spent most
sKf! of his career teaching at the
» x Observational armillary spheres were widely
University of Paris. In 1230
*
used by Islamic astronomers during the late first he published the Tractatus
S t millennium, and were often called “spherical de Sphaera, or Treatise on
astrolabes’’. Chinese astronomers also developed the Sphere, which introduced
their own armillary spheres in isolation from the Arabic techniques for handling
5* astronomical co-ordinates to
Greek tradition, probably around the 1st century bc.
his European audience. Many
Observational spheres were pared down for of the subsequent editions
practical use. They had graduated markings around incorporated commentaries
REVERED TEACHER Sacrobosco’s
the most important rings, and sometimes had a and illustrations explaining
Treatise on the Sphere was required
sighting rod for taking direct measurements of Sacrobosco’s principles in reading for Western European
terms of the armillary sphere. students for 400 years.
the sky in the same way as one would with an
■t t i i astrolabe or aquadrant (see Issues 28 and 29).

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MOON PROFILE

AV E R A G E D I S TA N C E F R O M J U P I T E R G R AV I T Y C O M PA R E D TO E A R T H g] g]
421,700km 0.183g
AV E R A G E D I A M E T E R M O O N S
3 6 4 3 k m N / A
M A S S T I M E F O R O N E R O TAT I O N

8.93 X1022kg 1.77 Earth days

M A S S C O M PA R E D TO E A RT H O R B I TA L P E R I O D
0 . 0 1 5 1.77 Earth days
S U R FA C E A R E A C O M PA R E D TO E A RT H AV E R A G E S U R FA C E T E M P E R AT U R E
l i i
0 . 0 8 2 -110°C
V O L U M E C O M PA R E D TO E A RT H A X I A L T I LT
0 . 0 2 3 0 °
E Q U AT O R I A L S U R FA C E G R AV I T Y AV E R A G E O R B I TA L S P E E D
1.8m/s2 17.3km/s
 c n
BREAKTHROUGHS
o
DISCOVERY OF THE PLUMES

returned one of these

or days around each of the
F Voyager flybys, the team at calibration images showing
L D
NASA’s Jet Propulsion the sky above the limb of lo.
Linda Morabito of the
<
Laboratory were mainly CO
concerned with the accurate navigation team processed the
navigation of the spacecraft. image to increase contrast
One useful technique was to and reveal the faint stars, but > r

photograph moons and in the process discovered a

planets against the stars, so huge glowing cloud above lo. o
that the “fixed” positions of The first of eight plumes to be
d
the more distant stars could found in the Voyager 1 ERUPTION This special
b e u s e d t o fi n d t h e o r i e n t a t i o n images, it was soon named colour reconstruction
a
Pele, after the Hawaiian of the Voyager 1image
of the moving objects. On 8
reveals the erupting
March 1979, Voyager 1 volcano goddess. plume on lo’s surface.

0
C R AT E R C O L O U R S horseshoes or ring-shaped marks. Vaporised o
This volcanic crater on
material from the plumes also helps to create a
lo's surface has astrange
pattern of colours sparse atmosphere around lo, which in turn fuels a
formed by the presence doughnut-shaped ring of particles around Jupiter
of lava and sulphurous (see Inside Info).
compounds. Paterae, meanwhile, are enormous sunken pits
marking areas where lo’s crust has weakened and
collapsed inward. Cracks around and inside the
paterae allow frequent eruptions of fast-flowing lava
that can stretch for hundreds of kilometres, and the

L AVA F L O W S pits themselves often fill with seething lakes of molten

Captured while lo was in rock that spills out onto the surrounding terrain, or
eclipse in Jupiter's sometimes forms athin crust that is sporadically
shadow, this image
recycled. Unlike volcanoes on Earth, Venus or Mars,
shows sites of erupting
magma, indicated by the however, lo spaterae tend not to build mountainous
yellow and red spots. volcanic shields (see Glossary) around them.

11 showed lo as little more than an orange disc.

However, lo’s secrets were finally revealed to the next
pair of space probes to hurtle past the giant planet -
the Voyagers. Detailed photographs showed that o

was astrange world of mottled yellow and orange,

with asurface curiously free of Impact craters.

PLUMES AND PITS

The final piece of the puzzle came when Voyager 1
caught one of lo’s volcanoes in action (see O

Breakthroughs), lo’s volcanic activity falls into two

main types. Plumes are enormous fountains of cP*’
molten sulphur that resemble Earth’s geysers. As
they escape high into lo’s airless skies, the liquid
rapidly boils into vapour, out of which condensing
crystals of sulphur slowly settle back on to the
moon’s surface, forming distinctive reddish-brown
7
 ^lO’S SULPHUR TORUS
ohas acomplex relationship with Jupiter’s magnetosphere -the
powerful magnetic field that is generated deep within the planet
and rotates with it. Because the field spins faster than lo moves
along its orbit, it strips away sulphur, oxygen, sodium and
chlorine from the moon’s tenuous atmosphere at arate of about
one tonne every second. Some of this material remains in its
atomic form and falls into adoughnut-shaped cloud or “torus” of
neutral atoms around Jupiter; some, however, is transformed
into electrically charged “plasma” and accelerated so that It
sweeps past lo at the same rate as the magnetic field
Interaction between the planet and the magnetosphere also
creates an electric current running around Jupiter, known as the
“flux torus”. These combined effects help to expand massively the
size of Jupiter’s magnetic field, so that its effects can be
detected as far away as Saturn.

SULPHUR PLUME
Sunlight is scattered
by the plume from lo’s
volcano, Prometheus.
DRIVING THE VOLCANOES

Two key factors combine to give lo its unique volcanic

activity. The first is the enormous effect of tides from
Jupiter itself. As lo orbits Jupiter, the changing force of
-r :
Jupiter’s gravity pushes and pulls lo’s interior in
different directions, heating the rocks as they grind
past each other, and keeping lo’s interior warm.
The second is the presence of large amounts of
sulphur in o
crust. By measuring the temperature
s

of lava flows, scientists know that many of lo s

eruptions involve molten silicate rocks similar
to those found on Earth. But sulphur melts at

G L O S S A R Y
Shield volcano: A

shallow-sloped vole a n i c

mountain built up by
layers of erupted lava
solidifying around a
central caldera.
espite the large amounts of sulphur
D that shape its surface, lo’s interior
i r o n

c o r e

is dominated by silicate rocks, making it

Thrust fault: Aregion
similar to the worlds of the inner solar
of apli it’s crust where

one part of the surfac
is pushe u p o v e r
another, due to forces
compressing the crust
from either side.
system and very different from the other silicate
satellites of the outer planets, which tend
to be icy. One theory is that heat from
Jupiter’s own formation vaporised some of
the ice in the cloud of material that formed

the moons, so lo formed in aregion of the

cloud that contained only rocky debris, lo
is thought to have asolidified, iron-rich
core, around which lies the semi-molten,
constantly flexing mantle of silicate rock.
The outer crust, probably around 20-30km
outer crusi
deep, is amixture of basaltic rocks (similar
to those produced in volcanoes on Earth]
and sulphur-rich minerals.
r S U R FA C E C H A N G E S CO
Galileo 1999 IMeuu Horizons 2007
These two images,
taken eight years apart,
o
show anew volcanic

eruption (circled) creating

>
7 ^
acircular deposit about
500km wide. CO

CO

O
d

a
lO'S VOLCANISM m
This pair of volcanic
features (left) known as
Amirani-Maui is the 0
longest active lava flow
known to exist in the o
solar system.

lower temperatures and flows much more swiftly

hile most other chemical elements only have the capacity to
w form one or two bonds with other atoms, and therefore tend to
produce quite simple molecules, sulphur is one of ahandful that can
support many more bonds (up to six). This enables It to form much
larger molecules, and sulphur atoms can bond with each other in up
to 30 different forms, resulting in complex structures with different
appearances known as allotropes.
The dominant yellow-green colour is aresult of the most common
sulphur allotrope, aring-shaped molecule of eight atoms known as
Sg. Close to the poles, bombardment with radiation from Jupiter’s
magnetosphere breaks these molecules into shorter chains of Sg and
S^, with amore reddish colour. Meanwhile most pure sulphur erupting
in the plumes takes the form of simple “diatomic” molecules called Sg.
But Sg is only stable at high temperatures, and as it settles back onto
the surface, the atoms rearrange themselves into Sg and S^ chains,
explaining the reddish rings around the plumes.
S_ from volcanoes
than molten rock -allowing sulphur eruptions to
reshape large areas of landscape,
lo ssurfeit of sulphur is also responsible for its
colourful appearance (see Inside Info: Allotropes of
Sulphur), lo’s greenish-yellow colour comes from one
form of pure sulphur, while the reddish stains left from
the plumes come from another, and the greyish-white
patches come from areas of sulphur dioxide.
ALL CHANGE
As well as volcanic activity, there is even evidence for
some form of “continental drift” on lo, in the form of
large mountain ranges that do not seem to have a
volcanic origin. These mountains, some of which rise
to 17km high, are probably created by thrust faults
(see Glossary), where lo’s crust “crumples” as it is
compressed by moving currents of rock in the interior.
The mountainous regions tend to lie at some distance
from the paterae, suggesting that they represent two
sides of the same process, with the paterae forming in
the areas where the crust is being stretched thin to
compensate for compression elsewhere.
The huge variety of activity on lo means that its
surface is redrawn every few decades. Some features,
such as the Pele and Loki volcanoes, seem to survive
for longish periods (at least since the Voyager probes
first identified them), but the moon constantly
reshapes itself around them -thus each new visitor to
this volcano moon finds anew world awaiting them.

N E X T; J U P I T E R ’ S M O O N e j fl O R A A N I
OCEAN THAT HIDES ffiNEATH THE M C R U S T.

S, and S, from 9
breakdown of S
 Pioneer 10 was the first man¬
made object to be sent on a
journey leading out of the solar
system into deep space.

narguably one the most Atlas-Centaur rocket. The third

successful space missions stage accelerated the spacecraft to launch, on 3
March 1972,
ever, Pioneer 10 was aspeed of 51,810km/h. This made marked the
launched in 1972 and designed to Pioneer 10 the fastest man-made fi r s t u s e o f t h e

flyby Jupiter and some of its object to leave Earth, fast enough to Atlas-Centaur

satellites, particularly lo, then
continue to research deep space.
One of the lightest spacecraft,
Pioneer 10 weighed in at only
as athree-stage
pass the Moon in 11 hours and to launch vehicle.
reach Mars’ orbit, about 80 million
kilometres away, in only 12 weeks.
On 15 July 1972, Pioneer entered

I G L O S S A R Y

Cosmic rays:
Datomic

Dr. Larry Lasher, Pioneer 10 Project Manager particles v ;h a

v a r 5ty of
m energies and
sources that
258kg, 27kg of which were the asteroid belt, the region of stream aci

instruments and fuel. Like the
Voyagers it was powered by nuclear
generators. These were mounted
well away from the science package
to prevent their radiation from
interfering with the instruments
Pioneer 10 was launched in
March 1972 on top of athree-stage
space some 280 million kilometres space at speeds
wide and 80 million kilometres comparable to
that of light.
thick. Here, objects, ranging from
dust specks to rocks the size of
Alaska, hurtle around at aspeed
of some 20km/sec. Having passed
through the asteroid belt, the
spacecraft headed for Jupiter,

\BREAKTHROUGHS

WTHE HELIOSPHERIC BOUNDARY

aving achieved the original mission of investigating Jupiter,

H the Pioneer mission was extended. The new goal was to
search for the heliospheric boundary. This is the meeting place
between the solar wind and interstellar space. The solar wind is
aflow of particles expelled by the Sun, travelling at 1.6 million
km/h. The composition of the Interstellar medium is uncertain
but It is known to include energetic atomic nuclei.
Prior to the Pioneers, scientists believed that the boundary
was alittle beyond Jupiter (at 714 million km from the Sun) but
P i o n e e r s h o w e d i t t o b e m u c h f a r t h e r, a t 11 , 2 5 0 m i l l i o n k m t o
13,500 million km from the Sun.

10.
 he first man-made objects to leave our
T solar system, the Pioneer probes were
also the first to carry apictorial message
from humankind. The gold-anodized plaques
show the nude figures of ahuman male and
female along with several symbols -including
the relative position of the Sun to the centre
of the Galaxy -to provide information about
the origin of the spacecraft. The 229mm x
152mm plaque Is attached to the antenna
support struts of the spacecraft in aposition
that shields it from erosion by stellar dust.

PLAQUE DESIGN The 120g plaque

was made from a1.27mm-thick sheet

of gold-anodized aluminium.

accelerating to 132,OOOkm/h as the actually lasted for more than 30 of the Milky Way. By February
gravity pull of the gas giant began years. Following its encounter with 1996, Pioneer 10 was 9.5 billion
to exert an influence. Jupiter, Pioneer 10 journeyed to the km from Earth. At that distance, it
Pioneer 10 passed within outer reaches of the solar system. took some 8.5 hours for the radio

130,000km of the Jovian cloudtops signal to reach mission control. The

on 3December 1973. During the probe continued to make valuable
flyby it captured the first close-up Among its scientific missions were scientific investigations until its
images of Jupiter, recorded data the study of energetic particles from science mission ended on 31 March

on the intense radiation belts, the Sun (solar wind) and of cosmic 1997. The last, weak, signal was
located the planet’s magnetic field rays (see Glossary) entering our part received on 22 January 2003.
and confirmed that Jupiter is a
predominantly liquid planet.
Although it was designed to
last just 21 months, the spacecraft

JUPITER An

artist's impression
showing the
Pioneer 10

spacecraft
making aclose
flyby of planet
Jupiter.

A S S E M B LY
Pioneer 10

during its final

assembly phase
in aNASA

laboratory at
Redondo Beach. .
California.
 - - r m
't-
HI

I
0

1
I

<

i l l
:i, ^ H

> .i /

[1] lO AND JUPITER [2] ERUPTION This image

This artist's impression of avolcanic eruption
shows lo, the fourth was captured by Galileo

WILD lO
largest of Jupiter's
satellites, passing across
the face of the gas giant.
on 22 February 2000.
The orange and yellow
ribbon of lava is more
than 60km long.

Although the first observation

of lo was made by Galileo in
1610, it was not until the late
19th century that It could be
viewed in any detail. % m

■ A

%
%

W hile telescopic observations of lo in

the mid-20th century began to hint at
its unusual nature, the first close-ups
came with Pioneer 11. It was images captured by
the Voyager craft, however, which suggested that
lo was volcanically active. m

Between 1995 and 2003, the Galileo mission

returned valuable data. This, together with
m
Cassini’s flyby en route to Saturn, revealed the
extent of lo’s volcanic acitvity. Since then, the
Keck telescope in Hawaii and the Hubble Space
telescope have allowed astronomers to monitor lo.
Most recently, in 2007, the New Horizons probe
made detailed observations en route to Pluto.

12
 November 1997 during
image of lo's largest
the ninth orbit of the
>
volcano, Pele, taken
by Voyager 1. The Galileo spacecraft. CD
volcanic vent recorded a m
temperature of 380°C. ■4 T - I -CD
>
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M:X' :■■
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f h r,

/a-strewn surface of lo, he would see avast plume of sunlit sulphur erupting from a
volcanic caldera several hundred kilometres to the right, the volcanic ash raining down on the sulphur dioxide frost on the plains. On the left loom
 >
G)
m

C)
>

- <

vast rocky mountains. There, just above the yellowish glow of the sulphur torus, the gas giant hangs. As it orbits Jupiter at adistance of some
42,000km, the huge gravitaional forces that the planet exerts on the moon, make lo the most geologically active body in the solar system.
 PTOLEMY

Adepiction of the
1st-century
observatory from
where Ptolemy
made observations
to support his
belief in an Earth-
centred solar

system.

PATRICK MOORE'S
ROES of
ASTRONOMY
Patrick Moore is ahero to astronomers around the W i

MAGES T |

world but he finds it achallenge to narrow his list of

Secundac

astronomical heroes to only five. Enjoy his pithy

2
*18.
Tertig S
9

analysis as he rates his personal greats. IPtKtdcn. fG«

., 50mm

influence there is no doubt at all.

S
electing just five people is no A L M A G E S T

Amodern version
easy task, but Iwill do my Living between about ad120 and
of Ptolemy's great
best. Imust begin with 180, he drew the first map of the summary of ' m a i
+ 0

ncrici

Claudius Ptolemaeus, always known known world based upon scientific ancient science. 25*.

to us as Ptolemy. He lived at measurement, he drew up astar

Alexandria, in Egypt, but he was catalogue, which was the best ever
certainly Greek. About his life and compiled up to that time, and, most
personality we know absolutely important of all, he wrote abook 7QuaHESiSBraj?
L ® 8 i o oEr: I t

nothing, but of his ability and which summarised virtually the

Cancri*9.
pOuiatae ,
— r-r- ,
 FATHER OF SCIENCE H

There must now be along gap

m
before Icome to my next "hero”,
but it must be Galileo, the first great
telescopic observer. So far as we
o
can tell, telescopes were invented in
Holland in the first years of the 17th
century. Galileo, at Pisa in Italy,
heard about them, and made one o
/
/ for himself. It was atiny thing, much
r r / less effective than good modern >
v;-> CO
binoculars, but in early 1610 Galileo
^:.\v
used it to make aseries of
7D
spectacular discoveries. O
He saw the craters of the Moon,
GALILEO GALILEI the movements of the planets as well the phases of Venus, the four bright
The great 17th- O
as was then possible, and he was an satellites of Jupiter, the “myriad
I century
astronomer (left)
excellent observer as well as a stars” of the Milky Way, and much
else. He even saw that there was -<
and some of the mathematician. Occasional attempts
landmark sketches
by modern historians to play down something unusual about the shape
he made (above)
his achievements have been signally of Saturn, though his telescope was
0
while observing TO
the Moon through unsuccessful, and he well deserves his not powerful enough to show the >
his telescope. nickname of “the Prince of rings in their true form.
Astronomers”. O
7 s
GEORGIAN GENIUS

TELESCOPE Now we jump forward over a

"%
o
William Herschel hundred years, and come to the
''i.r
built his largest
o
career of William Herschel. After a
%
telescope -12m
long with a121 cm
f / brief and undistinguished spell in
' m L n
aperture -at his the Hanoverian Army, Herschel
home in Slough. decided to find work in England, <
In September
eventually becoming organist at the m
1789, it helped
him discover > Octagon Chapel in fashionable Bath. X
m
4 Enceladus. J ! He was agreat success there, but X I

in the 1770s he became interested O

m
whole of ancient science. The original in astronomy and began to make CO

has not survived, but the book has his own telescopes. In 1781, using O
come down to us by way of its Arab one of his telescopes in the garden
of his house at 19 New King Street, >
tt.
translation, and we call it the ( / )

he was examining part of the H

Almagest. \k T O
7/'
constellation Gemini when he O
/," ■IVA ih:
PRINCE OF ASTRONOMY h 4V\

\\1J
V/r
m ,came across an object which did
O
Of course Ptolemy made 1^notseemtobeastar.
mistakes. He believed Earth It showed adefinite disk,
to be the centre of the < which no star can do, and
l i universe, and it was he Herschel found that it

who brought this \moved very slowly from

“geocentric” theory to
L night to night. He
its highest degree of
/j
y A m was not particularly
excited, because
perfection, which is
why it is officially called Vhe thought that
the Ptolemaic System. c Jap- he had found
But he accounted for m i i i i iiiiini 1®^ acomet, but it

3
 THE HERSCHELS swing for only alimited distance to
William Herschel
either side of the central meridian.
made most of
his astronomical An amazing achievement, it was
observations, completed in 1845, and at once
including the made adiscovery of fundamental
discovery of the
planet Uranus,
importance. Nebulae were known to
with the support be of two types, those which could
of his sister. be resolved into stars, and those
Caroline.
which could not.
Lord Rosses “Leviathan” showed
v . \
ROSSE William that many of the starry nebulae
Parsons, the were spiral, like Catherine-wheels.
3rd Earl of
(We now know that these spirals are
Rosse, famously
constructed a independent galaxies, far beyond
giant telescope. the Milky Way). In 1845, no other
telescope was capable of
showing the spiral forms.

MODERN HERO

soon became clear that this was GIANT TELESCOPE

Posse's instrument.
not so. The object was aplanet,
the Leviathan of
moving far beyond the orbit of Parsonstown.
Saturn, at that time the outermost
known member of the Sun’s family.
Instantly Herschel became world-
famous. The planet was sometimes
called “the Georgian”, but we know
it as Uranus.

rosse's leviathan
Herschel’s largest telescope had a
mirror 126cm in diameter. In the

following century my next “hero”,

the third Earl of Rosse, decided to
make atelescope that would be
even more powerful.
The Rosse estate was at Birr

Castle, in central Ireland, and it was

here that the telescope was set
up. It had ametal mirror 183cm
across, the tube was hinged at the
lower end, and the “observatory”
consisted of two massive stone

walls, so that the telescope could

 □ :
m
CO

O
PO

>
CO
I
7 0
o

LOVELL The for building the 76.2m dish at Jodrell

Lovell (radio)
Telescope at
Bank, which set the pattern for all
those that have followed. He faced
0
Jodrell Bank I D
Observatory immense problems, mainly from >
(left) owes its Government officials, and Idoubt T O
existence to Sir
whether anyone else could have O
Bernard Lovell A
(above), its first seen the project through. Without
d i r e c t o r. him, radio astronomy would not be
as advanced as it is. o
o
:x)

C O

THE LAST WORD <

that sound strange today -he like to meet would be Edmond

Galileo certainly suffered for his
belief that Earth and the other
planets moved round the Sun. He
was kept under house arrest by
the Inquisition until his death. Only In
X
believed that most worlds were Halley. He must have been atruly m
inhabited, even including the Sun! jovial companion, even if, as
But, as an observer, he has probably Flamsteed [the first British O
m
never been equalled. Astronomer Royal] said, “he swore C O

1992 did the Vatican finally concede and drank brandy like asea-captain”.
4Lord Rosse’s work was continued by With Halley around I’m sure that life o
that he had been right all along! But T !
at least he avoided the fate of his son, the fourth Earl. Then, for could never be dull.
>
Giordano Bruno, also avictim of the some years, the Leviathan was out C O

7 0

-<

CYGNUS
ZEU:
In
Greek
mythology,
the
great
godZeus
disguised himself as aswan to seduce Queen
Leda of Sparta. As aresult of
the illicit union, Leda gave
birth to Pollux and Helen J North America Nebula (NGC 7000), aglowing patch
of Troy. According to
this myth. Castor, twin <
of Pollux, was fathered
by Leda’s husband. King
Tyndareus. Cygnus represents
Zeus in his avian disguise, flying
along the starlight band of
the Milky Way. ^ 6992), the remains of astar that exploded as a
Agraceful bird flies along the
Milky Way on northern summer
evenings. This flying swan is the
constellation Cygnus, alarge
and prominent figure which is
filled with objects of interest.
he stars of Cygnus form alarge cross-shape, so
the constellation is often popularly known as the
Northern Cross. At the head of the cross is the
V* constellation’s brightest star, Deneb, amember of the
so-called “Summer Triangle” of stars. Deneb, which
appears at magnitude 1.3, is the most distant first-
Ymagnitude star. Observations from the Hipparcos
satellite, which observed the parallaxes of stars from
": <. ?space, place it about 1400 light years away, according
to arecent reanalysis of the results.
COLOURFUL DOUBLES
Deneb marks the tail of the swan. At the swan’s beak is a
"beautifully coloured double star, Albireo. The smallest of
telescopes will divide it into two components of amber
and blue-green, like the “caution” and “go” signals in a
-0^ Lying
near the taiJ of
celestial traffic light. Both stars lie about 390 light years
the §wan this
2from us and move together through space, but it is not
nebula, is also * £known whether they actually orbit each other.
known as the IAnother colourful double that is even easier to see
‘.North America "*"
Nebula* because
IisOmicron-1Cygniintherearoftheswan’sleftwing.
" of its contine*nt- . IThis star and its companion, 30 Cygni, can be seen in
"" ’like,shape." *,%binoculars, forming an orange and blue pairing like a
-J Swider version of Albireo.
For atrue binary pair, look on the opposite wing of
the swan for 61 Cygni. This is apair of orange dwarfs,
divisible through small telescopes. This pair of
near-identical twins orbit each other every 680 years.
AMAZING NEBULAE
Several celebrated nebulae lie in Cygnus. One is the
of gas in the Milky Way near Deneb that gets its name
k from its resemblance to the continent of North
America, including aprominent Gulf of Mexico. On
Cni clear, dark nights it can be picked up in binoculars but
it is best seen on photographs.
Even more astounding is the Veil Nebula (NGC
£ supernova about 5000 years ago. Wisps of gas from
the dismembered star cover an area of sky six Moon
diameters wide near the tip of one of the swan’s
wings. Beyond reach of normal telescopes, the Veil
Nebula shows up beautifully on colour photographs.
 HOW DO IFIND IT?
rf'-

V^CYGNUS ♦

ygnus is highest in the sky on evenings in

August and September. All of it can be seen
throughout the northern hemisphere and down
to latitude 28 degrees south. Deneb is visible
frnm nR f^ir Routh as New Zealand.

ABBREVIATION Cyg
BEST SEASON

—August -September
BRIGHTEST S TA R S

Deneb (a) 1.3

SIZE RANKING 16

POSITION Mid-northern

L O C AT I O N MAP X

VEIL NEBULA

Notoriously
difficult to see,
t h e Ve i l N e b u l a
□R A C O
has apattern
o f fi l a m e n t - l i k e

glowing gas.

L A C F H T A

19.

L Y R A
 \

The huge gravity exerted by the solar system's giant

AT I N G
planets is strong enough to raise powerful tides on their
nearby satellites, warping them out of shape, heating
their interiors and creating unexpected activity.

very massive object in the oceans and we experience rising and

solar system exerts atidal falling sea levels. However, other
-i— force on objects that are worlds experience tides only in their
within its gravitational reach. Gravity rocks, and as their interiors are
pulls large worlds out of their pulled this way and that the friction ICE PLUMES
perfectly spherical forms, distorting within can create tremendous heat. Spurting ice
them so that they bulge outwards on particles around
SYNCHRONOUS ORBITS Enceladus (the
the side facing the disruptive world,
sixth-largest
and also on the side facing directly Over many millions of years, tides moon of Saturn)
away. On Earth, the tides affect our have atendency to slow the are asign of the
tidal heating due
fluid oceans more than they do our rotation of satellites until eventually t o t h e i n fl u e n c e
solid rocks, so our planet rotates they settle into “synchronous” of Saturn's
“beneath" the tidal bulge in the orbits, rotating precisely once with g r a v i t y.

^SPACE STARS
^STANTON PEALE
ust days before Voyager 1discovered the
j volcanic activity on lo, ateam of scientists
led by Stanton Peale of the University of
California at Santa Barbara had predicted each orbit around their parent
what it might find. In their groundbreaking world. This kind of orbit keeps the
paper, Peale and NASA scientists Patrick tidal forces they experience in a
Cassen and Ray T. Reynolds highlighted constant direction. Yet despite this,
the fact that, while lo and Europa should the satellites still experience some
theoretically settle Into circular orbits,
change in the forces acting on them
each moon’s gravity was constantly pulling
o n t h e o t h e r, s o t h a t t h e i r o r b i t s r e m a i n e d -largely because their orbits are
slightly elliptical. They further predicted not perfectly circular, so the
that lo and Europa would suffer stress as a strength of their parent planet’s
result, and that “consequences of alargely “pull” is constantly changing. Tidal
molten interior may be evident in pictures of forces will also tend to push planets
lo’s surface returned by Voyager 1”. Their
foresight won them the American Association
into perfectly circular orbits over
for the Advancement of Science’s prestigious STANTON PEALE Professor of Physics at
long periods of time, but for most
Newcomb Cleveland Prize. the University of California, Santa Barbara. of the solar system’s satellites, this
has not yet happened.

INSIDE INFO
G A N Y M E D E ’ S T I D A L M Y S T E RY
upiter’s largest moon, Ganymede, has a
j relatively complex tidal history. It currently
CO
just alittle from purely tidal effects.
The much smaller Enceladus,
>
meanwhile, is amystery because O
it seems to experience localised m
heating around its south pole, and
today suffers only minimal tides.
( / )

orbits In aregion where it should not receive any O

significant tidal heating, yet has asurface which One possible explanation is that it m
indicates that it must have been heated by tides has only just returned to acircular
at some point in its past (see Issue 25). orbit after aperiod in amore
In this case, the solution seems to lie in
O
elliptical one. m
the complex relationship between Jupiter’s
major satellites. At some point in the past,
gravity from the other Galilean moons boosted
T R I TO N 0
Ganymede into amore elliptical orbit that came One final and spectacular example
closer to Jupiter and experienced far greater of tidal heating comes from a
variation in gravity. >
Neptune’s major moon, Triton. The
orbit of this icy world (perfectly
m
circular, but retrograde) suggests
G L O S S A R Y
>
The situation is more complex that it did not begin life circling
Cryovolcanism:
Avolcano-like around Saturn, where tidal heating Neptune, but was captured by the
activity found O
warmed several of the icy moons planet at alater date.
among the solar
system’s icy enough to trigger “cryovolcanic” The tidal forces that rapidly
outer worlds, in activity (see Glossary) in the distant s l o w e d Tr i t o n i n t o a c i r c u l a r o r b i t
which aslushy would have been much more
ammonia/water past. Its effects have lessened
mix takes the as the moons have slipped into powerful than those felt by any
place of lava. moon in anormal orbit, and as
synchronous orbits, but two
satellites remain active. aresult, large sections of Triton
EFFECTS ON lO
Cloud-veiled Titan probably gets melted all the way through, and
Jupiter's gravity
distorts its most of its heat from chemical there is still volcanic activity on the
orbiting moon, lo. processes beneath the surface, and surface today.

Tidal heating has most effect in

large satellites that orbit close to
their parent planet, lo and its near
m
neighbour Europa each have tidal
bulges several kilometres high.
They are too far from the Sun
to receive enough heat, and too
small to have maintained much of

the heat generated by the collisions

that formed them. But they still
have hot interiors thanks to the
friction created as their interior

rocks grind past one another under

the high pressures created by
relatively strong gravity.
 1
i

COMING UP IN ISSUE 24
3,

.-'

^ILD
AMODEL mnnfTffri

■I', Olar ^ u

SYSTEM M
APREC--
«f''<taSION-ENGINEEERED orrery
24)

-^PITER'S
MOON
EUROPA
mysterious SCARS
asmooth
surfaceareTELL-TALF 1^
S'GNS
what
of relates
“sneath t
fieICYCRUS T

t t

m.

K," ISSUE
""85-tooth
GEAR
fokYRE-'RANE JUPI

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■. S '

85-TOOTH GEAR
' i f
.. ■Si

i nr
A 4

V : fi A f

"Could the motions of planets cause Investigating the possiblity of life

catastrophic events on Earth? on Europe -is it really simply the
Find out about the dire predictions s t u f f o f s c i - fi ?
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JUPITER'S MOON

E U R O PA
MYSTERIOUS SCARS
criss-crossing asnnooth
surface are TELL-TALE
SIGNS of what really lies
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CREDITS i
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Photos and artworks of Europa reveal this icy moon's IMAGES:FC NASA/JPL; 2Hubble AURA)/University of Arizona/R.
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i
 -<

UPITER
o
e
7 3
CO
o

7 3
CO

CO

m
Could the motions of the planets really cause catastrophic events on
Earth? In the 1970s, two respected scientists predicted adoomsday
scenario -it never came to pass, but the theory's influence lives on.
o
a
m
he Jupiter Effect first came to the public’s PLANETS, SUNSPOTS AND QUAKES r
attention in 1974, when John Gribbin and The first piece of research was based on apattern
Stephen Plagemann, both Cambridge- suggested by University of Colorado engineer 0
educated astrophysicists, published abook of the K.D. Wood, linking planetary positions and the
same name with asubtitle that was both intriguing “tides” they raised on the surface of the Sun to X
m
and instantly controversial -The Planets as Triggers outbreaks of sunspots. (Jupiter is the planet that
QUAKES
of Devastating Earthquakes. raises the biggest tides on the Sun, hence the title e
Could earthquakes, such T J
as the one that caused The two authors had put together two already of the book.)
H
widespread destruction controversial pieces of research in order to reach an At the root of this research lay another pattern m
-PD
in Indonesia in 2006 even more extreme conclusion.
X found by Australian researcher E.K. Bigg, who
(below), be the result m
‘J.N- claimed that sunspot numbers increased when T !
of planetary alignments T 1
and increased sunspot Mercury approached perihelion (the point in a m
numbers? planet’s orbit when it is closest to the Sun). O
Bigg also claimed that Mercury had a“magnifying’
effect, so that sunspot numbers were particularly
high when another planet was roughly in line with it.
The second piece of controversial research was
based on the idea that solar activity could influence
seismic events on Earth. The idea was that
charged particles from the Sun entering
Earth’s atmosphere could affect its circulation,
altering weather patterns but also minutely
slowing Earth’s rotation. This deterioration in
Earth’s spin would put stress on our planet’s
tectonic plates and trigger earthquakes.
DIRE PREDICTIONS
Put together, these two patterns formed a
chain linking planetary alignments
through sunspot numbers to earthquakes.
What was more, the two astronomers VVITHAFORB/yoTOeyl^^
."
had identified an unusual conjunction
that would occur in March 1982 -an
alignment of all the planets (including
Pluto, considered aplanet until 2006) on
the same side of the Sun.
Over the long history of the solar
system, such alignments are inevitable.
and NASA itself was already planning to
take advantage of the forthcoming one
JUPITER EFFECT
This artist'-s impression
shows the "Jupiter
Effect" alignment
at its closest, on 10
March 1982.
M a r s
BESTSELLER to launch the Voyager probes on their grand tour of
The Jupiter Effect, the outer planets. However, Gribbin and Plagemann
published in 1974, was
a n i n s t a n t b e s t s e l l e r, claimed that this grand alignment would have dire
but turned out to be a consequences for life on Earth -an enormous solar
scientific flop. storm, accompanied by earthquakes focused on
California’s San Andreas Fault, climate
V-9i»mc*HA0Ait,ic
change and other traumatic events.
HIE HOLES IN THE THEORY
The thing that most sceptical readers
spotted first was the “looseness’’ of the
Jupiter Effect alignment. Even at their
closest, the planets would be spread across
95 degrees as seen from the Sun. This was
far from the scenario depicted on the
book’s jacket, in which the planets were
shown lined up towards the Sun like a
planetary tug-of-war team.
E D I T I O N
Surely this alignment would
significantly lessen the effect of any
combined force the planets could exert?
And if such an alignment could give rise
to such cataclysmic effects, why had it not
happened before?
And then of course there was the question
of whether the planets could really exert
much influence over the Sun in the first
INIeptune
 1
-<
o
c
7 3
ith the tidal force exerted by Earth on
W the Sun taken as 1, this table shows
CO

the amount of influence exerted by the other O

planets:
Mercury 0.54 (aphelion)
1.89 (perihelion) 7 3
Venus 2 . 1 5
CO
Earth 1 . 0 0 - <
M a r s CO
0.023 (aphelion)
0.041 (perihelion)
Jupiter 2 . 2 6 m
Saturn 0 . 11
Uranus 0 . 0 0 2

Neptune 0 . 0 0 0 6

O
a
m
HARMLESS FORCE

Despite exerting alarger

tidal force than the other

planets, Jupiter has little

I
0
effect on the Sun let alone
H
on Earth's atmosphere. X
m

c z
T J
else pales into insignificance (see Inside Info).
.HOW IT WORKS
Calculations suggested that even if all the planets m
^THE JUPITER EFFECTALIGNMENT were lined up they would raise atide of just two
m
millimetres on the Sun’s surface. T l

Usingyour
their solar system
positions model,
on 10 March you
1982, can
thealign
key theplanets
date of the to m
predicted Jupiter Effect. Use this table to set the correct FALSE ALARM O
alignments. Such atide seemed extremely weak to have such a
2 6 4 ° Jupiter 2 1 2 ° cataclysmic effect on the Sun, and some supporters
Mercury
Venus 1 9 9 ° Saturn 1 9 8 ° of the theory fell back on other ideas -perhaps the
Earth 1 7 0 ° Uranus 2 4 2 ° effect was magnetic? Unfortunately for them, the
Moon Equivalent to 177° Neptune 2 6 5 °
magnetic effects of the planets turned out to be
M a r s 1 8 1 ° Pluto 2 0 5 °
even weaker. And this was just one half of the theory
Ceres 2 7 0 ° Eris 2 2 1 °
-there was also the equally dubious issue of the
^Uranus
suggested link between sunspot numbers, the Earth’s
Pluto
. S a t u r n spin, and earthquakes.
Jupiter 0 T ;
Neptune By around 1980, even the authors had issued a
iVV VWV W\^ i
retraction of sorts, though still arguing that some of
Venus
M a r s
the theory worked, even if they had got the dates
a30 220
M o o n wrong. Asudden burst of solar activity in early 1982
Mercury
v\ caused abrief flurry of excitement, but the predicted
doomsday of 10 March passed without incident, and
E a r t h the Jupiter Effect began to recede into history.
The whole saga offers asalutary lesson on the risks
=m 7% of stringing together numerous pieces of contentious
evidence. Its influence lingers on, though, in the
occasional books that appear to foretell cataclysm and
o
disaster whenever asignificant planetary alignment is
in the offing.

<F
 E U R O PA
The smallest of Jupiter's major moons,
Europa is also the most intriguing. Its smooth
crust hides adeep global ocean warmed by
undersea volcanoes.

ICE BALL

Europa's smooth, icy uropa sorbit lies between volcano-racked
surface means it has lo and the larger, more sedate Ganymede
t h e fl a t t e s t s u r f a c e o f and Callisto. Like all the Galilean satellites,
all the worlds in the
it was little more than apinkish-white disc until the
solar system.
Voyager probes flew past Jupiter in 1979. The
Voyagers revealed acurious ice ball -aworld that
seemed white and featureless at first glance, but
Stained with pink and blue patches and criss¬
crossed with countless brownish streaks named
lineae (from the Latin for “line”). Craters were few
and far between, while in some places the terrain
was eerily reminiscent of jumbled arctic pack ice.
S M O O T H S U R FA C E

which enhanced photographs revealed to be Strangest of all was Europa’s smoothness -its
O O O surface is the flattest of any world in the solar
■f . - ■'

MOON PROFILE E U R O PA system (relative to its size, it is smoother than a

cueball). Astronomers were startled to find aworld
the size of our Moon, with no substantial
i H mountains or cliffs, deep trenches or craters, just
[ i Ti l
rolling hills and valleys with the occasional sunken
S® pit marking the ghost of ameteorite impact.
m It seemed clear from the outset that there was

[ ■■■ l i r a only one explanation -Europa’s surface was

nothing more than adense layer of ice, able to slip,
[iliig
Wil slide, creep and rearrange itself much like the ice
[ilil
in glaciers on Earth.
m i l
Any underlying landscape on Europa must
be buried so deeply that the ice filled in its
6
 3.
CO
regions that cover the surface.
Although this theory rapidly O
became popular (especially
among science-fiction writers), 7 ^
planetary scientists had to wait CO
s:
Isome16yearstofindoutif
they were right. CO
VI In 1995, the Galileo probe
m
"V finally reached Jupiter. During
its eight-year programme
of study, it was able to visit G)
Europa repeatedly, flying past
at much closer range than
a
the Voyagers had before, m
and revealing unseen surface
detail. The scarcity of craters
on Europa soon confirmed
0
ICE RAFTS
depressions and smoothed out its bumps, leaving that its surface was quite young in planetary terms c :
The movable icy chunks asmooth, almost featureless, surface. But what if
or 'rafts' that make u p -between 20 and 180 million years old. T O

there was no underlying landscape at all? o

some regions of Europe's It was another instrument, however, that finally " D
crust suggest apresence confirmed liquid beneath the crust. Galileo s >
of soft ice or water W AT E R W O R L D
below the surface.
magnetometer picked up aweak magnetic field
The heating effect of Jupiter’s tides on Europa’s around Europa. The shape and strength of the field
inner neighbour lo meant that Europa would also revealed that it was "induced” -rather than being
FRACTURED SHELL
take asimilar pounding, and so should be only generated by molten or solid iron in the moon’s
Jupiter's tidal forces
prise apart Europa's
slightly less active. This led to the theory that core, it was being created by aconducting fluid,
surface, creating a Europa’s interior might be warm enough to most likely asalt-water ocean, interacting with the
criss-cross network
maintain an ocean of liquid water, of which the icy much stronger field of Jupiter as Europa swept
of fractures.
crust is just the top surface. round on its orbit.

An ocean of liquid water would naturally provide Galileo also found that, despite sometimes
asmooth surface on which the icy crust could reaching widths of 20km, the "cracks” in Europa’s
form, explaining Europa’s flat landscape. It might surface are actually as smooth as the rest of
also explain the mysterious scars and pack ice-like the moon. They stand out mostly because they

generally agreed that the liquid water ocean

beneath probably extends to adepth of about
100km. Beneath this lies arocky moon ^
similar in structure to the inner planets
and nearby lo, with avolcanic crust over a
mantle dominated by silicate rocks, and a - ' r o c i Q f t n fi e r K W
solid metallic core dominated by iron. The
key difference between the outer moons and
lo is the presence of water it’s thought ■
that the heat from Jupiter’s own formation
boiled away any ice from the inner part of
the debris cloud around the young planet.
Farther out, around the orbits of Europa
Ganymede and Callisto, the ice survived and
was incorporated into the forming moons.

7
are stained with chemicals such as magnesium
sulphate and other sulphur compounds. The probe
also discovered new types of terrain, including
brownish spots called lenticulae, and jumbled
“chaos” regions where blocks of ice seem to be
jammed together and thrown on top of each other.

THICK OR THIN?
Despite evidence that Europa scrust is at least
three to four kilometres deep in places (see
Breakthroughs), planetary geologists are still
arguing over the precise thickness of the icy layer, T E M P E R AT U R E M A P
and its structure. These arguments are tied to This infrared image
different explanations for the surface features. shows the daytime
surface temperatures
Supporters of the "thin crust” model suggest that
on Europa. Bright
the lineae are formed by the escape of water spots correspond to
dark, warm areas of
the surface, while
darker areas of the

image correspond to
brighter and more
r e fl e c t i v e t e r r a i n .
through cracks in the surface (see How it Works),
and the lenticulae are created in asimilar way as
rising currents of water melt their way through the
ice. According to them, the crust may be as little as
200m deep in places.
“Thick crust” supporters, in contrast, suggest
both the lineae and the lenticulae are caused by
rising “currents” through the crust. They believe
that it could be up to 30km deep in total, with an
outer shell of cold, hard ice above an inner layer of
warmer, mobile ice that forces its way upwards.
The chaos terrain is perhaps the most difficult
for either side to explain. The “thin crust”
model suggests that these regions are aresult of
catastrophic melting of the surface -the jumbled
blocks are effectively icebergs set adrift by this

HOW IT WORKS

^SELF-HEALING MOON
uropa orbits Jupiter with one side each orbit, gradually opening cracks
E permanently
crack forms
tidal forces
facing the giant planet. in the surface. Water wells up from in crust
pull at icy
However, it experiences tides because the ocean through anetwork of r- surface

its orbit is not entirely circular -the
gravitational tug of lo and Ganymede on
either side keeps it slightly elliptical,
and means that the strength of the pull
of Jupiter’s own distorting gravity is
constantly changing.
Europa’s tides keep its core molten
these cracks, and boils away almost
instantly as it reaches the surface
and is exposed to the near-vacuum
of the atmosphere. Some of the
escaping water freezes onto the sides
of the crack, rapidly sealing the gap
with fresh ice that is often stained

and volcanically active, but they also
cause its crust to flex slightly with
with minerals and nutrients from the
FLEXIBLE CRUST Europa’s tides
s e a b e l o w.
forces its crust to flex, creating a
crack in the surface.
 TWO MODELS
These artist concepts
illustrate the two
suggested models for
Europe's ice crust. Thin
crust (far left): heated
water currents rise up
and escape through
melted cracks in the
CO
and although US space scientists are eager to
develop another mission to Europa, the only probe O
currently planned is the European Space Agency’s
Jovian Europa Orbiter.
The next probe to Europa will, it is hoped, prove CO
the presence of awater ocean once and for all,

surface. Thick crust (left):

answer some of the questions about the thickness CO
similar cracks appear on of the ice and the origin of the surface features,
the surface of athick ice
and perhaps even investigate the most intriguing
crust, caused by alayer of
question of all -whether life might exist in the
warm ice which flows up
to disturb the colder, Europan oceans (see this issue’s Unexplained). O
brittle icy shell on top. d
NEXT;-rWQI!lA(Pl^jg^
a
m
m .

NBREAKTHROUGHS

IVU MEASURING THE ICE

0

In
2001, University of
Arizona scientists
fromElizabeth
Galileo toTurtle
and limit
7 U

Elisabetta Pierazzo used images put alower O

sudden melting and then re-frozen into the ice.
The “thick crust’’ model suggests that the blocks
have been jumbled and uplifted thanks again
to rising currents of warm ice several kilometres
below. Neither model can so far explain all the
features of these regions.
E X P L O R I N G E U R O PA
However thick Europa’s crust may be, it almost
certainly covers an ocean up to 100km deep, with
avolcanic sea floor beneath. Such an ocean must
hold at least twice the amount of water present
“ Q
on the thickness of Europe’s ice. By searching for impact craters >
large enough to have araised peak at their centre, they were able
ito study the nature of the ice beneath which the crater formed. The
Iprocess of crater formation on any world naturally pushes up a
1
i central peak made of the deepest material beneath the impact site.
ISo, if acrater was large enough and the crust thin enough, the
Icentral peak might be disrupted by the existence of water or simply
jwarmicebelowtheimpact.However,evenEurope’slargestcentral-
Ipeak crater, the 24-kilometre Pwyll, turned out to have afairly
anormal peak. This suggested that Europe’s hard, cold outer crust
Imust be at least 4km thick beneath Pwyll.
i n

I P W Y L L C R AT E R
Earth’s oceans, and makes Europa afascinating IThis computer-
target for future planetary probes ggenerated
However, NASA was forced to scrap plans for image shows
the topography
the Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter (JIMO) in 2005 of Pwyll and its
surroundings.
The colours show
rent e

water boils and freezes

on exposure

crack fi l l e d with

stained, frozen water

WATER ESCAPES As the underlying HEALING UP The freezing water

water escapes through the crack, it seals the two sides of the crack

boils away or immediately freezes. together, closing up the crust.

9
 " i

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'3'
Following on from the introductory look at the Voyager
m
missions in Issue 1, it's time to see exactly what
M l
happened when the spacecraft encountered Jupiter.
" : "
♦■■ . ■

A , ■■ ^

■ ^ m
1 ^ 3

ASA launched the two returning over 33,000 pictures of

■■
■y j -
An artist's
Voyager spacecraft to Jupiter and its five major satellites.
, r.
impression of a
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus Astronomers had studied Jupiter
■
S i i Voyager probe
*
journeying and Neptune in the late summer of through telescopes on Earth
'"i; mm: on through 1977 (see issue 1, pages 1647). By for centuries but the Voyagers
interstellar
January 1979, they were near delivered several unexpected
space. i

enough to start collecting images of findings, the greatest of which was

the brightly banded planet.
'^AGEB
m
m
Voyager 1made its closest
■ approach to Jupiter on 5March
1979, flying within 206,700km of
the cloud tops. It completed its
encounter in early April, having
returned 19,000 pictures and many
o t h e r s c i e n t i fi c m e a s u r e m e n t s .
Voyager 2, close behind,
approached the planet in late April.
Its visit continued into August
the sight of active volcanoes on
Jupiter’s moon, lo.
Together the two Voyagers
observed the eruption of nine
volcanoes on lo. And there was
evidence of eruptions elsewhere on
the moon. Volcanic plumes
extended more than 300km above
the pizza-like surface. Ejected

ecause it was operating so far from Earth,

B the Voyager craft was designed to operate
autonomously. To achieve this, there were three
Interconnected on-board computers: the first was
acommand computer, issuing instructions to the
other two at set times; the second controlled
the position of the spacecraft and the motions of
the scan platform; and the third controlled the
operations of the scientific instruments.

TWIN PROBES Both Voyager 1and Voyager

2were identical in design and based on the
technology used for the Mariner spacecraft.

10,
 the Voyagers’ far superior imaging systems at long last
provided scientists with detailed close>ups. Taken from a
distance of some 2.8 million kilometres by Voyager 1,
this colour composite of the face pointing away from
This
Jupiter was made from three black and white images
11 6 x 9 8 x 8 4 k m
taken through orange, green and violet filters.
moon was

discovered
Much better was to come from Voyager 2’s high-
orbiting at a resolution, narrow-angle camera: even long-distance
distance of images such as this showed the patterns of dark
222,000km intersecting lines criss-crossing the surface of the
moon. Astronomers wondered if these were in fact
from Jupiter by
Voyager 1on 5 faults that broke the surface of the crust.
March 1979.

material travelled at velocities of up evidence to suggest that diffuse

to akilometre asecond (speeds at
Mount Etna, by comparison, hit no
more than 50m per second).
Other discoveries included
jupiter’s ring and three new
ring material (probably expelled
from lo's volcanoes) may extend
all the way in to the top of Jupiter’s
atmosphere and out to the orbit of
the Jovian moon, Amalthea.

I I I
m B

^JOr Itiiward 0. Stone, Voyager Project Scientist

moons. The ring is quite faint and
dusty and no more than 30km
thick. Its outer edge is 129,000km
from the centre of Jupiter and,
although the brightest portion is
only some 6000km wide, there is
©Caivin JHamilton
Newly discovered by the Voyagers
were the small moons, Adrastea
and Metis, orbiting just outside the
ring. Athird new moon, Thebe, was
also found, between the orbits of
Amalthea and lo. j -

RED SPOT
Voyager 1 « i m i i
captured
this image of
Jupiter's most
famous storm,
aphenomenon
rising some t t r
^ M

8km above the

fe:
surrounding
n r e
clouds.

. r -

1^,
CONTROL
Mission control
personnel at the
Jet Propulsion
Laboratory,
California,
monitor Voyager
2as it encounters
Jupiter.
M A G E G A L L E RY O e u r o p a r e v e a l e d / C O
 Sfv'

'■m M

n i l ?
%-

Siii,

[6]

[6] FROZEN WILDERNESS An artist's impression of the view from Europa towards Jupiter and the Sun. (The moon lo can be seen in the plane
of Jupiter's ring.) Europe's surface is quite unlike any other in the solar system. Its frozen crust is made up of water ice, below which ahuge
14
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 ♦

C ATA L O G U I N G
NEBULA
Charting the night sky was laborious work but it
pushed back the boundaries of the known universe
and revealed the wonders of deep space.

hades Messier was a

C
powerful telescope (20x
c o m m i t t e d c o m e t - fi n d e r. I n magnification) that astronomers
alifetime of sky-watching began to record nebulae in
he discovered 13 comets and co¬ significant numbers.
discovered seven others. Yet he is In 1654, Italian astronomer
best remembered for the catalogue Giovanni Batista Hodierna

of nebulae he put together. His M (1597-1660) published acatalogue I

(for Messier) numbering system is devoted solely to “nebulae”.

still used widely today. He listed 40 deep sky objects
-including 19 true nebulae -of
CHARLES CHARTING CELESTIAL BODIES which 15 were original discoveries.
MESSIER The term “nebulae” now refers to However, his efforts went
The celebrated
French
clouds of interstellar gas, dust and unrecognised for centuries. Later
astronomer and plasma energy but in Messier’s day astronomers made lists of their own,
c o m e t h u n t e r. it often covered other distant but it was Messier’s catalogue that
celestial bodies, including made alasting impact.
galaxies and star clusters
K(see Inside Info: Deep astronomer's apprentice
Sky Objects). Charles Messier (1730-1817) was
^Manysuch“deep born in the Principality of Salm, now
\sky objects” are in France. He was the tenth of 12

\visible to the siblings, six of whom died in

childhood. His father also died when
A #
jm unaided eye,
Iappearingas Messier was 11 and his older

"i. ifuzzy blobs. brother Hyacinth took over the

Astronomers household and Charles’ education.
SV*

in ancient After seeing the six-tailed comet

w
'4 times often 1743 Klinkenberg, the teenage h i H

recorded Messier’s interest in stargazing soon

k “comet-like” grew into an obsession. He knew
objects and that if he discovered acomet, it
“nebula” in their would be named after him and he

■V"' writings. But it would be guaranteed lasting fame.

J
Wwas only when So, when he was 21, he became
Galileo Galilei (1564- assistant to Joseph-Nicolas Delisle
1642) invented the first (1688-1768), astronomer to the

16.
 FINDING
N /V t.}
ANDROMEDA
in 1807 Messier
made this sketch m
of the galaxy u i
Andromeda, also H
known as M31.
O
<
O

>
CO
C)

1
TO
o

0
o
>
t
/ / I.t !■ ,i., (,.i
>

o
o
French Royal Navy, who impressed in the Taurus constellation. He later CZ

on his apprentice the importance of wrote: “This nebula had such an Z

meticulous observation. appearance to acomet in its form Q
Messier worked with Delisle and brightness that Iendeavoured Z

EAGLE NEBULA
compiling astar guide for anautical to find others, so that astronomers CD
almanac. In 1758 Delisle instructed would no more confuse [them] with
This image, taken
by the Hubble Messier to keep watch for acomet comets... .” This sighting would
m
Telescope, shows that Halley had predicted would become his first catalogue entry -
newborn stars
emerging from
return that year. Messier 1(Ml), the Crab Nebula -
the Eagle Nebula, While scanning the sky, Messier now known to be the remnant of an
also called M16.
noticed afuzzy “comet-like" object exploding star (supernova).

BREAKTHROUGHS

VT;'NEBULAE REVEALED
hat nebulae were gas clouds was proven In
T the 1860s by British astronomer William
Huggins (1824-1910), pioneer of spectroscopy -
amethod of identifying the composition of
celestial bodies by their light wavelengths
(“spectral fingerprints”). In the 1920s, American
astronomer Edwin Hubble (1989-1953) confirmed
that galaxies are distant “island universes” just like
our own Milky Way. Since 1990, the Hubble space
telescope, named in his honour, has probed ever
farther into deep sky, revealing distant mysteries S PA C E E Y E ■■ -r

with aclarity the great comet finder Messier could The largest and most versatile of -
not have imagined. ^space telescopes, the Hubbtels
position^ outside Earth's atmosphere
 INSIDE INFO

DEEP SKY OBJECTS

he term "deep sky object”
T refers to bodies outside
our solar system that are not
Individual stars. They include
nebulae, star clusters and
galaxies.
Nebulae are clouds of
interstellar dust and gas shining
with their own or reflected light or
silhouetted against darker
backgrounds. Some are remnants
1
of exploded stars (supernovae).
Star clusters are gravity-bound
star groups moving or orbiting
together, either widely dispersed in
hundreds (open) or closely packed
in thousands (globular).
Galaxies are huge star systems
like the Milky Way, ranging from
10 million (dwarfs) to atrillion
(giants), all orbiting agalactic
centre.

Messier spotted Halley’s returning he had discovered his 13th comet

comet but, again, he was not the
first; Johann Georg Palitzsch (1723-
1788) claimed that honour. In 1760
Messier sighted astar cluster (M2)
in the Aquarius constellation. He
began to mark down all such
and his 25th deep sky object, and
had been elected to the prestigious
scientific bodies The Royal Society
and Academie Royale de Sciences.
That year Messier published his
first Catalogue of Nebulae and
them and co-discovered 20 more. CRAB NEBULA
This spectacular
Messier’s list was later revised
nebula was
and extended to include additional M e s s i e r ' s fi r s t

sightings on his comet chart. Star Clusters in the Memoirs of sightings described in his catalogue entry, M1.
the Academie. It listed all sightings unpublished notes and letters. The
Messier's catalogue -Ml to M45 -made by him, his full list totals 109 or 110, as there is
Over the next few years Messier friend Pierre Mechain (1744-1804) still debate as to whether M102 is

spotted more comets and also and other astronomers. the Spindle Galaxy or aduplication
identified another star cluster (M3). By 1781, with failing eyesight. of MlOl -the Pinwheel Galaxy.
He now began to study every star Messier had co-discovered his

catalogue he could get hold of and 20th and last comet. That year he herschel's improvements
to search specifically for nebulae. published his final catalogue of 103 In 1782, German-born astronomer
In 1771 he became the new objects in the Connaissance du William Herschel (see Space Stars)
naval astronomer, by which time Temps. He had discovered 44 of was more famous even than

INSIDE INFO

essier’s Catalogue lists some of the most #

M spectacular sights in astronomy including: the

ILagoon Nebula (MS), Horseshoe Nebula (M17) and
ITrifid Nebula (M20), ail in Sagittarius; Crab Nebula
I(M1) and Pleiades or Seven Sisters (M45) in Taurus;
IOwl Nebula (M97) and Pinwheel Galaxy (M101)
Iin Ursa Major; Butterfly Cluster (MS) in Scorpius;
IEagle Nebula (M16) In Serpens Cauda; Andromeda
IGalaxy (M31) in Andromeda; Great Orion Nebula
i(M42) in Orion; Beehive Cluster or Praesepe (M44)
Iin Cancer; Whirlpool Galaxy (M51) in Canes VenaticI;
oRing Nebula (M57) in Lyra; and Sombrero Galaxy
® (M104) In Virgo.
#
OWL NEBULA M97 One of WHIRLPOOL GALAXY M51

the fainter objects in Messier's Discovered by Messier in 1773,

catalogue, it gets its name from the M51 became the first galaxy to f ■
appearance of two owl-like eyes. be recognised
 S PA C E S TA R S
In 1877 the Danish-born
WWILLIAM HERSCHEL (1738-1822) X
astronomer John Dreyer (1852-
m
1926) extended Herschel’s
erman-born William CO
G (Wilhelm] Herschel moved to
catalogue while working at Armagh
Observatory in Ireland. This
H
England in 1759 as an organist
contained 7840 entries and was
O
a n d c o n d u c t o r. H o w e v e r, h e
became interested in astronomy published by the Royal Astronomical -<
and began building ever larger Society in 1888 as the Neiv General
telescopes. He discovered Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters
O
numerous deep sky objects.
of Stars (or NGC for short). Two
identified that the solar system
supplements to the NGC, the Index >
was moving, estimated the CO
Milky Way’s size and shape, and Catalogues, were published in 1895
speculated that other galaxies and 1906. The NGC/IC now had
existed. He was helped by his over 13,000 entries and became the
sister Caroline, who undertook
O
standard international reference for
much of the cataloguing with astronomers.
William and later her nephew O
John. Find out more about
M U S I C TO A S T R O N O M Y H e r s c h e l ’s
William Herschel in issue 31. FURTHER CATALOGUES
interest in music lead him to study
mathematics and then to astronomy. Messier’s catalogue is still popular
with amateur astronomers, many
of whom take part in “Messier
0
o
Messier, having just discovered a Marathons” -spotting as many on >
“comet” that was in fact Uranus. To the list as they can in one night usually >
improve on Messier’s catalogue he in mid to late March.
o
began his own extensive search. Other catalogues have also been
o
As maker of the most powerful produced to aid amateurs. Patrick d

telescopes of his day, William was Caldwell-Moore’s Caldwell Catalogue z

able to discover 2500 deep sky of 109 of the brightest deep sky CD

objects over the next two decades, objects, including ones seen only z

greatly assisted by his sister from the southern hemisphere, lists 00

C
Caroline (1750-1848), also a each entry in order of declination
i:n: m respected astronomer. (angle with the equator), from most
m
Herschel’s catalogue was northerly to most southerly.
continued by his son, John Herschel ^For those who have
(1792-1871) and asummary of Widentified all of Messier’s
5079 objects including discoveries Wand Caldwell’s objects
made by John, William and fand want to see more, the
Caroline, was published in 1864 as Herschel 400 Catalogue lists
the General Catalogue of Nebulae 400 of the most prominent
and Clusters of Stars. deep sky objects.
GIANT SCOPE
This illustration
shows HerschePs
largest telescope
at 12m long.

A M A T E U R

SKYGAZING
Amateurs can
now refer
to various

catalogues in
order to discover
the delights of
deep space.

\
 ANDROMEDA
Abeautiful princess languishes in
chains in the evening skies of northern
autumn. She is Andromeda, one of the :
original Greek constellations.

ndromeda’s head is marked by the star

A Alpheratz (Alpha Andromedae). Mirach (Beta

Andromedae) is her waist, and Almaak
(Gamma Andromedae) is her chained left foot. These
three stars form acrooked line leading away from one
corner of the Square of Pegasus.

BEAUTIFUL DOUBLE
Gamma Andromedae or Almaak, the farthest star in
the line from the Square of Pegasus, is afamous
double star, easily divisible with small telescopes into a
SPIRAL GALAXY
beautiful orange-and-blue pairing.
The large spiral
Close to Gamma Andromedae lies Upsilon Andromeda
Andromedae (d), abinary star that contains ayellow- Galaxy, M31,
is one of our
white dwarf star, Upislon Andromedae A, and adim
closest galaxy
red dwarf, Upsilon Andromedae B. Three extrasolar companions.
7662, popularly known as the Blue Snowball. Through
planets, comparable to Jupiter in mass, are known to asmall telescope under low magnification it appears
orbit around Upsilon Andromedae A. as abluish star of 9th magnitude. With higher powers
On the opposite side of the constellation lies one it is seen to be elliptical in shape.
{
of the most easily observable planetary nebulae, NGC
NEIGHBOUR GALAXY

The jewel of the constellation -and one of the most

[HJSerqigirescue ...
celebrated objects in the entire sky -is the
Andromeda Galaxy, M31. just visible to the unaided
eye under clear, dark skies as an elongated smudge, it
In
one
of
themost
famous
of
Greek
myths,
Andromeda
was chained to arock on the eastern shores of the
is more readily seen through binoculars and small
Mediterranean sea to atone for the vanity of her mother,
telescopes with low power.
Queen Cassiopeia. On the verge of being devoured by asea
monster, At adistance of 2.5 million light years, M31 is the
farthest object visible to normal eyesight. This spiral
represented in ^
the sky by the \ galaxy is the largest member of the Local Group, a
constellation
modest cluster of about 40 known galaxies, most of
Cetus, she was
them faint and insignificant.
saved by the
M31 appears elliptical because it is tilted at an
passing hero
Perseus, who killed angle to us. Small instruments show its star-filled core
the monster and was surrounded by an elliptical halo extending for several
given Andromeda’s Moon diameters. To trace the spiral arms and its
hand in marriage as faintest outer regions, larger apertures are needed.
his reward.
M31 has two small elliptical companions, M32 and
MHO (also known as NGC 205), both difficult to see
with small telescopes.

20^
 /

PERSEUS

/ H D
/

\ T R I A N G U L U M

ARIES

B I N A R Y S TA R
Upsilon Andromedae, abinary star
some 44 light-years away in the
constellation Andromeda.

> .

ndromeda is highest in the evening sky

A i n O c t o b e r a n d N o v e m b e r. A l l o f i t c a n

be seen throughout the northern hemisphere

and down to latitude 37 degrees south of the
equator. W-shaped Cassiopeia is to its north,
while Pegasus and Pisces lie to the south.

ABBREVIATION And

BEST SEASON

October -November
♦
BRIGHTEST S TA R S

Alpheratz (a) 2.1

Mirach Cp) 2.1
SIZE RANKING 19

POSITION Mid-northern
 EUROPA
Europa holds the key to perhaps the solar
system's biggest mystery -is there life on
other planets?

BLACK SMOKER Black

smokers exist on the uropa seems to have many of the right and, eventually, the first primitive bacteria.
ocean floor at an average ingredients for life -large amounts of liquid Without all these key ingredients, it seemed that
depth of 2100 metres. water, oxygen, and heat from undersea life on Europa could never have begun.
volcanoes. But when the Voyager probes first But the Voyager flybys coincided with another
discovered this fascinating world, few were willing remarkable discovery back on Earth. The oases
to consider the possibility -surely life would need of life existing around deep-sea volcanoes called
sunlight and access to “black smokers” (see
atmosphere as we II?
UALL
THESE
WORLDS
ARE
YOURS
EXCEPT Breakthroughs) turned
»
These seemed like EUROPA,AHEMPTNOLANDINGSTHERE out to be completely
reasonable objections - Message from the alien Monolith in 2010: Odyssey Two independent of energy
most scientists believed from the surface.

that life on Earth had originated in warm, shallow Bacteria living there was capable of feeding on
pools near the surface, where radiation from the chemicals from the smokers themselves, thriving in
Sun and electrical charges from lightning could conditions where life as we know it seems to have

lead to the development of complex molecules no chance.

/^T\
BREAKTHROUGHS
DEEP SEA OASES

n1977, researchers piloted the submersible Alvin to adepth of

more than 2km in the Pacific Ocean to investigate the undersea
volcanoes of the Galapagos Rift. What they found surprised everyone
-towering chimneys called “black smokers”, created as mineral¬
laden superheated water belched from beneath the ground, were
pumping nutrients into the ocean depths. And clustered around
these deep-sea oases, ahuge variety of life flourished -crustaceans,
molluscs and fish that had completely given up their reliance on the
sunlight-fuelled surface ecosystem.
It took some time for biologists to come to terms with what was
happening around the black smokers, but eventually they found that
the entire food chain was based on the eerie, pipe-like forests of
“tubeworms” that rooted themselves in bizarre gardens around the
chimneys. Bacteria found in the gut of these worms proved to be V O YA G E T O T H E D E E P A l v i n w a s
completely unlike anything yet discovered -they thrived by “digesting’ the first deep-sea submersible capable
methane and sulphur from the black smokers, producing waste of carrying passengers -apilot and
products that the tubeworms in turn used as food. two observers.

22
 111

X
" D

>

m
□

E U R O PA N L I F E A n a r t i s t ' s first drill Its way through kilometres of ice, and

innpression of sealife then somehow maintain contact with the surface
around avent deep in the
Europan ocean. to relay its signals to Earth

ROBOTIC SEA EXPLORERS

However hope comes in the form of robotic

VISION OF THE FUTURE
Robotic probes might one
day be able to penetrate
Europe's ice to discover
what lies beneath.
probes that have already been used to explore
beneath the Antarctic ice. These "cryobots",
equipped with apower source capable of
melting its way through the ice, have to be kept
sterile in order to avoid contaminating the fragile
ecosystems they hope to explore. This would also
be crucial for any similar robot exploring Europa.

Some biologists now think that ancient black

smokers might have provided better conditions foi
the beginnings of life on Earth than the surface.

LIFE IN THE DEPTHS

The parallel between Earth’s deep sea trenches
and the suspected conditions on Europa could
explain how life on Europa might have evolved.
Today, Europa is seen as the most likely world in
the solar system to have developed advanced
multi-cellular life. If such creatures exist, then we
could reasonably expect them to look quite similar
to Earth’s own deep-sea life, thanks to the forces
of convergent evolution (see Glossary). Alien fish
and corals might well flourish around
w o r m s .

Europa’s undersea volcanoes.

If pessimistic predictions about the thickness
of Europa’s icy crust are true, then any probe
intended to investigate the ocean would have to
COMING ISSUE
self-tapping GRUB
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PLANET GEAR ARM GEAR AXLE 2

"Exploring Ganymede and Callisto "Has the Jovian atmosphere

-Jupiter’s two largest moons. been damaged by the deliberate
crashing of the Galileo probe?
"Looking to the future -as part of
NASA’s high value, IMew Frontiers Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,
programme, Juno is scheduled to C€ Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 STS
WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
visit Jupiter in 2016 to see how Keep out of reach of children. Keep this Information for reference.
Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.
the gas giant was formed.
"Colourful chemistry -how the
science of spectroscopy enabled
us to discover the chemical
composition of the stars.
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 BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
M P O R TA N T
FEATURES !The orrery is aprecision-engineered
kit. It must be assembled and handled
with care to prevent damage to its
YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL parts, and stored or displayed safely to
3 ensure no parts are lost.
Get your components together to complete the !Never use liquids or solvents to clean
the parts. For best care, use the
Jupiter phase of your solar system model. polishing cloth and dusting brushes
supplied with the toolkit (free to
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE
!Parts not to be sold separately.
!The publisher cannot replace any
parts that are damaged or lost by the
customer without charge.
!The publisher cannot be responsible
for any damage that may occur as a
result of incorrect assembly or
mishandling of the orrery. Please ensure
you read all the Instructions thoroughly
when assembling the parts.

0
subscriptions
!When assembling parts, lay them on a !Ail tools must be used ith care

We take an in-depth look at Jupiter's two largest
Galilean moons -Ganymede and Callisto.
MISSIONS
flat table and keep screws and ail small
items on atray so they can't roll away
and get lost. Unpack all parts carefully.
!The publisher reserves the right to
alter parts and their design at any time.
following any safety guidelines provided
by the manufacturer.
!The publisher cannot be responsible
for any Injuries caused by any tools or
iais.

8
Asneak preview of future missions to Jupiter,
including NASA's solar-powered Jupiter Polar Orbiter.
IMAGE GALLERY
Get aflyby view of Ganymede and Callisto, and find
out what their different surfaces reveal about them.

THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

14
How experiments with asimple prism led to the
colourful science of spectroscopy. CREDITS
IMAGES: PC NASA/JPL; 2-3 Library/Damian Peach; 20-21 (tl,bl)
S TA R M A P Galaxy Picture Library/Robin NASA, (tr) Courtesy of Bj6m
18
Observe double stars and swirling galaxies in the Scagell, (r) Eaglemoss/Simon Jonsson, (br) Pikala Imaging, 22-
Anning; 4-5 NASA/JPL; 6-7 (t!) 23 (b!,br) NASA, (cl) Olivier
constellations of Bootis and Canes Venatici.
Wikimedia Commons, (c,tr) NASA/ IMeeckers, (be) Science Photo
JPL, (b,br) Pikaia Imaging; 8-9 Library/Los Alamos National Lab,
S PA C E S C I E N C E NASA; 10-11 NASA/JPL; 12-13
2 0 (tr) US Department of Energy-
Subterranean conditions on Ganymede and Callisto Pikaia Imaging; 14-15 (ti,bl)
could have formed oceans beneath their icy crusts. Science Photo Library, (tr) akg- While the publishers have made
london, (be) NOAO/AURA/NSF, every endeavour to find the
UNEXPLAINED (br) TopFoto/World History copyright holders of the
Archive; 16-17 (tl) Eaglemoss/ photographs featured in this
What really happened when the Galileo spacecraft Donna Askem, (bl,cr) Hubble issue, we would be pleased to
crashed into Jupiter? Heritage Team/NASA/ESA, (tc) hear from anyone we did not
Science Photo Library, (be) NOAO/ manage to contact.
NSO/Kitt Peak FTS/AURA/NSF/

m
NASharp;18-19(tl)NOAO/WIYN/|
NSF/S Kafka &KHoneycutt, REPRO: Stormcreative

Indiana University, (bc,r,tr) Pikaia Publishing Limited

Imaging, (tc) NOAO/AURA/NSF/ PRINTING: Century Litho (Truro)
Todd Boroson, (br) Galaxy Picture Limited

: LOUIS CALMELS
cr *^ - G I L E S S PA R R O W (AU
Ef ' ; S I R PAT R I C K M O O R E C B E F R S
1 T H E I N T E R N AT I O N A L A S T R O N O M I C A L U N I O N

Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,

C€ Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 8TS
WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
9KJ Keep out of reach of children. Keep this information for reference.
Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.
©Eaglemoss Publications (2008). All rights reserved.

2
 - <

of Stage 2of the solar O

system model and add a
m
Jupiter and its moons to
the already completed j
Phase 4.
o
o

“ D

' / ou have now collected all the

1 components to build the fifth phase

CO
of Stage 2of your solar system
model, in which you add the planet Jupiter >
r \
u )
and its four large moons lo, Europa
111 Ganymede and Callisto along with the gear K )

set that drives them. You can also attach the “ D

II I, X
gear chain that will link to Saturn in the next
M * >
!I»? phase. The assembly instructions for this CO
m

I 1
phase are on pages 3-5 of Issue 21 of Build A c n
I
Model Solar System.
Agrub screw in the gear collar enables the
planet support arm to be slackened off so
that Jupiter can be aligned against its symbol
on the base plate and top engraved gear.
(To check the planet symbols, turn to Issue
1, page 8). Gently re-tighten the grub screw
once Jupiter’s arm is aligned.

i i
i i -

JUPITER The completed

Phase 5of Stage 2
of your solar system
model. This drives the
planet Jupiter -king of
the Solar System -In
orbit beyond Mars and
Ceres.
 ♦'f
4 j

GANYMEDE

Ganymede's southern
hemisphere, showing the
patchwork of light and
i \

dark that characterises

this moon's surface. sm H
3

f
■f-- V«Ji
■* *
KKi

GANYMEDE
CALLISTO ■-■V*'. .

Jupiter's two largest moons are both ■ ♦

dominated by amixture of rock and r

ice, but are otherwise very different

f r o m e a c h o t h e r.
/ '

t
t

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/ ^

MOON PROFILE CALLISTO

a
0^
" 0
1?

a
m CALLISTO
S
Amoon heavily scarred
E5E E S with impact craters, the
largest of these being
the Valhalla impact basin.

4

m ¥
4 IJUPITER
%dm
S U L C I S U R FA C E
Acomplex network
of ridge-forming sulci
covers an area of
Ganymede called the
Nicholson Regio.
CALLISTO INTERIOR
This cutaway of Callisto
shows the layer of ice
beneath its crust, under
which lies apossible
ocean. Callisto's core is
made up of rock and ice.
MOON PROFILE GANYMEDE
I X
IAVERAGEDISTANCEFROM G R AV I T Y C O M PA R E D TO E A R T H
S1.07 million km
0.146g
M O O N S s
m
IAVERAGEDIAMETER N / A
p5262 km T I M E F O R O N E R O TAT I O N : 7 . 1 5
I M A S S Earth days
GANYMEDE INTERIOR
Scientists believe that
m . 0 Ganymede has ametallic
m
core, around which a
& layer of rock and ice
a 0 exists. Data also suggest o
the presence
of alarge subterranean
saltwater ocean under its
ic© crust
u
o
rbiting well beyond the smaller Galilean
moons lo and Europa, Ganymede and
Callisto both escape the tidal mauling
Jupiter gives to its inner satellites. As aresult, neither
is heated internally, and there is no sign of activity
on either world today. However, even acasual
comparison shows that this was not always the
case, and that Ganymede, at least, was once a
warmer, active world.
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
Ganymede is the largest satellite in the entire solar
system, slightly larger than even the planet Mercury.
The surface is ajumbled mixture of light and dark
patches -the darker areas are more heavily cratered
than the lighter ones, implying that the light areas
formed more recently (since they have been
exposed to impacts for ashorter time). C H A N G I N G S AT E L L I T E
In contrast, Callisto, though only slightly smaller The most prominent features on Ganymede are the
than Ganymede, has adark, uniform surface craters and the ridges and grooves that form long
that seems to have changed little since its strips along the lighter sections of the crust. The
formation. The darkness is broken moon sicy outer crust is comparatively weak and can
% only by the bright splashes in and shift and slump over long periods of time with glacial
around its countless craters. slowness. As aresult, Ganymede is fairly smooth, with
These craters range in size all many of its craters left as flattened remnants.
the way from microscopic The parallel ridges, known as sulci (from the
%
pinpricks up to enormous singular form sulcus, Latin for groove) appear to
V '
ringed basins such as be areas where Ganymede’s crust has stretched
N apart -in afew cases, craters’ opposite sides have
Asgard.
I and
Valhalla
mm Ganymede and Callisto been pulled or pushed apart as asulcus has formed
seem to be composed of through the middle.
roughly 50 per cent water In its past it seems that Ganymede’s interior was
ice and 50 per cent silicate much warmer than it is today. As aresult, currents
rock, making them more of warm material rose up through the moon’s
icy than Europa. In addition, interior, causing the ancient, cratered crust to shift
much of the ice on Ganymede is in different directions and begin to separate into
concentrated at or near its surface. different plates, much like Earth’s own tectonic
 STEADFAST MOON

Callisto ssurface, in stark contrast to Ganymede’s IS

dominated entirely by cratering. The moon is

thought to be the most cratered world in the solar
Jl^aineo
credit ualilei
usually gets
for discovering thefour
the system, blanketed by countless impacts as aresult
major moons of Jupiter, but he was of alife in the firing line. As Jupiter’s powerful
not responsible for their names -in gravity pulls in debris from nearby space, all of its
fact, they were invented by one of his moons are likely to be hit by incoming objects, and
rivals.
on Callisto the lack of resurfacing activity means that
Galileo originally called the four
satellites the Medicean moons, in the impacts have reached saturation point.
honour of his patrons in the powerful Bright splotches of icy material lie in and
Medici family. Some of his followers around some of Callisto’s larger craters. Known
suggested they should carry the as palimpsests, these were once thought to mark
Individual names of the four Medici
areas where an impact had penetrated Callisto’s
brothers. When this failed to

catch on, Simon Marius, aGerman outer crust and triggered an eruption of fresh, icy
astronomer who also claimed (without
much evidence) to have discovered the
moons before Galileo, suggested their
present names, taken from Jupiter’s
various mythological lovers. Despite
NAME CALLING Marius this, astronomers did not really start using
is credited with naming names instead of numbers to distinguish
Jupiter’s major moons. between the satellites until the 1800s.

activity. As cracks opened up in the crust, fresh ice RIPPLE EFFECT Callisto's
3^
huge impact basin ■ <
pushed its way up from the interior and forced the iSL

Asgard with its pattern

plates farther apart before setting solid. As each of concentric rings. Since
new wave of icy eruption followed, anew stripe of its formation, newer
impacts have formed
fresh material was added, until eventually asulcus E r

countless smaller craters.

was formed.
I
One key question is why Ganymede got warm I
€

enough for this process to take place, while the

slightly smaller but otherwise similar Callisto didn’t. ■% *
m
m
Apopular theory lays the blame on tidal effects
caused by the inner satellites (see How It Works:
Orbital Pumping).

^HOW IT WORKS lump of ejecta sublimating ice

^EROSION BY SUNLIGHT

c allisto’s surface temperature of up

/
/-AM, ..
j ■■

to -108°C, coupled with an almost original surface dust and rock fall

nnt-.n surface
non-existent atmosphere, offers just the k

right conditions for an unusual form of

■*. Kiv,::
erosion. As weak sunlight shines onto % 1

outcrops of rock and ice, it can cause the %

ice to slowly sublimate, turning directly

into gas and disappearing into space. As
dust and rocks are separated from the ice
that binds them together, they gradually
move downhill, creating the appearance of
LUMPS OF DEBRIS stick AS SUN SHINES onto the outer
water-carved gullies and the mysterious
spires and knobs.
1 out of the soil, containing 2 surface, ice sublimates into the
amixture of rock and Ice. atmosphere and rock falls to the surface.

f
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE Oganymede and callisto
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In order to answer fundamental questions
about the largest planet in the solar system,
NASA is developing anumber of brand new
spacecraft to fly to Jupiter.

art of the high-value New
Frontiers programme,
NASA's Jupiter Polar Orbiter
(Juno) aims to investigate the largest elliptical polar orbit (see Glossary),
planet in our solar system. The
spacecraft is scheduled to lift off
from NASA’s spaceport at Cape
Canaveral, Florida in August 2011
aboard an Atlas Vrocket.
In October 2013, the probe will
get agravity assist from an Earth
flyby. On its arrival at Jupiter in
2016, Juno will fire its rockets,
An artist s
slowing it sufficiently to allow its
impression of
capture by the planet $gravity. The Juno in flight
craft will then settle into alow, around Jupiter.
circling the planet, just 5000km
above the Jovian atmosphere, once
every 11 days.
The unique, polar orbit allows the
spacecraft to collect all the data the
mission demands while minimising
the exposure of its various scientific

E U R O PA E X P L O R E R T h i s
mission aims to send aprobe
to study Europa’s oceans

^Planned for a2015 launch, the Europa Geophysical

Explorer is amission that will examine the
subsurface oceans and look for possible landing
sites on Europa.

4^ With aplanned launch of 2020, the Jupiter Flyby

with Probes will study Jupiter’s gravitational and
magnetic fields.

4Slated for launch no earlier than 2035, the Europa

Astrobiology Lander will study astrobiology and
geology on Jupiter’s moon, Europa.
 nlike its predecessor, Galileo, Juno will use
i
u solar panels to generate electricity aboard
the spacecraft, rather than nuclear generators.
The reason is that ashortage in supply of the
nuclear generators has coincided with asignificant
advancement in solar cell technology. In spite of
Jupiter’s distance from the Sun, it’s now possible
to generate sufficient power from solar panels of
apractical size.
panels

READY FOR LAUNCH The Juno

U U U U L J
spacecraft will launch with its solar a □□□ 0 1
panels in afolded position.

instruments to the lethal belts of (see Technology) Jupiter is over

radiation that surround Jupiter. five times farther from the Sun
IJupiter have arocky cme? How C/T'
These are similar to Earth's Van than Earth. The ^cecraft wHl Ste mass distributed? And, how " , c n

Allen belts, but far dertser. Tte ther^re; only receive t h e ^ImuchwaterispresentcEeep-within ©
mission will end in t h e solar energy rfts atao^iier^ piro&e will alsd
spacecraft teis compfetEiJ o r b i t s placed in ‘ ‘ Jupiter's d^p.wincte, whirdt
L-Like^eeaSi5rP}one^mts$ioiB.-B:r: m cm reach speeds of SSOkm/h;
■
■; J k- ;]uncr% science ntisgrorwill be
r'X arfiieved with apaek^ of seven
I I
i
i
ictentiftc instr^Tient?, In addition,
.

Dr. Dhassem AsraifliiSA’fSe^c^l^shHi DiriM:t(»^ acamera; criled w i l l

G L O S S A R Y provide three-colour images of:
Polar orbit: An
One of the biggest challenges Juno will spin at arate of between Jupiter. In anovel move, NASA
orbit that passes
for the engineers developing the two and five revolutions per minute. a b o v e o r n e irly plans to invite students to work
spacecraft is how to manage the This will provide stability for the above both poles -online -alongside the science
of the planet on
small amount of power generated spacecrafl. Among the questions each revolution. team to capture these images once
by its three very large solar arrays Juno hopes to answer are: does the probe is in orbit.

AURORAE The glowing gases on MAGNETOSPHERE Juno's highly

Jupiter's poles (here captured by the elliptical orbit over Jupiter will allow
Chandra X-ray observatory in high- it to sample different portions of the
Earth orbit) are one of the phenomena gas giant's magnetosphere during the
that Juno aims to study. course of its mission.

#
. i ¥ : .

^ ■■
 SU RFACE a

When it comes to Jupiter's

moons, it seems variety is the
spice of life, and Ganymede
and Callisto are no exception.STORY 4

he four Galilean moons of Jupiter are not
difficult to see from Earth, even with small
telescopes. However, for abetter look at
the surface features of Ganymede and Callisto, we
are fortunate enough to be able to count on the
numerous images collected by passing spacecraft
and particularly the dauntless space probe Galileo,
which explored the Jovian system for eight years.
As beautiful as these images are, their aesthetic
qualities are secondary to the information they
give astronomers about the different geological
histories of these two satellites. Callisto’s
activity. Ganymede’s smoother surface has dark
regions of ancient (though less dramatic) cratering
and also lighter terrains with intricate patterns of [1] FEELING GROOVY
The Nippur Sulcus region
ridges and grooves. The presence of these different with its intersecting
terrains indicates some kind of geological activity in grooves and ridges tells
Ganymede’s past. of Ganymede's complex
tectonic history.
Scientists continue to puzzle over the reasons
behind the contrasting geography of these moons.
Meanwhile, the rest of us can simply sit back and
admire the wonderful views of these two
strange satellites.

unchanging surface, scarred to saturation point

with ancient craters, shows no evidence of tectonic

[1]

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[5] ICE SPIRES The distant but huge disc of Jupiter hangs above the bizarre Callistan landscape, attended by the three other Galilean moons
(fromlefttoright,lo,EuropeandGanymede).Thepinnaclesareprobablyformedfromchunksofejectaflungoutintheenormousimpactand
12
 >

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slowly eroded by sunlight over the billions of years since. As the ice has gradually sublimated into gas, dust and chunks of rock
embedded within it have slowly sifted down to cover the surrounding plain.

13
 ♦
SPECTROSCOPY
Spectroscopy has enabled scientists to analyse the
chemistry of the Sun and distant stars -and has even
revealed the birth of the universe itself.
( (
O
nthe subject of stars...
we shall never be able
by any means to study
their chemical composition.” So
wrote Auguste Comte, the French
philosopher, in 1835. Shortly after,
scientists began to develop the
science of spectroscopy, which
would prove him utterly wrong.
RAINBOW OF COLOURS
Spectroscopy is amethod of
identifying agas, or other chemical
elements, by the unique range of
colours that appear when it is burnt
or abeam of light is shone through it.
One of the first scientists to really
study light and colour was Isaac
Newton. Using aprism, Newton
discovered that light is made up
of the whole rainbow of colours.
A
1)
SPECTROSCOPE
Aspectroscope
from the turn of
the 20th century
is used to analyse
sodium chloride.
prisms, and discovered that the
which he called the “spectrum”.
Newton and later scientists Sun’s spectrum was marked
speculated on what this revealed by dark lines corresponding
about the true nature of light. It led to certain colours.
to the theory that the colours in Fraunhofer's lines
visible light occupy only anarrow remained acuriosity
band of wavelengths within amuch until developments in
broader electromagnetic spectrum the laboratory revealed
(see Inside Info). their secret.
Around 1854,
SPECTRAL FINGERPRINT inventor David Alter
In 1814 German astronomer Joseph (1807-1881) of
Von Fraunhofer (see Space Stars) Freeport, Pennsylvania,
passed light from the Sun through found that when he ignited
asimple arrangement of slits and hydrogen gas with aspark
CCLIGHTISNOTSIMILARORHOMOGENIAL,BOT
D AV I D A LT E R
CONSISTSOFOIFFORMRAYS,SOMEOFWHICHAREMORE Apioneer in the
REFRANGIBLE THAN OTHERS.” use of spectrum
Isaac Newton’s description of aspectrum, 1666 analysis.
 S PA C E S TA R S H
Heidelberg University, joined forces
^JOSEPH VON FRAUNHOFER (1787-1826) to study the spectra of different
X
m
elements. They developed amore
CO
mportant contributions to spectroscopy sophisticated version of Fraunhofer’s
were made by aself-educated scientist spectroscope comprising anarrow
from humble beginnings. Orphaned O
slit, adevice to create aparallel light TO
at 11, Bavarian-born Joseph von
Fraunhofer was an apprentice to alens beam and two prisms.
grinder before leaving to work for a They passed abeam of light
scientific instrument company. While through agas and found it absorbed
O
examining the spectrum of sunlight specific wavelengths that appeared
through aslit he noticed hundreds of
as dark “absorption lines”. >
lines (now called Fraunhofer Lines] CO
which he realised could be used to Swedish physicist Anders I
measure wavelengths of light. In 1821, Angstrom (1814-74) then combined TO
he built adiffraction grating -an spectroscopy with photography to O
instrument composed of 260 parallel study the absorption lines produced
wires to disperse light so that the as the Sun’s rays pass through the
lines could be measured accurately. It o
AWARD WINNER gases on its surface, noting the
became an important component of the
spectroscope. Fraunhofer died without Joseph Von Fraunhofer was awarded the Bavarian presence of hydrogen. In 1868
civil order of merit in 1824 for his cont»#utions <
knowing the significance of his discovery. to the sciences of physics and optics.
Angstrom published achart of the
Sun’s spectrum.
o
C O
and passed abeam of its light CHEMICAL ” D
BROTHERS m
through the prism he saw vertical The German O
lines, their colours corresponding chemists Gustav
7 D
to their positions in the spectrum. Kirchoff (left) and
O
Robert Bunsen
Alter applied this technique to other CO

(centre) pose with O

gases and also metals, using an the English O
electric spark. In each case apattern chemist Sir Henry “ D
“<
of coloured, vertical “emission Roscoe (right).
lines” appeared. The pattern was F I LT E R I N G
unique to each element -its spectral SPECTRA

fingerprint. Alter had invented This image of the

Sun has been
spectrum analysis.
taken using a
fi l t e r t o t u n e o u t
USING ASPECTROSCOPE large parts of the
In 1859, German chemists Robert Sun's spectrum, in ▶
order to focus on
Bunsen (1811-99) and Gustav solar activity on
Kirchoff (1824-87), working at the surface.

f I

ir
\

- - s l i
f ^ A ,
 INSIDE INFO

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
r

In
1864
physicist
James
Clerk
Maxwell
united
electricity and magnetism into asingle electromagnetic
spectrum, placing visible light in the middle. He divided
this spectrum into different wavelengths, ranging from
short gamma rays at one end to long radio waves at the
other. He divided the visible spectrum, too, ranging from
red, the longest colour wavelength, through orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo to violet, the shortest. It was -
discovered that each chemical element emits or absorbs
light only at certain very specific colour wavelengths, -
thereby producing its own unique spectral pattern.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM This diagram shows .

the different wavelengths that make up the electromagnetic
spectrum. The visible spectrum is the short section of
rainbow colours in the middle.

British astronomer Joseph Tulse Hill, Lambeth, grew bored SHIFTING STARS

Lockyer (1836-1920) was studying
the Sun spectroscopically, too, and
in 1868 observed anew pattern of
absorption lines. He deduced it to
be an undiscovered element, calling
it “helium” after Hellos, the Greek
Sun god. Between them. Angstrom
and Lockyer had discovered the
Sun’s chemical composition, and so
that of the stars.
Amateur astronomer William
Huggins (1824-1910) who had
built an observatory on London’s
with conventional stargazing, and
together with afriend, Allen Miller,
built aspectroscope based on the
Bunsen-Kirchoff design.
In 1864 Huggins turned it
towards the Cat’s Eye Nebula,
becoming the first person to
view adeep sky object through a
spectroscope. “No spectrum such
as Iexpected!” he wrote. “A single
bright line only.” He concluded that
the nebula was ahuge cloud of
hot, luminous gas.
Three years before Alter invented
spectrum analysis, Christian Doppler
(1803-53), professor of maths and
physics at Prague Polytechnic,
published atheory that would
galvanise astronomy and cosmology.
In his work Doppler announced
C AT ' S E Y E
Spectroscopic
that the spectral pattern of stars
studies show changes when they are moving.
that the Cat's The pattern shifts towards longer
Eye Nebula
(red) wavelengths if receding, or
consists mainly
of hydrogen and towards shorter (blue) wavelengths
helium. if approaching (see Breakthroughs).
In 1912 Vesto Slipher (1875-
1969), an astronomer at Lowell
Observatory, Arizona, noticed that
the spectra of distant nebulae
showed aslight Doppler shift
 towards the red end

of the spectrum -they

were receding from
®BREA
TK
TH
H ER
ODUG
OH
PS
PLER EFFECT m
CO
our galaxy. What did it hristian Doppler first spectral pattern is stretched,
mean? c proposed his theory in shifting towards longer, red
O
1842. We notice the Doppler wavelengths (“red-shift”J. If
T H E E X PA N D I N G Effect when, for example, a approaching, its pattern is
speeding driver sounds the compressed, shifted towards
UNIVERSE
Physicist Albert Einstein
horn. Sound waves ahead of shorter, blue wavelengths O
the car are compressed, while (“blue-shift”). By calculating
(1879-1955) had the those behind are stretched. the degree of shift, scientists
answer five years later This alters the pitch, making estimate the galaxy’s speed >
CO
in his General Theory of the sound seem higher as it and direction.

approaches and lower as it

Relatiuity (1917), which EFFECTIVE PHYSICIST Christian
recedes. This principle also
Doppler, most famous for the
predicted the universe applies to light. If agalaxy hypothesis of what is now known as O
may be expanding. is receding from Earth its The Doppler Effect.
Einstein doubted
himself and so altered
o
his equations, later calling this the of Slipher’s “red-shift”. In 1929
“biggest blunder of my life”. Hubble showed that all galaxies,
Evidence for an expanding
universe eventually came from an
even ours, were speeding away
from asingle point in space and
0
C O
unlikely pairing. In the year Einstein time. His data supported the “Big - D
m
published his groundbreaking work, Bang” theory -that the universe O
Milton Humason (1891-1957) was came into being in one mighty 7 0
helping to build an observatory at cosmic explosion of pure energy. ' A O
C O
the top of Mount Wilson, California.
o
He stayed on at Mount Wilson to WHAT NEXT? O
“ D
perform spectroscopic observations Spectroscopy had solved the ■■ ..
-<
and was later joined, in 1919, by an mystery of the origin of the
American astronomer, Edwin Hubble. universe. The next big question ' y

Hubble discovered that many was, are we alone? Spectroscopy

“nebulae” were in fact galaxies could help here, too, by seeking out
like our own. He concluded that planets orbiting distant stars, just as
the universe must extend farther stars exert apowerful gravitational EXTRASOLAR This wobble is observed as
An artist's
than just the Milky Way. Hubble pull on the planets in orbit around minute repeating shifts in astar’s
impression of an
and Humason studied the most them, so the planets pull on their spectral pattern, amini Doppler
extrasolar planet
distant galaxies to solve the mystery star, causing it to wobble. orbiting its Effect, revealing the presence of the
p a r e n t s t a r. planet. In 1995 ateam at Geneva
University led by Swiss astronomer
Michel Mayer used the technique
to find the first extrasolar planet
V -
orbiting aSun-like star in Pegasus
-51 Pegasi.
~mi T
i In March 2008 the Hubble Space
SOLAR
I ^■■■■
SPECTRUM telescope detected the spectral
1.
M T m The pattern pattern of the organic (carbon-
of dark lines
T
I
based) molecule methane and water
: 1 I in the Sun's
I T
I spectrum are
in the atmosphere of an extrasolar
3 the absorption planet orbiting astar in Vulpecula.
trlwlra- Ilines, which This showed that if conditions for
1 iindicate specific
I life exist in another solar system we
O
4
i i-T'. Ielementsinour should be able to detect it -using
§star's chemical
TT T — ^@composition. spectroscopy.

<5
 BOOTES and CANES
Aherdsman holding two dogs on aleash
VENATICI follows the Great Bear around the north
celestial pole. That herdsman is the
constellation Bootes, and his dogs are the
a «
. !

neighbouring figure of Canes Venatici.

f I
# .

I .
♦
♦
which is an easy double for small telescopes with
* ■
components of 3rd and 5th magnitudes.
4T' %■
However, the constellation is best known for its
%
d t k
■4 1
star clusters and galaxies. Foremost among them is
! 4/; - i *! .%
the Whirlpool Galaxy, M51, abeautiful face-on spiral
galaxy with asmaller companion at the end of one of
4 %
4 ^ 3
%

its arms. M51 was the first nebulous object in which

i f 1

*
%
-ft. ■ y
%

I * S TA R B A L L
aspiral structure was detected, adiscovery made
'4^ This cluster, in 1845 by the Irish astronomer Lord Rosse. M51 is
’H 4
m 4 ,
known as M3, is bright enough to be detected by binoculars on dark
t"
*»
^one of the nights, but afair-sized telescope is needed to see the
" 4 ‘
4
4
Ilargest and
^brightest spiral arms.
«

gglobular clusters Two other galaxies within range of small telescopes

**Iin the sky with are M63, known as the Sunflower Galaxy, and M94.
I500,000 stars. It In the far south of Canes Venatici is arich globular
.ois visible to the
onaked eye under cluster, M3, visible as ahazy star through binoculars
l-j @dark conditions. and small telescopes.

he brightest star in Bootes, Arcturus, is easily fi i

spotted, for it is the brightest star in the entire ABEAR IN THE FOREST
northern celestial hemisphere. The curving arc of
the Great Bear’s tail points to it. Arcturus is avision of obtes represents Areas, ason of the Greek god Zeus and
the Sun in the future -it has swollen up into ared giant B Callisto, amortal who was acompanion of the huntress
Artemis. For her sin of having the illicit child of Zeus, Callisto
and appears notably orange in colour, particularly when was turned into abear. She roamed the
viewed through binoculars. \

forests until one day she came face

to face with Areas who was out
I
/
TRICKY DOUBLE / hunting. Understandably,
/
North of Arcturus is Epsilon Bootes or Izar, abeautiful 7 h / Areas failed to recognise
double star but notoriously tricky to separate. The brighter his mother in her new guise
and would have killed her
member of the pair, of magnitude 2.5, appears orange. Its Thad Zeus not intervened. He
companion, of magnitude 4.6, is abeautifully contrasting spirited them both up into
blue. But the two are so close together that atelescope of the sky as the constellations
at least 75mm aperture with high power and anight of of the Great Bear and the bear

steady air are needed to separate them. keeper, Bootes.

Amuch easier double is Xi Bootes, an attractive Canes Venatici has no myths as it is
anewer addition to the sky, invented
pair of yellow and orange stars which orbit each other
in 1687 by the Polish astronomer
every 150 years. Johannes Hevelius.
Canes Venatici contains only one star of note.
Alpha Canum Venaticorum, also known as Cor Caroli,
18
 BRIGHTEST S TA R S BRIGHTEST S TA R S

WHIRLPOOL The famous Whirlpool Arcturus foe) 0.1 Cor Caroli (a] 2.3
Galaxy (also known as M51) is an SIZE RANKIIUG 13 SIZE RANKING 38
interacting grand-design spiral POSITION N/raid-ndrtherri POSITION Mid-northern
galaxy easily observed by amateur
astronomers.
DRACO

\URSA MAJOR
K /-
/
I-
M106.
. ; 2 4
M 5 1 V

I
A / NGC 4449^1^ \
/
MGC 5896 CANES V E N AT I C I
M 9 4
/

/HERCULES
/

/ ^.Cor Caroli
a

/ T
IZAi vOne of the
fi n e s t d o u b l e
stars in the sky,
Izar (e) in the
constellation of
Bootes.
CORONA BOREALIS i.’

I B O O T E S

SERPENSXCAPUT

1
 . f f
DISCOVERING

Jupiter's largest moons both harbour mysterious

subterranean oceans of salt water, sandwiched
deep underground between layers of ice.
. - 4

hen the detected disturbances in this field. the induced field. The discovery

w Galileo

probe
arrived at Jupiter in the
mid 1990s, scientists
loped that it would find
'idence of an ocean
- ' . 0
leath Europa's icy crust.
#
:no one expected was
i/ould also reveal seas on
Ganymede and Callisto as well.
As with the confirmation of
Europa’s ocean, it was Galileo’s
magnetometer that provided the
CALLISTO crucial data. This sophisticated
Galileo revealed
instrument was designed to
that the icy crust
measure the strength and direction
of Jupiter's moon
hid oceans of of Jupiter’s powerful magnetic field.
water.
As it passed each of the moons, it
In lo’s case, this was caused by
sulphur stripped from the moon’s
thin atmosphere. With the other
moons, it suggested something far
more intriguing.
INDUCED FIELD
When any conducting material
passes through amagnetic field, an
electric current is created. This
current in turn generates aweak
magnetic field around it, known as
an induced field.
Although weak, an induced
field has anoticeable effect on the
original field that created it, which
can reveal information about the
structure of the material producing
of an induced magnetic field
distorting Jupiter’s magnetosphere
around Europa was accepted as
clinching proof that the moon had
adeep saltwater ocean acting as
conducting material.
When Galileo found similar
distortions around Ganymede,
separate and distinct from that
moon’s own magnetic field, it was
more surprising. Astronomers
already knew the moon contained
agreat deal of ice. Although apoor
conductor, it was arranged in layers
suggesting that perhaps alayer of
salt water around the ice allowed
the current to flow.
The induced field around Callisto

BASE An
illustration of a
future base on m
Callisto.

2003,
InConcepts
aNASA-funded
for Humanstudy.
Revolutionary
Outer Planet Exploration
(HOPE) looked at the prospects for establishing
abase on Callisto as apossible step in the
exploration of the outer solar system.
Offering plentiful surface ice. stable geology and
easy access to the inner Galilean moons, yet safely
beyond Jupiter’s radiation belts, Callisto could be
an ideal place to set up an outpost. Ice could be
processed to provide water, oxygen and fuel for
spacecraft to travel further afield. However, it’s
unlikely that such amission could go ahead until
the 2040s or even later.

2 0
 r
w HOW IT WORKS
GLOSSARY ji
Atmosphere:
CO
TO
GALILEO’S MAGNETOMETER
magnetometer
s e n s o r Used as aunit of || >
measurement, |
one atmosphere j
O
MAGNETIC m
11 m boom
is equivalent to |
Galileo found magnetometer 1 the pressure | CO
evidence of water
s e n s o r
exerted at Earth’s ;
atmosphere at i o
with its magnetic sea level.
s e n s o r s . m
alileo’s magnetometer sensors were mounted z
midway along and at the end of a11m boom. This
O
was designed to keep them far from any interference m
caused by the main body of the spacecraft.
Each sensor included aset of three “fluxgate”
magnetometers -devices that measure the strength 0
□f amagnetic field through its influence on an electric o
current signal. Each set was orientated to measure the CO

magnetic field in three dimensions. The instruments on O

o
eend of the boom measured weak signals, a n d t h o s e <
in the middle stronger signals. m
T O

was even more of ashock, since
at the time astronomers were
fairly certain that the moon was a
uniform mix of rock and ice all the
way through. The big question,
though, was how these two moons
somehow remained warm enough
to sustain liquid water.
ICE CHEMISTRY
The answer lies not with the
O
o
m
ice drops dramatically. In these OCEAN CONDITIONS >
conditions, liquid water can exist Both of these subsurface oceans
C O
at temperatures of -22°C, and are alot colder than the one on
this is how most scientists think Europa. The lower temperature and
the oceans on both Ganymede lack of volcanic activity reduce the
and Callisto form. In both cases chances of life evolving on the H I D D E N WAT E R
the addition of small amounts outer moons. Some experts This cross-section
of “antifreeze”, in the form of believe, however, that magnetic of Jupiter's
moons shows
chemicals such as ammonia, activity could supply an ocean with
where awater
can lower the freezing point localised heat sources and
ocean may
considerably more and might help nutrients, at least on Ganymede. survive.

physics of tidal forces and trapped to keep the oceans liquid.

internal heat, but with the
chemistry of ice.
Under pressures far rocIcHCB crust

higher than those they ever

encounter on Earth, ice upper ice layer

crystals can take on avariety

o f d i ff e r e n t f o r m s . C o m m o n hexagonal
common ice

ice is formed from hexagonal crystals

crystals, and this is thought to

trapped oc:ean
be the form that dominates the
surface of the Galilean moons
as well. liquid water

However, at pressures of
around 2040 atmospheres (see
Glossary), ice transforms into a
much denser form with oblong Qiii. lower ice layer
crystals. This “phase change”
can cause strange phenomena, denser oblong
since around the transition of ice crystals

pressure, the melting point of the

€
 GALILEO
NUCLEAR?
Could NASA have inadvertently caused anuclear explosion on Jupiter?
In spite of the evidence, the US space authority remains silent.

19 October 2003
21 September 2003, NASA

O
n

commanded the Galileo spacecraft to

enter the Jovian atmosphere and
plunge at 175,000km/h to Its destruction (see
Inside Info). It was the end of asuccessful eight-
year mission and, apart from the ongoing analysis
of the data collected by Galileo, the end of any
o

interest in the probe. Or so, at the time, it seemed.

On 19 October 2003, Olivier Meeckers, an 4h 59 UT 5h 32 UT

amateur astronomer in Belgium, took apicture of L _

Jupiter through asmall telescope. On the southern

edge of Jupiter’s North Equatorial Belt, the image
showed astrange dark “splodge” with atail,
trailing southwest. Half an hour later, Meeckers
took another set of photographs. They clearly
revealed that while the splodge had moved several
thousand kilometres to the east, in the gas giant’s
swirling storms, it was still very much present.
Over the next few days the internet was buzzing THE SPLODGE Having
been blown along by
with stories about the “new Jovian mystery”.
Jupiter's violent storms,
Nearly ten years earlier comet Shoemaker/Levy the splodge remains
9had smashed into Jupiter, causing similar black dearly visible in Olivier
Meeckers' photographs
markings to appear in the atmosphere. But this for over half an hour.
time, in the months preceding its appearance,
nothing large enough to have caused the splodge

he reason for sending Galileo to its doom

T in Jupiter was the finding, by Galileo
itself, that Jupiter’s moon Europa had liquid
water beneath its icy surface. This raised the
possibility that the hidden oceans contained
some kind of ancient alien life. There existed

the possibility that, once the probe’s fuel

had run out, it might accidentally collide
with Europa. So, in 2002, NASA took the
decision to consign the spacecraft to certain
destruction in order to prevent any biological
contamination of that life.

MISSION END An illustration

of Galileo’s fiery entry.

/
had been plotted by any astronomical observers.
So the splodge couldn’t have been the result of an
impact. Or could it?
It was around this time that Richard C.
X

Hoagland, the former Curator of Astronomy and

Space Science at the Springfield (Massachusetts) >
Museum of Science, became involved. Hoagland
remembered firstly that there had been an impact
-that of Galileo amonth earlier - and secondly
the well-publicised warnings by Dutch Physicist
Jacco van der Worp.

IMPLOSION MECHANISM
When, in 2002, NASA had announced its
ntention to destroy Galileo, van der Worp had
written that sending Galileo into Jupiter’s
atmosphere was as effective away as any of
producing anuclear explosion. Whereas anuclear
bomb requires acritically engineered “implosion
m e c h a n i s m (see Technology), he argued, the

pressure inside Jupiter would naturally work on

CCIT’SASHAMETHATGALILEOISN’TAROUNDANYMORE...
TO TAKE SOME REALLY CLOSE-UP MEASUREMENTS OF
THIS THING.
Olivier Meeckers, amateur astronomer, October 2003 the plutonium carried by the probe in exactly the
same way. Anuclear explosion was assured. But if
POWER SOURCE One of
this really was the case, it couldn’t have been
the nuclear generators linked to the splodge amonth later. Or could it?
aboard Galileo being Hoagland looked at the matter again and
tested in aNASA
began to sketch out apossible scenario. On 21
laboratory
September, Galileo enters Jupiter’s atmosphere
at ashallow angle, at aspeed of 48km/sec. The
spacecraft quickly breaks up, leaving the 144
plutonium-238 capsules to plunge deeper into the
atmosphere on their own.

SLOW FALL

Because they are clad in iridium (melting point

2446°C), encasing agraphite membrane (melting
point 3550°C) most survive and slow to an
aerodynamic fall, which Hoagland calculated at
about 1.6km/h in the thickening atmosphere. The
plutonium capsules, he reckoned, would take
around 700 hours -amonth -to fall to adepth
where the liquid hydrogen crushes them into a
ATO f V n c BOMB This fi r s t supercritical state. The resulting explosion
te s t a t the Los Alamos produces anuclear bubble that rises to the surface
National Laboratory in of Jupiter’s atmosphere to appear as avisible
July 1945 shows just what
may have been unleashed phenomenon -the splodge. Yet, while Hoagland’s
deep within Jupiter's theory has caused much speculation, there has
atmosphere in 2003. never been asingle comment from NASA.
23
 system K
^precision ^
engineered orr ERY
26^

SPECTACU

saturim
The
1

second LARG E S T
planet in the s o l a r
system

PLUS
S AT U R N ’ S MDDNS ^'YHTHIS
ISSUE:
PU.HTSATU ITS THREE
major moons and support
a r m

■^7

ife. ■J,
. .

S AT U R N ’ S S U P P I

4^

!See how Stage 2Phase 6of the Taglemoss Publications Ltd, 5Cromwell Road, London SW7 2HR
C€5WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
solar system model is constructed. Keep out of reach of children. Keep this Information for reference.
Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.

!We journey on to the second largest

planet in the solar system -Saturn.
!Cosmic lightning -the science behind
the gas giant’s electrical storms.
 (N) An Eaglemoss Publication-A Weekly Publication. UK £5.99 ROI €9.99 Malta €8.99 Australia $14.95 New Zealand $16.99 South Africa R89.95

BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM ^ 26

APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY

S P E C TA C U L A R

S AT U R N
The magnificent RINGED ■ r

GAS GIANT and

SECOND LARGEST
PLANET in the solar
m
system m

m m
m

m
m
m
i s m

m i m -

■WITH THIS ISSUE: PLANET SATURN, ITS THREE MAJOR MOONS AND SUPPORT ARM
BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
FEATURES I M P O R TA N T
!The orrery is aprecision-engineered
kit. It must be assembled and handled
with care to prevent damage to its
parts, and stored or displayed safely to
YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL ensure no parts are lost.
!Never use liquids or solvents to clean
3 the parts. For best care, use the
^Use the exploded diagrams and step-by-step polishing cloth and dusting brushes
instructions to assemble the parts with issues 26-30 supplied with the toolkit (free to
subscriptions customers).
!When assembling parts, lay them on a
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE
0 flat table and keep screws and all all
items on atray so they can't roll away
The famous ringed planet Saturn -an enormous gas and get lost. Unpack all parts carefully.
!The publisher reserves the right to
giant that is lighter than water! alter parts and their design at any time.
!Parts not to be sold separately.
!The publisher cannot replace any
parts that are damaged or lost by the
customer without charge.
!The publisher cannot be responsible
for any damage that may occur as a
result of Incorrect assembly or
mishandling of the orrery. Please ei
you read all the instructions thoroughly
when assembling the parts.
!Ail tools must be used with care,
following any safety guidelines provided
by the manufacturer.
!The publisher cannot be responsible
for any injuries caused by any tools or
materials.

MISSIONS
10 *

Pioneer 11 's far-reaching mission to Saturn paved the *

way for other space probes that were to follow.

IMAGE GALLERY
121
-J Stunning views of the beautiful gas giant Saturn, its
rings and its complex system of moons.

THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

The quest to measure the distance to the stars led 1.^.;
CREDITS ■ I
astronomers back to the beginning of the u n i v e r s e .

IMAGES: FC Mattias Maimer/ Imaging, (br) TopFoto; 18-19 (tl)

S TA R M A P Cassini Imaging Team; 2-3 NASA/ Science Photo Library/Dr Jeremy
JPL-Caltech/Harvard-Smithsonlan Burgess, (c) Science Photo UbraryA j
Get your telescope out and discover how to get CfA; 3-5 Eaglemoss/Jullan Lick Observatory, (bl) South
spectacular views of Saturn in the night sky. Fletcher; 6-7 (c) NASA, (bl) PIkaia African Astronomical Observatory,
Imaging, (br) Hubble Heritage (tr) Science Photo Library/Royal
S PA C E S C I E N C E Team/NASA/ESA; 8-9 (tl,tr) NASA/ Astronomical Society, (cr) ESA, (br) |
JPL, (cl) Hubble Heritage Team/ Science Photo Library/Alun
Saturn's electrical storms with lightning bolts a NASA/ESA, (be) akg-london/ Sirulnikoff; 20-21 (tl,tr) Galaxy
thousand times more powerful than those on Earth album, (br) NASA/ESA/J Clarke Picture Library/Dave Tyler, (bl)
(Boston University) &ZLevay Science Photo Library/Gordon
(STScI); 10-11 (bl) Wikimedia Garradd, (c,br) Pikala Imaging; 22-
Commons, (tcl,tcr,bcl) NASA, (ber) 23 (tl,bc) NASA, (cl) Cassini
NASA/Kennedy Space Center, (br) Imaging Team/NASA/ESA/SSI/JPL,
NASA/NSSDC, 12-13 (l,tc,tr) (tc) Pikaia Imaging, (br) TopFoto.
NASA/JPL, (br) Science Photo
Library/Chris Butler; 14-15 Mattias
Maimer/Cassini Imaging Team; 16- REPRO: Stormcreative

17 (tl) Hubble Heritage Team/ Publishing Limited

NASA/ESA, (bcl) NASA, (be) PRINTING: Century LItho (Truro)
Corbis UK/Bettmann, (tr) Pikaia Limited

r:3©DEL LOUIS CALMELS

copjSi^tr ■ MGILES S PA R R O W
i -

r - S I R PAT R I C K M O O R E C B E F R S
V G F O 8 Y: T H E I N T E R N AT I O N A L A S T R O N O M I C A L U N I O N
i.y-

Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,

Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 8TS
WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
Keep out of reach of children. Keep this information for reference.
Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.
©Eaglemoss Publications (2008). All rights reserved.
BEGIN BUILDING o
.cz

i n
O

Stage 2HASE 6
m
>

i n
The. si of^tage 2adds Saturn and its three largest
satellit

O
Q
m

6parts you can build the

gear train and support
arm that carry Saturn
ancNts thre*e largest
satellites -Rhea, Titan
and lapetus -in orbit
beyond Jupiter.

* , % — ^

he gear assembly for Saturn enables it to orbit the Sun on an accurately

4 paced path beyond Jupiter. The variable-speed motor will enable the
orbit of Earth around the Sun to give acomparison of one Second equal
^to 10 real Earth days. Once this is calibrated at the end of Stage 3,Then the
orbits of all the other planets -including that of Saturn -will be paced to the
same proportional speed. Agrub screw in the*gear collar enables the planet
support arm to be slackened off so that Saturn can be aligned against its
symbol on the base plate and top engraved gear.
<5
 r I ' r : 5 ^ y

Loosely thread two grub screws (M3G 5mm)

into the gear collar (31) as shown. Construct
the Saturn gear set by creating a“sandwich”, with
the 80-tooth gear (59) underneath and the 106- Slip one plastic
tooth gear (51) on top, and the gear collar (31) and 5 washer (WAS)
gear spindle (33) in the middle. Hold these onto the protruding top
elements in place with three crosshead self-tapping of the planet spindle
screws (M2.3S 6mm) at the top and bottom. (33) of the large
gear “sandwich”.
Slide the entire

“sandwich” up the
central column (64)
and mesh the upper
106-tooth gear (51)
with the 22-tooth gear
(48) on the underside
of the planet gear arm
previously assembled
in Phase 5.

(w^
3 Create the small gear “sandwich” with
the 48-tooth gear (58) at the top, the M 2 . 3 S

planet gear arm (50), gear axle 1(70) and

gear axle 2(71) in the centre, and the 22-
tooth gear (48) at the bottom. Ensure gear
axle 1(70) goes on top as shown. Fix these
elements in place with two crosshead self¬
tapping screws -use the last remaining
6mm M2.3S for the top and the one
longer 8mm M2.3S
for the bottom.

IMo P a r t Qty
0 8 S AT U R N SUPPORT ARM 1

3 1 GEAR COLLAR 1 8 m m

3 3 PLANET SPINDLE 1

4 8 22-TOOTH GEAR 1 M 2 . 3 S
B m m
5 0 PLANET GEAR ARM 1

5 1 106-T00TH GEAR 1

5 8 48-TOOTH GEAR 1

5 9 80-T00TH GEAR 1 ^Remove the

base plate
Ifrom your previously
(65)
7 0 GEAR AXLE 1 1
completed Stage 2Phase 5by
7 1 GEAR AXLE 2 1
loosening the grub screw in the
S AT PLANET S AT U R N 1
column support (66) using a
S M O S AT U R N ’ S MOONS 1
2.0mm alien key -see Issue 1,
M 3 G GRUB SCREW 5mm 3
page 10. (Keep the assembly
M2.3S S E L F - TA P P I N G SCREW 6mm 7
upright to ensure you don’t lose
M2.3S S E L F - TA P P I N G SCREW 8mm 1
the planets -or remove the
W A S PLASTIC WASHER 2

planets for safe-keeping while

N N F NEW NYLON FEET 3
completing the next steps.)
4
 m *lit
'11^
H I

■ SAT
-<
m m THREE NEW FEET o
T c
oensure the model will not topple over 7D
6 4
T as more planet gear sets and arms
CO

J
4 8 are added, temporary replacement feet
are supplied with issue 30. Using apair o
5 1
S M O of pliers or other gripping tool, twist and
3 3 pull the original three small nylon feet
la
away from the base plate. Then replace
^ 4 3
was; them with the three new larger feet (NNF) CO
□ 8
5 9 -push and twist them in securely by hand. -<
LL**
[In Stage 3, when the motor base unit and CO
legs are added, these temporary feet will
again be removed.) m

3 3 HA*

1 Lm X
\ o
■J.1

M 3 G U
m
5 0
(was;
6 4

0
\

Slip the second plastic washer (WAS)

6 onto the central column and engage it CD
CZ

around the protruding lower rim of the planet D

spindle (33). Slide the small gear “sandwich” CO

up the central column, mesh the two gears H

>
and secure the entire stage by tightening a O
5mm grub screw (M3G) into the planet gear m

r o
arm (50). Refit the central column (64) to the
" D
column support (66) and tighten the grub X
screw using a2.0mm alien key. >
CO
m

SAT

SMO,

7 Now attach the Saturn support

arm (08) to the large gear set.
0 8
■J Feed the arm into the designated hole
non the collar and secure with agrub
:: IP Jscrew (M3G 5mm). Push the pin of
'“4
{planet Saturn (SAT) through the hole
Iin the collar of the Saturn moons
(SMO), then locate the pin at the base
of planet Saturn with the hole in the
top end of the arm. (NOTE: All planet
arms have ahole in one end only for
the planet’s pin, so ensure you fit the
arm with this hole uppermost.)
 G O O CO
based astronomy, and the missions of numerous
fPLANET PROFILE S AT U R N probes, have revealed more features in the planet’s O
atmosphere. Today it seems that Saturn has just as
much weather and activity as Jupiter -it’s just the 7D
upper layer of ammonia haze that mutes it. CO

H i W E AT H E R B A N D S CO
Saturn’s weather systems form bands of darker
m
and lighter cloud that wrap their way around the
planet, blown in opposite directions by prevailing
H i winds of up to 180km/h. The bands are similar in G)
structure to those on Jupiter. They are formed in a
similar way to Earth’s own major circulation cells,
Q
by warm air rising near the equator and sinking m
down closer to the poles. Saturn’s bands are
divided into lighter zones and somewhat darker
belts, but they are generally broader than Jupiter’s
more sharply defined bands, o
According to one theory, the zonal winds that
O
blow counter to the planet’s rotation are caused
entirely by coriolis forces that increase at high o
altitudes. Another suggestion is that they are far
more deeply rooted, and that entire sections of the X
m
planet’s interior rotate in opposite directions
X I
Just like our own planet, Saturn’s axis of rotation Z
is distinctly tilted with respect to the Sun. This
CO
;ives it apattern of seasons much like Earth’s,
except that each season lasts more than s e v e n

years: Saturn’s seasons are most clearly seen

through the changing tilt of the rings, whose broad

- . !■ -hiit ■

INSIDE INFO

G R E AT W H I T E S P O T S

hite spots have been observed in Saturn’s atmosphere

farther out in the solar system -Saturn’s cloudtop w roughly every 30 years since 1876. They seem to coincide
temperature of -153°C is about 30 degrees cooler with midsummer in the planet’s northern hemisphere. They
than Jupiter’s. As aresult of this, hazy, white follow acomplex cycle that sees an intense storm near the
ammonia clouds which only form in cold, high- equator followed 27 years later
by aweaker one in northern
altitude bands on the inner planet create alayer of
temperate latitudes. There is riff?
sepia haze all over Saturn. then approximately a30-year
gap before the next equatorial
THE WHITE SPOT S t o r m .

Astronomers aren’t sure

For along time this haze was all that astronomers
sure if the lack of observations
could see when they looked at the surface of
before 1876 was due to poor
Saturn. It is small wonder that the rings became instrumentation or revealed a
Saturn’s chief fascination -the planet seemed an genuine change in the climate.
apparently featureless ball. The 1876 spot was immediately
BRIGHT CLOUD This
The first real evidence that there was more to put to use by US astronomer
Hubble image clearly
Saturn came in 1876, when observers saw the Asaph Hall in order to measure shows the central bright
Saturn’s rotation period. The storm on Saturn.
first of Saturn’s White Spots (see Inside Info). It cycle’s most recent eruptions
seemed that there was weather on Saturn after were in 1990 and 2006.

all. Since then, improved techniques in Earth-

 NORTH POLE A 1933 (see Space Stars). As with Jupiter, most
combined visual and
storms on Saturn seem to form in high-pressure
infrared image (left) of
■-t; the pole taken by the regions, rather than the familiar low-pressure
" 4

Cassini probe in October weather patterns on Earth. Nevertheless, low-

■ 2006.
pressure storms probably form as we they may
y-i!

r explain the huge electrical storms on both worlds

WHITE SPOT Stills from a
- i i (see Space Science).
Fvideo (below) showing
the equatorial "White Two of the most intriguing discoveries so
Spot" storm, discovered far made by Cassini have been the weather
f
in September 1990. systems around Saturn’s poles: the north pole is

"'V

. „ a

expanse is wide open at 15-year intervals. We then

see the planet from an angle of 26 degrees above
or below its equator. At other times, the rings
almost disappear when Saturn’s equator and ring
plane line up with Earth.
During winter for aparticular hemisphere, when
its pole is tilted away from the Sun, the effect of
low sunlight is complicated by the way the rings
cast shadows onto the planet. Fine particles in
the rings also scatter sunlight in asimilar way to
molecules in Earth’s atmosphere, giving Saturn’s
winter hemisphere abeautiful blue tint.

Saturn's storms
Saturn does not seem to have any semi-permanent L
storms to rival Jupiter’s Great Red Spot -its most
impressive features are the periodic White Spots
observed by Asaph Hall in 1876 and Will Hay in

^SPACE STARS
WILL HAY (1888-1949)
o

mateur astronomer and comedian languages and gave flying lessons to

A Will Hay was the space celebrity
I o f h i s t i m e , a b o n a fi d e m o v i e s t a r o f
the 1930s and 1940s as well as an
ienthusiastic advocate of the wonders of
the heavens.
Despite initial training as an engineer.
IWill Hay had asuccessful career in
! m u s i c h a l l , a n d m a d e h i s fi r s t fi l m i n
1934. Today his best-known films are
Amy Johnson.
His contributions to astronomy, and
particularly the accurate determination
of comet positions, led to his election
as aFellow of the Royal Astronomical
Society in 1932. Ayear later he made
his greatest discovery -aprominent
white spot that erupted on Saturn and
lasted for several months.

probably Oh, Mr Porter! (1937) and The

Ghost of St Michael’s (1941). FUNNY MAN Film star Will Hay w a s a

Hay’s talents extended well beyond serious amateur astronomer, discovering

awhite spot on Saturn in 1933.
!slapstick, however -he spoke six
 CO
O
>
m 7D
CO

G)

surrounded by an e n o r m o u s hexagonal patterr

up to 14,000km along each side, while at the
south pole, an enormous (and possibly
long-lived) hurricane hangs directly overhead
Uniquely for ahurricane on another
planet, this one has aprominent central “eye".
surrounded by awall of clouds up to 75km high.
Eyes are astandard feature of hurricanes on Earth
and suggest that the “south polar vortex” is a
low-pressure area. It spossible that this strange
weather is connected to Saturn’s unusually warm
poles -which are up to 60°C warmer than regions
close to the equator.

T H E S AT U R N S Y S T E M Saturn has 60

Of all the giant planets, Saturn’s surrounding named satellites -just

system of rings and moons is the most complex -a
veritable solar system in miniature. The rings
extend from just above the planet’s cloud tops out
to more than 12 times its diameter and are divided
into countless ringlets.
These ringlets are themselves shepherded into
half adozen major rings by the influence of gravity
from 100-metre moonlets orbiting among them,
and larger satellites farther out. The appearance
of the major rings and their divisions varies
wildly depending on the size and composition of
individual particles that go to make them up.
three fewer than Jupiter
Most of them are small “irregular”
satellites -chunks of ice or rock captured
into remote orbits. However, there are about a
AURORAE Saturn's ever-
dozen fascinating major worlds, each with its own
unique features -active water geysers, towering changing auroral storms,
captured by the Hubble
ice cliffs and lakes of liquid methane. Over the Space Telescope.
next few issues, we’ll be looking in detail at these
extraordinary and diverse worlds.
9
Although its investigation of Saturn was
brief, Pioneer 11 was the first spacecraft to
get close to the gas giant and send back
valuable data for the probes that followed.

aunched on 6April 1973 and pointed it on a2.4 billion

Pioneer 11 was a2.9m-long kilometre route towards Saturn.

spacecraft with a2.74m It reached the second gas giant

diameter high-gain antenna. The
craft was spin-stabilised {see
Glossary), spinning around the axis
of its antenna at aleisurely 5rpm.
After asafe passage through the
asteroid belt on 19 April 1974, it
was targeted for aclose flyby of
Jupiter. Agravity slingshot around
the Jovian giant accelerated the
probe to 173,000km/h -55 times
as fast as ahigh speed rifle bullet -
in September 1979. Instruments
aboard the probe studied
interplanetary and planetary
magnetic fields, solar winds
and cosmic rays. Rather than a
conventional lens camera, Pioneer
11 was equipped with an imaging
system that relied on the craft’s
spin. This spin-scan imaging system
recorded brightness values of a
single spot, in two colours, line-by-

□
nthe morning of 1September 1979, Pioneer 11’s
controllers waited nervously as the spacecraft began its
scheduled crossing of Saturn’s rings. As the signal kept coming,
they relaxed, but, minutes later, its instruments wavered
dramatically. Unknowingly, the probe had streaked through the
magnetic wake some 200km across of amoon at adistance of
no more than afew thousand kilometres. Later investigation
showed that this near miss was with one of Saturn’s two

co-orbital moons (Epimetheus and Janus].

CROSSING THE RINGS

Pioneer passes by Saturn’s
rings, 21,000km from the
cloud top
 0th the Pioneer spacecraft -10 and 11- are continuing to
B journey towards the outer reaches of the solar system and,
as expected, are slowing down as the influence of the Sun’s
gravity acts as agentle brake. However, mission scientists have
discovered that the probes are in fact slowing down slightly more
than expected. There is no known explanation for this phenomenon
but scientists have not discounted the need to modify laws of
physics and the European Space Agency has proposed amission o
into deep space to investigate this matter further.
m
m
:x)

(see Inside Info), the spacecraft the cloud tops suggesting that it
successfully weathered the rings was too cold to sustain life.

and returned incredible pictures. Following the flyby, Pioneer

G L O S S A R Y
P i o n e e r 11 w a s
of
The rings, which, when viewed 11 headed to the outer reaches
Spin-stabilised: Asimple v
able to send
maintaining aspacecraft’s direction in from Earth appear bright, were dark of the solar system, sending back
back unimagined space. The entire spacecraft rotates in Pioneer's images and the dark data on the solar wind and cosmic
views of Saturn, around its own vertical axis, spinning
including this ■like atop. gaps as seen from Earth, were seen rays entering our portion of the
amazing close-up as bright rings Milky Way as its fading nuclear
of the planet and S B
its rings.
line. The data collected was then |
used to recreate colour images by ; I
computers at NASA's Jet Propulsion
Physicist James Van Allen on the icy particles in Saturn’s rings
Laboratory in California.
:With the Voyager craft already
on the way to Saturn, part of Flying within 21,000km of generators produced less and less
■; T h e A t l a s - Pioneer ll’s mission was to act the planet, Pioneer captured the power. Communications with the
■^ C e n t a u r l a u n c h
vehicle lifts off as an advance guard, passin first close-up pictures of Saturn. craft finally ended on 30 September
w i t h P i o n e e r 11 through the rings of Saturn to test It also located two previously 1995, but it continues to journey. It
;lnApril1973. the route. In spite of anear miss undiscovered small moons and is now heading towards the Aquila
an additional ring. Titan, Saturn's constellation and, barring incident,
planet-sized moon, also recorded will pass near to one of its stars in
temperatures of afrigid -200°C at about four million years.

f
PROTECTION
P i o n e e r 11 a b o u t
to be encased
X $
in aprotective
shroud before
i t i s fi x e d t o t h e
,\
launch vehicle.
r

■
t

INTERSTELLAR
PROBE
An artist's

impression of
i I
P i o n e e r 11 a s I t

continues on its

journey to the
outer reaches of

the solar system.

I
 he BEAUTl of
^SATURN
„-.irvl
■m
Easily visible to the naked eye, Saturn has been viewed
by man since prehistoric times. It took the telescope,
though, to solve the puzzle of the rings.
[1] SATURN EMBRACED
This image of Saturn,
embraced by the
shadows of its rings, was
taken by Cassini some
999,000km from the
planet in May 2005.
[11
nspite of the telescope, it wasn’t until the
space age that close-up images were able to
reveal the true beauty of this gas giant and to
start showing us much more of the planet, its
moons and magnificent ring system.
The first spacecraft to visit Saturn was Pioneer
11. This was the second probe to explore the outer
solar system, but as Pioneer 10 flew from Jupiter
to the outer reaches of the solar system. Pioneer
11 passed within 21,000km of Saturn’s cloud tops.
The next encounters were courtesy of the twin
Voyager craft, which visited the ringed world
between August and December 1980 (Voyager
1) and June and September 1981 (Voyager 2).
Between them they captured over 30,000 images.
The most recent mission is Cassini-Huygens.
Launched in October 1997, the spacecraft
entered into orbit around Saturn in July 2004. It
proceeded to photograph the planet, its rings and
its huge family of satellites. The Huygens probe,
meanwhile, separated in December 2004 and flew
to Saturn’s moon Titan, descending to the surface
in January 2005, capturing images all the while.
 [31

IZJ ^CY DIONE Saturh's [3] ABOVE THE RINGS [4] OVER THE MOON
moon Dione, although This Cassini image, Saturn appears on the
1118km across, is captured in February horizon- of its second-

dwarfed by the striking 2007, looks towards the largest moon, Rhea. Seen
unlit side of Saturn's edge on, Saturn's rings
gas giant in this
September 2005 Cassini rings some 1.2 million appear as athin band
image. kilometres away,. encircling the planet.
 Si

[5] SPECTACULAR SATURN This image of the gorgeous giant pictured from ring tip to ring tip has been pieced together by digital imager
Mattias Maimer from 102 frames recorded by the Cassini spacecraft on 6October 2004. The joint American-European Cassini-Huygens mission

14.
 >
o
m

j j
>
j >
r

0 0
m
>
c

- <
r \

“ n

C O
>

A J

has provided the most long-lasting and detailed study of Saturn and its rings, and the many thousands of images captured have helped
astronomers and other scientists to answer many of the questions surrounding the gas giant.
 PERSEUS The

Perseus Galaxy
Cluster is one of
the closest to
Earth but still a
staggering 300
million light years
away.

H I P PA R C H U S
This ancient Greek
astronomer

compiled the first

comprehensive
star catalogue.

to the STARS
In 1830 the great "space race" was to be the first to
measure the distance to astar. As aresult astronomers
can now see far Into the distance -almost to the
beginning of time itself.

ow far are the stars? That whose distance was calculated in

question has intrigued this way was 61 Cygni (see Inside

stargazers since early times. Info: Parallax and Trigonometry).
Ancient Greek and Indian

astronomers thought they could work SOLAR DISTANCE ■

it out using trigonometry, aform of Greek astronomer Aristarchus

geometry based on right-angle used trigonometry to calculate

triangles. They were right, but their
measuring instruments were not
accurate enough.
The only direct way to measure the
distance to the stars is to combine
trigonometry with “motion parallax”.
the distance to the Sun, V
reasoning that at first or last ^
quarter, the Moon forms aright- ^
angle triangle with Earth and the
Sun. While his calculation was wrong,
his logic was flawless. P I O N E
f m m

Parallax can be demonstrated by The Earth-Sun distance is t

Arista r
p
Wl
holding apencil at arm’s length and known as an Astronomical Unit Samos

t h e fi r s
looking at it, first with one eye and (AU). But finding aprecise value m e a s u i

then the other. The pencil seems to proved difficult. Astronomer Royal of and distance to
move from side to side. The first star Sir Edmond Halley (1656-1742) the Sun.

stronomers plot the distance to nearby stars
A using parallax and trigonometry. First they
measure the apparent distance the star moves
against the background stars over six months (its
“parallax motion”). Halving this distance gives them
its “parallax angle” -C. The distance from Earth to
Sun, B, is already known.
So, using trigonometry and the tangent function
(found on any scientific calculator but usually worked
out by computer) ~A=Bdivided by tan C-
astronomers calculate A, the distance to the star.
C A L C U L AT I N G D I S TA N C E T h i s
method is performed today with
exceptionally accurate instruments.
thought the next transit
of Venus offered an ideal
opportunity. He suggested that
astronomers observe the transit
from different points on Earth and
measure the angle when Venus was
touching the Sun’s rim. They could
1 then combine data to calculate the
I V
ifjf
Ml Ki i f distance to Venus and the Sun.
Astronomers duly trekked across
m m the globe to observe the transit
s m
m m in 1761. The following transit, in
MMM I'ii
1769, was observed by even more
astronomers, including Captain James
Cook, in Tahiti. However, Halley's
method proved less accurate
than hoped because of an
optical distortion caused by
the Earth’s atmosphere.
However, acentury later in
1870 Canadian astronomer
Simon Newcomb would use
the data from the four Venus
i t m m transits between 1761 and
1874 to arrive at afigure of
over 149 million kilometres
:il:
-close to today’s value of 150
million kilometres.
fi , '
S T E L L A R D I S TA N C E
m 60 arc minutes and each arc
Meanwhile, acontemporary
of Halley’s, Dutch
astronomer Christiaan
Huygens, had found an
background —__
s t a r s
\ C D
I
(shift of position
caused by parallax) C
nearbystar
o
V
\
PD
A
\
\
\
o
\
n
\
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A - A(distance from solar CO
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system to star)
\
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(Earth-Sun distance of
about 150 million km) B
O
-C
ClTHOSEWHOSTOOYTHESTARSHAUE The best match was one
0
99 V28,ooo the Sun’s apparent
GOO FOR ATEACHER. D
size, so Sirius must be
Tycho Brahe 0 0
28,000 times farther away
>
ingenious way to measure the than the Sun. Had Huygens known z
distance to stars. If stars are like our how much brighter Sirius was than o
m
Sun, he reasoned, how far away the Sun he might have got close to
would the Sun have to be to look as the correct figure (8.6 light years).
o
faint as astar?
Huygens drilled tiny holes in a THE GREAT SPACE RACE X
brass plate and, holding it in front In 1820 the invention of the
CO
of the Sun, judged which hole gave heliometer had made it possible to
an image most like the bright “star” measure parallax angles accurately
>
0 0
Sirius based on his memory of (see Breakthroughs). And by the
seeing it the previous night. 1830s, the race to be the first to
measure the distance to a
JAMES coot star had begun.
The For stellar distances
view^ ^fr^^rarisit astronomers use the
“parsec” measurement
based on astar’s parallax
angle -half the angle
created by its apparent shift
m
in position viewed over six
months.
Acircle is divided into 360
degrees, but in astronomy a
degree is too large for precise
measurements. So each
degree is further divided into
minute divided into 60 arc
seconds. Therefore one arc
second is Vseoo of adegree.
 m m
BREAKTHROUGHS
HELIOMETER
le heliometer is atelescope with a
TS
_divided object-glass that is adjusted using
aprecise measuring tool -amicrometer.
The image of anearby star is focused on
one glass, abackground star on the other
and the distance between them measured.
By doing this six months apart, astronomers
can measure the distance between the
two stars and hence work out how far the
nearby star has (apparently) moved. From
this they calculate its parallax angle.
H E L I O M E T E R
The invention of this instrument in
1820 provided astronomers with
an accurate means of determining
the distance to stars.
Aparsec is the distance at which
astar shows aparallax angle of
one arc second. The term comes
from par-allax sec-ond, first used
by British astronomer Herbert Hall
Turner. It is equal to 30,800 billion
kilometres, an unwieldy number. So
the accepted alternative is the “light
year”, which is the distance light
travels in one year. One parsec equals
3.26 light years.
T H E F LY I N G S TA R
Scottish astronomer Thomas
Henderson (see Space Stars) was
well placed to win the contest
while observing the star system
Alpha Centauri in South Africa.
While parallax motion reflects
our vantage point on amoving
Earth, proper motion is caused
by astar system actually moving
through space. This suggested to
Henderson that Alpha Centauri
was nearby.
Worried about the accuracy
of his instruments, Henderson
delayed publication and so was
pipped at the post by German
astronomer Friedrich Bessel (see
Issue 5, page 17) in 1838.
Bessel calculated 61 Cygni to be
3parsecs/10.4 light years away.
l i
Z z
■y . K r
The figure has since been revised
to 3.5 parsecs/11.4 light years.
Also called “Bessel’s star”, 61 Cygni
was nicknamed the “Flying Star”
by astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi
because its proper motion is the
largest of any naked-eye star.
Henderson eventually published
his results for Alpha Centauri in
1839, estimating adistance of
1parsec/3.4 light years. Proxima
Centauri, one of three stars in this
^SPACE STARS
HOMAS HENDERSON (1798-1844)
system and the closest to Earth, is
I
today measured at adistance of 1.3
ii'
parsecs/4.3 light years.
I More accurate parallax
measurements are now carried
! out in space. The Hipparcos
satellite, launched in 1989, can
measure parallax angles, and hence
distances, of objects up to 1600
light years away. The Gaia satellite,
I launching in 2012, will measure
angles in “micro arcs” and work out
distances to stars tens of thousands
of parsecs away.
I
G A L A C T I C D I S TA N C E
z For more distant objects, such as
f galaxies and nebulae, astronomers
use various indirect methods
collectively called the “cosmic
B E S S E L ' S S TA R
T h e fi r s t a c c u r a t e
distance -to
the double star
61 Cygni -was
measured in
1838 by the
German,
Friedrich Bessel.
L
bile the Dundee-born Henderson was
w trained and practised as ahighly successful
lawyer, he was passionate about astronomy and
mathematics.
Having come to the attention of John Young,
superintendent of the Royal Navy’s Nautical
Almanac, Henderson secured aposition at the
British observatory in South Africa. The numerous
observations he made there led him to calculate
that the distance to the bright southern star
Alpha Centauri was 3.25 light years. Doubts over
the accuracy, though, led him to delay publication
and lose the so-called “space-race”. In 1834,
Henderson’s measurement work led him to be
appointed the first Astronomer Royal for Scotland.
HENDERSON The astronomer
accurately calculated the distance to
Alpha Centauri using parallax.
%
X
m
CO
stronomers can calculate the distance to deep 1
A sky objects by measuring their luminosity, on O
the principle that bright objects look less bright at 7K3
adistance. For example, if you have two identical
lamps you know which is farthest because it looks
fainter. The same principle is applied to galaxy O
clusters by measuring the luminosity of the tenth n
brightest galaxy in the cluster. Astronomers
assume the tenth brightest galaxy has aluminosity
>
CO
of 1.00 X10^^ watts. By comparing this with its
apparent luminosity from Earth they calculate its 7D
distance and hence distance to the cluster (on
this scale all galaxies in acluster are regarded as IRIS PHOTUMtTER This instrumient, O
being the same distance). which measures stars’ luminosity, was
installed at Edinburgh Observatory.
O

distance ladder” as each method to 3,262,000 light years. The team

adds alevel -or “rung” -of
measurement. One way to find the
estimated the farthest galaxy to be
just under 4000 megaparsecs or 13
0
D
distance to remote galaxy clusters, billion light years. This means light CO
for example, is to use asensitive from that galaxy took 13 billion years
>
light meter called aphotometer (see to get here.
Inside Info: Measuring Starlight). The team was not only seeing O
m
Another is to measure the far away but also back in time,
“red shifts” of galaxies with a to the early universe when that O
spectroscope. Celestial objects are galaxy was still forming. If the age
all speeding away from acentral of the universe from birth until
m
point in time and space, the Big today was represented as one year,
CO
Bang. This shifts the wavelengths astronomers were viewing an “infant
>
of light they emit towards the galaxy” when the universe was less
CO
red (longer) end of the spectrum than one month old.
\
-hence “red shift”. The degree of \ \

red shift is used to calculate their

speed and distance. ■ ■ ■ ■

: :

w -
If!
!m’
MOST DISTANT OBJECT
The most remote object found so far i f
was discovered in 1997 by ateam of HIPPARCOS ^ 4
;-V
astronomers combining several This satellite,
launched in
techniques. They used an image 1989, took the
from the Hubble Space Telescope, measurement of 1

the spectroscope attached to the star distance to

anew level of
Keck Telescope at Mauna Kea,
a c c u r a c y.
Hawaii, and anatural “gravitational
lens” effect caused by the gravity of P H O T O M E T E R
massive galaxy clusters, which This telescope
magnifies more distant objects. in Alaska is

Aparsec is too small aunit when equipped with a f - :

photometer to
measuring such vast distances so
help measure the
astronomers use the megaparsec distance to stars

(Mpc) -one million parsecs -equal and other objects.

 One of the most popular sights

SATURN through asmall telescope is the

planet Saturn and its encircling
rings of icy debris.

every 16 days. Several other moons, notably Rhea,

Tethys, Dione and lapetus, can be spotted through
modest amateur telescopes.

Saturn's rings
Saturn’s greatest delight is its rings. The central part,
10 X50 pair of binoculars, held steadily, will called the Bring, is the widest and brightest. Outside

A
S AT U R N ' S
MOONS This
show the elliptical outline of Saturn and its this is the Aring, while closest to the planet is the C
image was taken
using a280mm
rings. Through asmall telescope, the planet ring, also known as the crepe ring because it is the
telescope. It appears deep yellow in colour, darker at the poles and faintest of all and partly transparent. The rings throw
shows some of
lighter at the equator, with afew hazy bands of cloud their shadow onto the clouds of Saturn, giving the
Saturn's brighter in between.
m o o n s .
appearance of adark equatorial belt, and the planet in
Saturn’s clouds lack the ever-changing spots and turn throws its shadow on the rings.
storms that are so prominent on Jupiter, but every Space probe photographs have shown unbelievable
30 years or so alarge white spot erupts in Saturn’s complexity in the rings, but the most detail you can
northern hemisphere, when that hemisphere is tilted expect to see with asmall telescope is the dark Cassini
LINE UP towards the Sun and becomes warmest. Such aspot Division, the width of the North Atlantic, separating
The moon last appeared in 1990, followed by aseries of smaller Band Arings. Larger apertures bring into view a
with planets to outbreaks over the next few years. narrower gap in Aring, called the Encke Division.
Its right -Mars,
S a t u r n a n d Ve n u s
Saturn’s largest moon. Titan, can easily be seen As Saturn orbits the Sun we see the rings from
in descending through small telescopes and even large binoculars as different angles. At their widest they can be tilted
order. 3th-magnitude point of light that orbits the planet towards us at an angle of 27 degrees, while at other
times they.are seen edge-on and disappear altogether
as September 20D9. The changing presentation of
in

the rings affects the apparent brightness of Saturn in

the night sky

*■■■;
OPHIUCHUS
\
OPPOSITTION

y
Saturn at

aturn comes to opposition, when it is closest ■

Sthe
god
aturn was the father of

Jupiter,
Roman
in Sto
Earth
and
lies
opposite
the
Sun
in
the
sky, about two weeks later each year [see table
mythology. The Greeks called
below). At such times amagnification of about
them Cronus and Zeus,
90 times will show the planet’s globe the same
respectively, but the
size as the full Moon to the naked eye. I
stories are the
same. It had
Date Distance from Earth Magnitude
been prophesied (million km)
that Saturn would be
March 82009 1 2 5 6 +0.5
overthrown by one of his March 22 2010 1 2 7 2 +0.5
own children, so Saturn ate
April 4 2 0 11 1 2 8 8 +0.4
each of them as they were 1 3 0 4
April 15 2012 +0.2
b o r n . H o w e v e r, h i s w i f e h i d t h e
April 28 2013 1 3 1 9 +0.1
infant Jupiter and gave Saturn s 1 3 3 2 +0.1
May 10 2014
stone to swallow instead.
May 23 2015 1 3 4 2
When Jupiter grew up he June 32016 1 3 4 9
did indeed overthrow Saturn
!June 15 2017 1 3 5 3
and ruled the universe, as
June 27 2018 1 3 5 4
prophesied,
July 92019 1 3 5 1 + 0 . 1

July 20 2020 1346 . +0.1

i
#

m -
S'. *
PISCES^

L I B R A

8v'??-
VIRGO
1 0 r s r c n a posmon ana approx escopic

appearance of Saturn over the next few yelrs. The key numbers indicate the following dates:
1. June20d8 7 . J u n e 2 0 11 13. June 2014
2. December 2008 8 . D e t e m b e r 2 0 11 14. December 2014
3. June 2009 9. Jun^20T2 15. June 2015
* O 4. December 2009 10. December 2012 16. [December 2015
SCORPIOS ’ . o
5. June 201 (P 11 . J u n e 2 0 1 3
6. December 2010 12. December 2013
■

J l
 Saturn is one of many planets in the solar
system that are racked by thunder and
SIGNALS Cassini
lightning. But astronomers and meteorologists
picks up radio are still struggling to understand the true
signals from the cause of these electrical storms.
electromagnetic
energy of Saturn's
lightning.

sthe Cassini space probe

A approached Saturn in
2004, its Radio and
Plasma Wave Science Instrument

(RPSW) began to pick up violent

bursts of radio waves from the

planet. They came and went with

each rotation of Saturn, and
Cassini’s cameras eventually tracked
their source to aregion beneath
high-altitude white clouds. Saturn,
like Jupiter, Venus and Earth, has
lightning storms within its clouds.

STORM ALLEY
The 2004 “Dragon Storm” (named
for its twisting shape) lasted for
about amonth before disappearing,
but similar storms recurred in 2006

and 2008, each in the same narrow
cloud band nicknamed “storm
alley”. Some astronomers speculate
that the storm is apersistent one,
with active and quiet periods.
Saturn’s Dragon Storm is just
one of many electrical storms
found throughout the solar system.
Among the gas giants, these storms
seem to exist independently of
the major, high-pressure storm
systems that form the largest and
most prominent weather patterns
-their presence can usually only be
detected through their radio signals,
or by photographing the planet’s
night side and looking for tell-tale
flashes in the clouds.
COSMIC LIGHTNING
On Earth, electrical storms are
associated with thunder, lightning,
and torrential downpours of rain
(see How It Works). But how do
they form on other planets? Since a
gas giant’s solid surface is buried
deep beneath thousands of
kilometres of gas, any lightning we
see near the surface must discharge
between clouds. But lightning on the FIRST FLASHES
giant planets is always buried quite The first image
deep within the atmosphere, in of lightning
lower layers composed of water discharges on
another planet.
clouds rather than high-altitude pure taken by Galileo
ammonia clouds. on Jupiter's
So it seems that the same kind night side.

22
I ■

positive charges c n
accumulate at top
of storm “ D
INSIDE INFO
>
warm air rises W H AT I S A N E L E C T R I C A L S T O R M ? O
m
nelectrical storm on Earth forms above acell of warm air
A that is forcing its way up through colder surroundings. As CO

lightning
the warm air rises and cools, water vapour within it will begin to O
b e t w e e n condense out of the air as droplets or ice crystals, forming arising
m
regions of pillar of cloud. The jostling ice crystals within the cloud become
opposite
charge
separated by their electric charges, until there is an excess of
positive charge at the top of the column, and of negative charge o
near its base. m
This field creates an “induced” charge, equal but opposite, in
the ground below. When the field becomes strong enough, air 0
molecules break down into electrically charged ions, allowing a m
lightning discharge between oppositely charged areas -either
m
within the storm clouds, or all the way to the ground itself. O

ELECTRIC AIR Apillar of cloud forms above acell o

of warm air, creating positive and negative charged >
Q areas that allow lightning discharges.
CO

O
DRAGON'S FIRE of mechanism may be responsible energy of those on Earth. Flashes in bands around Jupiter’s equatorial 7 0

The twisted
for the electric fields of lightning
form of Saturn's
Dragon Storm
storms both on Earth and in the
can be seen just gas giant atmospheres. It’s possible
right of centre in that the unique properties of water
this image taken
molecules might be responsible.
by Cassini.
However, despite this, there
must still be some other way of
generating lightning, since it has
been recorded by anumber of
space probes descending through
the atmosphere of Venus, where
atmospheric water is non-existent.
of lightning on Jupiter can light up regions (suggesting that it was CO
regions of cloud some 500km across. powered mostly by sunlight).
No one is certain exactly where However, the New Horizons probe,
the warmth and heat needed to which briefly flew past the planet
drive these massive rising currents in 2007, found an enormous new
of air come from, and the question concentration of activity around
is further confused by the way that the planet’s poles, with about 30
lightning zones seem to shift around lightning strikes per minute. This
the planets. suggests that the power behind
For example, the Voyager and the storms is more likely generated
Galileo missions of the 1980s and from inside Jupiter, and is therefore
1990s found lightning concentrated independent of sunlight.

S PA C E S TA R S
VA S T V O LTA G E
The major difference between BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (170B-179Q)
electrical storms on Earth and those

among the gas giants is one of he electrical nature of lightning and

scale. Lightning bolts on Saturn are
the American statesman and scientist
thought to carry 10,000 times the
T storms was famously discovered by
B e n j a m i n F r a n k l i n . H e i d e n t i fi e d t h e
difference between positive and negative
charges, and risked his life in 1752 to
collect electricity in aprimitive capacitor
by flying akite in athunderstorm.
A k e e n a s t r o n o m e r, h e w r o t e a n d
published Poor Richard’s Almanack, a
compendium of useful astronomical and
meteorological information. However,
he is best known today as one of the
leaders of the American Revolution.

KITE FLYER Franklin attached ametal key to

his kite and flew It up Into astorm to conduct
the electricity from the lightning bolts.
COMING

SOLAR
*
system M
^precision
engineered ^
-a ^ORRERY

m
^CONSTRUCTING
m
SATURN'S
RINGS
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106-T00TH GEAR

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! Ta k e a c l o s e r l o o k a t S a t u r n ’ s m o s t Look up towards the constellation

striking feature -its spectacular of Cetus and its giant red star
ring system. which is hundreds of times bigger
than our Sun.
#
!How the science of navigating by
the stars has developed through C€
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the ages. WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.

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BUILD AMODEL

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S P E C TA C U L A R
RING SYSTEM

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MISSIONS
How Voyager 1's grand tour of Saturn and its moons
provided exciting n e w data of the ringed planet.

IMAGE GALLERY
Get close up to Saturn's colourful ring system thanks
to images taken by the Cassini space probe.

T H E S TO R Y O F A S T R O N O M Y
CREDITS
Tw o a s t r o n o m e r s f r o m d i ff e r e n t l i f e t i m e s w h o s h a r e d
IMAGES: FC NASA/JPL; 3(b)
one passion building m
ighty telescopes.
Alamy/Patrick Eden; 4-5 (tl)
Courtesy of Peter Ifland, author of
S TA R M A P
Taking the Stars, Celestial
Cast your eyes up to the constellation of Cetus, and Navigation from Argonauts to
Astronauts, (tcl.tcr) Bridgeman
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(bl,c,cr,br) Davison &Associates/
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^land*wherecanthesebefound?Ancient duesouththroughthemidbleofthesky). . y > .
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navigators realised that the answer lay in,the stars. The precise orientation of the celestial sphere
*CD
depends on the observer’s position on Earth. At
MEASURING LATITUDE ! the North Pole, the north celestial pole lies directly
Wherever you go on the surface otthe Earth, one '... overhead, but farther south, it sinks into the northern
(D
half of the celestial sphere is always in View. In the sky. At the equator it lies exactly on th^ florizon, due
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i
i 'Mm

s
< navigators. Arab navigators used adevice called akamal
I consisting of awooden board that could slide along acord held at
one end In the observer’s teeth. This could be used to measure

the angles of stars above the horizon and to find and sail along
z
lines of constant latitude.

Polynesian sailors, who spread across the

South Pacific islands using only open
boats between around 1OOObc and
ad1 000, used asimilar device called
Mthe “latitude hook”. Lacking
jfJcompasses,theymemorisedthe
^directions of certain rising and setting
stars in order to find their bearings.
SO SIMPLE An example
I of akamal, with acarved S O U T H PA C I F I C
o
mahogany transom and Atypical canoe used by
knotted cord. sailors in the South Seas.

u
L

ELFW ^r^NS A:^:^ SIGHTINGS degree of the pole) also provided auseful means G L O S S A R Y

The simplest form of celestial navigation relies on of calculating bearings in the days before the Almanac: Ahandbook

of navigational data,
these locational changes alone. By using a magnetic compass was invented.
such as positions of the
measuring device of some sort to find the Amore versatile, though slightly more complex, Sun, Moon, planets and
stars, used for celestial
elevation of acelestial pole, it’s easy to work out alternative is to take a“sighting” on the altitude
navigation.
one’s latitude on Earth. The direction of the pole of an object crossing the meridian -its highest
(conveniently marked in the northern hemisphere point in the sky. The object’s elevation in the sky Angular separation:
Also known as “angular
by the bright star Polaris, which lies within half a is then asimple combination of its position on distance”, this is the
angle measured from
apoint on Earth (the
observer) between two
celestial objects.

Navigational star:
Any one of 57 bright
and distinctive stars

whose details are widely

published in navigational
almanacs.

LINES OF POSITION
Modern celestial
navigation relies on
the concept of the Line
of Position (LOP). By
measuring the elevation
of two objects in the sky,
anavigator can calculate
their distance from each

object's subpoint. After

calculating the location of
the subpoints at the time
of observation, this places
their vessel on two LOPs,
and at one of two possible
intersection points.
REFLECTING SKILLS
Naval students in 1966
learn to ascertain the
altitude of the sun using
asextant.
W O O D E N O C TA N T T h i s
instrument dated c.1750
was later replaced by
the sextant in the second
half of the 18th century.
S PA C E S TA R S
NEVILLE MASKELYNE (1732-1811)
LIFE SAVER Maskelyne’s lunar
distance tables helped save many
lives at sea.
-<
O
CO
O
CO
-<
CO
■ s
o
a
m
■■ ■f'
0
z
the celestial sphere and the observer’s latitude. In FINDING LONGITUDE
<
daytime, asighting on the Sun at midday can offer Calculating longitude at sea is far more complex than
o
similar information, though the Sun’s own shifting working out latitude. Almanacs publish the directions
position in the sky means that anavigator must of stars at certain times, but since local time changes
consult an almanac (see Glossary) for its position as one moves around the world, anavigator must
o
on agiven date. These methods are particularly have an accurate timepiece in order to know which
□ □
valuable in the southern hemisphere, where there almanac entry to use. Such instruments were not - <
is no bright pole star. developed until the mid-1700s and were at first too
expensive, so other methods had to be used instead. m
0 0
LUNAR DISTANCE TABLES
>
The most popular of these was the “lunar distance’’ 7 0
CO
eville Maskelyne was a method. This used accurate predictions of the Moon’s
N talented astronomer and
angular separation (see Glossary) from other celestial
m a t h e m a t i c i a n , a n d B r i t a i n ’ s fi f t h
objects to tell the time. Lunar distances could reveal
Astronomer Royal. An enthusiastic
advocate of the lunar distance the time with surprising accuracy. By the time Neville
method, he was also involved in Maskelyne had compiled suitably accurate tables (see
supervising agovernment contest Space Stars), the octant and sextant were available for
t h a t o f f e r e d £ 2 0 , 0 0 0 t o t h e fi r s t
use by navigators. Both used asystem of mirrors to
person to come up with an accurate
overlay the image of one object onto another,
method for calculating longitude
at sea. Maskelyne seems to have
compensating for aship’s rolling movement and
gone to great lengths to belittle the allowing far more precise measurements between
chronometer method pioneered by objects relative to the horizon.
clockmaker John Harrison.
Anavigator typically took alunar distance
Although Harrison’s measurement and an elevation measurement for
chronometers proved more
aknown “navigational star’’ (see Glossary) in rapid
accurate, Maskelyne’s work in
succession. He then referred to his almanac and
developing usable tables of lunar
distances provided acheap and tables of pre-calculated values in order to find his
reasonably accurate alternative location, compensating where possible for the
that undoubtedly saved many lives. ship’s movement in the time that it took to make
the calculations.
-(?
 c n
bright rings are only afew hundred metres thick.
This means that they grow thinner and narrower
O
m
before eventually disappearing completely for a >
few months through all but the most powerful INIame Dist. From Saturn’s centre Particle size
telescopes. This changing appearance proved Dring 66,900-74.510km micrometres CO
something of apuzzle to early astronomers Cring 74.658~92.000km millimetres

trying to figure out Saturn’s true shape (see Bring 9 2 , 0 0 0 - 11 7 , 5 8 0 k m 5-1 Om CO

Cassini Divison
Breakthroughs).
Aring 122,170-136,775km centimetres m
Fring 139,970-140.470km millimetres
UP CLOSE millimetres
Gring 170,000-175,000km
Even though the basic structure of the rings was Ering 181,000-483,000km micrometres o
established by the 1660s, there were still
problems. Most significant was Saturn’s gravity.
a
Since like all gravitational fields it diminished confirmed Maxwell’s theories, they also revealed m
rapidly with distance from its source, differences in unexpected complexity in the rings. Each major
gravity between the inner and outer edges would ring proved to consist of countless fine ringlets
rapidly tear the rings apart if they were the broad, whose varying brightness and transparency were
0
CO
solid structures they appeared to be. presumably due to differences in the size or >
It took James Clerk Maxwell, one of the geniuses composition of the particles within them. Fine
of Victorian mathematics and physics (see Space wave-like ripples and radial “spokes” spread out 7 ^

Stars), to explain what was really happening. The across the ringlets, coming and going in amatter
C O
rings, he reasoned, were made of countless tiny of hours. Even the hitherto empty Cassini division
7 ^
particles, each following its own circular orbit THE BRING This view turned out to have four fine ringlets within it.
above Saturn’s equator. This allowed particles from above the Bring (?)
farther out to orbit at their natural speeds, moving shows amarked SHEPHERDS C O

difference in brightness
more slowly than those closer to the planet thanks between the near and far
The same probes that shed new light on the rings
to the slightly weaker gravity there. arms (bottom and top of
also discovered ahost of new small satellites

Although the first space probe flybys of Saturn the image). around Saturn. Many of these tiny moons orbit
within and around the rings, and some act as
shepherds” that keep the narrower rings in line.
BREAKTHROUGHS Most famous are Prometheus and Pandora that

V DISCOVERING THE RINGS /

A {though Galileo Galilei’s early telescopes were enough to tell him.

around 1610, that there was something “wrong” about Saturn’s
ishape, they did not have the magnifying power to reveal the true
structure of the rings. Early suggestions of the planet’s shape included
Iapair of giant satellites and even mug handle shapes on either side. |
jThingsgotevenmoreconfusingwhenSaturn’sringswentedge-onto|
iEarth in 1612, and disappeared from sight. It was only in 1659 that
the mystery was solved, when Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens
Ibuilt atelescope powerful enough to bring clarity to the ring. In 1675
Italian-French astronomer Giovanni Cassini confirmed the discovery bv
^finding the Cassini Division running between the Aand Brings.

THE GAP
ICassini’s sketch,
If made in 1676
F| ayear after its
n d i s c o v e r y, w a s
Ithe fi r s t to show

ithe gap between

Ithe rings -now
jknown as the
Cassini Division.
 /j^ SPACE STARS G L O S S A R Y
Resonant orbits; Orbits
W J A M E S C L E R K M A X W E L L ( i s :3 1 - 1 8 7 9 ) in which the rotation

periods are related to

each other by asimple
Scottish
mathematician
Maxwell was agiant of and
physicistJames
19th-century Clerk
science, best
fraction, so that the
objects in question
known for developing important equations that describe frequently return to the
electromagnetism and thermodynamics. After studying at t- j ■ s a m e p o s i ti o n r e l a t i v e t o
■ ^ -

the Universities of Edinburgh and Cambridge, he became e a c h o t h e r.

Professor of Natural Philosophy at Aberdeen University at

only 25. It was here in 1857 that he turned his attention to
the nature of Saturn’s rings, amystery that had long puzzled
astronomers, and which had now been made the subject of a
r
£130 prize offered by St. John’s College, Cambridge.
Maxwell successfully proved that the rings could not be a
solid plane or asheet of orbiting liquid, but must be made
instead of countless smaller fragments that he called “brick¬
L i
bats”. George Biddell Airy, then Astronomer Royal, described
Maxwell’s work as “one of the most remarkable applications
of mathematics to physics that Ihave ever seen.”

circle Saturn just inside and outside the Fring. The
newly discovered shepherd moons and countless
hypothetical smaller moonlets offered agood
explanation for the fine structure in the rings. They
would have adirect influence in stopping ring
of particles within the rings -these proved to
range from boulders the size of houses down to
pebbles and fine dust (see Inside Info).
CASSINI PROBE

particles from straying into orbits that might cross
theirs. They could also have aindirect influence by
keeping “resonant” orbits within the ring system
(see Glossary) free. In this way, they could play a
similar role to the one Jupiter plays in clearing out
the “Kirkwood gaps” in the asteroid belt (see s s u e
18, page 7).
Instruments carried on the Voyager probes
confirmed that Saturn’s rings were made largely
of ice (frozen chemicals of various kinds, but
The arrival of the Cassini probe at Saturn in 2004
revealed even more detail in the rings. Unlike its
predecessors, this probe is capable of
photographing large individual fragments within
the rings. Cassini has begun to explain some of the
S AT U R N ' S S H A D O W T h e
more mysterious ring features: the wave-like shadow of the gas giant
ripples; the “spokes” (which seem to be small dust stretches completely
clouds that briefly hover above the ring plane); and across the rings in this
mosaic of 36 Cassini
the tiny “propellers” (clearings in the rings where images, taken over two
smaller particles avoid larger moonlets). Cassini’s and half hours on 19

dominated by water). They also revealed the size cameras have also discovered hundred-metre long January 2007.

HOW IT WORKS

^HOW TO BUILD ARING SYSTEM

stronomers think that most ring
A systems form when asatellite in
orbit around aplanet breaks up into
fragments. It’s not quite enough just
to disintegrate, however; the satellite
has to do so with enough force to
planet. Because the random orbits
cross over each other, they make
collisions more likely -especially
between particles moving in generally
opposite directions.
Such collisions will tend to cancel

scatter its fragments around the
orbit of the parent body.
At first, the particles spread out
into orbits that range from ellipses
to true circles, and have avariety of
tilts. The overall result is adoughnut¬
shaped halo of fragments around the
out motions upward and downwards,
or towards and away from the planet.
The result is that the fragments are
jostled into regular circular orbits,
following the plane of the original
I M PA C T s h a t t e r s
moon’s orbit, where collisions are
kept to aminimum.
1 medium-sized
moon orbiting Saturn.
 clumps of material caused by smaller particles
forming short-lived clusters. These clumps are
thought to play acrucial role in recycling the ring
particles and keeping their appearance fresh.
Meanwhile, since the 1970s astronomers have
discovered ring systems around all three of the
solar system sother giant planets. Each of these
lesser systems is different from all the others, and
establishing the relationship between them has
been achallenge (see this issue’s Space Science).

[NEXT: SATURN HAS AT LEAST 60 MOONS. FBSIO OtfT |

ABOUT THESE STRANGE AND VARIED UITIB WCffttiJS..

M:.

SEE-THROUaH This

image, taken in June

2007, shows that when
viewed from the unlit
side of the planet, all bar
the Bring appear
transparent.

collisions and

gravitational

RING system
b e c o m e s fl a t

shaped ring. particles into ring plane. them into circular orbits. a n d c i r c u l a r.
VOYAGER 1 >

at
i

Following on from the introductory look at the Voyager

missions in Issue 1, it's time to see what happened
when the first spacecraft encountered Saturn.

aunched after its sister craft, by those of Voyager 2. It did, Jupiter's and the Sun's, the lower
Voyager 1travelled on a however, collect much useful and quantity of helium in the upper
faster trajectory. Having groundbreaking data, such as the atmosphere probably indicates that
flown byjupiter on 5March 1979, fact that Saturn's upper atmosphere this heavier gas is slowly sinkin;
i t fl e w o n a r e n d e z v o u s through the planet s
I
with the ringed gas hydrogen.
I Before the first
giant, swooping down ■ I

G L O S S A R Y
to within 124,000km of Voyager encounter, Heliosphere: The
Saturn’s cloud tops on astronomers believed huge bubble of
'^itientiEh^y Carters the Voyager discs
12 November 1980. that Saturn had 11 electrically
charged particles
Although Pioneer 11 had already comprises 93 per cent hydrogen moons. (Now they know that it blown off the Sur

taken photos of Saturn a y e a r and 7per cent helium. Given that has at least 60 and possibly more.) and pre s i n g u p
against matter
earlier ~Voyager 1captured far the internal atmospheric balance Images collected by Voyager 1 from other stars.

more data and much sharper was expected to be closer to allowed scientists to discover the

images of the beautiful ringed

world. But since it was equipped
with lower resolution cameras
^ S AT U R N 3
than its sister craft, Voyager I’s
images of the colour contrasts and
□
n e o f t h e f e w f e a t u r e fi l m s t o b e s e t

differences of Saturn and its rings, on Saturn, this movie stars Kirk
Douglas and Farrah Fawcett as acouple
although useful, were surpassed a n existence
 bow shock -caused
termination shock
by heliosphere hitting -solar wind slows to
interstellar matter
subsonic speed
p— heliosphere
THE SYSTEM

Amontage of
Saturn and its
moons assembled
l/oyager 1
from images
taken by the
Voyager 1probe.

MILESTONES
Heading away
from the solar
system, Voyager
1passes the
termination
shock, the
heliosphere and
the bow shock.

As aresult of the earlier discovery
of athick atmosphere on Titan,
Voyager controllers chose to make
aclose approach to the giant moon.
Titan turned out to be blanketed
ending its Grand Tour. Past Saturn,
the craft headed out of the solar
system to investigate the heliosphere
(see Glossary), It is still returning
measurements of solar wind.

with athick, orange atmosphere, As of July 2007, Voyager 1was at

composed primarily of nitrogen not
as previously thought, methane.
The choice to visit Titan put
Voyager 1on atrajectory that gave
it agravity assist to send it out of
the plane of the planets effectively
adistance of 15.4 billion kilometres
from the Sun. And, thanks to the
nuclear generators that power it, it
is anticipated that the spacecraft will
continue to communicate with Earth
until at least 2020.

three inner moons: Atlas, which

AVo y a g e r 1 is about 40 x20km and orbits
mission controller
monitors the near the outer edge of Saturn’s
spacecraft during light-coloured, outer, Aring;
its encounter
with Saturn.
Prometheus, which shepherds the
inner edge of the dark-coloured,
outer, Fring and is about 140 x100
X80km; and Pandora, which is the
outer shepherd of the Fring and is
110 X90 X80km in size.

1
 [1] LOOKING DOWN
This mosaic of 27 Cassini

images captured 1.6

million kilometres above

the gas giant, shows

Saturn's rings from above
-the planet itself has
been removed for the

sake of clarity.

[2] EVIDENCE OF ICE

This image, produced
from data captured by
Cassini's Ultraviolet

Imaging Spectrograph
shows "dirty" red interior
rings, surrounded by
denser ice shown in

turquoise.

[3] LOOKING UP
This view, taken
with Cassini's

narrow-angle
camera, looks
up towards the
lit side of the

rings, from J
below. J

I
[2]
f

,'i

1-

W'
%
II

I
I i

f
I

12

I
r

RINGS OF ICE
The best views of Saturn's
>
o
m

O
>

rings have come courtesy of

Cassini but there were some
heart-stopping moments on
its arrival at the planet. 1

C assini arrived at Saturn on 1July 2004.

The time taken to communicate with
mission controllers on Earth meant that

the spacecraft was flying autonomously. Worryingly

the probe had to make acritical manoeuvre,
slowing down sufficiently to be captured by the
planet’s gravity and enter an orbit around it.
This was achieved first by flying close to the
ringed giant, making a10 minute turn to face in
the reverse direction, then firing its engine for 96
minutes to slow to 626m/sec. To get close enough,
though, Cassini needed to fly through the wispy
outer ring.
It approached from below the ring plane, then 4] NIGHT SIDE [5] PACKED RINGS
crossed through the large gap between the Fring This Cassini image shows This false-colour image
and the Gring, emerging into Saturn’s orbit to the night side of the created from data
planet with its shadow captured by Cassini,
capture the most spectacular images ever seen.
cast across the rings. shows the varying
The tiny dot on the far density of material, from
left is the small moon the sparse blue to the
Epimethus. closely packed yel l o w .
 V

ML

[61 INSIDE THE RINGS This artist's impression shows the view of aspacecraft flying just above Saturn's Bring. Sitting in the middle of the ring
system, this 25,500km-wide ring is the largest, brightest and most massive of the rings but is estimated to be from just five to ten metres thick.
 >
o
m

G)
>
r
m
7 3

O
CO

The ring consists of house-sized ice boulders, which clump together, blocking over 99 per cent of the light passing through some parts of it.
The rest of the ring system can be seen looping around to the sepia clouds of the gas giant on the left-hand side.
MIGHTY
SCOPES
Two mighty telescopes built on different continents
nearly three quarters of acentury apart helped to
answer some of the greatest mysteries of deep space.

stronomers William from scratch, as earlier telescope 4TH EARL Lord

A Parsons and George Ellery

Hale were divided by
nationality, an ocean and alifetime.
builders had taken their knowledge
to the grave. He developed his own
mirrors, tubes and mountings. For
Posse's

Lawrence
son

Parsons, also an
a s t r o n o m e r.

But they had one thing in common. the mirror he experimented with pictured at the
mouth of the Jf
They built huge telescopes. speculum”, an alloy of bronze (tin Leviathan with a
and copper), developing asteam- friend and
19th-century giant powered grinder to give it the G e r m a n

astronomer Otto
Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse, (see required curvature. B o e d d i c k e r.
Space Stars: Lord Rosse) of Birr His first major telescope.
Castle, Ireland, was forced to work completed in 1839, had a91cm L E V I AT H A N

The giant
that
 H
S PA C E S TA R S
cloudy Irish climate made viewing
X
LORD ROSSE naao-iaB?] difficult In addition, the mirror
m
soon tarnished and had to be
CO
illiam Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse, was replaced by aback-up while it was
w educated privately at home, leaving cleaned. The viewer also stood at
the estate only at 18 to study at Oxford o
University, gaining first-class honours in an unnerving height. But in spite
mathematics. At the age of 24, he became of these gripes, the telescope gave -<
amember of the Royal Astronomical Society. exceptional views. Danish-born
He was already working on improved astronomer John Dreyer (1852-
o
telescope designs, describing his 1926), of Armagh Observatory,
experiments on grinding and polishing
used the telescope to produce his >
telescope mirrors in the Edinburgh Journal CO
of Science in 1828. He published all that New General Catalogue of Nebulae I
he learned from constructing his great and Clusters of Stars (1888).
telescopes so that others could follow his O
example -and design better ones.

O
mirror cast in the castle grounds. “Leviathan” was completed in 1845, M51 This

It was supported in aframe and illustration by

having taken three years to design Lord Rosse was
rotated on acircular track to view

all parts of the sky. With 900 times

and build at acost of £12,000 (£1
million today). The main 183cm
based on his
observations with
0
the Leviathan.
magnification, this was the world’s mirror weighed three tonnes and the
C)
most powerful telescope. The telescope was held in an iron frame

CCthis instrument...discovers amultitude of new

H
OBJECTS AT EVERY POINT ON [THE MOON’Sl SURFACE.” m

m
Dr. Thomas Robinson of Armagh Observatory
0 0
VIEWING NEBULAE
G L O S S A R Y O
Lord Rosse made meticulous
Spectroscopic ^ O
" D
Dumbbell Nebula (M27) and the supported between 15m reinforced analysis: drawings of all his observations. He m
Investigating the _ named Charles Messier ’s first
Great Nebula (M31) in Andromeda walls. The movement was controlled nature of the Sun
0 0

were fuzzy blobs no longer. Yet Lord by achain and pulley, worked by and stars from sighting. Ml, the Crab Nebula. He
Rosse knew he could do better. two assistants with acrank handle. the wavelengths ^ could now see that the M51 nebula
of light they emit, i:
His next telescope, the 17m Unfortunately, the damp. (Whirlpool Galaxy) had spiral arms

L E V I AT H A N R I S E S A G A I N
he Leviathan was rebuilt at Birr castle between
T 1996 and 1998. The original main walls were
still in place but needed major repair. Little else of .
the earlier telescope remained, so project engineer
Michael Tubridy spent two years researching all the
historical records, contemporary photographs and a
model at the Science Museum, before attempting to
draw up plans.
One find was the original universal joint, sturdy m

enough to support the telescope -150 years after

it was manufactured. Modern refinements include g
mirrors made of light, non-tarnishing aluminium. ■
The new version is also electrically powered and S
computer controlled. ® i£3S5SSSIS£SSSSSSSSSSS

L E V I AT H A N T h e r e s t o r a t i o n w a s
I
completed in 1998.
L
 MOUNT WILSON
Builders
working on the
construction of
the Snow Solar
Telescope pillars
in 1904.

i t f f

STAR STRUCK SCIENTIST volunteer assistant at Harvard

George Ellery Hale (see Space College Observatory, where he

Stars: George Ellery Hale) was born carried out spectroscopic analysis
HOOKER PA RT S in Chicago eight months after Lord (see Glossary).
The centre
Rosse’s death. His passion for In 1890, Hale’s wealthy father
section of the
2.5m Hooker astronomy grew from the moment set up the Kenwood Astrophysical
telescope leaves he received his first telescope, a Observatory near their home,
the Pasadena lOcm refractor, at the age of 14. appointing his son director and
workshop on
board atruck for
After graduating from with Ferdinand Ellerman as

Mount Wilson Massachusetts Institute of assistant. Seven years later. Hale

in 1917. Technology, Hale worked as a founded Yerkes Observatory, in

■
WGEORGE ELLERY HALE (1868-1938)

sing his own invention, the spectroheliograph,

and was “pretty well studded with
stars”. He also realised many
“nebulae” were disc-shaped spirals
that, from Earth, were being
viewed edge-on.
Sadly, after the 3rd Earl’s death.
Leviathan fell into disuse and
was later dismantled. But, thanks
to private donations and public
grants, it has since been recreated
(see Inside Info).
uGeorge Ellery Hale discovered that sun spots had
their own magnetic fields. However, Hale is better
known for founding observatories and for supporting
other pioneering astronomers than for his own m
discoveries. ■t
Hale persuaded Chicago streetcar magnate Charles
Yerkes to finance the building of Yerkes Observatory,
and went on to found Mount Wilson and Hale Solar
Observatories. But his greatest achievement was to
establish the science of astrophysics, the study of
the physical and chemical properties of stars, and
m
not just their brightness and motion.
HALE This American astronomer was
the driving force behind the Mount
Wilson observatories.
 TECHNOLOGY

m
CO
H
he mighty Hooker Solar Telescope had
T a2.5m mirror housed in a45m tower. o
The mirror was paid for by hardware TO
millionaire John Hooker, and the rest by -<
philanthropist Andrew Carnegie.
In 1919, Albert Michelson, using an
O
“T1
optical interferometer attached to the
H o o k e r, m e a s u r e d t h e s i z e a n d d i s t a n c e o f >
stars with aprecision never before achieved. CO
Later, Edwin Hubble, assisted by the I
ex-cowboy spectroscopy wizard, Milton
H u m a s o n , i d e n t i fi e d t h e t r u e n a t u r e o f O
galaxies and confirmed that the universe
was expanding -again thanks to the
Hooker. In 1948, though, the Hooker O
was superseded by the five-metre Mount
Palomar Telescope, built in San Diego -with
the help of George Ellery Hale.

0
HOOKER This 2.5m telescope,
built In 1917, was the world’s
largest until 1948.

Wisconsin, and assembled ateam signed a99-year-lease on the site HALE'S 1.5M

Built in 1908, this

of astronomers, including Ellerman.
He had greater ambitions, however.
SOUTHERN OBSERVATORY
Hale joined an advisory committee
of the Carnegie Institution, set up
by steel millionaire Andrew
Carnegie, to discuss building anew
southern observatory. One possible
site was Mount Wilson, in the San
Gabriel Mountains, California.
and began moving staff from Yerkes. Mount Wilson
Hale spent £27,000 of his own instrument is still
money before Carnegie agreed to in use today.
fund the work. This was ahuge task
involving the building of massive
stone piers and living quarters,
called the “monastery”. It took 60
trips by mule train just to deliver the
telescope parts.
HALE TELESCOPE

Harvard College Observatory had The first to be installed was the

based atelescope there but Snow Solar Telescope, brought from

abandoned the site after severe Yerkes. The team was soon making
w e a t h e r. discoveries about the Sun’s

Conditions were primitive. To magnetic field. But they needed

reach the 1740m plateau at the something bigger.
top, involved astrenuous hike or The next telescope to be built
precarious mule ride up asteep at Mount Wilson had a1.5m glass
1.2m-wide dirt track. Hale climbed up reflector. The mirror had been

to see for himself and was impressed.
Atmospheric conditions trapped
clouds and dust lower down, making
viewing ideal. Hale lobbied to have
the observatory built there.
Without waiting for an answer,
commissioned for the original
Mount Wilson Observatory before
that project closed. With its 18m
tower, completed in 1908, the Hale
Telescope became the largest in
the world —but that too would be

he moved his family to Pasadena, eclipsed (see Technology).


CETUS
fourth-largest
Although
theCetus
is constellation, it only contains afew objects of
interest to amateur astronomers. Its brightest
star, Beta Ceti (known as Deneb Kaitos or Diphda), is
only of second magnitude. Cetus’ most recognisable
feature is aloop of stars forming the monster’s head.
This loop includes its second-brightest star. Alpha Ceti
or Menkar, ared giant with an unrelated 6th-magnitude
companion that can be seen in binoculars.
S TA R O F W O N D E R
In the sea monster’s neck lies an outstanding feature
of Cetus -the first variable star (see Glossary) to be
discovered, other than novae. This is Omicron Ceti,
better known as Mira, meaning “wonderful o r
“amazing”, aname given to it in the 17th century by
the Polish astronomer Johannes Hevelius.
ORIGINAL Mira,
one of the most
famous variable
stars in the Milky
Way, seen here
just above
centre In the
night sky.
Agrotesque sea monster emerges from
the watery deep in the latter part of the
year. This menacing creature is Cetus,
which features in the famous myth of
Perseus and Andromeda.
S E A’ M O N S T E R
etus represents the sea monster to which Princess
c Andromeda was sacrificed as punishment for the vanity of
her mother, Queen Cassiopeia. Fortunately, Perseus happened
to be passing on his way back from having decapitated
Medusa the Gorgon. He swooped down and stabbed the
gruesome creature
to death with his
sword. In the sky
the monster is
depicted with its
fore feet immersed
in the river Eridanus,
aneighbouring
constellation.
Mira is an enormous red giant star hundreds of
times the size of the Sun. It pulsates in size and
brightness, becoming as bright as third or even
second magnitude every 11 months or so, but
dipping to 9th or 10th magnitude in between.
Many long-period variables of this kind are now
known, and are collectively termed Mira stars after
this, their prototype.
Closer to the monster’s head lies the spiral galaxy i
M77, presented face-on to us and visible as arounded
glow with abright centre in small to moderate-sized
telescopes. M77 is in fact the brightest example of a
class of galaxies with active nuclei called Seyfert
galaxies, after the American astronomer Carl Seyfert
who discovered them in the 1940s. Seyfert galaxies
are now known to be relatives of quasars. As in all
such objects, the energy at the nucleus comes from a
disk of hot gas swirling around acentral black hole, so
here is agood chance to see ablack hole in action.
Planetary rings are graceful and spectacular
adornments to all the giant planets -but
how do they keep their shape, and where
do they come from?
ach of the solar system s simply have been absorbed into
major ring systems is their moons as they formed.
distinctly different from the Instead each ring system
COLOUR CODED
others: Saturn’s ring system consists must have been born from the
The water ice
of spectacular broad planes of highly disintegration of alarger object, particles in some
reflective ice; Uranus’ of thirteen fine whose particles gradually spread of Saturn's rings
out into concentric circular orbits, are shaded by an
hoops of darker material; Neptune’s
unknown type
of just three narrow strands with flattening out into aplane in order of dirt. Thinner

obvious clumps in them; and to avoid collisions with one another. rings also tend to
b e d a r k e r.
Jupiter’s of scattered, dust-like
particles in doughnut-shaped discs. RING EVOLUTION
Astronomers are still arguing Before the Cassini mission arrived
R I N G E D
over where these systems came at Saturn, scientists argued that URANUS Uranus
from, and how old they are. One Saturn’s icy rings must be surrounded by its
thing they know for certain is that reasonably young because dark rings. Also
in view are afew
they did not form at the same otherwise they would have been
of the planet's 17
time as the planets themselves dimmed by dust accumulated from known satellites.

-otherwise the ring material would tiny meteorites floating through

A S PA C E S TA R S
space. The fact that the rings have
WLARRYESPOSITO many large fragments even though
they are steadily ground up by
arry Esposito, Professor of Astrophysical
L and Planetary Sciences at the University
these meteorite impacts was also
o f C o l o r a d o , i s o n e o f t h e w o r l d ’s f o r e m o s t strong evidence that the rings had
experts on planetary rings. He has worked as only formed recently.
an investigator on several NASA space probes The theory, then, was that a
since the 1970s. While analysing data from newly formed ring system looked
P i o n e e r 11 , h e d i s c o v e r e d S a t u r n ’ s fi n e o u t e r
rather like Saturn’s, with broad
Fring. He is currently Principal Investigator
planes of fresh, icy material.
for Cassini’s Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph.
Over hundreds of millions of

S PA C E D E T E C T I V E
years, the incessant grinding
effect of collisions between the
Doctor Larry Esposito,
discoverer of Saturn’s ¥ particles and bombardment with
elusive Fring. micrometeorites would pulverise
the particles. The smallest particles
/

CO
when the Cassini probe showed refreshes the exposed material
: u
unexpected variation among the and keeps Saturn’s rings bright. >
major rings of Saturn -not only did G L O S S A R Y If this theory is correct, then the o
Occultation: An
they consist of particles with very planetary ring systems were created m
event in which
different sizes, but they appeared one astronomical from impact-shattered satellites CO
to have very different ages. So object appears shortly after their planets formed. O
to pass in front
had the rings formed from aseries of another as
And it is the scale of these initial
m
of collisions, perhaps every few seen from the catastrophes that still governs the
observer ’s point
hundred million years, or was appearance of the rings some four
o f v i e w. O
something else happening? And billion years later. m
how could this be related back to

the ring systems of other planets? 0

7 D

PROBING THE RINGS

O
Another Cassini discovery may offer
C O
asolution to the problem. Saturn’s - <
C O
rings turned out to contain larger
amounts of material than expected. m

According to Larry Esposito of C O

the University of Colorado (see \

would gradually drift towards the
planet, and eventually fall into its
atmosphere. Afew prominent
ringlets might survive for awhile,
shepherded into place by small
moons, and looking similar to those
around Uranus and Neptune. But,
finally, even these would be ground
down to nothing, leaving only
sparse planes of fine dust particles
such as those around Jupiter.
This elegant theory came unstuck
BREAKTHROUGHS
RECYCLING IN THE RINGS
Space Stars), the denser packing of
material in the rings allows them to
reflect more light, so their surfaces
no longer have to be quite such
pristine ice.
Alongside this, aprocess of
continuous recycling in the rings
could mean that the darkening
effect of micrometeorite impacts is
spread out across more material.
The repeated formation and break¬
up of small moonlets within the
ring system (see Breakthroughs)
THICK AND
THIN Neptune's
rings, composed
of rock and dust,
vary in both

□
ne valuable way for scientists to study the clumps made out of smaller boulders. The team thickness and
structure of ring systems is to observe what gave them cat names including Mittens and Fluffy, density.
happens when they pass in front of astar, causing since they came and went at random and appeared
its light to flicker on and off. These events, called to have multiple lives.
occultations (see Glossary), allowed Earthbound
astronomers to discover the rings of Uranus and
Neptune. But when observed from Cassini they
revealed details of the particle sizes in Saturn’s
rings.
As astar passed behind Saturn’s narrow Fring. MITTENS FOUND
m i
Prof. Larry Esposito (see Space Stars) and his This artist’s

colleagues observed 13 separate occultations,

and the period of each disappearance revealed
impression shows
aview from Cassini p i
during the star
that they were caused by objects ranging between occultation that
27m and 10km in size. Most intriguingly, the detected “Mittens”,
larger objects still allowed some of the star’s the small object to
light through, indicating that they were short-lived the right of the star.
COMING UP IN ISSUE 28
48-TOOTH GEAR S E L F TA P P I N G
SCREWS

^ILDAMODEL
Olar
system
APRECISION-engineered c
28)
orrery

WORLDS
APART
SATURN'S
INNERMoons
Some a

pitted irv
'tD,ICYorVOLCANIC
.4

PLANET sSlNDLt^V
PLUS
W/ITH
THIS
ISSUE: " 8 - t o o t h /«■ ■

PLASTIC WASHERS

!Saturn has 60 known satellites. !Frozen volcanoes and lava-like ice.

This issue we take atrip around the Find out more when we examine
ringed planet’s inner moons. cryovolcanism.

!Astrophotography -one of the Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,

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Some are SMALL, some

MISSHAPEN and others
PITTED, ICY or VOLCANIC

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9
FEATURES I M P O R TA N T
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kit. it must be assembled and handled
with care to prevent damage to its
parts, and stored or displayed safely to
ensure no parts are lost.
YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL !Never use liquids or solvents to clean
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3D An insight into the astrolabe -the compact and

the parts. For best care, use the
polishing cloth and dusting brushes
supplied with the toolkit {free to
result of incorrect assembly or
mishandling of the orrery. Please ensure ^j
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a

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\MISSIONS
In 1981, Voyager 2followed its twin craft, Voyager 1
to make agrand tour of Saturn and its moons.
#
V

MAGE GALLERY m

F e a s t y o iur eyes on anoth^e r stunninigselection of

space images - S a t u r n ' s i n n e r m o o n s .

«

THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

From the first moon images of 1840 to present day, CREDITS II i
we trace the development of astrophotography. IMAGES: FC Science Photo Print Collector, (be) Science Photo
Library/David AHardy/Futures: 50 Library, (br) Science Photo Library/
S TA R M A P Years in Space; 2-3 NASA/JPL- Royal Astronomical Society; 18-19
How to find the constellation of Taurus, home to the Caltech/Harvard-Smithsonlan CfA, (cl) TopFoto/HIP/Ann Ronan
beautiful star cluster Pleiades. (r) TopFoto/HIP/Britlsh Museum; Picture Library, (bl) Harvard
4-5 (tl) Wikimedia Commons, (tc) College Observatory Photo
R e x F e a t u r e s / A d a m W o o l fi t t / Collection, (tc) TopFoto/Alinari,
S PA C E S C I E N C E Robert Harding, (tr) TopFoto/HIP/ (cr) TopFoto/HIP/The Print
Cryovolcanism -frozen volcanic activity that reshapes British Museum, (bl) Pikaia Collector, (br) TopFoto/Roger-
landscapes in the worlds of the outer solar system. Imaging, (be) TopFoto/UPP, (br) Viollet; 20-21 (tl) Galaxy Picture
TopFoto; 6-7 (tl,bc,cr) NASA/JPL, Library/Michael Stecker, (bl,tr,bc)
(tr) Pikaia Imaging; 8-9 NASA/JPL; Pikaia Imaging, (br) NOAO/WIYN/
10-11 (tl,bl,lc,bc) NASA/JPL. (tc) NSF/NA Sharp/Jay Gallagher; 22-
Science Photo Library/Julian 23 NASA/JPL.

Baum, (br) NASA/Don Davis; 12-

13 (tl.bl.tr) NASA/JPL, (br) Science
Photo Library/David AHardy/
Futures; 50 Years In Space; 14-15
Science Photo Library/John REPRO; Stormcreative

Foster; 16-17 (I) New York Publishing Limited

University Archives, Photographic PRINTING: Century LItho (Truro)
Collection, (tr) TopFoto/HIP/The Limited

M®lDei DESIGNED m'O ...■ ^ : LOUIS CALMELS

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E N D O R S E D B Y; S I R PAT R I C K M O O R E C B E F R S
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WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
Keep, out of reach.of children. Keep this information for reference*
Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.
©Eaglemoss Publications (2008). All rights reserved.
 -<

GAN
o
d
PD
C O

ASTROLABES
PD
CO
-<
CO
I
m
The astrolabe combines aportable observing tool with
asophisticated astronomical calculator and skymap. Its
ability to calculate the positions of planets makes it a
close relation of your solar system model. O
U
m

nastrolabe is one of the most instantly T)

A recognisable astronomical instruments.
They have been used since ancient
times as aids to astronomy and astrology -only
m

m
O
falling from popularity in the 17th century. >

H
A S T R O L A B E A N AT O M Y >
0 0
The main element of an astrolabe is asolid disc
H
(often of brass) with araised rim divided into
O
degrees and sometimes marked with a24-hour
clock. Within this disc, known as the mater, sits a
UD
smaller plate, the tympanum, engraved with m
CO
radial lines and arcs of circles. This represents the
celestial sphere as seen from the observer’s
latitude on Earth.

Above this, and pivoted at the centre, sits a

frame called the rete. Most of the rete is pierced
and cut away to leave acircular inner frame
representing the path of the ecliptic (along which
the Sun and planets move around the sky), and
pointers to mark certain stars. Above the rete, a
swivelling bar, called the rule, marked in degrees
of celestial altitude, allows the user to mark the
position of any object with known co-ordinates.
These are the main features of any astrolabe
-the information engraved on the reverse side
tends to vary, but typically includes avariety
Al INSTRUMENT An
of tables, calculating aids and formulae. If the
inscription on the mater
astrolabe is fitted with an alidade for taking
disc of this astrolabe sightings of celestial objects, then the reverse is
suggests that it may also marked with agraduated scale for measuring
have belonged to
angles. The entire device is fitted with ahook or
Henry, Prince of
Wales (1594-1612). ring that allows it to be hung vertically.

- A
 norder for an astrolabe to work sky around asingle point (usually the
correctly, the positions of the north or south celestial pole). One big
stars, the ecliptic and the lines of advantage of this projection is that
the celestial sphere must be marked it preserves the angles between
onto the rete and tympanum with objects in the sky, and the
i
precision. general shape of the
Transferring star positions from constellations (although they
asphere onto aflat plane is not a tend to become distorted in I

trivial matter and requires some size at large distances from

\\
sophisticated geometrical the central point). The
calculations. So it’s little wonder stereographic projection still
that the ancient Greeks were the rlends its alternative name to

first to do it successfully. There the planisphere, the

astrolabe’s modern
is no right or wrong way to map
the stars, and several different V; e q u i v a l e n t .
projections” each have their own
advantages and disadvantages.
However, astrolabes typically used the PLANISPHERE This star chart is In
Stereographic or “planispheric” the form of two discs that rotate on a

projection, which projects the entire pivot, revealing the visible stars for any
time and any date.
L

‘horse’ PIECE BY PIECE This USING THE ASTROLABE

exploded diagram shows The main function of the astrolabe was as astar
the different pieces that
make up the astrolabe. map that allowed the prediction and timing of
r u l e
celestial events. The rete represents the spinning i

celestial sphere, while the lines on the tympanum \

below show how the sphere’s orientation aligns to

r e t e

the observer’s visible sky at any given moment. A

skilled user could tell when acertain object or
constellation would rise and set, and how it would
pass across the sky.
Meanwhile, the alidade on the reverse

tympanium
functioned much like the sight on aquadrant or
other simple measuring device. By hanging the
r
astrolabe vertically and looking at astar or other

support

7
7
m a t e r

RECORD BREAKER
alidade
This late 16th-century
astrolabe, made by
the Austrian Erasmus
Habermel, was auctioned
in 1995, at Christie's in
pin London, for arecord-
breaking £540,000.
 a
I

<
accurately telling
the time, at day or O
d
at night, and -very
7D
importantly for the
L D
setting of Islamic
prayers -allowed the O
time of sunrise to be

accurately predicted.
The ecliptic ring CO
on the rete was
-<
always divided into CO
the twelve signs of H
m
the zodiac, allowing
the astrolabe to be

used for astrological

purposes, and -just
PECULIAR POINTERS like your solar system model -the marker and
O
The Sloane Astrolabe
ecliptic ring together could be used to track the D
(top), circa 1300, is one m
of the earliest known positions of individual planets. r
European astrolabes. The Contacts between the philosophers of Moorish
star pointers for the rete
are mostly in the form of
Spain and their European counterparts introduced 0
the astrolabe to Europe in the 12th century, where
dog or dragon heads. m
it became atool for astronomers and astrologers m
for more than 500 years. O
Germany became acentre of astrolabe >
Z
ISLAMIC ASTROLABE manufacturing, and many ingenious variations H
This beautiful Iranian
were developed. However, the invention of the >
astrolabe (left) dates C O
back to 1485. It currently pendulum clock and more accurate measuring
celestial object along its sights (or looking in the lies in the Islamic Gallery devices in the late 17th century saw the astrolabe
of the British Museum. O
reverse direction at the shadow of the Sun), it relegated to little more than an attractive curiosity.
was possible to read off the tilt of the alidade w
S PA C E S TA R S
and hence the target object’s elevation in the sky. m
C O
Although the alidade was not terribly accurate, GEOFFREY CHAUCER (1343-1400)
it allowed measurements of elevation to within

about adegree. These could then be instantly
put to use with the rete and rule on the other
side, making the astrolabe acomplete portable
astronomical toolkit.
ASTROLABE HISTORY
While the map projections vital for the
astrolabe (see Inside Info) certainly originated
among the ancient Greeks, we don’t know
for certain who built the first astrolabe
N instruct the son of afriend, was
instrument. Some have suggested that the
Greek-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy built an
early astrolabe around ad150, but the first
V treatise on astrolabes themselves was Theon
of Alexandria’s work, almost 250 years later.
eoffrey Chaucer was probably the greatest early writer in the
G English language and author of the famous The Canterbury
Tales. Born in London in 1343 into afamily of vintners, he entered
service to the nobility and eventually became atrusted administrator,
envoy, and civil servant to the kings of England. Around 1391, in the
midst of writing The Canterbury
Tales, Chaucer appears to have
taken some time off to write his
Tr e a t i s e o n t h e A s t r o l a b e , t h e fi r s t
technical text to survive in English.
The treatise, probably written to
partly based on various foreign
books on the subject. But Chaucer
was no mere translator -he
displayed aclear understanding
of his subject, and astronomy in
general, throughout.

I
The earliest surviving instruments are T E C H N I C A L TA L E S
Arabic and date from the 10th century. The Geoffrey Chaucer, famous
astrolabe was clearly in widespread use author and astrolabe expert.

by this time and was apopular means of

SATURN'S INNER
MOONS
The innermost satellites of Saturn include
misshapen lumps of rock, aworld that
survived near-destruction and others
covered in icy geysers and volcanoes.

tthe last count, lumps of rock and ice afew tens of kilometres

A Saturn had 60
named

satellites -just three fewer

across, which orbit between and just beyond
Saturn’s famous rings. In order from the planet
they are Pan, Daphnis and Atlas (around the A
than Jupiter. Many of these are ring) and Prometheus and Pandora (on either side
tiny worlds in wildly eccentric orbits of the narrow Fring).
that are millions of kilometres from the Beyond the major rings lie two other
EPIMETHEUS planet itself. This is asure sign that they originated small moons that are particularly noteworthy
Aview of the southern
as small chunks of rock and ice following their own -Epimetheus and Janus. These two moons share
pole of Epimetheus, with
the remains of alarge
orbits around the Sun, and were only captured into almost exactly the same orbit, and are so small
impact. Scientists think Saturn’s system of moons later in their history. that they were only discovered in 1966. Janus was
this collision may have However, nearer to Saturn lie 22 worlds that have sighted first and Epimetheus afew months later,
been responsible for
far more complex and intriguing histories. but it was only in 1978 that astronomers realised
flattening the moon's
southern part. they were looking at two separate moons.
SMALL INNER MOONS At present, Janus orbits 50km closer to Saturn
The closest of these satellites to Saturn itself are than Epimetheus but, as aresult, it also completes
the so-called shepherd moons misshapen its orbit slightly faster. Every four years, as the

The first 12 of Saturn’s moons are Pan to Enceladus, discovered between 1789 and 2CD5:

N a m e Avg orbital radius Diameter TVpe

Pan 133,584km 3 5 x 3 5 x 2 3 k m A-ring shepherd
Daphnis 136,505km 7 k m A-ring shepherd
Atlas 137,670km 4 6 x 3 8 x 1 9 k m Airing shepherd
Prometheus 139,380km 11 9 x 8 7 x 6 1 k m F-ring shepherd
Pandora 141,720km 1 0 3 x 8 0 x 6 4 k m F-ringjshepherd
Epimetheus 151,422km 1 3 5 x 1 0 8 x 1 0 5 k m Co-orbital moon
Janus 151,472km 1 9 3 x 1 7 3 x 1 3 7 k m Co-orbitaLmoon
Mimas 185,404km 3 9 7 k m Major moon
Methone 194,440km 3 k m “Aikyonide” moon
Anthe 1 9 7 . 7 0 0 k m 2 k m "Alkyonide” moon
Pailene 212,280km 4 k m “Alkyonide” moon
Enceladus 237.950km 5 0 4 k m Major moon
 ( / )
S AT U R N A N D I N N E R M O O N S
o

Daphnis
M i m a s
CO
P a n d o r a
Enceladus
M e t h o n e

CO
J a n u s

P a t h e n e

%
/ \ 1| O

a
IEpimetheus m
P a n

0
P r o m e t h e u s lAnthe

A t l a s C O
>

C O

two moons close in on each other, their mutual INNER MOONS This

gravitational attraction slows the inner moon diagram highlights ::o

Saturn's collection of
down and pulls it outward, while the outer moon inner moons.

is accelerated and drifts inwards, until eventually O

the two have swapped places. This arrangement O
is unique in the solar system, although two of C O

the outer moons also have their own complex

relationships with smaller worlds in their orbits.

C R AT E R E D M I M A S

Saturn’s moons follow arough pattern in size, MIMAS The impact that
growing larger out to the orbit of Titan, then nearly destroyed Mimas
has clearly left its mark in
smaller once again. The first of the mid-sized the shape of the
moons, large enough to pull itself into aproper enormous Herschel

sphere, is Mimas. This world’s most striking crater.

feature is an enormous crater named Herschel

which dominates one entire hemisphere. With adiameter of 130km, Herschel is almost
one third the diameter of Mimas itself -so large
that it’s thought to be near the upper limit of
how big an impact can get relative to its target
without shattering its victim completely. Even on
the moon’s opposite hemisphere, huge fractures
seem to have formed in line with the crater rim.

The depth of the crater is 10km below the average

JANUS The irregular
shape of Janus can be
seen orbiting just below
Saturn's major rings.
surface, while mountainous peaks at its centre rise
to 6km above the surrounding plain.
Even apart from Herschel, Mimas is dominated
by craters -its position close to Saturn makes it
aprime target for impacts from objects pulled in
by its parent planet’s gravity. Despite this, Mimas’
 surface is not entirely saturated by impacts (like,
for example the surface of Jupiter smoon Callisto
-see Issue 25). This suggests Mimas was once
resurfaced by geological activity that wiped away
traces of many early craters and left apristine
surface on which new craters could continue

forming. This strange process, known as

“cryovolcanism”, is explained in this issue’s
m Space Science (see pages 22-23).
m
THE SNOWS OF ENCELADUS

Beyond Mimas, and past ahandful of

m recently discovered small moonlets, Saturn’s
K : next significant satellite is one of the most
Ifascinating and mysterious worlds in the
m
solar system. Even before space probes got
close enough to observe it in detail,
m m Enceladus gave away its unusual nature from
m
its brightness. It has abrilliant white surface
with ahigher albedo (see Glossary) than any
i other terrain in the solar system.
Because dust from meteorite impacts tends to
darken the landscape of any world over time, the
brightest surfaces tend to be those that have
formed most recently. And indeed, when Voyager 2
sent back the first detailed pictures of the surface.

ENCELADUS The long

fractures on this icy HOW IT WORKS
world are anotably
different colour (shown ^GEYSERS ON ENCELADUS
here in blue) to the
surrounding terrain.
A ccording to the most widely accepted model of Enceladus, the plumes that shoot water
molecules high into space above the moon with such force that they sometimes escape
its gravity entirely, originate in geysers like those on Earth.
Ageyser is areservoir of “superheated” water, kept liquid above its natural boiling point
because it is trapped in apressurised area underground. If the water can find aweak
point in the surface above it and break through to the atmosphere, it boils instantly and
violently, creating ahigh-speed
jet which arcs straight into the
water vapour and ice
air. On Earth, geysers require the
particles escapes
superheated water to be trapped at
‘tiger stripe’ of
fresh blue ice, pressurized water atemperature of 100°C or more,
,— vent to surface
at just above 0°C since this is the boiling point of
water under Earth’s atmospheric
pressure. On Enceladus, where
there is no significant pressure from
the atmosphere, the water merely
circulation
has to be in aliquid state, with a
current in i
- ice at around temperature of 0°C or slightly higher.
- 2 0 0 X

W AT E R P L U M E S T h e s e f e a t u r e s o n
compression I
from tidal forces
Enceladus are thought to be the result
Irock warmed of water that bursts through the surface
by tidal heating from superheated geysers.
 G L O S S A R Y CO
BREAKTHROUGHS

WTHROUGH THE PLUME

Albedo: Ameasure of the

brightness of aplanet or
o
other object, in terms of
!ttr! the percentage of sunlight >
hroughout 2005, Cassini’s spiralling
T path around Saturn resulted in several
it reflects back into space.
CO
II close encounters with Enceladus, allowing
scientists to study not just the moon, but CO
also the environment around it. Although
the first images of asuspected ice plume
ItUZ-. were returned in January and February, the
n
m discovery was kept quiet in case it turned out
SCi
to be an illusory phenomenon generated by o
m v.
■I ( u . lii Cassini’s cameras.

Meanwhile, magnetometer readings began

DAZZLING PLUME
tBack-lit by the sun,
afine spray of icy
tmaterial towers over the
south polar region of
Enceladus.
to build evidence for athin atmosphere around a
the moon, concentrated above its south pole. One 14 July, the probe
passed over the south pole at an altitude of just 168km, allowing
Cassini’s particle analysis experiments to detect acloud of water
vapour with traces of nitrogen, methane and carbon dioxide. Finally,
Cassini’s cameras captured an unambiguous image of aplume of
material rising above the moon’s edge during its November encounter.

Enceladus proved to have very few craters.
Close-up images from the Cassini orbiter have
shown the true variety of landscapes on Enceladus,
Most significantly, the entire surface is covered i n
ablanket of white snow that wipes out all but the
newest craters. Astronomers suspected this was how
the surface stayed bright, but the source of the snow
most other Saturnian moons, and aseparate rocky
core would certainly help to explain the source of
the moon’s internal heat. Another theory is that the
heating comes mostly from tidal forces. Lying at the
heart of such acomplex system of moons, Enceladus
is constantly tugged out of shape by the gravity of its
neighbours, in particular Dione one of the larger TIGER STRIPES As shown

huge plumes of escaping water -was not observed moons we shall be looking at in the next i s s u e . in this thermal map, heat
radiates from the long
until 2005 (see Breakthroughs). This discovery proved
that Enceladus must have an unusual interior which

though icy, is still warm enough to drive avariety of

geological activity.

ENCEIADUS IN ACTION
Several types of terrain seem to show where
different processes have been at work. The snow
plumes are concentrated around areas of blue, fresh
ice known as tiger stripes. Elsewhere some areas are
distinctly more cratered than others, suggesting that
snows have fallen on different parts of Enceladus at
different times in its history.
Smooth plains may be aresult of widespread
“eruptions” of ice or water onto the surface.
overwriting older terrain. Distinctive chasms
resembling Earth’s own geological faults, and
grooved terrain known as sulci (similar to those on
Jupiter’s moon Ganymede) appear to show where
tectonic activity has pulled parts of the crust in
different directions. This resulted in cracks through
which icy material has welled up to the surface.
Despite its outwardly icy appearance, Enceladus
appears to contain alarger proportion of rock than
 1

VOYAGER
at
Following in the path of its sister craft, Voyager
2encountered Saturn in August 1981, opening
our eyes to the wonders of the ringed giant and
several of its moons.

This

image was
chosen to provide close looks at
taken in August* several of the Saturnian moons,
1981 as the
including Enceladus, Tethys,
probe made a
flyby of lapetus
Hyperion, lapetus, Phoebe and
m at adistance of several others.
910,000km;ifc The spacecraft, atwin of the
"^411 L ,
Mariner-inspired Voyager 1, flew by
I
ft-..
Saturn's cloud tops at adistance of
100,800km and collected images
Is of jet streams and storms in the
atmosphere. It also took aclose
look at some of the ring features
m
V n r f 2 J s ' aturn was Voyager 2’s discovered by Voyager 1.
launched from second rendezvous in its
Cape Canaveral Grand Tour of the outer solar
on 20 August
1977 aboard system, taking advantage of arare During its encounter with Saturn,
& aTitan lll-E planetary alignment to visit Jupiter, Voyager 2developed aproblem
Centaur rocket. Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. with the steerable platform on
Si The flight path of the spacecraft which the optical instruments were
at Saturn was dictated largely by mounted. In spite of efforts to
the need to fly on to Uranus. The correct it. the fault meant that high
timing of the flight, however, w a s resolution data of Tethys and the
m W.
TECHNOLOGY

CAMERAS

Like
its
sister
two craft,
TV Voyager
cameras with2carries several
telephoto lenses.cameras,
Its scienceIncluding
package also
Ifeatures awide-angle camera with afocal length of 200mm, an
Iapertureoff/3.5andafieldofviewofabout3degrees.ThereIs
Ialso anarrow-angle camera with afocal length of 1500mm. an
aperture of f/8.5 and afield of view of less than Va®. With this
|| camera, objects as small as one kilometre In diameter can be
detected on asurface from adistance of 55,000km.

m;-\
 science objectives at Uranus could
This artist's
therefore be accomplished.
impression
illustrates the Power for the spacecraft,
Voyager 2 as on Voyager 1, is provided
spacecraft
through three nuclear generators.
making its Grand
Tour of Jupiter, Radioactive Plutonium-238 gives
Saturn, Uranus off heat as it decays and this heat
and Neptune. is converted into electricity. The
output of the generators, though <
falls off over time. o
r<
>
o
m
So, while at launch the output was
approximately 470 watts of 30 volts r o
DC, by the spring of 2008 (some 30 >.
years into the mission) it was just
t n
25 watts. Scientists estimate that
I T >
11 Voyager 2sincreasingly limited H
C
I instrument operations can be
carried out at least until 2020. Z
m
.■p\
'Edward C. Stone, Voyager Project Director Following successful flybys of
Uranus (24 January 1986) and
Neptune (25 August 1989), Voyager
rings was irrecoverably lost. This 2was renamed Voyager Interstellar
proved to be atechnical blip, Mission (VIM) and continues to
however. By the time Voyager 2 speed away from the Sun and out
reached Uranus, four and half years of the solar system.
S t
later, lubricant had worked its way By 7March 2008, it was 12.825
back. This allowed normal billion kilometres from Earth,
S s E operation to resume, albeit at a travelling at 58,000km/h and still
relatively slow speed. All the returning data.
B E

THE RINGS
Afalse-colour
image of
Saturn's rings, 31^
I
created from
data collected
by Voyager 2in
August 1981.

/ :

S AT U R N T h i s
illustration shows \

the Voyager 2
probe making its
closest approach
to the ringed
gas giant.
[1] OUT OF THE BLUE
Mimas drifts along on
its orbit against the blue
backdrop of Saturn's
northern hemisphere.
The dark lines are
shadows cast by
Saturn's rings.
[3] MIND THE GAP
T h e fl a t t e n e d m o o n
Prometheus glides
between Saturn's Aand
Frings. In this view.
Prometheus is on the
side of the rings closest
to the Cassini spacecraft.
[2]
[2J TWO MOONS
Positioned one degree
above the ring plane,
Cassini captures two
of Saturn's moons
-Epimetheus in the
distance and Enceladus
in the foreground.
[4] SATURN VIEW
Saturn looms large
behind the surface of
it's inner moon, Mimas.
On display is the moon's
most distinctive feature:
the colossal impact
crater, Herschel.
m-
 >

CD
>

■<

WORLDS within the

Cassini's tours of Saturn have
given us aprecious glimpse of
the moons that exist within the
planet's ring system.

veryone knew that Cassini would capture

Stunning views of Saturn -in the solar-
system “looks department” the ringed
planet wins hands down -but the images that
Cassini has so far returned to Earth, including
those featured on these pages, have surpassed
even the wildest expectations,
The many moons orbiting Saturn vary
enormously in size, age, origin and composition
mapping Saturn’s system, Cassini ’has given
scientists aunique insight into these strange
worlds, especially the inner satellites which are
often hard to observe from Earth due to their sma
size
and the glare from Saturn’s bright rings. These
moons are closely related to the planet’s ring
i n n e r

system, orbiting near the outer edge or within the

rings themselves, creating gaps or ringlets.
As Cassini’s images have revealed, these i n n e r

moons, though small, are hot just boring little

lumps of ice and rock. They are unique worlds
each with its own story to tell.
 ■l i

>

"Vca

;,1^!"‘ ^tt(0;>'‘
!' 'M
*

[5]

[5] ENCELADUS ERUPTS An artist's impression of the frozen landscape of Enceladus, abright and shiny moon that orbits Saturn. Enceladus
is known for its geological activity in the form of powerful geysers. These erupt from near surface pockets of water 0°C in temperature -hot
 >
o
m

>

compared to the moon's surface temperature of -200°C. In the distance, light from the Sun shines through icy particles emitted from the
geysers, forming ahalo effect in Enceladus' sky. Saturn c a n also be seen with its ring system edgeways on.
 PHOTOGRAPHING
the STARS
Astronomy and photography developed hand in hand, with each
improvement in film and camera technology helping stargazers to
reveal more of the wonders of the universe.

ven before French artist Louis

Daguerre (1787-1851)
amazed the Academie

Frangaise in 1839 with his

“daguerreotype” process, he’d
already photographed the Moon, at
the request of scientist Frangois Arago
(1786-1853).
Daguerre’s 1838 lunar print lacked
detail but Arago saw its potential,
proclaiming that astronomers would
soon map the Moon and stars. No
longer would they have to draw what
they saw, with the inherent risk of
errors. Astrophotography captured a
permanent, accurate record. Within
half acentury It would reveal celestial
marvels previously invisible to the
largest telescopes.

D R AW I N G W I T H L I G H T
Early forms of “pin hole camera” -
any hole of the right size that
focuses an image onto asurface -
were known to the ancient Greeks

and Chinese. Aristotle (384-322bc)

used acolander to project an image
of apartial eclipse.
The “camera obscura” is credited
to Arab astronomer Ibn al-Haytham
(ad965-1039) who made ahole in
awindow shutter to beam asolar
eclipse onto his wall. Johannes
Kepler (1571-1630) adapted atent
for asimilar purpose.
Later versions comprised abox
with alens that projected an image
FIRST PHOTO onto aglass screen, used by artists energised by light and exposed
Adaguerreotype to various chemicals, changed to
to paint perspective. Astronomer
of the Moon,
taken by John Johannes Hevelius (1611-1687) darker-looking silver crystals. In this
Draper in 1840. viewed sunspots with one. But way, Thomas Wedgwood (1771-
This was the first
it couldn’t record images -that 1805) used silver-nitrate-coated
clear astronomical
required light-sensitive film. glass to make silhouettes of leaves.
photograph ever
created. In the latter part of the 18th In 1827, French printer Joseph
century, chemists experimented Nicephore Niepce produced a
with silver compounds which, when “heliograph” (“Sun picture”) using

1^
acamera obscura to project an
image onto paper coated with
white bitumen. Louis Daguerre
became Niepce’s business partner
in 1829 and together they began
coating copper plate with silver
iodide. After exposure the plate
was treated with mercury to reveal
adetailed mirror image.
When Niepce died four years
later, Daguerre renamed the
process “daguerreotype”. In 1840,
chemist John William Draper
produced the first clear lunar
photograph, using a13cm reflector
and daguerreotype camera set
on 20-minute exposure. Draper
and his son Henry would also
pioneer the field of photographic
spectroscopy (see Space Stars).
German astronomer Johann von
Madler (1794-1874) described the
daguerreotype as “photographie”
(Greek for “drawing with light)
and the name stuck. There were
drawbacks to the daguerreotype
process, however. Cumbersome
and complex, its single “positive”
image was easily damaged and
impossible to duplicate.
British inventor William Henry
own system. By 1839 his “calotype”
(Greek for “beautiful impression”)
m
was capturing “negative” images
CO
in under three minutes. He used
1
silver-chloride-coated paper soaked
in saline. To make positive contact
o
prints he laid afresh sheet on top
of the negative.
o
CAPTURING SUN AND STARS
Both processes were soon being >
L D
used to photograph the Moon, \
planets and other bodies in the solar
system. Stellar photography was O
trickier, however, requiring long
exposure times.
The first star to be photographed
O
was Vega (a-Lyrae), in 1850. US
astronomers John Whipple (1822-
91) and William Bond (1789-1859)
at Harvard Observatory captured
o
“ D
the image with a100-second X
exposure. To compensate for O
H
Earth’s rotation, they used aclock o
motor to keep the telescope trained o
on the star.
>
Calotype, too, had flaws. It T J
X
showed poor detail, darkened over
time and -like daguerreotype -was o
extremely slow. British photographer
H
Frederick Scott Archer (1813-57) X

Fox Talbot (1800-77) created his made improvements using glass PHOTOG UAmm CAM ERA. 1 m
t n

DAGUERRE This >

advert (c.1924) 'TO
JOHN WILLIAM DRAPER [isi 1982) HENRY DRAPER n037-1982j shows the French 0 0

artist and chemist

who invented the
John Draper moved to the US at 20 where his
t English-born
interest in chemistry drew him to the daguerreotype process.
daguerreotype
photographic
As well as astrophotography. Draper pioneered photographic process.
m m spectroscopy -analysis of the light of the Sun and
'W'
stars. He noticed that daguerreotype chemicals M||j|B|||
were sensitive to ultra violet light and found these mm
wavelengths In the Sun’s spectrum. In 1843,
Draper produced the first photograph of the full
m ^^7
solar spectrum.
Draper’s son Henry produced the first
spectroscopic photograph of astar, Vega, in
1872, and of the Drion nebula in 1880. Henry
had photographed the spectra of 50 stars before
his untimely death from pleurisy, aged 45.

■ m
FATHER John Draper
t o o k t h e fi r s t e v e r
astronomical photograph -
that of the Moon in 1840.
SON Henry Draper advanced
astrophotography, taking
spectroscopic photographs of
Vegs and the Orion nebula.
#
iii ^ii SOLAR PHOTOGRAPHY
INSIDE INFO British astronomer Warren de la Rue
KEW’S PHOTOHELIOGRAPH (1815-89), impressed by a
1 daguerreotype he’d seen of the
arren de la Rue’s team at Kew Observatory built a
w photoheliograph to take daily photographs of the Sun Moon, produced his own using a
through its full 11-year cycle In order to reveal sunspots and wet plate collodion method. He
bright granular structures on the surface. It took three years to soon turned his attention to Jupiter,
design because of technical hurdles -not least of which was the Saturn -and, especially, the Sun.
brightness of the Sun. This was solved by fitting arubber spring- Solar photography grew
loaded shutter with anarrow slit. When arestraining thread
was lit, the slit shot across the lens. In 1860, de la Rue took the throughout the 19th century and in
instrument to Spain to photograph solar prominences during an 1854, de la Rue launched aproject
eclipse. Back at Kew, it operated from 1861-1872 producing at Kew Observatory to photograph
2778 images. It is now kept at London’s Science Museum. the Sun (see Inside Info: Kew’s
Photoheliograph).
SOLAR ECLIPSE ! *
German astronomer Carl Vogel
Taken in Spain In
July 1860. (1841-1907) photographed the Sun
in 1871 using a29cm refractor and
N camera with an electrical shutter,

bringing exposure times down to

just 1/8000 second and revealing

f yet more solar details.

CHEMICAL HAZARD
g
I I Photography was still more
chemistry than artistry and S U N WAT C H I N G
I “astrophotographers” had to mix This is the British
their own chemicals which were
4
Astronomical
I
Association's
often toxic. British photographer
expedition
Richard Leach Maddox (1847-1902) to Norway in
found his health affected by the August 1896 to
fumes. In 1871 he published details photograph the
eclipse of the Sun.
of his new “dry plate” process in
the British journal of Photography.
7
Coated with gelatine-based
emulsion, plates could be bought
ready-prepared and fume free, with

(rather than paper) coated in light-

sensitive chemicals with collodion

(nitrocellulose dissolved in ether m

and alcohol) as abinding agent.
This produced cheaper quality
multiple prints and reduced m
exposure times to seconds. But
difficulties getting apatent meant
Archer made little money from his
D E E P S PA C E
discovery and died penniless.
Henry Draper's
The first telescope used solely 1882 photograph
for photography -the astrograph of the Orion

Nebula, captured
-was made in 1856 by Lewis
by exposing the
Rutherfurd (1816-92) and would photographic
revolutionise astronomy (see Inside plate for over
two hours.
Info: Astrographic Camera).

no need to be developed straight
away. Like Archer, Maddox made no
money from his idea.
IMAGING THE INVISIBLE
George Eastman (1854-1932),
founder of the Eastman Kodak
collected enough light to reveal
X
details impossible to see by
m
telescope alone.
CO
Henry Draper photographed the I
Orion nebula in 1880, but faint areas
O
did not show up. He tried again in
1882, keeping the plate exposed
for over two hours and managing to
record the entire nebula. o
n
Early film recorded light
wavelengths towards the blue end >
CO
of the spectrum. As film emulsions
improved, it became possible to 7 0
DE LA RUE show the full visible spectrum and O
Apioneer of beyond, thus launching the new
astronomical
field of infra-red photography.
photography,
Wa r r e n d e i a R u e
O
discovered 525 DIGITAL FUTURE
nebulae.
Astrophotography entered anew
phase with the invention of digital
technology, which has removed the
0
“ D
Kneed for film processing. Digital
^cameras can also filter out o
man-made glare, enabling o
iastronomers to operate in o
photographic plates in i X! Iurban areas blighted with >
bulk. His company began I Ilight pollution. " U
n :
producing film specially I IThe digital revolution
for astrophotography, I Imeans that beautiful
o
with improved sensitivity I Wcoloured images captured H

Company, refined Archer’s process

and detail. This made it
possible to capture faint
stars and deep sky objects
’
> rby sophisticated space
telescopes can now be
downloaded to computers
C O

>
using silver bromide and built a such as galaxies and nebulae. inywhere, bringing the glories
C O
machine to manufacture cheap With along exposure the film leep space into the living room.

INSIDE lIMFO

THE ASTROGRAPHIC CAMERA

strographic cameras make it possible to map large
A areas of sky and plot the precise positions and
movements of celestial bodies -called “astrometry”.
Taking repeat photographs of the same regions and
looking for differences also makes it easier to discover
new objects, including asteroids and comets.
Clyde Tombaugh, anew recruit at Lowell Observatory
Arizona, was asked to astrograph the sky along the
ecliptic the Sun’s apparent path in the sky ~and spot
any changes. In 1930, while doing this, Tombaugh
discovered the dwarf planet Pluto

CAPTURING ACOMET Henry Draper

using an astrographic camera to capture
an image of acomet in 1881.

* m
*
\
! #
aurus represents the
T disguise which the god y photograph, is thought to be left-over gas and dust
Zeus adopted in order to
abduct beautiful Princess ^ In ad1054 abrilliant new star appeared near the
Europe of Phoenicia. Zeus x J
approached Europe in the
form of ahandsome white
bull with shining horns.
Having enticed Europe onto
his back, the bull swam off with
her to the island of Crete. There,
Zeus revealed his true identity and
seduced her. Among their offspring is
said to have been King Minos of Crete.
2 0
Abull with an angry red eye
charges through the night sky at
the turn of the year. This bull is
Taurus, afamous constellation of
the zodiac which contains some
spectacular objects for
observers.
V-shaped cluster of stars called the Hyades
A outlines the bull’s face. At adistance of 150
light years, the Hyades is the nearest large
cluster to us and an important first stepping stone in
our distance scale of the universe.
The Hyades spans the width of ten of Earth’s full
Moons -it is so large that it barely fits into the field of
view of binoculars. Among the dozens of stars visible, 4
note in particular the wide double Theta Tauri, which is
the group’s brightest member.
Near the tip of one branch of the Hyades is the
brightest star in Taurus, Aldebaran, which marks the
bull’s eye. Ared giant, it appears noticeably orange
in colour, particularly through binoculars. Although
Aldebaran appears to be part of the Hyades it l e s
between us and the cluster at less than half the
distance, 65 light years.
PLEIADES This
SEVEN SISTERS
open star cluster.
also known as M45, An even better cluster for binoculars Is the Pleiades, or
is among the * !* M45, one of the greatest sights in the entire sky. The
nearest clusters td^
Pleiades is popularly known as the Seven Sisters,
Earth and one of
the most obvious although only six members are obvious to the naked
to the naked eye* eye. Dozens more can be seen through binoculars.
Being young and hot, the stars of the Pleiades appear
blue-white in colour. Brightest of them is third-
magnitude Eta Tauri, known as Alcyone. The cluster
lies around 400 light years away. The surrounding
haze, visible on along-exposure astronomical
from the formation of the stars.
w southern horn of the bull, remaining visible for over
ayear. That n e star was asupernova explosion
w
)
and in its place now lies the Crab Nebula, the remains
of the erupted star. The Crab, also known as Ml
(the first entry in Charles Messier’s list of nebulous-
looking objects), can be seen as an elongated smudge
through modest-sized amateur telescopes given clear,
dark skies. The nebula is several times the apparent
diameter of Jupiter, and can be overlooked because it
is larger than expected.
 AURIGA I I 4'
V
\
\

gir-
'T c/i
>

GEMINI .<p

TA U R U S
PLEIADES
>
# - r “ 0
M 4 5
MKtl 1/4b X V

1
ARIES
K
I
3 7

>
NGC 1647
T O

52'it CO -^
\ H YA D E S

u f t .

TA U R U S

aurus is best seen in the evening sky

T in December and January. It lies in the
northern hemisphere of the sky, with its
southern borders just touching the celestial
equator. It can be fully seen from everywhere ir
the northern hemisphere and down to latitude
58 degrees south. Taurus is aconstellation of
the zodiac, lying between Aries and Gemini. The
Sun passes through the constellation from
mid-May to late June.

ABBREVIATTION Tau
4'

BEST SEASON

December-January
BRIGHTEST S TA R

Aldebaran (a) 0.85

SIZE RANKING 17 CRAB NEBULA
PQSiTiDM Mid-northern An enhanced
colour composite
t^ken in 1995
from the Kitt Peak
Observatory in
L O C AT I O N MAP Arizona. USA.
 February 17

ENCELADUS
ERUPTS Aplume

ROZEN
of icy material
erupts from this
moon's south
pole. The colour-
coded version on

the right shows

the plume to

VOLCANOES
be much more
extended.

T I TA N ' S
TECTONICS An
infrared image
o f Ti t a n s h o w s
abright circular
feature with two
In the deep cold of the outer solar system, chemical reactions
wing shapes. This can make ice behave like molten lava, allowing astrange form
is thought to be
avolcano. of frozen volcanic activity to reshape landscapes.

hen the Voyager space rock heated by tidal forces (see

W probes sent back the

first detailed pictures
of the outer solar system they
caused quite astir. Against
expectation, many of the moons of
the giant planets showed signs of
significant geological activity in their
past, despite being generally much
smaller than the worlds of the inner
solar system and having much more
Issue 23, Space Science). But what
of Ganymede, where ice seemed
to have “erupted” from beneath
the surface in the same way as lava
on the rocky planets, but at much
lower temperatures?
When the Voyagers reached
Saturn, the problem became
even clearer. Many of its satellites
seemed to show traces of some

ice (and less heat-retaining rock) in kind of resurfacing activity. Large

their composition. areas of terrain appeared to have
been wiped clean of their early
R E S U R FA C I N G generations of craters, and there
Activity on Jupiter’s moon lo, and were features that looked like lava

beneath the icy crust of Europa, plains and flows. As Voyager 2flew
could be explained as aresult of on past Uranus and its moons, it
traditional volcanoes, powered by discovered similar features there.

BREAKTHROUGHS
VT7CRY0V0LCANISM IN ACTION
Ithough the plumes of
A Enceladus are often cited
as being the best example of
cryovolcanism in the outer solar
system, they may not be true
“cryovolcanoes” since there is
little sign of “antifreeze” chemicals
such as ammonia. Instead, what
is occuring seems to involve pure
water at temperatures above its
normal freezing point.
Elsewhere in the Saturnian
system, however, the giant
m o o n Ti t a n s e e m s t o h a v e r e a l
examples of active cryovolcanoes
hidden beneath the orange haze
of its atmosphere, as revealed by
“hot spots” that are considerably
According to traditional ideas, all
these worlds should be deep-frozen
iceballs -their surfaces nothing
but apitted firing range, pulverised
by 4.5 billion years of impacts
from space. Clearly some form of
geological activity had happened
in the past that could resurface
planetary landscapes at extremely
low temperatures. Planetary
scientists named the phenomenon
“cryovolcanism” -from the Greek
“cryo”, meaning simply “cold".
I C Y L AVA S
Cryovolcanism has much to do
with the strange properties of
water. Under normal atmospheric
pressure, liquid water usually
freezes at around 0°C. But we’ve
already seen (see Issue 25, Space
Science) how the transition
between different forms of ice
crystal at high pressures can be
accompanied by aplunge in the
melting point, allowing water
to exist in liquid form beneath
the crusts of Jupiter’s moons
Ganymede and Callisto. Another
way of keeping water liquid at low
temperatures is to add an anti¬
freeze to it.
CO
" D
>
O
warmer than the average -179°C m
surface temperature, but still CO
well below conventional freezing
point. Infrared photographs that
O
pierce the clouds have revealed m
structures around the hot spot
that seem volcanic, and scientists
O
speculate that cryovolcanoes are m
regularly pumping methane into
Titan’s atmosphere.
H o w e v e r, t h e b e s t k n o w n
0
and photographed example of 70
cryovolcanism in the solar system O
are the geysers on Neptune’s M
m
moon Triton -their activity, Z
discovered in 1989, was totally
GEYSERS The dark streaks on <
unexpected, and we shall revisit
them in detail in Issue 37. Tr i t o n ’s s u r f a c e a r e f o r m e d f r o m o
its geyser-like eruptions.
o
>
o
An anti-freeze is simply a So it seems that other chemicals, m
HOT SPOT CO
Scientists chemical that disrupts water’s mixed with the water ice of the
believe that a tendency to form ice crystals outer solar system, lowered its
hot spot found
and solidify. As water freezes, its melting point so that (at least in
on Titan may be
amix of water
individual molecules form chemical their first billion years or when
and ammonia bonds with each other, developing subjected to tidal heating) some of
oozing out of aregular hexagonal structure. the moons grew warm enough for
an ice volcano
onto colder
Anti-freeze molecules dissolved and the ice to melt sporadically.
surrounding mixed with the water inhibit the In another parallel with magma
terrain. .formation of this structure. volcanoes, the deposits of liquid
probably formed inside warm
underground reservoirs, bursting
or oozing to the surface when the
pressure grew too much or they
found aweak point in the crust.
AMMONIA MIX
Several chemicals have fulfilled this
role in different places, but one
of the most common seems to be
ammonia -and this explains another
feature of cryovolcanism. Awater-
ammonia mix can exist in a“slushy”
state. Depending on the proportions
of the mix, it can form aviscous
liquid that oozes across surfaces
and through fissures, rather than
flowing through them at high speed.
In many ways, this material behaves
exactly like molten lava, explaining
the similarities in “volcanic” features
on rocky and icy worlds.
 i

COMING ISSUE 1

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!Travel to the outer edges of the !Eyes on the sky -looking at the latest
Saturnian system as we explore generation of giant telescopes that will
some of the planet’s larger moons. transform our view of the universe. J

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I N V E S T I G AT I N G

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Some of the
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two devices revolutionised astronomical navigation.
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE
We continue our journey out through Saturn's moons,
visiting the larger satellites in the planet's system.
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MISSIONS . !
10
Find out more about Cassini, the first space probe to »
i
n f t
be put into orbit around Saturn. ft ft f t p

^IMAGE GALLERY m -0
12 f t

From moons of ice to satellites with sponge-like , ! %

9 f t
ft-

surfaces, feast your eyes on Saturn's larger moons. f t

ft

«
THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY f t

16
How the first team of women astronomers led the f t

way in the analysis and cataloguing of the stars. Credits I II I

IMAGES: FC Science Photo
S TA R M A P Library/Detlev van Ravenswaay; 2-
2 0 3Hubble Heritage Team/NASA/
This issue we have four constellations to admire
ESA, (br) iStockphoto/Todd
-Hydra, Sextans, Crater and Corvus. Bingham; 4-5 (tl) Pikaia Imaging,
(bl) Wikimedia Commons, (bc,cr)
S PA C E S C I E N C E TopFoto/Roger-Vlollet; 6-7 (tl,bc)
2 2
NASA/JPL, (b) Pikaia Imaging; 8-9
How elaborate engineering helps giant telescopes (cl,tc,cr,tr) NASA/JPL, (b) Pikaia
look into the farthest reaches of the universe.
Imaging; 10-11 NASA/JPL; 12-13
(bl,tr,c) Cassini Imaging Team/
NASA/ESA/JPtySSI, (br) Science
Photo Library/Detlev van
Ravenswaay; 14-15 Pikaia Imaging;
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SciencePhotoLibrary/EmilioSegre||^
Visual Archtves/American Institute
of Physics, (tcl) Science Photo
Library/Royal Astronomical Society, ft
(ter)SciencePhotoLibrary/EckhardH
Slawik, (br) Eagelmoss/Donna
Askem; 20-21 (bl) Galaxy Picture
Library/Robin Scagell, (bc,tr,br)
PIkaia Imaging, (tc) Galaxy Picture
Library/Gordon Garradd, (c)
Hubble Heritage Team/NASA/ESA;
22-23 (cl) Science Photo Library/
Gary Ladd, (bl) WM Keck
Observatory, (tc) NOAO/AURA/
NSF/Helmut Abt, (tr) ESO/SAGEM,

m Emilio Segre Visual Archives/ (br) Pikaia Imaging.

American Institute of Physics, (c)
Science Photo Library, (tr) Science RE PRO: Stormcreatlve

Photo Library/Harvard College Publishing Limited

Observatory, (br) Harvard PRINTING; Century Litho (Truro)
University Archives; 18-19 (bl) Limited

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 If-
-<
o

O C TA N T S a n a CO

f t / - -
SEXTANTS'
ingenious devices for measuring angles in the sky, octants and sextants
CO
-C
CO
H
m

were vital aids to celestial navigation right up until the present day and the
introduction of the Global Positioning System.
O
a
Iearly astronomers and navigators charted The development of the telescope in the 17th
m
P sailed the seas using devices century made the problem all the more obvious
»such as quadrants and cross-staffs (see -here was an instrument capable of resolving

=ilF;
Issue 19, Your Solar System Model), but when it
came to navigation these devices had many
disadvantages in terms of accuracy and ease of use.
They required astable ship with aflat, visible
Sr-
detail to minute fractions of adegree across, and 0
yet navigators were still stuck with methods that
frequently put them hundreds of miles off course
on long ocean crossings.

horizon, and asharp eye to measure the elevation
of objects to within adegree. Only huge mural
quadrants used in large observatories allowed more
accurate measurements and, even then, more than
It was Isaac Newton, askilled inventor as
well as agreat physicist, who first had the idea
Asextant, compass and
around 1699 of combining atelescope with a map -just some of
navigational quadrant. His design, technically the tools used to

fi one person was needed to operate them a was for an observatory navigate at sea.
S E X TA N T U P D AT f ;
Amodern sextant
includes amicrometer
screw and magnified
measuring scale for fine index mirror

adjustments, but the

principle of using asplit
or semi-silvered horizon shaded fi l t r e p s

mirror to bring two —telescope

images into line with

each other remains
the same.

iiiBdaurmg dru

micrometer.

s c r e w ndex bar

CCTHEINSTRUMENTISDESIGNEDTOBE the reflection from asecond adjustable mirror that

is mounted so that its own orientation can be
OFUSEWHERETHEMOTIONOFTHEOBJECTS,ORANY
CIRCUMSTANCE OCCASIONING AN UNSTEADINESS IN THE changed by pivoting the “index arm”.
COMMON INSTRUMENTS RENDERS THE OBSERVATIONS The arrangement of mirrors means that the
observer can effectively look in two directions
DIFFICULT OR UNCERTAIN.”
at once. In order to find the angle between two
James Hadley on his octant, 1731
points, the navigator points the telescope in

S PA C E S TA R S
instrument with adiameter of up to 1.2m, rather
than aportable device, but it was capable of JOHN HADLEY n682-1744)
measurements to an accuracy of ten seconds of
arc or l/360th of adegree. He never published ittle is known of John Hadley’s education, but he was the son of a
the details of his invention, though he shared L Hertfordshire landowner, and older brother of George Hadley, the
meteorologist who discovered the
them with his friend Edmond Halley (a pioneering
circulation of Earth’s atmosphere.
oceanographer himself), and they were discovered Elected to the Royal Society in
among Halley’s papers after his death in 1742. 1717, he became its Vice President
By then, however, several other people had in 1728. Working with George
alighted on the same idea and, as aresult, credit for and another brother, James, John
built the first practical Newtonian
the invention of the reflecting quadrant usually goes
reflector telescope. Later he turned
to English mathematician John Hadley (see Space his attention to the problems of
Stars), or to Thomas Godfrey of Philadelphia, in navigation, presenting aprototype
what were then Britain’s American colonies.
reflecting quadrant to the Society In
1731. By 1734, he had perfected
HOW IT WORKS the octant.

The principle behind the reflecting quadrant and

FEELING INVENTIVE
its successor the “octant’’ is ingenious. Asmall
John Hadley, Inventor of the
tilted “horizon mirror’’ is inserted halfway across a reflecting quadrant.
telescope’s field of view, aligned so that it captures
one direction (for example, at astar), and then
adjusts the movable mirror so that the second INSIDE INFO O
A S T R O N O M I C A L S E X TA N T S c
point comes into view and lines up exactly with
r TO
the target star. The angle of the index arm, and ong before the late 18th century, astronomers used instruments CO
therefore the tilt of the “index mirror”, relative to L called sextants for precise measurements of angles in the sky.
o
the telescope, can be read off an engraved scale However, without the ingenious mirrors devised by Nevtfton, they
around the instrument’s edge and so reveals the were capable of measuring angles of 60 degress at most. Amural
angular separation of the two directions. sextant consisted of aprecisely marked arc on avertical wall, with
ameasuring bar or alidade pivoting above it. The astronomer simply
aligned the alidade with atarget object, and read off its orientation CO
E V O LV I N G I N S T R U M E N T S
from the scale marked around the arc. Framed sextants incorporated
The navigational quadrant popularised by Hadley ameasuring arc and CO
and others had several differences from Newton’s an alidade (sometimes
m
design. Most importantly for practical use, it was ^fitted with atelescope)
on amount that could
smaller and could be held vertically, and so could
be tilted at avariety
be used to measure directly the separation
Iof angles. As aresult,
between stars and the horizon. Later
;while amural sextant
improvements included glass filters to allow O
could only measure
measurements of the Sun. Ithe separation of
a
m
Although an octant was capable of measuring fobjects as they came
into alignment with it,
angles of up to 90 degrees, its structure was that
[aframed device could
of one-eighth of acircle -hence its name. The Imeasure any angle such o
instrument had obvious advantages over previous jas the separation of
devices. The mirrors made it much easier to
o
:two stars.
o
make asighting from the deck of avessel at sea >
ASTRONOMICAL
since the star and horizon moved together in the
An illustration of an
eyepiece, and improved manufacturing techniques 0 0
Iastronomic sextant made
meant that the instrument was more compact than >
by the astronomer Tycho
its predecessors with no loss of accuracy. iBrahe (1546-1601).
Z
D
But the octant’s supremacy was to be short-lived.
o o
m
X

EIGHTH OF ACIRCLE By the 1760s, Neville Maskelyne (1732-1718) was >

The name "octant" z
derives from the Latin
publishing the first almanac of “lunar distances” H
L D
"octans" meaning for the calculation of longitude (see Issue 27, Your
eighth part of acircle. Solar System Model). In order to use Maskelyne’s
The mirrors in an octant
tables properly, it was necessary to measure
double the angles,
allowing it to measure
angles between the moon and other objects that
up to aquarter circle might be greater than 90 degrees. An improved
or quadrant. This instrument was needed: and so the sextant was
engraving depicts John
born. This device has a60-degree span, and can
Hadley's sketches of
his octant, and the therefore measure angles up to 120 degrees.
improvements he Today, the sextant remains astandard tool
planned to make to It. of the celestial navigator, even though accurate
timekeeping has made the measurement of
longitude far easier and relegated the lunar
distance method to acuriosity. Improvements have
continued, including the use of semi-transparent
mirrors to project one object onto another, the
provision of artificial horizons for use at night or in
foggy conditions, and the addition of micrometers
-thumbscrews that move the index arm through
minute fractions of adegree and thus allow
extremely precise measurements.
 S AT U R N I A N M O O N S
This montage of images
taken by Voyager 1
shows six of Saturn's
moons in orbit around
the planet.

SATURN’S
LARGER MOONS
LARGER MOONS
Saturn's larger moons
found on the planet's
outer rings and beyond. In the middle of Saturn's huge system of satellites lie half a
Phoebe is so far away,
i t ' s o ff t h e s c a l e ! dozen fascinating worlds flanking the largest moon of all. Titan.

S AT U R N A N D I T S L A R G E R M O O N S

Te l e s t o 1!— Helene

%
Te t h y s
% ! - D i o n e % ! - Rhea Titan
> ! - 1! Hyperion

See issue 28 %

% ! - Polydeuces
Calypso

6
 eyond the orbit of snow-covered Enceladus,

B the size of the Saturnian moons takes astep

up until we reach the giant moon of Titan.
The moons then decrease in size as we head
towards the outer moon of Phoebe.
Outwards from Enceladus, the next group of moons increase in size.
CO
N a m e Avg orbital Diameter Type
ROCK-ICE MOONS radius CO
Te l e s t o 294.619km 2 9 x 2 2 x 2 0 k m
Tethys Trojan
Beginning our journey out from Enceladus, we reach
Tethys 294,619km 1 0 6 6 k m Major moon m
apair of satellites each about 1100km in diameter.
Calypso 294,619km 3 0 x 2 3 x 1 4 k m Tethys Trojan
Tethys and Dione are outwardly similar balls of ice Helene 377,396km 36x32x30km Dione Trojan
and rock, but recent space probes have revealed Dione 377,396km 1123km Major moon G)
subtle differences. 3 . 5 k m
Polydeuces 377,396km Dione Trojan
Rhea 527.108km 1 5 2 9 k m Major moon
Tethys is made almost entirely from ice, with a
Titan 1,221.930km 5 1 5 1 k m Major moon a
density that is less than that of water. Most of its
Hyperion 1,481,010km 360x280x225km Major moon
surface is heavily cratered, although abroad band 3,560,820km 1 4 7 2 k m
iapetus Major moon
of terrain has fewer craters and slightly darker
colouring, suggesting that Tethys once had some
Phoebe 12,869,700km 230x220x210km Large captured moon o
CO
cryovolcanic activity on its surface that wiped >
#
away some of its older craters. In general, Tethys
®BREAKTHROUGHS
RINGS AROUND RHEA is brilliant white with aresemblance to Enceladus,
CO
which is no coincidence, since Tethys sweeps up
material from Saturn’s ERing, whose icy particles
March
In 2008,
of aring NASA
system scientists
around announced
Rhea. Too sparse the
apparent
to be seendiscovery
directly, originate in the plumes of its smaller neighbour.
>

the rings and an accompanying dust cloud were detected through o

One hemisphere of Tethys is dominated by the
Rhea’s effect on the streams of charged particles or “plasma”
flowing around Saturn’s magnetic field. Each of the moons leaves 400km crater Odysseus, an enormous impact basin
awake or shadow in the plasma, but when the Cassini probe flew that has flattened out over time. Elsewhere, there
behind Rhea in November 2005, its instruments detected agradual are countless faults and cracks in the surface -most o
drop-off in the plasma’s strength, caused by something blocking
o
impressive of these is Ithaca Chasma, a2000km-
its passage from adistance of 6000 km around the moon. This CO
long valley that is 100m wide.
gradual decline was interrupted by three sharp drops that repeated
symmetrically on either side of the moon’s own wake. The region of In contrast to its inner neighbour, Dione contains
fall-off corresponds neatly with the area in which Rhea’s gravity is asignificant amount of rock, which has kept its
dominant over forces from other moons, so aring system, perhaps interior warm and powered longer-lasting geological
debris from acomet that broke up before collision with Rhea, seems activity. One half of the moon is mainly bright
the most likely explanation. and covered in craters -like Tethys, it sweeps up
material from the Ering. The other hemisphere
is darker, but criss-crossed by bright “trails” of
towering ice cliffs, formed as the crust flexed and
faulted billions of years ago.
Both Tethys and Dione have company in their
orbits, in the form of pairs of “Trojan” moons that
orbit 60 degrees ahead and behind the major moons
(see Inside Info).

R H E A’ S R I N G S B e f o r e
Rhea, it was thought that
only planets had rings.
Iapetus
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THE ARGONAUTS
CO
Phoebe's craters are all that which causes the icy pinnacles and knobs o n
named after the
Jupiter's moon Callisto (see Issue 25). Hyperion’s O
Argonauts, explorers in
unusual shape and chaotic rotation point to it
Greek mythology. The
large impact basin in this being part of aonce-larger satellite, shattered i n
TO
image is called Jason. some ancient catastrophe. CO

STRANGE OUTER MOONS CO

LIGHT AND DARK Even beyond Hyperion, things scarcely get any more
Aclose up of lapetus' normal. Saturn’s last “regular” moon (the most
patchwork surface.
showing the mountain distant of those born from the original material left
ridges that run along its around the planet as it formed) is lapetus, roughly G)
e q u a t o r. the same size as Rhea but far stranger. This moon’s
most striking feature is the remarkable difference
u
between its two hemispheres (see How It Works) m
but even aside from this, lapetus stands out from
the crowd, thanks to its equatorial ridge. This raised
strip, some 20km across and up to 13km high r u n s
0
C O
for some 1300km around the equator, giving lapetus >
adistinctive walnut-shaped appearance
Cassini’s close encounter with the moon in 2007 T O

revealed that the ridge is caused by aconcentration

C O
of mountainous terrain. However, scientists are
still trying to explain how this unique feature was >
created. Two possibilities are that it is aresult of T O
O
ice erupting from within the planet, or that it is a m
T O
remnant of atime when lapetus spun much faster
and had abulging equator.
Ahuge gulf, marking the end of Saturn’s original o
o
satellite system, separates lapetus from dark.
dusty Phoebe -by far the largest of the planet’s CO

irregular satellites, and the only one to have been

photographed in detail by Cassini. It is ahuge dormant
comet, 230km long and dented by ancient impacts.

dust accumulates on darker areas absorb

ice evaporates and exposes darker lore sunlight,
icv surface of lapetus material and the darker areas absorb causing runaway evaporation and
more heat from sunlight more darkening

from Phoebe

DRIFTING DUST DUST AND ICE Alight

JM. H E AT A B S O R P T I O N T h e
3 Debris blasted off 4 scattering of debris 5 darkened areas absorb ^RUNAWAY
AsEVAPORATION
ice evaporates, darker
Phoebe drifts towards from Phoebe drifts onto sunlight (yellow arrows) more material in the surface becomes
Saturn and is swept up on the bright, icy surface of readily, heating up so that ice dominant, and the surface absorbs
lapetus' leading face. lapetus. evaporates from them. heat and sunlight even more readily.
 m

CASS
into its rings and satellites for the most I

detailed study yet.

he spacecraft, launched on policy changes saw it evolve into

15 October 1997 from Cape something much more ambitious
Canaveral, is one of the While Galileo carried an

most complex space probes ever atmospheric probe to Jupiter,

built. Standing over 6.8m high and Cassini would carry alander that
more than 4.1m wide, it was would descend to the surface of

launched with amass of 5700kg, Saturn’s largest moon, Titan.

which also makes it the largest
Cassmi Only the Soviet Phobos probes sent
rises above the
to investigate Mars were heavier. The spacecraft has adazzling array
Florida coast in
Originally Cassini was to be of 27 scientific instruments,
October 1997
atop aTitan IV
similar to Galileo ~aMariner including those designed to image
Centaur rocket. IMark II spacecraft -but NASA and map, to measure magnetic

^IIMSIDE lIMFO
T E S T I N G E I N S T E I N ’ S T H E O RY

□
n10 October 2003, Cassini’s
scientists announced the

■results of atest that they had

Iperformed to verify Einstein’s
Htheory of general relativity.
BAccording to the theory, a
|p massive object like the Sun causes
space-time to curve and abeam of - O ’
^radio waves (or light) that passes
Bby the Sun has to travel farther ' S

Bbecause of this curvature. Using

Bradio signals which passed the
BSun to Earth, Cassini supported
Bthe theory with an accuracy of 20
Bparts in amillion.

/
/
%
TESTING EINSTEIN An
illustration showing how Cassini W
proved that Einstein’s theory
about space-time is correct.
 ct:;

F LY B Y T h i s
artist's

impression shows
the probe flying
past Saturn.

A S S E M B LY
Engineers at the
Jet Propulsion
Laboratory in
California test
Cassini for
extremes of
temperature and
vibration.

.fields and analyse cosmic dust. It reach Saturn. Gn 1July 2004, the
"communicates through ahigh-gain spacecraft flew through the gap
antenna or, if there is insufficient between the Fand Grings of the
power for whatever reason, through
one of two low-gain antennas.
gas giant To shield its instruments
from particles in the rings, Cassini
®BREACKT
HR
O OO
PU
GRHS
E AT I V E MISSIONS

To provide sufficient electricity, " performed acomplex Saturn Orbital assini-Huygens dates back to 1982 when the
f
c European Space Agency and the American
f National Academy of Sciences formed aworking
i ! group to investigate future co-operative missions.
I I
The suggestion for aSaturn arbiter and Titan
f ill probe came from the Europeans and, in spite
S i l Dennis Matson, Cassini project scientist on finds at Enceiadus of recommendations from US astronaut Sally
Ride for aNASA-only mission. NASA’s Len Fisk
returned, in 1988, to the idea of ajoint NASA
and ESA mission. Not only did the collaboration
Cassini carries 32.8kg of plutonium Insertion manoeuvre. This saw the
improve relations between the two space
to power its nuclear generators craft orientate its high-gain antenna programmes, it also helped the mission survive
~the largest amount, up to that away from Earth in the direction of budget cuts In the USA.
■j
f

date, ever taken into space. flight, then, once through the rings, SH

Cassini took seven years to rotate again to point its engine

forwards. It then executed a96- '
4m high-gain —low^ain antenna minute rocket burn to slow the craft
a n t e n n a
into an orbit.
1 1 m

magnetometer
b o o m

radar bay Cassini spent the next four years

investigating Saturn and its satellites,
including Titan and Enceladus, and
- fi e l d s and
radio/plasma particles pallet making further investigation of the
wave subsystem
ring system, as well as lapetus.
antenna (1 of 3)
Huygens Titan
probe On 15 April 2008, following
remote sensing _ The
combined orbiter
extra funding, Cassini smission
and lander is one was extended for two more years.
of the largest and Anew schedule provides for a
^ radioisotope most complex further 60 orbits of Saturn, 23 more
thermoelectric
probes ever
generator (1 of 3) launched on an flybys of Titan, seven more flybys of
interplanetary Enceladus and one each of Dione,
mission. Rhea and Helene.

1
SATURN’Smid-sized
SATELLITES
While these moons were all discovered well
before the advent of the space age, it took
the visit of the Cassini-Huygens probe in our
century to finally reveal their true beauty.
ollowing the discovery of Titan by Giovanni
Cassini in 1655, these groups of Saturnian
moons are among the earliest discoveries:
lapetus in 1671 and Tethys and Dione in 1684, all
by Cassini; Mimas by William Herschel in 1789;
Hyperion in 1848 by William Cranch Bond, George
Phillips Bond and William Lassell; and Phoebe by
William Henry Pickering in 1899.
As telescopic resolving power increased
throughout the 19th century, not only did the
numbers of moons discovered rise but our
knowledge of them increased.
While the twin Voyager spacecraft provided the
first close-up pictures of Saturn’s moons in 1980
and 1981, the ongoing Cassini-Huygens mission,
which first encountered the Saturnian system in
July 2004, has provided us with the most detailed
images and valuable scientific data of the gas
giant’s moons yet seen.
[1] TETHYS This image,
taken with Cassini's
wide-angle camera on 10
June 2005, shows Tethys
gliding past Saturn in its
orbit outside the main
bright rings.
[2] MIMAS AND DIONE
In this narrow-angle
camera image, taken on
3July 2006, Cassini looks >
across Saturn's ringplane CD
as Mimas glides in front
of Dione.
CD
>

- <

with open rings.

[5] AVIEW FROM HYPERION This artist's impression shows Saturn and Titan rising above the strange surface of the ringed giant smoon.
The deeply pitted surface is aresult of the uniquely porous consistency of the surface material, which means that any impacts cause deep holes.
 >
o

o
>

- <

i v

The surface consists of ice mixed with carbon-based "organic" chemicals. Where sunlight causes the ice to evaporate, razor-sharp crags are
formed and any dark surface material falls towards the bottom of the deepest pits to form areddish chemical "gunk".
15
 'If

Analysing the light of stars brought

STUDYING order to the heavens and gave

women scientists achance to shine.

STARLIG
verything we know about the surface, appearing as apattern of about the spectra of stars. What did
stars comes from analysing vertical lines or bands. This pattern it all mean? The first person to try
their light, and the early 20th is unique to each element and to create order out of chaos was a

century saw important advances in provides a“spectral fingerprint’’ Jesuit priest, Father Angelo Secchi
this analysis through the key tools which reveals the star’s chemistry. (1818-78), director of Italy’s
of photometry and spectroscopy. This knowledge is the bedrock of Roman College Observatory.
Photometry measures the intensity modern astronomy, but uncovering Father Secchi built astellar

of starlight; spectroscope
spectroscopy (see CCeach new spectrum is the gateway to and, from 1863,
Issue 25, Story of AWONDERFUL NEW WORLD... AS IF DISTANT STARS studied the spectra
Astronomy) splits of 4000 stars. In
HAD ACQUIRED SPEECH.”
T E A M W O R K starlight into its 1868 he grouped
Annie Jump Cannon
Edward Pickering them into four
and his team of
spectrum colours
and measures the Secchi Classes
all-female
"computers" amounts of each colour wavelength. it required method, patience and (l-IV) ranging from white, through
photographed In By putting the two together, perseverance -qualities that came white-blue, yellow, orange-red to
1913. Pickering
believed that the
astronomers can discover the size, naturally to the first team of female red. This was an important first
painstaking work luminosity and distances of the stars. astrophysicists. step but it did not go far enough.
involved in Spectrometry also shows up By the late 1800s, more than
cataloguing every C ATA L O G U I N G T H E S TA R S 20 classification systems were
gaps in the spectrum where some
star in the sky was
ajob best done wavelengths are absorbed by By the late 19th century, astronomy in existence. The subject badly
by these women. chemical elements at the star ’s was swamped with information needed standardising.

16.
 ANNIE JUMP CANNON (18B3-i941]

■A R P Y- E Y E D CO
Annie
WellesleyJump Cannon ingraduated
College, Massachusetts wM *|5|Cannon pores from ^
1884 with adegree in physics, despite ^
over the

ijservatory’s
o
O B S E R VAT O R Y severe deafness caused by an infection. Shep photographic
A S S I S TA N T returned to Wellesley as teaching assistant '% plate collection
studvinq variable
in physics and astronomy where she learnt
Wilhelmina
spectroscopy. At Harvard she classified the O
Fleming worked
as Pickering's spectra of 230,000 stars and discovered
housekeeper 300 variable stars. Her achievements >
before her LD
earned her afull-time astronomy post and
employer made many awards and honorary titles. She was \
the former t h e fi r s t w o m a n o f fi c e r o f t h e A m e r i c a n
schoolteacher his

observatory
Astronomical Society (AAS], the first o
woman awarded an honorary doctorate at
assistant and head z
of his Harvard
Oxford, and the only female winner of the
team of "human Henry Draper Medal for astronomy. o
computers".

perform complex calculations to sought employment in the Pickering

identify and plot the positions, household after being left pregnant
0
C O
luminosity and spectra of the and alone by her husband shortly H
C l
stars. And as far as Pickering after their arrival in the USA. She
D
was concerned, the best human started out as housekeeper for the -<

“computers” were women. Pickering household, but soon took

O
over the job of observatory COMPUTERS
women's work assistant after her employer AT W O R K
C O

Heading up the all-female team recognised that she had the right An 1892 >

was Mrs Wilhelmina Fleming skills and aptitude for the job. photograph of
Pickering's team O
(1857-1911). AScottish Many of the women who made hard at work
X
schoolteacher, Mrs Fleming had up the rest of the team had a classifying stars.

In 1886, Harvard College

Observatory in Massachusetts,
received an endowment from

Anna Draper (1839-1914), an

astronomer in her own right and
widow of American spectroscopy
pioneer Henry Draper (1837-82)
(see Issue 28, page 17). The money
was to fund the Henry Draper
Catalogue -amassive project to
photograph, measure and classify
the spectra of every star in the sky.
The observatory director, Edward
CPickering (1846-1919), set about
putting together ateam of human
“computers” with the ability to
analyse thousands of pictures and
 / ' M

STELLAR CLASSES jii:

P e a k Surface M a s s Luminosity Example

Spectral
Class Colour Te m p e r a t u r e (Sun =1) (Sun =1)
0 30,000 X4 Million X Lambda Orionis
Bright blue ■sf

B Blue-White 20,000 3000 X Rigel

A White 10,000 75 X Sirius 1 It-.r-

F Ye l l o w - W h i t e 7000 °C 4 x Canopus
G Ye l l o w 6000 °C 1 X Sun !?r
i
K Orange 4000 °C 0.1 X Aldebaran
0.005 X Betelgeuse

PEAK COLOUR

This diagram shows the link between ■ V

^spectral class, colour, temperature
and size. From left, the hottest.
bluest and largest to the coolest.
\
reddest and smallest on the right.
■■■■ ■

Stellar Classification expanding on

Father Secchi’s system. Stars were
now classed 0, B, A, F, G, Kand M,
based on their spectral fingerprint.
his star table is based on Harvard’s blue-white. Each class was sub-divided To help remember them, the
T S t e l l a r C l a s s i fi c a t i o n . M a s s a n d from 0-9, with 0being the hottest in women devised the mnemonic: “Oh
luminosity are in comparison to the the class and 9being coolest (the Sun
Be AFine Girl/Guy -Kiss Me!” The
Sun. Figures are rounded (the Sun’s is classed G2).
surface temperature is actually More stellar classes would be added scale would later prove to be linked
5500°C). The peak colour is aguide to include stars with an unusual to other properties of stars as well,
to astar ’s surface temperature -just chemical composition or exceptionally including their mass, temperature
like aheating element or light bulb. As high/low luminosity, such as the super- and luminosity (see Inside Info:
an element heats up it glows red and luminous Wolf-Rayet stars (Class W), Stellar Classes).
then orange-red. Alight bulb is even carbon red giants (C), titanium giants/
Astronomers Ejnar Hertzsprung
hotter, giving off white, yellow-white, supergiants (S], white dwarfs (D],
or blue-white light. Likewise, a“cool” cool dark red dwarfs (L], cool brown (1873-1967) of Denmark and
star like Betelgeuse glows red, Sirius methane dwarfs (T) and super-cool Henry Russell (1877-1957) of
emits white light, while hotter Rigel is brown dwarfs (Y). the USA independently found a
L way to display this information in
diagrammatic form (see Inside Info:
science education but few career The H-R Diagram).
options other than teaching. The
work, in acramped office, was CRACKING THE GLASS CEILING

painstaking and repetitive and The discoveries made by the

earned just 25 cents per hour, (less Harvard team gained international
than aHarvard secretary), yet it recognition. Mrs Fleming’s work on
revolutionised astrophysics -and the catalogue and her discoveries of
women’s place in science. many stars and nebulae earned her
Spectral classification was membership of the Royal
mainly carried out by Annie Jump Astronomical Society. Her team¬
Cannon (see Space Stars), who mate Antonia Maury (1866-1952),
was appointed Pickering’s assistant P L O T T I N G S TA R S who was Henry Draper’s niece,
in 1896. Her sharp eye and keen Danish astronomer developed asystem that
memory enabled her to classify Ejnar Hertzsprung, Hertzsprung used to classify dwarf
who, together
thousands of spectra each month, and giant stars.
with Henry Norris
at up to three stars aminute. Russell, developed Henrietta Leavitt (1868-1921),
The team developed the Harvard the H-R diagram. who was in charge of photometry

18.
 STELLAR FELLOWSHIP FIRSTS
C A R E E R
In 1919, Harvard launched the
Henrietta Swan m
Leavitt worked Pickering Fellowship for women
as acomputer astronomers. The first recipient was
at Harvard \
British-born Cecilia Payne (1900-79),
Observatory from O
1893. By the who had studied at Cambridge but
time of her death left unqualified, as the university did -<
in 1921, she was
not give women degrees. She earned
Head of Stellar
Harvard’s first doctorate in astronomy, O
Photometry.
proving the link between spectral
ORION At the class and surface temperature. >
upper left of t n
Her contention -disputed at the
this well-known
time -that the Sun and stars are
constellation
is the red composed primarily of hydrogen and O
supergiant helium paved the way for adeeper
Betelgeuse; at
understanding of stellar physics.
the lower right
is the white She was the first woman professor,
O
supergiant Rigel. promoted through the ranks, to head
analysis, discovered 2400 variable their luminosity. This discovery her own astronomy department.
stars -types that repeatedly dim led to the “period-luminosity law” Annie Jump Cannon was the last
and brighten. which gave astronomers astandard winner of the Ellen Richards Prize
0
C O
In 1912, Leavitt was studying measurement to calculate stellar for women in science. She used
C
agroup of “Cepheid variables”, distances (a “standard candle”). her prize money to fund the Annie
D
known to be the same distance Henrietta was being considered for jump Cannon Award for female -<
from Earth, when she realised aNobel Prize when she died from astronomers. The first winner, in Z
CD
that their variability was linked to cancer, aged 54. 1934, was Cecilia Payne.
c n

>
PD
INSIDE INFO

THE H-R (HERTZSPRUNG-RUSSELL) DIAGRAM CD

r X
H
he H-R Diagram plots stellar luminosity
T on the vertical axis and temperature/ TEMPERATURE (°C)

spectral class on the horizontal axis. When 1 X 7 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 3 0 0 0

MILLIOM
presented like this, stars can be grouped
into regions. The vast majority -95 per
cent -lie in anarrow band running from
top left to bottom right. These are main
sequence stars. Studying the way these
stars range from hottest and brightest to
coolest and faintest gave an insight into
their life cycle.
There are several types of H-R Diagram.
The one shown here plots spectral
class/temperature against luminosity as
compared with the Sun. Brightest stars
are located near the top and faintest near
the bottom. Similarly, the hottest blue
stars are on the left and the coolest red

ones on the right. Main sequence stars

vary progressively from very hot/very
luminous bright blue stars at top left to
very cool/very faint red stars at bottom
right. The Sun, amain sequence star with
aluminosity of one, is located where the SPECTRAL CLASS
“1” line intersects the "G” class.
 I

HYDRA, SEXTANS,
CRATER and CORVUS
Ahuge serpent winds aquarter of the way around the sky.
This is Hydra, the largest constellation in the sky.

espite its considerable size, Hydra is neither
easy to identify nor does it boast many
notable objects. Its brightest star, of only
second magnitude, lies in ablank area of sky and is
appropriately called Alphard, meaning "the solitary one”
Small telescopes will show its bright centre and
surrounding glow, but on CCD images it is seen to
have anoticeable bar of stars and gas across its centre.
Our own Galaxy might look much like this when seen
from asimilar distance outside.

in Arabic. Hydra’s most recognisable feature is aloop of

stars south of Cancer that forms its head.
CLUSTER OF STARS
On the border of Hydra with Monoceros lies alarge open
cluster, M48, visible with binoculars. It is triangular in
shape and of similar apparent size to the full Moon. Small
APRIL SKY This
telescopes easily resolve its individual stars.
is afisheye view,
In central Hydra lies aremarkable planetary nebula.
looking south
from southern NGC 3242 can be found with small telescopes as a
France. It
blue-green disk of similar apparent size to the planet
includes Bootes,
Ursa Major,
Jupiter, and is popularly called the Ghost of Jupiter.
Leo, Hydra and On the southern border of Hydra with Centaurus
Corvus. lies M83, aspiral galaxy orientated face-on to us.
THE CROW, THE CUP AND THE SEXTANT
Two smaller constellations, Corvus and Crater, lie on
Hydra’s back. Crater has no objects of interest, but
Corvus contains afamous interacting pair of galaxies
called the Antennae. CCD images show long streamers
of stars and gas extending from the galaxies like the
feelers of an insect.
Between Hydra and Leo is the constellation Sextans,
introduced in the late 17th century by the Polish
astronomer Johannes Hevelius to commemorate
his instrument for measuring star positions. The
main object of interest in Sextans is NGC 3115, an
elongated galaxy known as the Spindle.

^THE THIRSTY CROW

none myth, Hydra represents the multi-headed water snake
fought by Hercules. But another story links Hydra with
Corvus and Crater. The god Apollo sent the crow with acup
to fetch water for asacrifice. But the greedy crow stopped or
the way to gorge on juicy figs. As an excuse for its lateness in
returning, the crow blamed the water snake for blocking
the spring. Apollo saw through the lie and placed
the crow in the sky on the back of the snake.
just out of reach of the cup so that it would
remain forever thirsty.
 ydra stretches from just north of the
H celestial equator into the southern
hemisphere. Since it is so extensive, different
parts are best seen at different times of the
year. The head is favourably placed in the
evening skies around March, while the tail
is best seen amonth or two later. The most

southerly parts of the constellation are below

the horizon for observers north of latitude 54

N G C 3 11 5 T h e degrees.
Spindle Galaxy
in Sextans, an
example of a ABBREVIATION Hya
# lenticular galaxy. BEST SEASON

February-June
BRIGHTEST S TA R

4 -

UAlphard
♦ i \
M 4 8
. 2 7

CRATER \ty/l NGC 3242*

L R R A /
HYDRA /
/
M B S

/PYXIS
i p M /

!4 /
ANTLIA /
/

-UPUS /
VELA
 YES on the SKY
The latest generation of giant telescopes combines elaborate engineering,
computer control and high-precision optics to transform our view of the universe.

^SPACE STARS
puntil the 1980s, the
largest functional telescope JADEN MEINEL
in the world was the Hale
stronomer Aden Meinel of the
Telescope at Mount Palomar in
California. This huge instrument
A University of Arizona has had along
and distinguished career which included
gathered light using aconcave glass ■■ \

involvement in the construction of large

mirror some 5.08m in diameter.
Completed in 1948, it reigned
supreme for more than four
decades, and seemed to represent
the upper limit of what atelescope
could achieve. Yet within afew
telescopes at Kitt Peak National Observatory
(where he served as director from 1958-
1961) and elsewhere. He pioneered the
multiple mirror design with the MMT, part
of the Whipple Observatory at Mount
Hopkins, Arizona, and was also an early and
enthusiastic advocate of solar electric power.
Now retired, he still acts as aconsultant to MMT PIONEER
NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Meinel at the McDonald

Observatory, Texas, in 1955.

MIRRORS TO years, the Hale was not only it was swung around in its cradle.
THE SKY The
surpassed but dwarfed by The first of the new generation
MMT operated
using six mirrors telescopes twice its size or more. of giant telescopes got around
before asingle, So how much further might we be the problem by using an array of
honeycomb- able to push the technology? smaller hexagonal mirrors known as
structured mirror
was installed in cells, each precisely ground to take
2000. MULTIPLE MIRRORS its place in the larger curve. The
Like all telescopes of its time, the technique was pioneered by Aden
T W I N Hale Telescope relied on amirror Meinel (see Space Stars) with the
TELESCOPES ground from asingle piece of glass. Multiple Mirror Telescope (MMT).
Asummit view
of the Keck
However, this was subject to Perhaps surprisingly, the gaps
enormous stresses just from its own between the mirrors don’t affect
IInterferometer
itelescopes. iweight, which created distortions as the telescope’s performance, apart

\ ■- s

■: ! - ;
 y. ■

MEGA MIRROR (f)

from reducing its light-gathering An 8.2m mirror r u
power. As in any reflecting used in one
>
of the four
telescope, all that matters is that o
telescopes
light rays striking the mirror from m
that make up the
distant objects are reflected onto interferometric CO
VLT in Chile.
precise, convergent paths. O
However, multiple mirrors can m
still be prone to distortion as the
telescope spins and tilts. In order O
to maintain an accurate reflecting m
surface, the individual mirrors are GLOSSARY ^

continuously adjusted. Seeing: Distortion!

and turbulence |
introduced by |
ACTIVE OPTICS the atmosphere J
as light from f
Such constant and precise control, distant stars
known as “active optics”, is only passes through [
possible with the aid of computers, it, measured |
in avariety of f
which monitor and adjust the ways. Seeing f
normally imposes [
mirror shape using motorised
0
m
-<
m
CO
! called “adaptive optics” (see How method is applied to instruments
It Works). Advances in materials such as the Keck Telescopes on o
z
mean that many of these same Hawaii and the Very Large
techniques can be applied to a Telescope (VLT) in Chile. It allows □ :
astronomers to achieve the
new generation of single-mirror m

“actuator" pads attached to the
reverse of each mirror cell. The
actuators don’t just counter the
distortions introduced by the
mirror’s shifting weight, they
also introduce small additional
distortions of their own, to correct
those made as light passes through
the atmosphere. This technique is
severe limits on | c n
the capabilities ! instruments that are significantly equivalent resolution of an
of Earth-based | larger than the Hale. instrument ahundred metres or 5
telescopes. *
more in diameter (though the “light
Light Grasp: The ^ TEAM WORK grasp” -see Glossary -remains the
amount of light
that atelescope’s j Another major advance of recent same to each mirror). Through the
primary mirror years has been the ability to use of interferometry and adaptive
can collect, largely
combine the light from several optics, astronomers are now able to
dependent on its
d i a m e t e r. optical telescopes by atechnique overcome limitations imposed by
called interferometry. This complex astronomical “seeing” (see Glossary).

HOW IT WORKS

^ADAPTIVE OPTICS
light “wavefront”
In
order
to
use
measure adaptive
distortions optics,
in the atelescope
path of distantmust
light as distorted by passage
through atmosphere
it passes through the lower atmosphere. Asensor
equipped with alarge number of small lenses
monitors incoming light from the target object and
acomputer uses this information to calculate the
phase of light waves from different parts of the
sky. Ideally they should be in step with one another, X
X

but atmospheric turbulence means that this is

rarely the case for more than afew milliseconds.
Signals sent to the actuators beneath different
parts of the mirror surface correct this before the
light is passed on through the telescope. Any
reflecting surface can be used to correct the light
corrected light passed
-not just the main parabolic mirror -and, as a on into telescope
result, older telescopes, such as the Hale, are now
fitted with adaptive optics. These sensors typically mirror surface
■m
require the target object to be reasonably bright,
but if it is not, then another nearby bright star can
actuators adjust
be used to measure atmospheric distortion in the shape of mirror
same direction, or an artificial “guide star” can be
projected Into the upper atmosphere using alaser.
COMING UP * . a s
s’

S E L F - TA P P I N G GRUB
SCREWS SCREW

-jY"
^ildamodel
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SOLAR
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!Taking alook at the fascinating ^Discover more about the chemical

and complex world that is Titan cycles that control and shape
-the largest of Saturn’s many Earth and Titan.
m o o n s .

Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,

!Scientists harbour hopes for life C€ Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 STS
WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts. ^
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Learn how life on this frozen moon Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.

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!Patrick Moore shares some of the
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BUILD AMODEL

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!SYSTEM -f- 3^
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r

T I TA N
i

Discovering why Saturn's

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MYSTERIOUS moon is
so eerily EARTH-LIKE . V -

Kir'

WITH THIS ISSUE: 22-TOOTH GEAR AND GEAR ARM TO COMPLETE SATURN PHASE
BUILD AMODEL

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SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE
0
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!When assembling parts, lay them on a !All tools must be used with care,
Saturn's mysterious moon Titan -what secrets lie flat table and keep screws and all small following any safety guidelines provided
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!The publisher reserves the right to for any injuries caused by any tools or
MISSIONS alter parts and their design at any time. materials.

8
Find out what the Huygens lander discovered when it
sank down into the depths of Titan's atmosphere.
IMAGE GALLERY
More spectacular views of the Saturnian system, this
time images of the giant moon Titan.
THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY
14
Cosmic legend Sir Patrick Moore joins us once again
to give us his personal highlights of the Space Age.
S TA R M A P #
18
This issue, enjoy locating three constellations:
Capricornus, Microscopium and Piscis Austrinus.
S PA C E S C I E N C E
20
We investigate the similarities between Earth's water CREDITS 11 ■■ I I I
cycles and Titan's methane cycles. IMAGES: FC NASA/JPL; 2-3 NOAO/AURA/NSF/REU Program,
NASA, (r) Eaglemoss/SImon (tr,bc,br) Pikaia Imaging; 20-21 (c)
UNEXPLAINED Anning; 4-5{tl,tr) NASA/JPL, (be) Science Photo Library, (b) Pikaia
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(bl,c,br) NASA/JPL; 8-9 ESA (br) TopFoto, (cr) Science Photo
outer solar system to seed life on Titan?
NASA; 10-11 {cl,c,tr) NASA/JPL, Library/Dr MRohde, GBF, (br)
(br) ESA; 12-13 Science Photo ESA.

Library/Mark Garlick; 14-15 (tl)

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 -<

■COMPLETE
o
7 0
CO

‘ O
>

2Phase 6 7 0
CO

'^ith tjiis issue you can complete the sixth phase

^of Stage 2of the solar system model and add
Saturn t6 the already completed Phase 5. o
□

2)

ou have ruow collected ail the components

to build the sixth phase of Stage 2of your
solar system mode], in which you add the
pfenet Saturn and its three largest moons -Titan,
^Rhea and lapetus -along with the gear set that
drives them. You can also attach the gear chain
that will link to Uranus in thj^next phase. The
assembly instructions for this phase are on pages
3-5 of Issue 26 of Build AModel Solar System. SATURN The completed
Agrub screw in the gear collar enables the Phase 6of Stage 2of
your solar system model.
planet support arm to be slackened off so that This drives the beautiful
^Saturn can be aligned against its name on the base ringed planet Saturn in
'plate and top engraved gear. Gently re-tighten the orbit around Jupiter and
grub screw once Saturn is aligned. the five inner planets.
 Amid the intensely cold temperatures

T TA N on the complex world of Titan, methane

does the work of water to create an eerily
Earth-like landscape.

itan is by far Saturn’s biggest satellite -at it is much thicker than the methane suggested, SEASONAL CHANGES

more than 5000km across it dwarfs even its
largest neighbours, Rhea and lapetus.
Larger than the planet Mercury, it was once
thought to be the largest moon in the solar system,
before space probes revealed its extensive
atmosphere and showed that it is just bested by
Jupiter’s largest satellite, Ganymede.
Despite its size, we knew very little about
Titan until recently. It was discovered by Dutch
astronomer Christiaan Huygens in 1655 and
named after the giants of Greek mythology.
Before the space age, spectroscopic studies
of its light revealed the presence of methane
(CH4), suggesting the moon had asubstantial /
and in fact consists largely of nitrogen. Methane These images of Titan
taken in October 2005
only forms 1.6 per cent of the atmosphere, but (above, left), December
even this is enough to form clouds and give the air 2005 (centre) and January
its distinctive colour. Other clouds seem to form 2006 (above right) show
atmospheric changes,
from avariety of other lightweight “hydrocarbon” particularly at the north
chemicals such as ethane.
and south poles.
Titan’s atmosphere encouraged many scientists
to speculate that the moon might have an entire
weather system based on methane, and, in order
to find out, the Cassini Saturn orbiter was launched
towards Saturn in 1997. Cassini carried alander,
destined for the surface of the mysterious satellite.
0 0 0

atmosphere. Titan can only hold on to its cloak of .^1 I t

MOON PROFILE T I TA N
gases because of its own relatively strong gravity,
and because the low temperatures this far out Wil

cause gas molecules to move sluggishly -on a

warmer world they would simply evaporate.

VISITING TITAN
When Voyager 1flew past Saturn in 1980, it i l i i

was deliberately put on acourse that brought it

close to Titan, but the pictures it sent back were
tantalisingly vague. The moon was cloaked in
auniform orange haze that completely hid the
surface. Analysis of the atmosphere showed that
 Mi CO
O
■ m

itan’s “slippery” surface is strong evidence 7D

T that the icy crust conceals aglobal ocean MMt»r tee CO
of water perhaps hundreds of kilometres ami rock

crtiat wkeh
deep. The upper layer, about 100km coating of CO
thick, is dominated by water ice, methane ice

mixed with rock and with athin m

-liquid
surface coating of methane ice in w a t e r

places. The ocean might be cold,

owing its existence to achange in Q
the properties of ice under high
pressures {as on Ganymede and
Callisto -see Issue 25, Space D
Science), but it’s thought more
likely that the waters are relatively
warm. According to one model,
Ti t a n ’ s c o r e c o n t a i n s r o c k w i t h
s u f fi c i e n t r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l t o

keep the upper ocean in aliquid state.

Another suggestion is that chemical
changes in amethane-rich mantle are Silicate

rock core
responsible for much of Titan’s internal heat.

COLOURFUL HAZE and also infrared cameras and radar capable of

Aslice of Titan's
peering through the haze to image the ground
atmosphere, indicating
the composition of beneath. The space probe has since transformed
chemicals that make our understanding of aworld that is perhaps the
up its colourful hues. most strangely Earth-like in our solar system.

complex, energy-rich B E N E AT H T H E C L O U D S
organic molecules,
known as tholins, Maps of Titan reveal aworld with avariety of
create adistinctive
different terrains. Craters are few and far between,
purple haze above
8 0 k m
suggesting that processes are at work to resurface
the moon on quite short timescales. The overa
feel of Titan ssurface is smooth and undulating
haze of condensing
organic chemicals with sharp peaks eroded into soft curves, and
at 60-80km

caps the orange

sinuous valleys winding their way through rolling
fog of the lower highlands towards flat basins. Clearly Titan’s
atmosphere
landscape is being constantly eroded, and much of
the erosion seems to be fluvial (river-like). The
driving force behind this erosion seems to be a
methane cycle” that transports the chemical
methane clouds
around the planet and causes heavy seasonal
around 20km

rainfalls that smooth and shape the landscape

The most prominent individual feature is alarge.
bright area close to the equator. Known as Xanadu,
methane rainfall in

lower atmosphere
this region is the size of Australia. Cassini’s infrared
cameras show warmer areas as bright, and colder
areas as dark (though the average temperature is
still -180°C). The brightest spots of all may mark
active “cryovolcanoes vents through which
 i i
IXI
ine of the clearest signs that Titan is an active world comes
0 from the methane in its atmosphere. Methane is arelatively
unstable molecule, easily broken down by radiation from the Sun.
Even the large amounts of methane currently present In the air would
disappear completely in about 50 million years, so something is
clearly replenishing it.
One potential source, the ice from comet impacts, can be ruled
out because there are few traces of other chemicals such as carbon
monoxide that comets would also deliver. This leaves two other
potential sources of methane: volcanic activity and methane-creating
bacteria. Evidence for volcanoes on Titan seems strong, but the case
for life Is more Intriguing (see Unexplained).
T I TA N ' S L A K E S T h i s
false-colour radar image
shows areas of liquid on
Ti t a n ' s s u r f a c e . D a r k
regions, which have
r e fl e c t e d l e s s o f t h e
broadcast radar signal.
indicate lakes possibly
composed of liquid
methane.
ON THE SEA SHORE
This radar image shows
what appears to be a
s h o r e l i n e o n Ti t a n . T h e
light-coloured, textured
region on the left seems
to indicate channels
carved by fluid, while the
smoother dark area on
the right appears to
outline bays.
CO
to expect, The conical lander was even designed
to float in case it came down in one of the widely- o
predicted methane seas. When the haze cleared
and Huygens deployed its cameras, the images
5
TO
it sent back were of acoastline with an offshore
CO
island, smooth eroded highlands (named Adiri),
river deltas and adark plain of dunes. However, CO
the region where it touched down was dry.
m
titan's secrets revealed
Huygens came down in ariver delta region near O
Adiri, surrounded by rocks and pebbles that were c
probably swept down from the nearby “coast”
D
when the river had last flowed. Judging by their m
appearance, the rocks are amixture of rock and
water ice, and therefore Titan’s crust is probably a
rock/ice mix similar to other Saturnian moons. As
o
for Titan’s sands, they may contain ash erupted
from cryovolcanoes, or dark hydrocarbon “snow >
that has rained down from the sky.
Huygens’ brief report from the surface of
Titan revealed many other secrets. It showed, for
example, that the atmosphere is opaque from the
moon’s surface as we the probe’s sensors could
not locate the Sun and the entire landscape was
covered in adusky twilight. What’s more, the slow
moving, dense atmosphere and comparatively low
gravity mean that aunique experience may await
the first astronauts to explore this moon. Equipped
with artificial “wings”, they would be able to fly like
birds over the strange alien landscape.
M
GSANT THAT B
C-'W
m t -
- ■ &
r:..
‘ m
! \ .
Although journeying across the solar system to
encounter Saturn was afeat in itself, the highlight of
the Cassini-Huygens mission was undoubtedly the
Titan landing by the ESA-built probe.

aunched aboard the Cassini separation mechanism and the

spacecraft in October 1997, drogue parachute which was used
the Huygens probe was a to provide the initial deceleration
dormant passenger for the 67-year as the probe entered Titan’s
journey to Saturn, only being atmosphere. After entry, the ENA
awoken every six months for regular was jettisoned, releasing the DM to
health checks. descend alone.

I ilH'
The DM carried six scientific
Cl htkhmmremr instruments. White some analysed
the composition of the atmosphere
:■ Built by the European Space The DM comprised an aluminium and the strength and direction
Agency, the 318kg probe consisted shell and inner structure containing of the zonal winds, another

of two parts: the Entry Assembly
(ENA) and the Descent Module
(DM). The ENA provided the
attachment to Cassini, the
all the experiments and probe suite was designed to determine
support subsystems. This included the properties of the surface at
the descent parachutes and spin the landing site, including the
control devices. composition of the surface material
On 17 December 2004, the
Cassini spacecraft, with the Huygens
An artist's probe still attached to its side,
impression of performed amanoeuvre that placed
the different it on adirect impact trajectory with
stages of
Titan, by far the largest of Saturn’s
Huygen's
2.2-hour descent moons. On 25 December, the
to Titan's surface. 1Spin/Eject Device (SED) separated
 ecause of the great distance
B involved, it was impossible
to command the Huygens lander
directly from Earth. As aresult,
the probe was automatically
managed by the Command Data
Management Subsystem aboard
'■V.
Cassini. Indeed, the complete
ti: probe consisted of the lander.
which descended to the surface

of Titan, and the probe support

equipment (PSE), which
remained attached to the
orbiter.
The PSE contained electronics
that tracked the probe. It
recovered the data gathered
«:§■■■ ■
during the probe’s descent and
TRACKING HUYGENS As Huygen's
processed and delivered the h e a d e d t o w a r d s Ti t a n , C a s s i n i f t

data to the orbiter that then continued to track the lander via the
transmitted it to Earth. PSE attached to the spacecraft.

Huygens from Cassini, giving the 140km above the surface, having than water and that there was %
probe aspin to stabilise it in flight. An artist's slowed to 600km/h, and begun evidence of both rain and liquid ;p
On 14 January 2005, Huygens to descend below athree-metre
concept of erosion in the surrounding rocks. : l i

arrived at Titan. Shortly before it
entered the atmosphere 1270km
above the surface, at aspeed of
around 1600km/h, it turned on its
transmitters.
Three minutes later, aseries
of parachutes were deployed at
aheight of 170-190km. After
19 minutes, the probe was 110-
Huygens drogue parachute, just over two
separating
from Cassini.
hours later, the probe impacted
the surface and continued to
gather data for two further hours,
collecting atotal of four hours 36
minutes of data.
Among the discoveries that
Huygens made were that Titan has
liquid methane on its surface rather
Huygens also found that Titan’s .:
rocks are dirty ice rather than the
silicate rocks found on Earth. In
addition, the probe was perfectly
placed to obtain an accurate
surface temperature reading. This
confirmed the findings of previous
missions to Saturn, as it recorded a
temperature of ~179"’C.^ :"

H E AT S H I E L D
Huygen's DM was
fi t t e d w i t h a f r o n t
shield covered
in thermal tiles,
which protected it
from the intense
heat as Huygens
entered Titan's

atmosphere.

WAITING
TO LAUNCH
The Cassini
5^ Wk spacecraft, with
life Huygens on the
right, sits on
Launch Pad 40 at

Cape Canaveral
Air Station. .
 [2] NATURAL COLOUR
This Image of Titan
(inset, far left) -the
surface obscured by a >
photochemical smog O
-was captured in August m
2007 some 2.4 million

kilometres from the giant G)

m o o n .
>
[3] HUYGENS DESCENT
These landscapes. m
captured on 14 January
2005, are flattened - <
projections of the view
from the descent of

the ESA probe at four

different altitudes above
t h e s u r f a c e o f Ti t a n .

[4] HUYGENS LANDING

This artist's impression
shows the descent and

landing sequence of
the Huygens probe as It
parachutes gently down
t o t h e s u r f a c e o f Ti t a n .

'I
F ,Zl
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suggests that it was just unlucky, since the rainfall zones and lakes migrate from one pole to another throughout Titan's long seasons.
The evidence for lightning occurring on Titan is growing, though it's hard to explain in an atmosphere bereft of water vapour.
 )

PATRICK MOOR
50 YEARS
o r SPACE

G GHTS
S PA C E A G E T h e
Patrick Moore looks back on his 50 years as the face space race began
in October 1957
of astronomy for British television viewers and relates with the launch of

some of his personal highlights. Sputnik 1putting

Russia in the lead.

began my BBC television series

The Sky at Night in April 1957,
six months before the launch of

Sputnik 1, and it has not missed a

month since then; to date, 666
programmes. Ihave presented 665
of them, missing one because Iate
the wrong sort of goose egg! While
Ihave mentioned many of them in
my previous articles, here is a
personal view of the highlights.

4October 1957
Obviously Imust begin with
Sputnik 1, because it was this
which ushered in the new era. It

was Russia’s great moment, and

paved the way for everything that
followed. The Americans were not

pleased, but they only had

themselves to blame.

Wernher von Braun, the man

w h o h a d m a s t e r m i n d e d H i t l e r ’s V 2

rockets, then had gone to the USA

after Germany surrendered, knew
more about rockets than anyone
else outside the USSR, but only
after Sputnik 1was he given the
“go-ahead”. He quickly produced
Explorer 1, the first American
 m

EXPLORER 1The
’’ responded to hemisphere is essentially the same
lutnik with as the hemisphere we have always m
^KBcpIorer 1,■ the seen and known.
brainchild of CO
^ernher von I
raun (far right). 12 April 1961
O
> Of course, Yuri Gagarin’s flight
ranks as ahighlight. He was the
first man in space, and for this he
will always be remembered. (When O
Italked with him, soon after he
*
returned to Earth, he was suitably >
CO
modest.)
TO
21 July 1969 o
Less than adecade separated
Gagarin’s brief foray into space and
O
the Apollo 11 mission, when Neil
Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin stepped
out onto the bleak rock of the lunar

Sea of Tranquillity.
As they did so, Iwas
0
70
broadcasting alive commentary >.
on BBC television, and Iwas 'Xi

immensely relieved to hear Neil’s n

S PA C E M A N T h e 7 \
Soviets once again voice relating the historic landing.
pipped the US to Remember, there was no provision
the post by o
for rescue if things had gone wrong.
launching the first o
7 D
m a n - Yu r i
Gagarin -into ■.V
CO

C n
O
“<
m
>
0 0

0 0
■pD
satellite, but he could have done so >
months earlier. O
m

4October 1959
o
My next highlight is rather a X
%
personal one -the first view of the m

far side of the Moon, which is o

X
always turned away from Earth and
0 0
about which we had no definite
information.

The Russians were again in the

lead; they sent their probe Luna
3on around trip, and obtained
images that were blurred by
today’s standards but which were
good enough to show that the far a

13 November 1971
Then came Mariner 9, which
entered orbit round Mars and gave
us our first views of the magnificent
canyons and volcanoes.
Who could fail to be impressed
by Olympus Mons, three times the
height of our Everest, and crowned
by ahuge caldera? True there
were no obvious signs of life, and
certainly no canals, but there were
indications that Mars had once
been awarmer, wetter world.
The concept of aMartian Base
began to look much less far-fetched
than the idea of reaching the Moon
had seemed at any time before
Sputnik 1.
July/September 1976
Other highlights must include the
first landings on Mars by the
Vikings, and the first close-range
views of Mercury and Jupiter, but I
will always have aparticular regard
for Voyager 2, which passed Jupiter
and then went on to Saturn; the
images of the rings sent back in
1981 were breathtaking indeed.
13 March 1986
Then we welcomed Halley’s Comet,
and the European probe Giotto
ventured right inside it; for the first
time we found out what acometary
nucleus was really like. Ihave mixed
memories of that encounter. Iwas
doing aTV commentary from ESA
[European Space Agency] J
16,
Arepair mission put matters
right, and the telescope operated as
well as had ever been expected.
As Iwrite these words, it is still
functioning, having survived all
the attacks of the accountants and
other sworn enemies of scientific
research. Its mirror, 94 inches
across, is much smaller than some
of the new telescopes on terra
firma, but seeing conditions are
perfect all the time, and there is no
problem with glaring artificial lights.
GIOTTO The
probe gave headquarters, with the world’s
u s o u r fi r s t leading experts, but my Sky at Night
close-up view
was hijacked by the prestigious
of acomet. I
will need to Panorama programme, with
live to be 158 disastrous results. It really was not my
years old to see fault: Idid my best. Ifear Iwill not be
Halley's Comet
again.
around to present aprogramme at
Halley’s next return, unless of course I
live to the advanced age of ahundred
and fifty eight...
24 April 1990
This was one of the most important
events of all, as Iremember
thinking as Isat in the Cape
Canaveral audience and watched
Hubble soar aloft.
HUBBLE The But all was not well, as became
bungle with apparent as soon as the first
the main mirror
images were transmitted. By an
made the space
telescope ahuge incredible bungle, the mirror had
disappointment been wrongly figured and for a
until the Shuttle
while the mood at NASA verged o n
(right) embarked
the mass suicidal. Yet in this crisis
on arepair
mission to sort the space planners proved to be
matters out. highly efficient.
 H
BREAKTHROUGHS

^GREAT DiSCOVERIES m
c/)

>VALLES MARINERIS, the Mariner Valley on

Mars. It dwarfs our Grand Canyon, and in the O
future it will certainly become apopular tourist TO
centre. It is atectonic feature, rather than a
system of old riverbeds. So far as we know, there
is nothing else quite like it in the solar system.
O
n

4THE RINGS OF SATURN, as seen by the Cassini >

Orbiter. The rings are made up of ice crystals, and CO
from one side to the other the system spans
almost 275,000 kilometres. But the rings are 7D
less than one and ahalf kilometres thick. In fact S AT U R N
Cassini’s study of
O
there are many hundreds of ringlets and narrow I
the rings was a
gaps, so that the system is very complicated. revelation.
o

MARS ROVERS
remarkable. How long they will last
Spirit and
remains to be seen.
Opportunity
exceeded all
0
T 3
expectations with
their discoveries
15 January 2005 >

on Mars. Lastly, to my final highlight: the

landing of the Huygens probe on n
7 s
Titan, the main satellite of Saturn,
which is larger than Mercury and is
o
the only planetary satellite to have o
asubstantial atmosphere, denser 73
m
STILL GOING than ours and consisting mainly of C O
Ihave presented nitrogen, plus agood deal of
665 programmes o n
methane.
of The Sky At O
Night since It In one way Iam fortunate; I - <
began in April have lived through the whole of m

1957, missing just >

the Space Age, and in avery minor 7 3
one, thanks to CO

the wrong kind of way Ihave been involved both as

O
23 April 1992 January 2004 goose eggl astronomer and as a‘publicist’. T 1

One development of great Launched in 2003, the incredible CO

TO
significance came with the work of Mars rovers. Spirit and Opportunity, >
COBE, the Cosmic Background began moving around, taking n

Explorer Satellite. It had long been pictures, analysing rocks and

X
known that we receive microwave making observations of all kinds. O
radiation, dating from very early in They were not expected to M m
X

the history of the universe.
It comes from all directions, and
to the dismay of cosmologists it
seemed to be absolutely uniform,
which simply did not fit the
accepted theory.
Then COBE detected variations
“amazingly small, but quite
definite. All was well. Theories
were rescued, and cosmologists
breathed sighs of relief.
remain active for very long, but
o
they are, to date, still in excellent I
condition and have survived all kinds H
i-i t n
of crises: Spirit’s upper panel was
covered with dust until an obliging
Martian wind cleaned the dust off;
then Opportunity became stuck in a
deep drift and had to struggle free.
If any spacecraft may be said to have V
exceeded all expectations, these two
a
have, and their results have been
CAPRICORN US ;
i

PISCIS AUSTRINUS
and MICROSCOPIUM
Agoat with the tail of afish frolics in the evening sky in August and
September, while next to it afish drinks water from ajug. These are
the southern constellations Capricornus and Piscis Austrinus.

C
apricornus is the smallest of the 12 DOUBLES
constellations of the zodiac and not
TIGHT CLUSTER Alpha Capricorni, named Algedi or Giedi, is awide
particularly prominent its brightest star, M30 has one of double star. It consists of ayellow giant of magnitude
Delta Capricorni, also known as Deneb Algedi, is of the densest
3.6, just over 100 light years away, and an unrelated
concentrations
magnitude 2.9. Capricornus is one of several supergiant of magnitude 4.3, nearly seven times
of stars ever
constellations in which the star labelled alpha is known in a farther off. The two stars can be seen separately with
not the brightest. globular cluster. sharp eyesight and are easily divided with binoculars.
Another easy double is Beta Capricorni, a
£
3rd-magnitude yellow giant with a6th-magnitude
companion visible through asmall telescope or even
^strong binoculars. In the south of the constellation lies
z

<M30, amodest globular cluster that appears as ahazy

Ipatch through small telescopes.
<

z
f !

DRINKING FISH

o Next to Capricornus lies Piscis Austrinus, representing

1
alarge fish drinking the water flowing from the jar
held by Aquarius to its north. In mythology, Piscis
K -

Austrinus was regarded as the parent of the two fish in

the zodiacal constellation of Pisces.

■* 4
t * Its most prominent feature is the Ist-magnitude
. % star Fomalhaut, which marks the fish's mouth. Beta

m ;■ ■■ f-
Piscis Austrini is awide double star of 4th and 8th

w . m i . magnitudes, divisible with asmall telescope. I

UNDER THE MICROSCOPE

Due south of Capricornus lies an obscure little
constellation called Microscopium -the microscope -
invented in the 18th century by the French astronomer
Nicolas Louis de Lacaille. Microscopium can be found
between Sagittarius and Piscis Austrinus. It contains
.no objects of note.
 I
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PHOENIX
I

CAPRIGDRNUg
PISCIS AUS#!IN»S n

^THEGdl^TGOD, c
apricornus and Piscis Austrinus are both
southern constellations, highest in the
O
CO
n
evening sky between August and October. o
Capricornus
like god Pan,wassaidby
inventor the
of Greeks to
represent
the famous the
goat¬
pipes of Pan. One
Capricornus is fully visible throughout the
southern hemisphere and as
“ D

day. Pan warned the other gods of the approach of aterrible far north as latitude 62°,
monster, Typhon. Pan himself escaped by jumping into a while Piscis Austrinus
river, where his lower half transformed into the tail of afish,
is fully visible up
which is why he is now depicted in the sky as agoat with a to 53° north.
Kfish’s tail. Zeus, leader of the gods, grappled with Typhon but Capricornus is a
Ithemonsterpulledoutthesinewsfromhishandsandfeet. constellation of the
IPanandHermesreplacedthesinews,allowingZeusto zodiac. The Sun
Ipursue and eventually defeat Typhon passes through it
iZeus buried Typhon from late January
under Mount !.r.
to mid February.
IEtna in Sicily.
Etna’s eruptions
L O C AT I O N MAP
are said to be

caused by the
ABBREVIATION PsA
fiery breath Iabbreviation Cap
of the buried ^BEST
SEASON BEST SEASON

m o n s t e r. August-September September-October
;brightest star BRIGHTEST S TA R

IDenebAlgedi[)2.9 Fomalhaut () 1.2

^ 1SIZERANKING40 SIZE RANKING 60

1 POSITION S/Equatorial POSITION S/Equatorial

 W AT E R
II water on Earth is in
A constant motion around
the planet, transforming
from one form to another by a
variety of chemical and physical
processes. Together these
processes make up our planet’s
water cycle (also known as its
hydrologic cycle), the most
significant of many cycles that help
regulate the climate, shape Earth’s
landscape and even modify its crust.
THE WATER CYCLE
The cycle has no beginning and no
end, and water can take many
different branches along the way.
To take atypical starting point,
water from the oceans may
evaporate into the air, before
condensing into clouds, and falling
from the sky as precipitation. Close
to the poles or at high altitudes, it
may be transformed into snow and
freeze into ice.
Over the continents, some
water may be absorbed by plants,
only to transpire back out into the
environment as vapour once again
through their leaves. More will
probably fall on the ground itself,
either flowing back along rivers to
the sea, or being absorbed into
water-bearing strata or “aquifers”,
where it may remain beneath the
ground for some time, before
emerging through springs.
At each stage, water is locked
away for agreater or lesser time
in aparticular “reservoir”. Earth’s
largest reservoirs of water are the
oceans, which probably account
2^
a n a
Earth and Titan both have climates controlled
by complex balances In the solid, liquid and
gaseous forms of asingle chemical -in one
case water, in the other methane.
S PA C E S TA R S
^BERNARD PALISSY (1510-1590)
FrenchHuguenot
scientist craftsman
Bernard Palissy and
was the first
person to describe accurately Earth*s
water cycle. Although little is known of his
background, Palissy was aristocratic and
educated in avariety of arts and sciences,
although he worked for aliving first as a
stained<glass maker and later as apotter.
He became interested in geology while
developing new ceramics, and collected
rocks and stones from alt over Europe,
publishing his ideas In two books, the best
known of which is Discours Admirabtes
(1580). While earlier theories of water
movement suggested that It flowed back
and forth between mountains and oceans «
through underground channels, Palissy |
suggested that alt surface water came |
from rainfall, and water flowed only from
the land to the sea.
ART AND SCIENCE Famous for his ceramic
ware, Bernard Palissy also lectured on natural
history, physics and agriculture.
si
water vapour
exchange
with living
organisms
WTJ]
1.
.
TJ-I
m
:e'
 CO
for about 97 per cent of all water, 7 0
but vapour in the atmosphere, >
subterranean groundwater and ice T I TA N ’ S W E AT H E R PAT T E R N S O
at the poles and in glaciers also m
he large-scale weather patterns on Titan are much simpler than those on
contain significant amounts. T Earth, thanks largely to the moon’s stow rotation. This makes coriolis forces, CO
which generate many of the circulation patterns found on other planets, negligible O
A N I N T R I C AT E W E B and allows the atmosphere to form asingle huge Hadley cell (see Glossary) that
m
transfers warm air from the moon’s “summer” pole towards the winter hemisphere.
Other important elements follow
i Titan’s seasons are governed by Saturn’s seasons, so spring, summer, autumn and
s cycles throughout the environment winter last for seven years each. It seems that liquid methane can only survive on o
that mirror and sometimes
the surface during the winter, m
interact with the water cycle. so as one hemisphere moves
The most famous example is the into spring, the methane from 0
the lakes evaporates and is
1
i< carbon cycle, by which carbon is carried around to the other
transferred between rocks and >
'i side of the planet. Here it H
living organisms and through condenses to form clouds, and m
■I y o
atmospheric carbon dioxide. r a i n s b a c k d o w n t o r e fi l l t h e
Interaction between water, rock >
autumn hemisphere’s dried-out
Z
take basins.
and gas can lock carbon dioxide D
into carbonate minerals.

Because these cycles form CLOUDING OVER m

complex loops, changing Agiant cloud system hovers over

e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s c a n a ff e c t Titan’s north pole. The condensates
>
from these clouds may be the source
the proportions of water stored in of liquids that fill Titan’s fakes. m

different reservoirs and the length O

of time they remain there. The -<
o
amount of water in the atmosphere CCthe cycle of life is intricately tied In the same way, conditions on
m
or in surface ice can also influence UP WITH THE CYCLE OF WATER.” Titan are just right for methane to C O

the planet’s absorption or reflection Jacques Cousteau exist as ice, liquid and vapour, and
of sunlight, so an intricate web of G L O S S A R Y so it’s little wonder that this giant
interactions keeps Earth’s climate in atmosphere, gravity and Hadley cell: moon has a“methane cycle’’ that
Alarge cell of
delicate balance, but can also cause particular position in the solar atmospheric
parallel’s Earth.
it to swing violently back and forth. system. These combine to create convection that The dominant “loop” of Titan’s
wraps around a
aspecial environment where cycle seems to be the evaporation
planet, parallel to its
PARALLELS ON TITAN water can exist in solid, liquid equator, and carries of liquid methane in its lakes (and
air from warm to
Earth’s hydrologic cycle owes and gaseous forms, and easily perhaps sublimation of methane ice
cold regions.
its existence to our planet’s transform from one to the other. directly into vapour), followed by
precipitation back to the ground as
snow or rainfall.

AFINE BALANCE
Titan’s atmosphere, lakes and
surface ice seem to be the moon’s

major methane reservoirs. The

system seems to be alot simpler
than Earth’s, but it’s possible for
f p i
long and short-term climate
changes to affect the balance
between the reservoirs, and for the
methane cycle in turn to influence
the climate. This seems to be just
m what happens as Titan moves
through its long cycle of seasons
(see Inside Info).

<5T
 Did Lrb lane
J J A W
Some astronomers think there might be
microbes living on Titan, and that they
started life much closer to home...

urviving in the frozen conditions of Saturn’s LOST IN SPACE

S
GIANT IMPACT Adeadly
asteroid strikes Earth in
giant moon Titan would present unique Throughout its 4.5 billion-year history, Earth has
an artist's impression.
challenges to any organism, but scientists been continually bombarded by impacts from above. Scientists believe
re reluctant to give up hope of finding life there space. Despite our planet’s strong gravity, many of that similar impacts have
just yet. Exploration has only just begun and, while the fragments of surface rock thrown off in the scattered fragments of
o u r
planet's crust across
the Cassini orbiter continues to make regular flybys largest impacts will have reached speeds above the solar system.
of Titan, it seems anew discovery every few Earth’s "escape velocity’’ (see Glossary) -flung into
months increases the chances that something interplanetary space, never to return.
might survive there (see Breakthroughs). When Brett Gladman of the University of British
If life is found on Titan, it could have aprofound Columbia at Vancouver calculated the effects of an
O L . O S S A R Y
influence on the prospects for life elsewhere in impact similar to the one that wiped out the Escape velocity: The
our galaxy and beyond. But life on Titan’s surface dinosaurs, he found that about 600 million speed at which an object
must move in order to
might not have come about through independent individual fragments of rock would have escaped overcome the gravity
evolution -according to ateam of Canadian into their own orbits around the Sun. of aplanet or moon.
Earth’s escape velocity is
scientists, it could instead have "stowed away’’ But not all of these fragments simply settled 11 . 2 k m / s .
from Earth. in orbits close to Earth. Some entered orbits that

/ears, where they would have been pulled to their
doom by these planets’ own gravity. Any satellites
in the way would have been sitting ducks
Focusin on satellites that are potential havens for
extra-terrestrial life, Gladman found that, typically.
about 100 fragments from alarge impact might
have struck Jupiter’s icy moon Europa, while about
20 would have hit Titan.
L O N E LY M I C R O B E S
X
herever any life on Titan came from, it would have to feed on
w something in order to generate energy. Archaen microbes on
Earth can metabolise hydrogen and larger “organic” compounds such
>
as acetylene, but these produce only abare minimum of energy. A
much richer food source comes from far larger molecules known as
tholins. These complex clusters, containing hundreds of atoms, are m
also thought to be astepping stone towards the development of life. o
Cassini’s 2007 discovery of large tholins in Titan’s atmosphere
significantly increases the chances of life surviving and perhaps even
developing independently on Titan. 0
O

Life on Earth has thrived for more than 3.5 billion U

r
/ears, mostly in the form of microscopic bacteria atmosphere would mean asofter T l
50 it’s almost certain that some microbes impact. And while Europa’s surface
have found themselves ejected into space by is ahostile near-vacuum. Titan’s is
>
major impacts, and that afew have reached the rich in organic chemicals that could
outer solar system. The big question is whether act as afood source. D

anything could survive the trip, and could then The prospects for survival would o
adapt to conditions on these cold, icy moons depend on exactly what kind of
The chances have been boosted by the bacteria made the trip anything
discovery of “extremophile” bacteria that are that required oxygen to s u r v i v e >
capable of surviving, and sometimes even thriving. would clearly be doomed, but
! O
in the most hostile of conditions. Some bacteria much of life on Earth is in the form

have certainly survived exposure to space for of "archaea” -organisms that can
periods of afew years, but it s impossible to know feed on hydrogen compounds
if amicrobe could survive amillion-year trip. to produce methane. Some
Assuming that asimple organism survived the astronomers have suggested
shock of its Initial ejection and the long exposure asignificant part of Titan’s
to space, the next challenge would be arrival EXTREMOPHILE
atmospheric methane could come from such
Microbes such as this cold-
on another world. Here Gladman’s team found bacteria, but even if that proves to be the case.
lovinq archaen bacterium
Ife from
COMING ISSUE

H
SYSTEM M
aprecision-engiimee
31)

EERED orrery
!. lURQUOlSE a

I■I A t ' l t e d
URANUS
the
PLANFf URANli te'escopica- e

J - ' T

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’UWET
moon ami3VERTJ^fSUP
PORT ARM

URANUS’ MODN
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■1:

!We begin our tour of Uranus -the The latest step-by-step guide to
first of the ice giants, and aworld building Stage 2, Phase 7of your
curiously tipped on its side. solar system model.

!The story of space hero William

Herschel -the astronomer who Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,
C€ Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 STS
discovered Uranus and uncovered WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
Keep out of reach of children. Keep this information for reference.
many other cosmic mysteries. Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.

!Learn more about Voyager 2’s

journey through the solar system I

and its encounter with Uranus.

 Loosely thread two grub screws (M3G 5mm) into the
gear collar (31) as shown. Construct the Uranus gear
set by creating a“sandwich”, with the 91-tooth gear (62)
underneath and the 106-tooth gear (51) on top, and the
gear collar (31) and gear spindle (33) in the middle. Hold
these elements in place with three crosshead self-tapping
screws (M2.3S 6mm) at the top and bottom.

3 3

M 3 G
» ] : 3 1
5 m m

/ I
»

2 spindle (33) by tightening the grub screw

Lock the gear collar (31) to the gear

(M3G 5mm).
W A S
6 2

^6mm J M 2 . 3 S
B m m

Create the small gear “sandwich” with the 37-tooth

3 gear (56) at the top, the planet gear arm (50), gear
axle 1(70) and gear axle 2(71) in the centre, and the
22-tooth gear (48) at the bottom. Ensure gear axle 1(70)
goes on top as shown. Fix these elements in place with
two crosshead self-tapping screws -use the last
remaining 6mm M2.3S for the top and the one longer M 3 G
8mm M2.3S for the bottom. 5 m m

No Part Qty
0 9 URANUS SUPPORT ARM 1

31 GEAR COLLAR 1

3 3 PLANET SPINDLE 1

4 8 22-TOOTH GEAR 1

5 0 PLANET GEAR ARM 1

5 1 106-T00TH GEAR 1

5 6 37-TOOTH GEAR 1

6 2 91-TOOTH GEAR 1

7 0 GEAR AXLE 1 1

7 1 GEAR AXLE 2 1

y/Removethebaseplate(65)fromyourpreviously
^completed Stage 2Phase 6by loosening the grub
U R A PLANET URANUS 1

U M O URANUS’S MOON 1
screw in the column support (66) using a2.0mm alien
M 3 G GRUB SCREW 5mm 3
key -see Issue 1, page 10. (Keep the assembly
M2.3S S E L F - TA P P I N G SCREW 6mm 7 fi
upright to ensure you don’t lose the planets -or
M2.3S S E L F - TA P P I N G SCREW 8mm 1
remove the planets for safe-keeping while completing
W A S PLASTIC WASHER 2
the next steps.)
 ■i

<
O
c z
TO
L n
O

TO
LD
<
CO

O
a
m
r

Slip one plastic washer (WAS) onto the

5 protruding top of the planet spindle (33) of W A S
1
the large gear “sandwich". Slide the entire U3

sandwich” up the central column (64) and mesh

6 theSlipcentral
the upper 106-tooth gear (51) with the 22-tooth the second plastic washer (WAS) onto U
gear (48) on the underside of the planet gear arm column and engage it around the C O

previously assembled in Phase 6. protruding lower rim of the planet spindle (33). H
>
Slide the small gear “sandwich" up the central G)
m
column, mesh the two gears and secure the entire
r o
stage by tightening a5mm grub screw (M3G) into “ U
the planet gear arm (50). Refit the central column X
0 9
(64) to the column support (66) and tighten the >
CO
grub screw using a2.0mm alien key.

7
Now attach the

Uranus support
arm (09) to the large
gear set. Feed the
arm into the

designated hole on the

collar and secure with a

grub screw (M3G 5mm).r A - ^

Locate the pin at the base
of planet Uranus (URA) K
i r *
with the hole in the top
end of the arm. (Note:
the moon is supplied pre¬
assembled to the planet, M S G
5 m m
so do not detach it.)
8 m m
 URANUS
The seventh planet from the Sun is
the first of the solar system's "Ice
giants" -acold blue-green world tilted
dramatically on its side.

ranus lies roughly twice as far from the

Sun as its inner neighbour Saturn, and
usually hovers on the limit of naked-eye
visibility from Earth. As aresult it was the first
planet discovered in the telescopic era, and
remained little more than ashapeless blue-green
blob in even the most powerful Earth-based
telescopes until the 1980s.

DISCOVERING URANUS
Despite this, astronomers still managed to learn

some basic details about the planet. Spectrography

of its light revealed that the distinctive colour of
Uranus comes from asmall amount (2.3 per cent)
of methane in its atmosphere. This methane, which
absorbs red light, means that the planet only
reflects back light with abluish tinge. Careful
observations when Uranus passed in front of astar
in 1977 also showed aseries of rings around the
planet, which caused the star’s light to flicker
several times just before and after total eclipse. BRIGHT CLOUDS

From our point of view on Earth, the rings The Hubble Space
Telescope has found as
appeared to loop “above” and “below” the planet, many as 20 clouds on
confirming asuspicion that Uranus is aworld Uranus -some can be

tilted sharply over to one side relative to the solar seen in this HST image.
m

o o o

PLANET PROFILE
URANUS system’s standard “upright” position.
It took the brief visit of Voyager 2in 1986 to
give us some understanding of this complex world
though as the space probe departed, it left many
mysteries in its wake. In the next issue, we will
look at Uranus’ rings and moons in more detail,
m but for the moment, we’ll concentrate on the
planet itself.

AWORLD ON ITS SIDE

The most striking feature of Uranus is its bizarre

tilt. While some planets (for example Mercury and
Jupiter) orbit the Sun almost “bolt upright”, and
 o

ranus cold upper atmosphere is 7’J

U dominated by hydrogen and helium, with CO
watar and roughly 2.3 per cent methane mixed into
ammonia “ices”
it as well. Uniquely, Uranus* weak gravity CO
allows it to form ahuge "corona” of hydrogen
rock and
that extends out to twice the planet’s own m
ice core _

radius. Beneath the placid surface lie complex

layers of clouds made from various chemicals
including water. Roughly 5000km below the o
hydrogen, visible surface lies achurning mantle rich in d
helium and water and ammonia -although known as ices
m e t h a n e
they behave here like aliquid slush, mixed with a
an unknown amount of hydrogen and helium. m
At the heart of the planet lies arocky core
that is probably about the size of Earth. o
7 ^
>
BLUE-GREEN WORLD
BY
ii THEOBSERUATIONOFTHEMOSTEMINENTASTRONOMERS Aview of the bright, CO

IN EOROPE, IT APPEARS THAT THE NEW STAR... IS APRIMARY PLANET OF blue-green planet Uranus
from the surface of its
OOR SOLAR SYSTEM.
innermost major moon,
William Herschel, 1783 Miranda.

Others (such as Earth and Mars) have moderate

tilts of around 20-30 degrees, Uranus turns out to
be tilted over at 98 degrees -in other words, its
north pole points slightly downwards relative to its
orbit. Astronomers are still arguing about how
Uranus ended up on its side -for more about this,
see this issue’s Unexplained.
While other planets rotate like spinning tops,
Uranus seems to roll like aball around its orbit.

As aresult, it has the most bizarre seasons of any

planet -polar regions experience a40-year winter
of perpetual night, followed by a40-year summer of
endless daylight, while equatorial regions experience
aday-night cycle more in tune with Uranus’ daily
rotation (the planet spins on its axis once every
17 hours, 14 minutes). Although this arrangement
means that the poles actually receive more heat
from the Sun than the equator throughout the
year, the planet seems to have aroughly even
temperature all over, afactor that may be linked to
its weather (see page 9and How It Works).

FIRST OF THE ICE GIANTS

Uranus is distinctly different from the inner gas

giant planets -it is smaller than Jupiter and Saturn
and it is also the lightest of all the giant worlds.
Astronomers often classify Uranus and Neptune as
 1XBREAKTHROUGHS

ESTRANGE MAGNETISM
magnetic axis tilted at
GO degrees to rotation
fUranus’ seasons and climate are odd, then axis, and offset from
its magnetic field is even more so. Voyager’s the planet’s core
1986 flyby discovered that the magnetic field is
not only tilted over at its ovA/n wild angle relative
to the planet’s axis of rotation, but that it does
not even pass through the centre of Uranus. axis of rotation tilted 98

Usually, aplanet’s magnetic field is generated degrees from ‘upright’

by electrically conductive material swirling
i n o r c l o s e t o i t s c o r e . U r a n u s ’ fi e l d m u s t b e

generated much closer to the surface, in its

icy “mantle” (see Inside Info), but even then the
reason that it only seems to form in acertain
part of the mantle remains amystery.

MAGNETIC MYSTERY Uranus

m a g n e t i c fi e l d
u n u su a l ma g n e ti c fie l d w o rks
rotates with planet
independently from the planet’s
every 17hr 14min
axial tilt and position of the core.

“ice giants”. While Jupiter and Saturn are almost

entirely composed of the light gases hydrogen and
helium, the outer worlds also contain large
amounts of chemicals such as water and ammonia

which have low boiling points and are technically

termed “ices”.

The ice giants must have formed towards the

outer edge of the original “solar nebula” that
surrounded the Sun. Here, ices could survive in

HAZY URANUS This frozen form -closer to the Sun, they evaporated
in the heat. The nebula would have been too thin
image taken by Voyager
2gives us an idea of the to form such huge planets in the outer reaches
high level of haze in the where the planets now reside, so it seems likely
planet's upper
atmosphere, obscuring that they formed somewhat closer to the Sun, and
any clouds below. “migrated” outwards early in their history.

HOW IT WORKS northern

m i d s u m m e r

^URANUS' LONG SEASONS

ranus’ extreme tilt creates a
u unique weather system in which
different forces dominate at
different points in each long year.
At midsummer for one hemisphere,
high-altitude methane clouds form a
cap above the pole, while turbulent
and the summer hemisphere
moves into autumn, the polar cap
starts to fade, the cross-currents
weaken, and rotation-driven weather
patterns, similar to those of other
giant planets, become dominant.
By the time of the equinox, when s o u t h e r n

“cross-currents” carry heat from all parts of the planet get equal m i d s u m m e r

the warm pole towards the colder sunlight, the original polar cap equinox

night side. has almost entirely gone, but as

According to one theory, the opposite pole emerges into STEPS OVERVIEW
interaction between these currents daylight and summer, the cycle Uranus’ orbit takes it from southern

and forces from the planet’s rapid
rotation suppresses the formation
of large-scale weather systems.
As the planet continues its orbit
reverses itself. This explains why midsummer {1) gradually changing as it
moves towards northern spring (2) and
Uranus appears notably brighter at eventually reaches equinox (3} after 22 years.
midsummer and midwinter than at
Another 22 years later, it is midsummer for
its equinoxes. Uranus’ northern hemisphere (4).
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at URANUS
Having had an introductory look at the Voyager missions in
Issue 1, it's time to see what happened when the second
spacecraft encountered Uranus.

ollowing its flyby of Saturn in

1981, Voyager 2was set on
atrajectory to encounter
Uranus. On its way. the spacecraft
probed the interplanetary medium,
observed selected celestial targets
and conducted tests and calibrations

of its systems.
Considerable attention,
unsurprisingly, was paid to the
camera scan platform, following its
seizure during the Saturn encounter.
Fortunately the temporary fault was

NBREAKTHROUGHS resolved as lubricant worked its way

Wnew moons Voyager 2's
back into the mechanism and full

composite image operation was restored before the

uring its encounter with Uranus’ system in 1986, Voyager 2 of Uranus, taken end of 1981.
D discovered 11 previously unknown moons. All are small, very with separate
violet, blue and
dark inner satellites and are named after Shakespearean characters.
orange filters.
The bright streak In preparation for the flyby of
on the top right, Uranus and its system, mission
Satellite Distance Radius
near the rim of
(1000km] (km) the planet, is a
engineers reprogrammed the
Cordelia 5 0 1 3 cloud. spacecraft sonboard computers via
Ophelia 5 4 1 6
radio control from the ground. This
Bianca 5 9 2 2
Cressida 6 2 3 3
work allowed Voyager 2to return
Desdemona 6 3 2 9 clear, close-up pictures despite
Juliet 6 4 4 2 the dim light and high velocity at
Portia 6 6 4 2 which Voyager would be passing its
Rosalind 7 0 2 7
targets. (Uranus gets about l/400th
Belinda 7 5 3 4
Perdita 7 6 4 0
of the sunlight that falls on Earth.)
Puck 8 6 7 7 At the same time, giant radio
receiving stations in Australia were
linked electronically in order to

capture and enhance Voyager's
faint signals from Uranus.
Voyager 2began its encounter
with Uranus on 4November 1985
with an observatory phase. Data
collection built to apeak in late %
January 1986. with most of the
critical observations occurring in
asix-hour period in and around
the time of the closest approach.
This was made at 9.59am Pacific
Standard Time on 24 January when
the probe came within 81,500km
of the planet’s cloud tops.
!^1
■V
CLOSE
E N C O U N T E R
This artist's
impression shows
Voyager 2less
than one hour
from its closest
approach to
Uranus.
GOOD
V I B R AT I O N S
Aprototype
Vo y a g e r
spacecraft
undergoes a
vibration test
which simulates
the launch
environment.
r I >
z
■? c
One of the surprise finds was I m m m i n
amagnetic field, twisted into ar: ;
corkscrew shape on the far side of ,,. '■ ■!a ■Voyager also studied all nine of
the planet, formed by its rotation^ Uranus’ rings, which were found to
Another discovery was the : be far younger than the planet It is
strange landscape of Miranda ~the thought that the particles may be
leftovers of amoon that was broken
up by ahigh-velocity impact or torn
to pieces by gravitational forces.
John Casani, Voyagor Project Manager On February 14 1986, mission
engineers commanded Voyager
innermost of the five large Uranian to fire its thrusters for acourse-
moons. Detailed images revealed correction to put it on atrajectory
huge fault canyons up to 20km for Neptune, and on 25 February
deep, terraced layers and amixture the Uranus encounter officially
of old and young surfaces. came to an end.
oyager 2’s closest approach to Uranus should
V have been acause for great celebration.
Unfortunately, only four days later Its epic adventure
and the ground-breaking images it had collected were
completely overshadowed by the tragedy of the Space
Shuttle Challenger. Eager to launch after technical
delays, the craft took off at 11.38 Eastern Standard
Time. Just over aminute into its flight, the right-hand
solid rocket booster exploded, tearing the entire
spacecraft to pieces and killing all its seven crew.
T R A G E D Y I N T H E S K Y Ta k e n a f e w s e c o n d s a f t e r
the explosion, this Image shows the exhaust trails of
the Shuttle's main engines and solid rocket booster
twisting around aball of qas from the external tank.
 [1] ORION IN
INFRARED Compare
this Spitzer infrared
image to the visible
light image below.
This infrared view

penetrates the
dark lanes of dust
revealing bright
swirling nebulae and
numerous developing 4'

or cooler stars (green

Iin colour).

"'he UNIVERSE in INFRARED

William Herschel's discovery of infrared light revolutionised the way
astronomers observe the universe, making the previously invisible now visible.

[2] VISIBLE VIEW This

image of the Orion n«bula
shows only those parts of
the nebula that emit visible
light. This*includes the gases
heated by the ultraviolet
radiation from the massive
hot stars within the nebula.

[3l CRAB NEBULA This

nebula is the shattered

remains of asupernova
^explosion. Infrared *
observation reveals awhite

doud of electrons trapped

in the star's magnetic field
and^edfilamentsofgases.
#

[2]‘
 >
o
m

O
>

<

[3] [4]
4 T O
CO
m

he astronomer William Herschel was not with infrared detectors has enabled astronomers to [4] SPIRAL SENSATION
Infrared detectors pick
only responsible for discovering the planet peer through these clouds of dust and see amyriad out the glowing red
Uranus, he also detected an invisible form cosmic objects that emit mainly infrared light. For 7 ^
spiral arms of galaxy >
of electromagnetic radiation called infrared (see astronomers this is the equivalent of being able to NGC 1566, indicating a 7 D

this issue sThe Story of Astronomy). This radiant see through abrick wall. dusty region of active
star formation. O
heat shows up just beyond the visible red Infrared telescopes usually operate from very
lightwaves on the spectrum, and is one of several dry, high-up places, as the water vapour in Earth’s
forms of radiation emitted in our universe that we atmosphere tends to absorb infrared light. Space [5] TEAM WORK
The Helix Nebula, a
cannot see with our eyes alone. is also an ideal environment for observations.
white dwarf in its death
Our universe is full of gas and dust -the reason Most space telescopes, such as the Hubble Space throes, spews out hot
why the central region of our Milky Way is not very Telescope, have infrared filters fitted to them, but gases and radiation.
This image combines
*bright is because it is full of obscuYing dust. Most there are some telescopes such as the Spitzer Space visible data from Hubble
infant stars are born in very dusty cocoons and are Telescope and the Herschel Space Observatory that and infrared data from
therefore hidden from view^^ Equipping telescopes are dedicated solely to infrared observations. Spitzer.

! i
 »

!4

[6] !

[6] ENERGY REVEALED This infrared image shows the different ways in which the Flame Nebula (NGC 2024, left) the "Lump Star Nebula" (NGC 2023,
right) and the Horsehead Nebula (upper right) emit energy. NGC 2024 and 2023 are both emission and reflection nebulae -star-forming regions that reflect
 #

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light from nearby stars, and also glow as they are excited by high-energy radiation from the brilliant Alnitak. Infrared filters out this visible light and r e v e a l s
dust lanes and young star clusters embedded within. The Horsehead is outlined by the glow of warm dust that Is completely dark at visible wavelengths.
 NIVERS
Best known for discovering a
planet, William Herschel's
ambitions went further -nothing
less than to find out how the
entire universe was made.
orn in 1738, in Hanover,
B
Germany, Friedrich Wilhelm
Herschel was one of 10
children of an impoverished oboist
in the Hanoverian Guards Military
Band. At 14, Wilhelm and his
brother Jacob joined the band.
During the Seven Years’ War,
French troops occupied Hanover
and Wilhelm sought refuge in
England, mastering the language
and anglicising his name to William.
Avirtuoso musician, William
earned aliving as amusic copyist,
orchestra leader, church organist
and composer, finally becoming
16,
DISCOVERER
The German-
born British
astronomer and
composer who
became famous
for discovering
Uranus.
organist at Octagon Chapel, Bath
and director of Bath orchestra. In
1772 he returned to Hanover to
rescue his unmarried sister Caroline
from her life as the family drudge,
TELESCOPE
and brought her to Bath to sing
Visitors to the
Herschel Museum soprano with his orchestra. Their
of Astronomy in career paths would soon change.
Bath are treated
to the sight of a ASTRONOMY BECKONS
replica of one of
his telescopes. After reading abook on harmonics
by Robert Smith, Herschel read the
professor’s other work, Compleot
System ofOptichs (1738), which
kindled an interest in astronomy.
He was soon making telescopes
for himself in the small basement
O B S E R VAT I O N S workshop at his Bath townhouse
William and sister
(now the Herschel Museum of
Caroline working
at the giant 1.2m
Astronomy) using second-hand
r e fl e c t o r i n t h e tools. At the time astronomers gave
late 1700s.
little thought to stars other than as
 h ‘ " * v.
L/i^ 7 /
**1

:A,

i - M A - < * - y^uy^ a>€ylr

M I L K Y WAY
Herschel's
4^ ajf^ drawing
m
illustrates a
tC^ .flTA. uff model of the CO
,Aaa^ Milky Way galaxy, I
Si J as seen from
outside. The
o
/L <4^-ru 'Cyy crosses represent
-?0
* u Y stars, while the
;, T3 ■ +

letters refer to
± *
t+ +
t'i j.
constellations O
i*-.t n
and specific stars.
Ut ^ Oky4a,y^i/^ 2* >
^'-^UaLou . ^ CO
than astar, he thought to himself.
(^iuu^ ♦f> #
o n

He reported it to his friend, 7D

a u n ^ ^ w y t
Astronomer Royal Neville o
Maskelyne, who could barely find it
yteeriiliy r/ with his own inferior lens. “I don’t

know what to call it,” Maskelyne

o
«■
wrote back. “It is as likely to be a
-<
regular planet moving in an orbit
nearly circular to the Sun.” Other
stargazers confirmed it to be an
0
unknown planet, beyond Saturn’s s
abackdrop to the planets and for HISTORIC NOTES orbit, and at 18 times the Earth-
Herschel's notes Sun distance.
navigation. But Herschel sought >
recording his
nothing less than to unravel the discovery of In honour of the discovery,
secrets of deep space, including the Uranus on 13 Lemonnier and again misidentified. Herschel was elected to the Royal
March 1781.
mysterious fuzzy blobs called Herschel was using his latest Society and George III made him T O
CO
“nebulae”. He sketched his first, the 2m reflector when he first saw a King’s Astronomer, provided he O
Great Nebula in Orion, in 1774. WHIRLPOOL An “nebulous star”. When he looked moved closer to Windsor to show X
m
illustration made
again afew days later, it had the royal family the celestial sights.
A G R E AT D I S C O V E R Y by John Herschel, moved. He viewed it at over 900
William's son, in
Herschel’s name for his planet, 0 0

Herschel soon reached the limits of the 1840s of the times magnification and it grew Georgium Sidus (“George’s e

magnification then achievable with Whirpool Galaxy. larger in proportion -more acomet Star”), was used in England for
<
glass lenses, and began making m
T O
reflector telescopes, which had a S PA C E S TA R S
o o

curved objective mirror (see Inside /

CAROLINE HERSCHEL (175cm848) m

Info: Telescope Pioneer).

Caroline gave up singing to ™ ■

Caroline
Herschel
regarded
is as
the
M
keep house and be his assistant. “First Lady of Astronomy”, having
i
He taught her the maths needed 1 discovered eight comets and 13 deep
to undertake tedious astronomical sky objects, including the Sculptor
calculations and even enlisted her Galaxy (NGC 253). Yet Caroline saw her
main role as aiding her brother. She
help in making telescopes. William ground and polished mirrors, recorded
gave her asmall telescope and she his findings, prepared his papers for
began making her own discoveries publication -even fed him as he worked.
(see Space Stars). She also catalogued star clusters and
In March 1782, Herschel spotted nebulae so her nephew, John, could
continue the work. Hers was ahard life,
amystery object. He was not the
but she paved the way for women in
first to do so -it had been sighted science, becoming the Royal Society’s
in 1690 by Astronomer Royal John fi r s t f e m a l e m e m b e r I n 1 8 3 3 .
Flamsteed, who recorded it as a SISTER Industrious astronomer Caroline
star. Then, acentury later, it was Herschel discovered eight comets.

seen by French astronomer Pierre

 decades. Elsewhere, Uranus -Greek
god of the sky -was preferred.
GIANT TELESCOPES
Herschel settled in acottage,
Observatory House, in Slough
village, near Windsor, and designed
more telescopes. The village soon
rang to the sound of workmen’s
tools, as local craftsmen laboured to
build components to his precise
specifications.
The largest telescope, a12m tube
with a1.2m mirror, cost £4000 (paid
for by Royal grant) and was built
in abarn in nearby Upton. It took
24 men to carry it to Observatory
House where it was mounted on
rollers on acircular plinth in the
garden to be turned to face in
any direction. At 15m high in its
wooden frame, and weighing nine
18
rELESCOPE PIONEER
erschel was apioneer telescope
H manufacturer, achieving
unprecedented magnifications. His
objective mirrors were mainly made of
speculum, ahighly reflective bronze alloy,
which he cast in his own foundry. But he
also developed unique glass mirrors for
observing the Sun-
Friends, relatives, distinguished visitors
alike got press-ganged into pounding horse
manure to make the moulds. There were
r i s k s - m o l t e n m e t a l o n c e o v e r fl o w e d
spectacularly... “My brother and the
caster and his men were obliged to run
out of opposite doors, for the stone
flooring flew about in all directions as high
as the ceiling,” Caroline wrote.
3M TELESCOPE This is one of the
400 tefescopes designed and built by
William Herschel.
R O YA L V I S I T tonnes, the giant telescope drew
An illustration eminent visitors from all over the
depicting the world. US writer Oliver Wendell
visit of George III
to Herschel's Holmes described it as “a mighty
observatory in bewilderment of slanted masts,
Slough. spars, ladders and ropes”.
Standing on aplatform, Herschel
peered through the eyepiece
and relayed star co-ordinates to
Caroline, seated at awindow, via a
speaking tube. His lofty perch led
to accidents, according to Caroline
URANUS An “nearly fatal to my brother as well as
illustration of the myself.” Evening temperatures often
newly discovered dipped below zero. And on one
planet, Uranus,
w h i c h w a s a t fi r s t
occasion amirror split in two and
Caroline’s “ink froze in the bottle”.
known as planet
Herschel. The telescope revealed two
 moons orbiting Saturn (Mimas JOHN HERSCHEL orbit. Astronomers later discovered
William's son was X
and Enceladus) and two moons of Uranus was being affected by the pull
amathematician, m
Uranus (Titania and Oberon). But a s t r o n o m e r, of amore distant planet (Neptune,
stars remained his main interest CO
chemist and located in 1846). Uranus takes 83
and he was now able to make experimental years 9months to orbit the Sun.
out the individual stars In globular
photographer/ O
I n v e n t o r. Curiously, that was Herschel’s age 7 ^
clusters. His 15m monster proved when he died.
<
too cumbersome, however, and he
reverted to using the 6m telescope. o
n

DISCOVERING THE UNIVERSE >

CO
Herschel brought order and method I
to his work. He catalogued stars in founded the Astronomical Society,
each region in order of brightness becoming its first president. His o
to make it easier to detect variables scientific advances included the

(stars that brighten and dim over
time). He proved that many double
stars are true binaries (orbiting a
common gravitational centre). He
also discovered over 2500 nebulae,
discovery of infrared (see Inside
Info: Herschel and Infrared).
o
He could also be eccentric,
-<
believing that arace of people
lived on the Sun. Uranus also

galaxies and other deep sky objects, behaved eccentrically

O
laying the groundwork for the Neui -slowing,
General Catalogue used today. accelerating and
Probing ever deeper into space, defying attempts / >
he identified the direction the to calculate its ll
O B S E R VAT O R Y
solar system is moving in and that □ :
rNamed the
m
the Milky Way is disc-shaped. He GOLD MEDAL William Herschel X I
CO
theorised that stars form in the Telescope, this
This Royal o
4.2m r e fl e c t o r on
heart of nebulae when gas clouds Astronomical

condense under the force of gravity. Society's medal

And he was the first to appreciate
the immensity of space, realising
that light travelled such vast
distances to reach Earth that we are
seeing stars as they were years ago.
KEEPING IT IN THE FAMILY
In 1788, Herschel married alocal
widow, Mary Pitt, sidelining
Caroline, who had been his
constant companion, housekeeper
and hostess. She moved into a
cottage in the garden, but
continued as his assistant. William’s
only son, John, was born in 1792
and would become as famous an
astronomer as his father. By 1816
Caroline was too frail to assist her
brother, so John -astar pupil at
Cambridge -returned to help.
William worked into old age,
despite failing health. He was
features
Herschel's 12.1m
telescope.
INSIDE INFO
HERSCHEL AND INFRARED
hile experimenting with aprism, measuring
w the temperature of different spectral
colours, Herschel made adiscovery that would one
day revolutionise astronomy. Placing the
thermometer just beyond the red region of the
spectrum, he saw the temperature rise and
deduced that light must contain wavelengths
invisible to humans.
Radiant heat (infrared) Is part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, along with visible light
and radio waves. The Herschel Space Observatory,
named after him and due for launch In 2009, will
probe the sky in infrared and chart regions
currently obscured by interstellar gas and dust.
S PA C E T E L E S C O P E A t e c h n i c a l
illustration of the Herschel Space
Observatory, designed exclusively for
Infrared observations.

knighted in 1816, and in 1820

\
 URANUS
Beyond Saturn lies Uranus, the first planet
to be discovered through atelescope.
Appearing as ablue-green disc, Uranus is
best viewed around its opposition.
ranus reaches magnitude 5.5 at its brightest,
so it should in theory be visible to the naked
eye, if you know where to look. The distant
planet was not recognised until March 1781, when
William Herschel discovered it while surveying the
skies with ahomemade telescope from his back
garden in Bath, England.
At first Herschel thought he had discovered acomet
but eventually astronomers realised it was anew
P L A N E T WAT C H
planet orbiting at twice the distance of Saturn, some
Jupiter and
Uranus (arrowed) 2871 million kilometres from the Sun.
in Capricornus,
October 1997, BLUE-GREEN DISC
Burnham, Bucks,
UK. Stars shown Through atelescope, Uranus appears as an almost
to magnitude 8. featureless disc, less than one tenth the apparent size
of Jupiter. Some faint dusky bands can occasionally be
seen, but these are nowhere near as prominent as the
bands on Jupiter or Saturn. The planet’s blue [ r e e n
colour comes from methane gas in its atmosphere.
Well over 20 moons are now known to accompany
Uranus, but even the four biggest of these, Ariel,
Umbriel, Titania and Oberon, are of only 14th
magnitude and large telescopes are required to see
them. Rings of fine dust encircle the planet, but these
are too faint to detect with ground-based telescopes
except at infrared wavelengths.
VA R I A B L E P L A N E T
Uranus varies in brightness by about half amagnitude
in away that cannot be accounted for by its changing
distance from Earth. Astronomers attribute the
variations to seasonal changes in the planet’s
atmosphere, resulting from the planet’s extreme axial
tilt, of approximately 98 degrees. Amateurs can keep
an eye on these variations by comparing Uranus with
nearby stars, the same method used for estimating the
brightness of variable stars.
5 7
7 2
/
/
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/ PISCES
5 8
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CETUS
 FA M I LY S H O T I

Uranus # *
■I

photographed ^PLANET URANUS* « ! ! >

on 19 July 2002.
Satellites Ariel, eing so distant, Uranus moves slowly
Umbriel, Oberon,
Ti t a n i a a n d
B around the Sun, taking 84 years to

Miranda are
complete one circuit and reaching opposition >
visible.
only about four days later each year (see table). " D
#
Binoculars will show it easily as abright dot
moving against the star background from night |
to night. Currently it is close to the celestial
i 0
equator and moving slowly north along the
ecliptic from Aquarius through Pisces and into >
r A r i e s . Yo u w i l l n e e d a d e t a i l e d s t a r c h a r t t o fi n d |
H E AV E N LY C O N T E S T t:'.
the right star field. I
'I CO

Oppositions of Uranus until 2020, with its

I nGreek mythology, Uranus
distance from Earth and constellation within
(the latinised form of the
which it lies on each occasion:
Greek “Ouranos”, meaning
“sky”) was the original ruler of
Distance
the heavens. He was acruel
D a t e from Earth Constellation
father and his wife, the Earth
(million km)
goddess Gaia, encouraged
one of their sons, Cronus, to
Sep 13 2008 2 8 5 6 Aquarius
overthrow him. Thereafter
Sep 17 2009 2 8 5 6 Pisces
Cronus, whom the Romans
Sep 21 2010 2 8 5 6 Pisces
gknew as Saturn, ruled the 2 8 5 4 Pisces
Iuniverse until he, in turn, was Sep 26 2011
Sep 29 2012 2 8 5 2 Pisces
overthrown by one of his own
Oct 03 2013 2 8 4 8 Pisces
sons, Zeus (Jupiter). Uranus
Oct 07 2014 2 8 4 4 Pisces
is the only planet to be named
Oct 12 2015 2 8 4 0 Pisces
after acharacter from the
Oct 15 2016 2 8 3 5 Pisces
Greek version of the myth,
Oct 19 2017 2 8 2 4 Pisces
rather than the Roman version,
Oct 24 2018 2 8 1 7 Pisces
like many of the other planets.
Oct 31 2020 2 8 11 Pisces

FINDING URANUS
5 3 1: April 2008 9: December 2010 17: August 2013
This map shows the position of Uranus in the sky 2: August 2008 10: April 2011 18: December 2013
for the next few years -because its apparent 3: December 2008 11: August 2011 19: April 2014
location is affected as much by Earth’s position on 4: April 2009 12: December 2 0 11 20: August 20014
its orbit as by the planet’s own motion, Uranus’ 21: December 2014
3 4 5: August 2009 13: April 2012
general motion across the sky is interrupted by 6: December 2009 14: August 2012 22: April 2015
backward or “retrograde” loops that last for 15: December 2012
7: April 2010 23: August 2015
several months of each year: 24: December 2015
8: August 2010 16: April 2013
4 1
3 2

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aaiddOl 1VHA\
tilted at around 25 degrees, and Uranus in chaotic tilted orbits. The fact that they
of course is tilted at amuch more cling to the equatorial plane suggests
m
dramatic 98 degrees. Depending on that they either formed in this position,
X
your point of view, Venus is either tilted or that the change to each planet’s tilt " D
at an even more radical 177 degrees, so was slow enough for tidal forces to keep
it is effectively upside down, or it is the moons in line. >
close to upright, but slowly spinning One way around the satellite problem
“backwards”. is to suggest that the impact itself m
ejected the material to form the moons, a
P L A N E TA R Y P I N B A L L rather like what happened with Earth’s
own Moon. However, the differences
What knocked so many of the solar
system’s major worlds off their axes? in the composition of the satellites and
0
For rocky inner planets such as Venus, their parent planets suggest that they
the answer seems to be interplanetary probably did not form in this way, but >
collisions -the early solar system was instead merged together from outlying
filled with numerous large parts of each planet-forming “sub- O
“planetesimals”, hurtling around on _nebula”. “ D

their own orbits. Close encounters with

alarger planet might easily have twisted their
orbits onto tilted paths, and collisions would then
have changed the momentum of aplanet’s spin.
Astronomers generally explain the tilts of the
giant planets through similar impacts, but there are
several problems with this theory. Most obviously,
the giants are bigger, and so it takes more to knock
them off their axes -acollision capable of tilting
Uranus by 98 degrees or Saturn by 26 degrees
would require arogue planet the size of Earth, and
mathematical models can’t create anything that big
in the outer reaches of the solar system.
RINGS AND MOONS
Another problem is that each giant is surrounded
by alarger family of rings and moons, aligned
above its equator. Acataclysmic collision with their
parent planet would probably have scattered these
s m a ler bodies across space, or at least left them
TIPPED OVER An artist's
impression of Uranus,
one hemisphere facing
towards the Sun. Its rings
appear vertical as the
planet is tilted at a
98-degree angle.
MORE THEORIES
a
Another possibility is that something (perhaps the
C
gravity of another passing star) caused the outer T O
>
part of the solar nebula to “buckle” at around the
time when the giant planets were forming. But this
c n
theory relies on several big “unknowns”, and even
if the hypothetical “buckling” did happen, it’s hard
for computer simulations to produce asolar
system similar to the one we know today.
Perhaps the most elegant solution so far was
published in 2006 by Argentinian astronomer
Adrian Brunini. He suggests that the outer planets’
tilts are remnants of achaotic period shortly after
they formed, when their orbits briefly brought
them close enough to disrupt one another (see
How It Works). Each of these theories has its
advantages and its problems, but we’ll probably
never know exactly what early trauma left Uranus
in its present lop-sided state.

planet orbits today

increased gravity from outer giant orbits close encounters affect
—frequent alignments becnme eccentric
tilt of Saturn and Uranus

MAGNIFIED EFFECTS ECCENTRIC ORBITS Uranus PRESENT ORBITS As Saturn

3 Saturn eventually reaches
resonance with Jupiter,
magnifying the gravitational
effects of the two planets on
their outer neighbours.
4 and Neptune are pulled
into eccentric orbits that cause
frequent close encounters
between themselves and Saturn.
5TIDAL
FORCES
Repeated
close encounters create 6 spirals farther out, it loses its
tidal forces that pull the resonance with Jupiter. Uranus and
planets off their original axes. Neptune settle into their present
orbits, much farther out in the solar
system than where they formed.
 COMING UP IN ISSUE 32

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GEAR t r a i n
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!Uranus was spotted several times
before it was identified as aplanet.
Use your model to track these
early encounters.
!The Kuiper Airborne Observatory
-an aircraft
a s t r o n o m y.
How the genius of Einstein and
his theory of relativity led to
unexpected discoveries in space.
Eagiemoss Publications Ltd,
C€ Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 STS
WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
dedicated to Keep out of reach of children. Keep this information for reference.
Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.

!Shepherd moons and the role they

play within planetary ring systems.
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BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
;SYSTEM ^ 32)
APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY

THE

URANUS
SYSTEM
Investigating the VARIED
RINGS and COMPLEX
MOONS of this
blue-green gas giant

WITH THIS ISSUE: 106-TOOTH GEAR FOR THE PLANET URANUS GEAR TRAIN
BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
I M P O R TA N T
FEATURES !The orrery Is aprecision-engineered
kit. It must be assembled and handled
with care to prevent damage to its
parts, and stored or displayed safely to
YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL ensure no parts are lost.
3 !Never use liquids or solvents to clean
Plot the early encounters of Uranus before it was the parts. For best care, use the
polishing cloth and dusting brushes
identified as aplanet by William Herschel. supplied with the toolkit {free to
subscriptions customers).
!When assembling parts, lay them on a
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE
0 flat table and keep screws and all small
items on atray so they can't roll away
We turn from the tilted planet Uranus towards its and get lost. Unpack all parts carefully.
fascinating system of rings and moons. !The publisher reserves the right to
alter parts and their design at any time.
!Parts not to be sold separately,
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result of Incorrect assembly or
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when assembling the parts.
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by the manufacturer.
!The publisher cannot be responsible
for any Injuries caused by any tools or
materials.

MISSIONS
10
Discover why astronomers went to the trouble of
installing atelescope in amilitary freight aeroplane.

IMAGE GALLERY
The Uranus system in all its glory, courtesy of
Voyager 2and the Hubble Space Telescope.

T H E S TO R Y O F A S T R O N O M Y
16
Learn about Einstein's special theory of relativity
and how it challenged the idea of space and time. Credits 11 ■■ I I I
■#

IMAGES: FC Science Photo Science Photo Ubrary/Jylian

S TA R M A P Library/Mark Garlick; 3Hubble Baum, (tr) Corbis UK/Hulton
2 0
We search the night sky to observe the southern Heritage Team/NASA/ESA; 4-5 (I) Archive,
| (br)
Eaglemoss/Donna
Eaglemoss/Julian Fletcher, (be) Askem; 18-19 (cl) Science Photo
constellations of Lepus, Caelum and Columba. Science Photo Library/Science Library, (tl,c) Hubble Heritage
Source, (tr) Bridgeman Art Library/ Team/NASA/ESA, (bl) Science

S PA C E S C I E N C E Stapleton Collection, (br) Photo Library/Laguna Design, (tr)

22
What is a"shepherd moon" and what role does it
play in the structure of planetary rings?
Wikimedia Commons; 6-7 (tl)
Science Photo Library/NASA,
(bc,cr) NASA, (br) Hubble Heritage
Team/NASA/ESA; 8-9 (t) NASA/
JPL, (b) Pikaia Imaglmg, 10 (tl)
Science Photo Library/NASA,
(tc,tr) Science Photo Library/Peter
Menzel, (bl) Science Photo Library,
(br) NASA; 12-13 (bl,tcl) NASA/
JPL, (ter) Hubble Heritage Team/ |
NASA/ESA, (tr,br) Science Photo
Science Photo Library, (br) Science
Photo Library/Christian Darkin;
20-21 (tc) Galaxy Picture Library/
DSS, (bl,tr,br) Pikaia Imaging, (be)
NOAO/AURA/NSF; 22-23 (tl)
Science Photo Library/Chris Butler,
(tr,cr) NAS/VJPL, (b) Pikaia
Imaging.
REPRO: Stormcreative

Library/Mark Garlick; 14-15 Publishing Limited

Science Photo Library/Mark PRINTING: Century Litho (Truro)
Garlick; 16-17 (tl) TopFoto, (bl) Limited

MODEL DESrGNfc T LOUIS CALMELS

CONSULTANT GILES S PA R R O W
E N D O R S E D B Y : S I R PAT R I C K M O O R E C B E F R S
E N C O U R A G E D 0 T H E I N T E R N AT I O N A L A S T R O N O M I C A L U N I O N

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Keep out of reach of children. Keep this information for reference.
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URAtsftjS An infrared *
Uranus wa^ spotted several ith
abrightness^that
i^ually
hovers
times before if was identified
*^s spmething unusual’by
w *around 5.5, Uranus is jupt within the
limits of naked-eye visibility, and an
easy object to view through the smallest
image of the gas giant,
captured in 1996 by the
Hubble Space Telescope
-some 215 years after
.William Herschel in 1781. * telescope.Astronomersstartedtorecordthe^^ William Herschel's !*
historic observation.
Using your model solar planet pimost as soon as the telescope itself '^a^
.invented. Thereafter, for almost two centuries, ^’
system, you can track some Uranus led aghostly half-life, flitting in and out of
of these early encounters. recorded observations.

3

HOW IT WORKS
^THE URANUS ALIGNMENTS OF
FLAMSTEED AND HERSCHEL
sing your solar system
u model you can set the
planets in exactly the same
The first to identify Uranus as something out
of the ordinary was the German-born astronomer
William Herschel. Using hand-made instruments
from his back garden in Bath, England, he at first
believed that he had found anew comet. In March
positions as John Flamsteed’s (A)
a n d W i l l i a m H e r s c h e l ’s ( B ) 1781, Uranus lay in the constellation of Gemini
observations of Uranus. and, using your solar system model, you can set m

up the precise arrangement of the major planets

Neptune
with the data given in the How It Works box. I ji

But as comets make their brief passes through i

the inner solar system, they move at high speed

t
i
against the background stars. Set your solar system
I
i
i
i
model running, and you’ll soon see that Uranus is
Mercury anything but fast moving. When other astronomers
m. attempted to calculate its orbit, they found that it ^,€
M a r s
was more or less circular, and probably took about
Jupiter S a t u r n 84 years to move around the Sun. The conclusion
was inevitable -this was no comet, but anew

planet in an orbit beyond Saturn.

Uranus

ACOMPLETE ORBIT
In order to work out the precise shape and
duration of Uranus’ orbit, astronomers need
observations taken over areasonable proportion of
that orbit. For afast-moving comet (the only
“new” solar system objects astronomers had
needed to contend with up until that time), this
was fairly easy and required no more than afew
nights’ worth of observations, but Herschel’s
discovery was anew challenge. By 1783, there
was enough data to predict Uranus’ short-term
4Saturn
i motions, but astronomers were still years’ away
from being able to model acomplete orbit.
Jupiter
Then in 1785, German astronomer Johannes
Bode (best known for his promotion of the “Titius-
i

HERSCHEL
The German-
born astronomer
who discovered
I
Uranus from
INeptune his garden
I i
Mercury %in Bath in
^March 1781.
Object (A) 23 December 1690 ( B ) 13 March 1781
2 4 0 ° 9 2 °
Mercury
Venus 6 8 ° 3 0 3 °

Earth 9 2 ° 1 7 3 °

Moon Equivalent to 192° Equivalent to 218°

M a r s 2 3 4 ° 2 2 3 ° ■i'A
Jupiter 6 0 ° 2 2 8 °
Saturn 2 3 3 ° 2 5 4 °
Uranus 6 0 ° 8 7 °

Neptune 3 4 5 ° 1 8 4 °
Pluto 11 7 ° 3 0 5 °
I

,y
4

% data for his great star catalogue, and even to have
J j
©/-
■ \
■f
■ ■
JSfe-i
AT L A S C E L E S T E J o h n
Flamsteed's famous
1729 atlas shows Uranus
as astar (circled) in the
c o n s t e l l a t i o n Ta u r u s .
s p a c e sm
H^pTALEXISBOUVARD(17B7-i843)
sayoung boy, French astronomer
A Alexis Bouvard worked as a
shepherd in Alpine France. There he
became fascinated by the stars and
taught himself mathematics.
As soon as he was old enough,
he moved to Paris and became
an assistant to the famous
mathematician Pierre^imon
Laplace ~aposition which
afforded him an introduction to
t h e s c i e n t i fi c e s t a b l i s h m e n t . I n
1793, he became Director of
the Paris Observatory.
Continuing his work with Laplace f|
on aproject to refine the dynamics |
of the solar system, he compiled ^
widely acclaimed and highly accurate
tables for the motions of Jupiter and
Saturn, which, in 1820, inspired him to
tackle the Uranus problem.
He was not, however, to reap the
rewards of his hard work. He died in
1843, just three years before Neptune
was finally found.
ts A
Si
% ./>
- i -
! y
-<
search for previous records of out-of-place “stars”
O
o
< > —
n-(xT . / '■ C in the right part of the sky to match Uranus’
roughly calculated orbit. c
o
o
-70
MISSED OPPORTUNITIES CO
■^ 6 He found two significant records, the earliest O
1. coming from Britain’s former Astronomer Royal,
John Flamsteed. He turned out to have observed
I Uranus on 23 December 1690, while collecting
€ L n
1 given it adesignation as “34 Tauri”. Bode also CO
/ H
i
found that German astronomer Tobias Mayer had
seen Uranus in 1756. m
'r-
' V,
■ y
Together, these early observations covered more
than aUranian year. There was now more than
/ enough for mathematicians to refine the planet’s
orbit. But when Bode attempted to refine an orbit, O
I a
he found that it persistently drifted out of step
m
f a / /
with its predicted positions after just afew weeks.
Frustrated, Bode abandoned the project, and
Bode Law” linking the planets of the solar system
-see Unexplained, Issue 2), had an ingenious
French astronomer Alexis Bouvard (see Space 0
Stars) took up the challenge. His meticulous
idea: Uranus was aborderline naked-eye object search through the records uncovered many more X
anyway, so surely it must have been spotted pre-Herschel sightings. As Flamsteed carried on
several times in the previous two centuries of D
his great sky-mapping project, he had managed CO
observations? Bode embarked on ameticulous to record Uranus in different places on five more O
occasions over 25 years. o
<
Throughout the 18th century, astronomers had m
continued to see and overlook the new planet; and 7 ^
<
Frenchman Pierre Charles Le Monnier is surely a o
candidate for the title of unluckiest astronomer
ever, recording Uranus on at least ten separate
occasions in the course of seven years, just a >
decade before Herschel’s breakthrough.
C
CO
AN EIGHTH PLANET
Using these historical observations, plus more
recent ones made since Herschel’s discovery,
Bouvard attempted to calculate the orbit once
again, but found that Uranus simply would not
follow its predicted path -sometimes it appeared
to lie ahead and sometimes to lag behind.
Bouvard soon began to suspect that there was
something wrong with his model of the outer solar
system. The evidence pointed to an eighth planet
lurking in the darkness, pulling on Uranus with
enough gravity to slow it down at some points in
its orbit, and speed it up at other times.
B O U VA R D F a m e d f o r h i s
meticulous observations of Indeed, the Irregularities in Uranus’ orbit turned
Uranus’ irregular motion, the out to be clues to the existence of Neptune, but
French astronomer hypothesised r
it was not until 1846 that French and British
the presence of an eighth,
undiscovered, planet. mathematicians were able to tackle the problem
-and we shall learn more about them in Issue 36.
 !

■)

The blue-green planet Uranus

lies at the centre of its own
complex system of rings and
URANUS 1

moons, very different from

those surrounding the solar
system's inner giants. SYSTEM
ranus’ satellites are not as numerous as of the extreme tilt of Uranus, their orbits take them
those of Jupiter or Saturn, but the five “above" and “below" the planet, giving it atarget-
largest of them show just as much variety. like appearance through powerful telescopes.
URANUS SYSTEM Meanwhile, the planet’s ring system is strikingly
Acomposite of images THE RINGS
different from the broad, bright planes that encircle
taken by Voyager 2in
1986. Clockwise from
Saturn or the thin dust discs around Jupiter. While Saturn’s rings are bright and rich in highly
bottom left, the moons At the last count, Uranus was known to have reflective water ice, Uranus’ are dark and largely
are: Ariel, Umbriel, 13 rings. The first were detected in 1977 (see unreflective. Mostly grey or brown, if they do
Oberon, Titania and contain ice it must be mixed with darker material.
Breakthroughs), and the most recent by the Hubble
Miranda (Uranus is the
blue planet at the Space Telescope in 2005. Each is very narrow and However, the two recently discovered outer rings
centre). well-separated from its neighbours, and because distinctly red and blue. The blue ring is thought
a r e

to be rich in water ice from the small moon Mab.

Particles in the rings are thought to range in size

from dust up to boulders 20m across.
Uranus’ rings are not entirely uniform. They
Diameter
show variations in their transparency and colour
N a m e Avg orbital radius
Miranda 4 8 0 x 4 6 6 k m
even between different areas of the same ring.
129,800km
Ariel 191,240km 1 1 6 2 k m One possible explanation for these differences is
Umbriel 266,000km 11 7 0 k m that the rings formed quite recently -from the
435,840km 1 5 8 0 k m
Titania
breakup of one or several small moons, or large
Oberon 582,600km 1 5 2 0 k m
comets pulled in by the planet’s gravity. As aresult
the slow processes that spread particles evenly
6
 (/)
lost for words when Voyager 2returned its first
®BREAK
FT
IH
NR
DO
IU
NG
GH
ST H E RINGS detailed pictures. Miranda features towering cliffs o
some 20km high, heavily cratered plains and
Although bizarre patterns of parallel grooves called coronae.
planetsastronomers had
other than Saturnlong
argued
might about
have theirwhether
own ringgiant
systems, It also seems that violent tectonic and volcanic
Uranus’ rings were eventually discovered by accident. In March 1977, CO
ateam of astronomers aboard NASA’s Kuiper Airborne Observatory forces must have reshaped the moon’s surface
(see this issue’s Missions) were preparing to study arare occultation many times in its history. Yet Miranda is just u i
of astar by Uranus. Occulations happen when one celestial body 480km across, and theoretically too small to have
(usually aplanet or moon) passes in front of another more distant m
retained or generated much heat in its icy interior.
one (usually astar): they can be used to measure the size of the
At first, scientists thought that Miranda might
foreground object, and to study its atmosphere.
However, on this occasion the astronomers found that the light have shattered in an enormous ancient impact, O
from their target star, SAG 158687, flickered five times before it only to reassemble itself into its current jumbled
disappeared behind Uranus, and another five times after it emerged. state. However, it now seems that "tidal heating' IS

The only logical explanation was that the planet had aring system probably to blame (see How It works). a
that was momentarily blocking out the light of the star.
r .
f

l. View from earth y .

Vi

. i - 4 0
throughout the rings (see Issue 27, Space Science) ifj,This image, captured m %
. 4 ^
X
have not had time to complete their work. ** by the 2.5m du Pont >> -if i .t*

^telescope in the
Nevertheless, the fine threads of each individual
Chilean Andes in 1984,;
ring are kept in line by small, inner satellites known Twas then computer »*p >
as shepherd moons, some of which have been !enhanced at the Jet - m. % !
"Propulsion Laboratory -
identified, and some of which no doubt still await in California. It is the ‘ / <.«,,..4

discovery (see this issue’s Space Science). first visible-light image

I*.*"
"
xfl’"*’'* J*'

p'
C O

C O

to show the rings of .;[r ^ ^ C O

AMONG THE MOONS i‘ Uranus. f’: 4 *
^ * - r

Between the inner shepherds and aswarm of tiny J 4 ! '

-|t4lAMUS
outer moonlets that are almost certainly captured < 4 ^
V
¥

asteroids or "centaurs” (see next issue’s Solar ..*-1

u
I

System guide), lie Uranus’ five major moons. None i - i f "fV

m t / !

L
can compete in size with Titan or Jupiter’s Galilean A
1*:^ I V
<

moons, but each has its own fascinating mystery. U f -/ s » *

Closest to the planet lies the smallest and

strangest of all, aworld that left astronomers

MIRANDA This

Vo y a g e r 2 i m a g e
shows the numerous
ridges and valleys of
Uranus' moon. The
largest, cliff-like, scarp.
called Verona Rupes,
may be up to 20km
high, making it the
steepest drop in the
solar system.

SECOND RING SYSTEM

AHubble Space
Telescope photograph
showing the recently
discovered outer rings.
The largest is twice the
diameter of the planet's
previously known rings. \ ;
These two outer rings
are so far away that they
are being called Uranus' S'-'"#-
second ring system.
7
 * \

■i ■*■ s

Oneproblemremains,however-Miranda’s
current orbit is near-circular, and does not experience
'
'
'
. I
i;,-! ■
the extreme differences required for tidal heating. A
possibility is that the moon once had amore eccentric i
orbit, thanks to the pull of its outer neighbours. I V,
ARIEL AND UMBRIEL
The next satellite out is Ariel, aworld with the
brightest surface and fewest craters of any Uranian y
satellite. It is criss-crossed with deep chasms, some
of which appear to have fresh ice on their floors -
features that suggest Ariel has been reshaped by
icy cryovolcanic activity, and subjected to tidal
forces that have stretched and pulled at its surface.
Ariel’s interior is dominated by ice, and although
it is larger than Miranda, it is still far too small to ARIEL Voyager scientists The next major satellite, Umbriel, is Ariel’s near
believed that the
have generated much internal heat as it formed. twin in size, but is rather dull in comparison -its
extensive faulting
Tidal heating must once have driven the moon’s resulted from surface is heavily cratered and shows little sign of
cryovolcanic activity, but (again like Miranda) the stretching of the change in its long history. Voyager 2could only
moon's crust.
satellite’s orbit today is too circular. An orbital return acouple of images from high above the
resonance similar to that which probably affected moon’s pole. The most intriguing feature they
Miranda is most likely at the root of Ariel’s young revealed was Wunda, abright circle on the edge
surface -in this case caused when Ariel was of the visible hemisphere (in other words, near
locked in step with Titania. its equator). The brightness, astronomers agree,
almost certainly comes from the fresh ice “ejecta”
from afairly recent impact.

OUTER LARGE MOONS

UMBRIEL While the
i W southern hemisphere
displays heavy cratering,
the strangest feature in
this Voyager image is the
bright ring near the
moon's equator. It might
be afrost deposit in an
U
impact crater.
Titania is the largest of the Uranian satellites, and
resembles alarger version of Ariel with similar
signs of rifts and resurfacing. While Ariel had to
rely on outside influences to boost its internal heat
and spark widespread activity, Titania with its
rockier interior, had just enough energy to trigger
cryovolcanism on its own.
Oberon, the outermost of the major satellites, is
slightly smaller than Titania, and appears to have
had aless active past, with adarker surface and

HOW IT WORKS
gravity from
^MIRANDA’S JUMBLED SURFACE outer moons

iranda owes its bizarre up until it became "slushy”. As the

M surface to an effect called
tidal heating -the same process
that powers volcanoes and ice
geysers on satellites such as lo and
Enceladus. At some point in its
history, the moon followed an
eccentric orbit, so that the
effect reached the surface, whole
chunks of Miranda’s ancient crust
sank inside the moon, while fresh
ice welled up to take its place.
Elsewhere, the crust pulled apart
and ice formed parallel ridges %
f
similar to those found around

strength of gravity from Uranus tectonic faults on Earth. Repeated

pulling on it was constantly recycling of the crust over along Miranda pulled

changing. This caused the moon’s period eventually created the into elliptical orbit —
1ORBIT
CHANGE
Gravity of outer
interior to flex and shift, warming it jumbled landscape we see today. moons pulls Miranda into
an elliptical orbit.
8
 c n
FIRST SIGHT

Aportrait of o
William Herschel

holding the
sketch he made
illiam Herschel, the discoverer of Uranus, built
w the best telescopes of his time. They allowed
showing the
ringed planet. CO
him to see immediately that the planet was atiny . ■ . *

disc rather than apoint-like star, but they also led CO

him to other remarkable discoveries.
H e i d e n t i fi e d Ti t a n i a a n d O b e r o n i n 1 7 8 7 e v e n
* ■■
though they were not seen by other telescopes for
several decades. But he also claimed to have seen
aring around the planet -aremarkable feat that G)
has long been put down to an observing error, since
Uranus’ rings have never been seen from Earth in

OBERON The outermost

visible light. Nevertheless, the sketch Herschel made a
of what he saw clearly shows the ring at the right m
moon shows highly
size and orientation. Space scientist Dr Stuart Eaves
reflective patches that
are suggestive of impact
craters excavated from
has recently suggested that perhaps the rings have
darkened considerably since Herschel’s time.
0
an icy surface.

more craters. Voyager 2sdistant photographs

of it revealed two intriguing features. One is a >
% huge mountain that sticks out from the edge of
the moon, almost certainly created by amassive C O

impact. The other is atendency for Oberon’s CO

largest craters to have bright surroundings and CO

w dark material at their centres. One suggestion is

that the largest impacts have scattered relatively
V- ‘ bright ice from the surface layers across the nearby
%
terrain, and created fissures through which darker
ice has oozed to the surface.
I..
Beyond Oberon, astronomers have lately
discovered aswarm of much smaller moons in
I
highly elongated and tilted orbits. These are almost
> certainly tiny worlds from the outer solar system
T I TA N I A T h e m o s t
-captured comets and mysterious centaurs.
prominent features are
the fault valleys -up to
1500km long and as
much as 75km wide. nsnrTHEqp^

s u r f a c e ice wells up through

tidal forces vary
—around orbit collapses —. interior ice wells parallel cracks
ip to
form fresh crust

I ! / A ! f

il
f

i
A

W m
.-H:

tectonic forces pull crust apart

S U R FA C E C O L L A P S E RIDGES "Plates' pul

2WARMING UPforces 3
Varying tidal Miranda's surface 4RESURFACN
IG
Fresh ice wells 5 apart more slowly, with
around the moon's breaks up and large up to take the place parallel ridges forming along
o r b i t , w a r m s i n t e r i o r. chunks subside. of sunken crust. the fault as ice wells up.
9
 m
■'Si The world's first airborne
l:.
Y

!
astronomical lab made discoveries
%

Comet Shoemater-Ls^'l
that helped scientists decipher the
m
mysteries of the universe.

irborne astronomy began Observatory (KAO) was based at the plane had arange of 11,000km
T h e m o d i fi e d which meant it could travel to
as far back as the 1920s NASA’s Ames Research Center, in
Lockheed C-141

Starlifter freight
but it wasn't until the mid- California’s Silicon Valley. almost any part of the world for a
aircraft (top) flies 1970s at the suggestion of Gerard The highly modified C-141A particular observation.
well above most
Kuiper (see Space Stars) that an military cargo plane could reach
atmospheric
w a t e r v a p o u r.
aircraft dedicated to astronomy heights of 14km, which is above
became areality. Dedicated on 21 99 per cent of the Earth’s water The telescope was aconventional
May 1975, the Kuiper Airborne vapour (see Inside Info). Moreover, Cassegrain reflector with a91.5cm
M l aperture. It was insulated from the
j f .
airframe by shock mounts just
^GERARD KUIPER (1905-1973) behind the cockpit. In flight, a
carefully designed retracting door
was opened when the plane was at
m
its scheduled location, allowing the
a a
telescope to view the sky.
(4^
a
The KAO provided astable
E platform for the seven-and-half-hour
r * m missions. The flight crew comprised
! H
two pilots and aflight engineer. The
astronomy team was adiverse but
close-knit collection of about 50

E s people. Undoubtedly much of the

programme’s success was down
Li
to team leader, Jim McClenahan.
E
Under his leadership, the KAO
completed atotal of 1417 flights.
 m
wavelengths of radiation. This is especially acute
4 K .

: i
;for astronomers who wish to use infrared light
]ito observe distant objects because infrared Allan Meyer, KAO staff scientist
; . T:
radiation is largely absorbed by water vapour i n
the lower atmosphere. Lifting atelescope above
this, into the dry upper atmosphere detection of anaturally occurring birth. Today, it is amajor discipline
(stratosphere], aboard aplane, therefore, is an interstellar, infrared laser and a in astronomical research.
excellent solution -and one that bore enormous massive black hole at the centre of In 1995, KAO was retired
success with the KAO.
the Milky Way. to make way for aUS-German
In fact, much of the science project called SOFIA (Stratospheric
produced by the KAO concerned Observatory for Infrared
Among the highlights of the #uII the birth of stars and the conditions Astronomy). This was based on a
of Halley sComet
KAO sservice, was the 1977 flight taken from Kuiper space that affect this. Before the Boeing 747SP, ashort-body version
from Perth. Australia, when the thin in April 1986. KAO, little was known about star of the jumbo jet.
rings of Jupiter were discovered. .// '! #

Other discoveries included water I 5 /

in Jupiter's thick atmosphere and

the internal energy source of the 0*

planet Neptune. 'r,.

' t
r. *
\ ' t / * ' ■ V
! ! ! -.t -. *
¥
! . /
! ^ / - / ^ %
f V X

The KAO’s discovery of the rings of f - M -

'■m
Uranus was significant as they were Sf
!3».

- i V. X
I

% . ' I

the first to be seen around aplanet ! 4

A
t! >*r' ■
! ^ r .
%

other than Saturn. This discovery 40%'X ‘ . f r. * t

alerted astronomers to the fact that, V* k

f
C:":'
W
4 f c
A '

as we now know, planetary rings are \

! r
#
\

the norm. Scientists also found

embryonic stars hidden inside dense
dust clouds and made the first
{t
XyS’yXM-
\ s

V * ' t
t'.'
■ ■ ■

11
' '■f r
4
N: V'
, / v - # -
 RINGS and MOONS
It was the first planet to be discovered by telescope,
but little was known of Uranus, its spartan ring
system or its moons until it was visited by Voyager 2. [1]
i

oyager 2flew past Uranus in 1986 200 years after the planet was

V
*
firstdiscoveredbyWilliamHerschel.Thespaceproberadioedback
thousands of images and data on the planet, its ring system and
satellites. This was no easy task considering the sheer remoteness of the
planet astaggering2.8billionkillometresfartheroutfromtheplanetSaturn
Uranus receives far less sunlight than Saturn, and to make matters worse, its
ringsystemisveryfaintanddark,containingmostlynon-reflectivematerial.
Despitethesevisualsetbacks.Voyager2andlatertheHubbleSpace
Telescopemanagedtoprovidesomestunningviewsofthispuzzlingplanet
and its unusual system, obtaining an insi ght into Uranus that Herschel could
have only dreamed of.

[1] FALSE COLOUR

Uranus' cloud cap over
the south pole and
streaks of cloud at mid¬
latitudes are revealed
by this false-colour,
high-contrast image.

[2] COSMIC CIRCLE

Uranus and its system of
13 known rings. Some
are incomplete, and
s o m e too dark or too
narrow to be seen at all.

[3] IN ORBIT This Hubble

image depicts Uranus'
rings and five of its 27
satellites. The outermost
visible ring. Epsilon, is
brightest on the lower
side, where it is wider.

[4] ROCKY RING Aclose-

up, illustrated view of
the particles that make
up one of the thin rings
circling Uranus.

[5l ICY TITANIA Aview

of Uranus seen from its

largest moon, Titania.

Two other moons can be
seen in the distance as
[2] bright points of light.

12
MAGE GALLERY Orings and moons
i n
tiiiO m
m
f., 'j-. m
[6] MAJOR JVIOONS Uranus and its delicate ring system provide the backdrop for this computer-generated image of the planet sfive maj
m o o n s (from left to right): Umbriel, Miranda, Oberon, Titania and Ariel. Titania is the largest of Uranus' moons -at 1578km in diameter it
 NSTEIN a n a
RELATIV
The young Einstein infuriated his teachers
by asking questions they couldn't answer.
He eventually answered them himself -and
changed the world.

ach day, Albert Einstein BOY WONDER

caught atram to the Swiss Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was

Patent Office in Bern, where
he worked as atechnical examiner.
Imagine, he thought, if this tram
were travelling close to light speed.
How would the world look to me?
born at Dim, in Wurttemberg,
Germany, the son of an engineer
father and musical mother who
EINSTEIN
encouraged his independent Aphotograph of
thinking. When the young Albert Albert Einstein

How would Ilook to others? Einstein was just four years’ old, he toyed taken in 1930.

called such puzzles “thought

experiments”. They usually began IT WARPED SPACE ' ^
“Imagine if...” The fabric of space, represented a s a

rgrid, is distorted by the gravity of

AMIRACULOUS YEAR objects of dilifferent mass. The Sun,
l o w e r left, makes no impression, but
The 26-year-old’s thought H a s m a l er, denser neutron star, centre

experiments led him to a“miraculous Vleft, creates more of adistortion.

v;Meanwhile, ablack hole, bottom
year” in 1905, when he submitted
right, creates alarge chasm.
five papers to the journal Annals of
Physics. They proved revolutionary.
One provided direct proof for
the existence of atoms. The second
described away to measure
molecules, earning him adoctorate
from Zurich University. The third,
explaining the photoelectric effect,
won him the Nobel Prize. The fourth
was so advanced few scientists
understood it -it introduced his

special theory of relativity and set

Einstein on the path to fame. The
fifth unleashed the power of the
atom. Quite alist, for someone
whose teachers thought would
never amount to anything.

I avoid it. Bystanders will see tram
with acompass, thinking about the
force that moved it. This made a
deep and lasting impression on him.
He excelled at physics and
maths, teaching himself acomplex
form of geometry by the age of 12.
But many subjects bored him -as
ateenager he rebelled against his
school’s rote teaching, argued with
teachers and skipped classes.
When he was 15 his family
moved to Lombardy, Italy. Einstein
was supposed to stay behind to
finish his schooling but he decided
to join them and educate himself.
Here he began to perform his first
thought experiments.
QUESTIONING MIND
After failing to enter Zurich
Polytechnic on his first attempt,
Einstein reluctantly returned to
school to gain his certificate before
re-applying to train as amaths
teacher. Einstein graduated but was
unable to get ateaching job and
joined the Patent Office in 1901,
devoting his spare time to reading
research papers and discussing
physics with like-minded friends.
Einstein’s job in the Patent
Office involved checking electrical
A, travelling at 30km/h, approaches
X
tram B, travelling at 50km/h, their
m
relative speed is 80km/h -but
CO
imagine if tram Ais travelling H
at close to light speed and on a
collision course with tram B. Tram
o
7 3
Bwill see Aby the light reflected
from it, which is moving at light
speed. Shouldn’t the tram’s speed o
be added to the speed of light? If
so, tram A’s image will arrive before >
CO
the tram does and Bcan brake to
Bstop for no reason as, from their
73
O
viewpoint, tram Ahasn’t arrived yet!
A R E L AT I V E W O R L D o
Einstein realised the world could
not act like this. There must be a <
Beo# Sillittliofplats
universal speed limit that nothing
can exceed -the speed of light. But
0
m
I N S P l R AT t O N signalling and timing devices. As in that case there is no such thing
Pictured above,
he worked, Einstein thought about as absolute time and space. Time C O
the trams that H
Einstein took
Newton’s laws of motion, which speeds up or slows down, length m
every day to assumed space and time were expands and contracts and mass z
work, in the absolute and fixed.
increases or reduces. It all depends >
Bahnhofplatz In
Bern. This is fine for everyday speeds, on the speed or position of the
o
he thought -for example, if tram person experiencing the event:
P D
m
INSIDE INFO
M I N K O W S K I S PA C E T I M E <
r
ermann Minkowski was one of
H Einstein*s maths teachers and
amajor influence on the teenager.
Developing Einstein’s ideas of special
relativity, Minkowski realised that
one way to understand the strange
behaviour of objects moving near the future light cone _
speed of light was to see space and
time as two aspects of acombined
whole -“spacetime”, with atotal
of four dimensions (length, width,
height and time}. He developed a
form of geometry that explained the
lit
features of special relativity in terms
of distortions to our perceptions of
spacetime in extreme situations.
LIGHT CONE This diagram shcjws how the sp^d of
light limits our perception of the universe. Aflash of
light at the junction can be perceived in all spaceUme
locations yyithin the future light cone (i.e. points in
space that the light can reach by acertain timej.
Similarly, an observer at the junction can only detect
events within the past light cone.
L.
 GALACTIC
it is all relative. This was Einstein’s BULLSEYE

special theory of relativity. The gravitational

fi e l d o f a m a s s i v e
On Einstein’s tram, travelling at
galaxy bends
near light speed, time would slow the light of two
down, the tram would shorten and other distant

its mass would increase. Where galaxies aligned

directly behind
does this extra mass come from, it to form two
he wondered? It comes from the rings of light, one
i n s i d e t h e o t h e r.
energy driving the tram towards
This phenomenon
light speed. So mass is simply is called
energy in adifferent form. gravitational
lensing.
THE BREAKTHROUGH
Italian industrialist Olinto de

Pretto (1857-1921) had arrived

at amathematical equation that
would describe this concept
(but in adifferent context) in a
paper published in 1903, and
again in 1904. Einstein heard
about it from aSwiss-ltalian
friend, Michele Besso.
This stated that energy
(E) equals mass (m) times
the speed of light (c)
multiplied by itself (squared),
or E=mc^ This was the ^
breakthrough Einstein needed.
At first, special relativity
caused little reaction. Then word
spread. In 1907, Lithuanian-born
Hermann Minkowski (1864-1909),
who taught Einstein at Zurich
Polytechnic, suggested combining
space and time into “spacetime”
(see Inside Info).
Einstein was subsequently
^
1947) at Berlin ahammer and feather accelerate to
Earth at the same rate -but for air
University to continue
his research. He was now resistance.)
working on ageneral Imagine if ahouse painter fell
theory of relativity -one that off aroof, Einstein pondered.
included gravity. He would feel weightless as he
EINSTEIN'S
TEACHER accelerated towards the ground.
H e r m a n n E I N S T E I N A N D G R AV I T Y therefore weight is irrelevant. In a
Minkowski, Newton’s long-held theory required paper published in 1915, Einstein
taught Einstein
Earth’s gravity to act instantly on concluded that gravity is not a
and suggested
the concept of
"spacetime".

BREAKTHROUGHS

WCURVED S PA C E

Einstein
objectsdescribed gravity as
cause in spacetime. the
distortion
The that
more massive
the object, the greater the distortion. Imagine ■
placing aheavy weight on atrampoline and rolling
aball towards It. The ball would go straight at
first but then follow acurved path as it rolled
into the dip caused by the weight. Planets orbit
the Sun not because of gravity’s pull but because
they follow acurve in spacetime caused by the
Sun’s mass. The reason gravity affects all objects DISTORTION The
equally is that they all follow the straightest path presence of astar forms
possible in spacetime. agravitational well, causing
acurvature in spacetime.
J
force but adistortion in spacetime
X
(see Breakthroughs). Where was ^ARTHUR EDDINGTON (I882-1944) m
the proof? Well, said Einstein, the
CO
distortion caused by amassive
object like the Sun would bend star Arthur
to Eddington was
Quaker parents. born
His Kendal,
infather died
England,
when
H

light. He challenged astronomers to he was two, leaving his mother to raise Arthur o
and his sister atone. Eddington excelled as a 7 3
check this theory.
student, achieving top honours in physics. He
Stars seemingly close to the was appointed chief assistant to the Astronomer
Sun could be seen only during Royal at Greenwich, and later director of
O
asolar eclipse. Astrophysicist Cambridge Observatory. He wrote and lectured
Arthur Eddington (see Space Stars) on relativity and was one of the first to apply >
its concepts to astrophysics. Described as one CO
travelled to Principe off the African
of only three people to understand relativity, he I
coast to photograph the next 7 ^
replied “I wonder who the third might be?”
eclipse on 29 May 1919. In one o
of Eddington’s photographs, astar R E L AT I V E LY C L E V E R
appeared to have changed position
as its light was bent by the Sun
Arthur Eddington, who wrote and
lectured on relativity. #
O
-Einstein was right.
<
EINSTEIN CROSS show that objects gain mass as they field theory’’, but without success.
Light rays from increase speed. He was now seen as out of touch.
0
adistant quasar m

are bent by the Einstein’s theories led to many
gravitational field unexpected discoveries -not least
of the central black holes, which occur when a
intervening
galaxy to form star shrinks to atiny object with
four surrounding agravitational field so strong that
spots of light. light cannot escape. His idea that
mass and energy are equivalent (E
=mc^) led to nuclear energy and
Anew generation of theoretical
physicists were talking about the CO
H
“uncertainty principle’’, which
stated that it is impossible to know
where an atomic particle is going to >
be, only to know where it is “most
D
likely’’ to be.
■PD
This was too radical for the ex¬
m

ultimately the atomic bomb.
Einstein spent his latter
years trying to unite gravity and
electromagnetism in a“unified
rebel Einstein. “God does not throw
dice,’’ he wrote. Unfortunately for
<
Einstein, quantum physics, which
he helped establish, had moved on.

BLACK HOLE

Ablack hole
shown as a
Einstein's legacy gravitational
t h
Aged 40, Einstein was famous, and depression in a
I
so busy on lecture tours that he grid representing
X A
could not receive his Nobel Prize in spacetime. VYV

,A/V
person. It was awarded for his A
' I
X/
K
*
ideas on the “photoelectric effect’’
(a phenomenon in which matter
emits electrons after it has

absorbed energy from electro¬

magnetic radiation) which recent
experiments had proved.
More experiments have since
c o n fi r m e d E i n s t e i n ’s o t h e r t h e o r i e s

-for example, atomic timers show

that amoving clock on an aircraft
ticks more slowly than one on the
ground, and particle accelerators m
 _EPUS, (SAELUfPt'anc « ♦

* I
Lurking under the feet of the * i
giant hunter Orion, is Lepus the
hare, while Columba the dove
flies behind the stern of the ship . #
\
of the Argonauts. #
I
♦

4
0
epus is overshadowed by the brilliant
constellations around it such as Orion and Canis
Major, but is nevertheless worth acloser look. %
#
Start with Gamma Leporis, an attractive double star
divisible with binoculars, consisting of a4th-magnitude*
yellow primary with a6th-magnitude orange
! A
companion. Near the border with the constellation #

Eridanus is RLeporis, adeep-red variable popularly ! *

known as Hind’s Crimson Star, after the 19th-century ♦ * #

English astronomer, John RHind, who first remarked on MINI PLEIADES However^it is probably not atrue clusterlDut achance
NGC 2017-a
its colour. Ared giant, it ranges in brightness from 6th tight grouping
alignment qf un^ionn^cted stars in the same line of
magnitude at its peak, when it is easily visible with of colourful stars sight. In tli^ south of Lepus is agej;iuine cluster, M
binoculars, to 12th magnitude at its faintest, when a that resemble a a* small but rich globular. The constellation also ^
telescope is required. The interval from one maximum
smaller version

of the Pleiades.
containsthepeculiarplanetarynebul^’IC418,know n

to the next is about 14 months. astheSpirSgraph,toofaintforamateurtelescopesbut*

clearlyseenb^theHubbleSpaceTelescope..
MINI CLUSTER
Perhaps the most interesting object in Lepus is NGC DOVE ON AWING - ^

2017, acompact group of stars looking like amini South of Lepus lies Columba, aconstellation
Pleiades through atelescope. The brightest member is introduced at the end of the 16th century by the Dutch
of 6th magnitude and the faintest of 12th magnitude. cartographer Petrus Plancius, for whom it represented
the dove sent out from Noah’s Ark to find land after
the biblical flood. Columba contains amodest globular
©)
LEPUS cluster, NGC 1851, visible as ahazy patch through
small telescopes. But of greater interest is 5th-
epus the hare was magnitude Mu Columbae, aso-called runaway star
L supposedly placed in the that is moving away at high speed from the Orion
sky as areminder of events Nebula. It is thought to have been part of abinary
ithat got out of hand on the system that broke up after it encountered another
jGreek island of Leros. In
binary in the Orion Nebula about two and ahalf
Ithisstory,onemanbegan million years ago.
ibreeding hares on the island
^and everyone else followed
E N G R AV E O N T H E S K Y

isuit.
Soon,
island
the
was
overrun with hares, which
Next to Columba is Caelum, asmall, faint constellation
had to be eradicated before
representing apair of engraving tools, introduced in
they destroyed the island’s crops. The hare in the sky reminds
us of the need for moderation in all things. the 1750s by the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de
Lacaille. Its brightest star is of only 4th magnitude and
there are no objects of note for amateur observers.
20
i ;V
 *

41^.
J

( ii
«r.a

* f

.Vi-6

m A

V.>>#

■i j >

I -m:-

Mf

ROCKY MOON
An artist's

impression of a
shepherd moon
in the rings of
Saturn.

Small moons play acrucial role in creating the fine structure of

planetary rings -keeping fine strands in line, opening distinct gaps
and divisions, and even supplying the rings with fresh material. G L O S S A R Y
Roche limit:

The region of
shepherd moon is typically The most famous examples are The most important role of space around

A asmall satellite that orbits

just inside or just outside a

narrow planetary ring. Due to their
Prometheus and Pandora, which
flank Saturn’s narrow Fring. But
Uranus’ system of rings has its own
shepherd moons is in keeping the
parent planet srings in line. Any
planetary ring is in fact atightly
aplanet where
tidal forces will

small size and proximity to the rings,
shepherds have only been discovered
in the era of space probes and
powerful telescopes.
prevent amoon
from forming or
cause any object
shepherds, including Cordelia and constrained stream of particles, held together by
gravity alone to
Ophelia, which shepherd the Epsilon orbiting their parent planet on
disintegrate and
ring, and Portia and Mab, linked to circular paths confined to asingle form rings.
the most recently discovered rings. plane above the equator.

HOW IT WORKS
objects moving

KEEPING RINGS IN LINE around orbit at

different speeds

he closer asatellite (be it ashepherd than the ring particles themselves. As a

T moon or aring particle) lies to its result, its gravity tends to exert abraking
parent planet, the faster it wil m o v e force on the particles, draining them of
around its orbit; but asatellite that is energy and causing them to drift slightly
farther away from its planet actually has inwards.

more total energy. And it is the balance Conversely, amoon which orbits just inside
between total energy and speed of the same ring moves slightly faster and pulls
movement that explains how shepherd nearby particles after it, accelerating them
moons keep ring particles in l i n e . so that they gain energy and drift farther OBJECTS MOVE around orbits

Ashepherd moon orbiting just beyond the outwards. In this way, apair of moons can 1 at different speeds depending
outer edge of aring moves slightly slower keep both edges of aring in line. on distance from planet

22
 CO
Where asingle narrow ring is PA N D O R A T h i s “grooves” and sparser areas within
isolated in space, collisions between 11 4 X 8 4 X 6 2 k m
the major ring planes.
super-smooth >
the ring particles should cause them Another major role of shepherd
moon shepherds O
to spread out across abroader plane. Saturn's Fring. moons -and one that scientists are m
It is usually the gravitational influence only now beginning to understand CO
of shepherd moons that stops this -is the way in which they supply their O
from happening (see How It works). rings with fresh material. All rings are m
gradually eroded over time, worn
REVEALING SHAPES
down by countless gentle collisions O
Anumber of shepherds have been with their neighbours and drawn m
photographed, and they are almost planet’s “Roche limit” (see Glossary). towards their parent planet by the
uniformly small, irregular, and heavily Recently discovered small braking effects of its sparse upper 0
cratered worlds. This is only to be “cluster” moons in the rings of atmosphere and magnetic field. C O

expected since their position close to Saturn suggest that some of the CORDELIA AND However, it seems that shepherd X
m
agiant planet puts them directly “in shepherds that still await discovery OPHELIA This moons can help to keep their rings ■ n

the firing line” for interplanetary
debris pulled inwards by their
parent’s gravity.
One intriguing exception is Saturn’s
moon Pandora, which appears
unnaturally smooth, and is probably
covered by afine layer of dust from
the Fring itself. Other satellites, such
as Pan and Atlas, which have only
been imaged from adistance, appear
might be this kind of object. pair of shepherd “fresh” by replenishing them with m
moons keeps the
small particles that have been
Epsilon ring of D
BOOSTERS AND REFRESHERS Uranus thin and chipped off them by high-speed
As well as keeping rings in line, focused. collisions with small meteoroids.
o
shepherds, like all moons, can have o
asurprising influence far from their
C O
own orbit through “resonances”.
These occur when two objects fall
into orbits that frequently bring
them back to the same relative

to be saucer-shaped. One theory is positions -for example when one

that they have an “equatorial ridge” moon is orbiting twice as fast as
made of dust that has been pulled out another.

of the rings and settled onto them. Resonances “boost” the influence

of apparently small gravitational forces

INTERNAL FRICTION
Most shepherds seem to have low
densities, suggesting that they are
either composed of ice or that they
have porous structures with many
internal gaps. Despite this, they must
have some internal friction to keep
and can shift the orbits of moons or,
in the case of aring system, create
gaps and divisions within the rings.
The most famous example of this is
the Cassini division within Saturn’s
r
rings, opened up by aresonance with
Mimas. But resonances from small

them stuck together, as shepherds, shepherd satellites are doubtless

by definition, orbit in aregion called a responsible for many of the narrow h :

braking force from

outer shepherd ring particles
fall inwards r * # '

1*
J
* ^ I

I f ■i
f f ! > f »
ftw c; #

!». % y. ‘
» V V
%
^ ' i f , .
* * >!

acclerating !ring particles

i
' ' »
force from inner m ,
move outwards*
shepherd moon

2OUTER
moving EDGE with
slower-
shepherd moon SINNER
movingEDGE
moon with
afaster-
causing
causing particles to lose energy particles to gain energy (left)
(left) and fall Inwards (right) and move outwards (right)

23
COMING UP IN ISSUE 33
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!Is it acomet? Is it an asteroid? No,
i t ’s a c e n t a u r. L e a r n a l l a b o u t t h e s e
newly discovered icy planetoids that
orbit the Sun.
!Why did NASA deliberately crash
part of aspace craft into acomet?
!From the objective lens to the
eyepiece, get the low-down on
telescopes and how they work.
!The size of the galaxy and our place
in it -subjects hotly discussed in
The Great Debate of 1920.
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TURQUOISE and TILTED

URANUS
The FIRST PLANETARY
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PLANET URANUS, ITS MOON AND VERTICAL SUPPORT ARM

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YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL
30 Start to collect the parts you'll need to add Uranus
ensure no parts are lost.
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MISSIONS
10
Discover just what happened when the Voyager 2
spacecraft took aclose look at Uranus.
II

IMAGE GALLERY
Probing deep space for infrared light opens the door
to the incredible world of nebulae. Credits
IMAGES: FC Science Photo
THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY Library/Steve Munsinger; 2-3
16
Find out how amusician, William Herschel, went on NASA/JPL; 3-5 Eaglemoss/Julian
Fletcher; 6-7 (c) Hubble Heritage
to become agiant in the world of astronomy.
Team/NASA/ESA, (tr) Calvin J
Hamilton, (br) Science Photo
S TA R M A P Library/SteveMunsinger;8-9(tl,b)|Archive;18-19(tcl,cr)Science
20 Pikaia Imaging, (cl) NASA, (cr)
Learn how to find and how best to view the beautiful
ESA; 10-11 (tc) Science Photo
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NASA; 12-13 (tl) NASA/JPL-
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While we know that Uranus' axis is dramatically Gehrz (University of Minnesota),
tilted, astronomers are still at aloss to know why. (tr) NASA/JPL-Caltech/R Kennicutt
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SINGS Team, (bl) NOAO/AURA/
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1 5 2 M A S S / U M a s s / I PA C / J P L -
11 ■I I I
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Isaac Newton Group of
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Hijmering, (br) ESA/Medialab; 20-
21 (bl) Galaxy Picture Library/
Robin Scagell, (tc) Galaxy Picture
Library/ Ed Grafton, (cr,br) PIkaia
Imaging; 22-23 (c) Getty/National
Geographic/Paul Hudson, (tr)
Science Photo Library/Mark
Garlick, (b) Pikaia Imaging.
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TURBULENT ORBIT
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"The orrefy is aprecision-engineered
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YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL >parts are lost,
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This issue we look at different types of telescope the parts. For best care, use the
-one of the astronomer's most powerful tools. polishing cloth and dusting brushes
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SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE
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In the late 20th century anew class of sma e r w o r l d s and get lost. Unpack ail parts careful'ly-
was found -rock and ice objects called centaurs. "The publisher reserves the right to
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f o l l o w i i >g ai ly
safety guidelines provided
by the manufacturer.
"The publisher cannot be responsible
for any injuries caused by any tools or
materials.
4

MISSIONS
10
Find out how NASA crashed aspace probe into a
comet to uncover the secrets of its formation. m

IMAGE GALLERY
We look into deep space to admire some of the most
beautiful open star clusters within sight.
Credits
THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY IMAGES: FC Science Photo
16
The Great Debate led astronomers to discover the Library/Julian Baum/New
Scientist; 2Hubble Heritage
size of our galaxy and our location within it. Te a m / N A S A / E S A ; 3 ( t l , b r )
Bridgeman Art Library; 4-5 (tc)
S TA R M A P Science Photo Library, (cr) Mary
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Hercules the fifth largest constellation in the night Imaging; 6-7 (tl) Science Photo
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Archeological Museum Palermo/
S PA C E S C I E N C E ▶ NSF, (bl,tr,bc) Pikala Imaging, (br)
22 Gianni Dagli Orti, (cr) Hubble
What role does Jupiter play in protecting our planet Heritage Team/NASA/ESA, (br)
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9 m
 o
C

MAGNIFYING 7 0
CO
O
the 5
TO
CO

AV E N S
An 18th- -<
CO
century reflecting table
telescope. The casing
is made from brass m
and leather. J

Since their invention in the 1600s, telescopes have become TRANSIT TELESCOPE O
This telescope is mounted
U
the astronomer's most powerful tools -vital aids to so as to allow it to point
m
only at objects that
measuring the sky accurately and recording the "transit", that is, cross the
r

movement of planets and stars. local meridian. It relies on

Earth's rotation 0
to bring objects
N. into view.
>
he invention of the telescope is generally
attributed not to an astronomer, but to an
optician and lens maker, Hans Lippershey -<
(see Space Stars). Lippershey apparently invented
the telescope in 1608, and news of his work O

spread rapidly across Europe, so that within X

months, astronomers from England to Italy were m

busily grinding lenses, assembling telescope tubes X

m
and turning them towards the sky. >
The best known of these early pioneers was <
m
Galileo Galilei, who built avastly improved Z
CO
instrument and published abook of his
j;.
observations. The Starry Messenger, in 1610.
Recent research has unearthed evidence that

Galileo might not have been the first to see some

of his “discoveries”, but his public announcement
of them, and the far-reaching conclusions that he
drew, changed astronomy forever.

LENS TELESCOPES
Like all early telescopes, Galileo’s device was a
“refractor”, using lenses to gather light and
produce amagnified image. These are the two
main functions of any telescope: to gather more
light than the human eye alone, and to create a
magnified image from that light.
All telescopes rely on the useful fact that, if ■ %

an object is sufficiently far away, the light rays

diverging from it will be almost parallel by the
time they reach an observer. Aproperly ground
#

m HANS LIPPERSHEY

le man usually credited with Lippershey applied to patent

T_the
. invention of the telescope
was aGerman-born lens maker
working at Middelburg in the
Netherlands. Although the
story may be apocryphal, it is
sometimes claimed that the
discovery was actually made by
children playing in Lippershey’s
workshop, who found that by
adevice offering three times
magnification at the Dutch royal
court in 1608. Although refused
apatent (perhaps because
rivals soon emerged to claim the
invention for themselves], the
government paid Lippershey well
for copies of his device, and he
was later commemorated in the

looking through two spectacle name of alunar crater.

lenses held one in front of the

other, they could see amagnified LENS MAKER Hans
image of the local church tower. Lippershey, designer of the
Whatever the truth of this. first practical telescope.

G L O S S A R Y
lens can bend these parallel rays back to meet at a objective can gather light from amuch larger area
Focal length: The single point (a focus), and as they begin to diverge than the 8mm of adilated human pupil, it can
distance between the
again, they can be intercepted by asecond lens produce far brighter and more intense images.
centre of alens or

mirror and the point
where parallel rays of
light passing through
it. or reflected from it,
come to afocus.
REFRACTOR In a
refracting telescope,
parallel rays of light
are bent to afocus as
they pass through the
objective lens. After
passing through the
focus, the diverging light
rays are intercepted by
an eyepiece that makes
them parallel again.
NEWTONIAN In a
Newtonian reflector,
parallel rays enter
the telescope and are
reflected to afocus by
aprimary mirror at the
back of the instrument.
Asmaller secondary
mirror intercepts the
converging rays and
diverts them to an
eyepiece mounted on
one side.
CASSEGRAIN In a
Cassegrain reflector, the
secondary mirror reflects
light back through a
hole in the middle of
the primary, to arear-
mounted eyepiece.
that makes them parallel once again, producing an
image that appears much larger than the original.
These two key elements of atelescope are
known as the objective lens (which collects the
light and bends it to afocus), and the eyepiece
(which creates the magnified image). Because the
REFRACTING TELESCOPE
eyepiece NEWTONIAN REFLECTOR
secondary mirror
Arefracting instrument matches most peoples’
image of atelescope -along tube with the
objective lens at one end and the eyepiece at the
other. Its length depends critically on the “focal
length” (see Glossary) of the objective. Attempts
to produce good lenses with short focal lengths led
to some truly enormous instruments
(see Inside Info). This was not the
only problem with early refractors
-their lenses were also subject to
anumber of other problems, most
notably “chromatic aberration” (see
How It Works).
MIRROR TELESCOPES
It took the genius of Isaac Newton to
recognise that atelescope need not
have an objective lens at all. Instead
of light being bent to afocus by its
passage through alens, a
“Newtonian” reflecting telescope
primary mirror uses alarge “primary” mirror to
collect light. The mirror is ground so
that incoming parallel rays striking
any part of it are reflected back
through afocus point in front of the
mirror. Clearly the observer cannot
stand in front of the telescope to
observe, since this would block out
the light, but asmall “secondary”
mirror placed in the way can deflect
the converging light rays out of a
hole in one side of the telescope tube, where an
eyepiece would be mounted. Using thin struts to INSIDE INFO O
STRANGE TELESCOPES C
support the secondary mirror, the amount of light
r
prevented from reaching the primary mirror would arious bizarre designs were 1 2 6 c m d i a m e t e r r e fl e c t o r t h a t
be kept to aminimum. V used in the past to get around focused its light directly into an “off-
L O
O
the early limitations of telescope axis” eyepiece mounted on the edge
REFLECTOR TELESCOPES technology. of the tube. This removed the need

The “Newtonian” reflector is the ancestor of a Because the largest early lenses for asecondary mirror that would
had enormous focal lengths, Polish have drained much of the
host of other reflecting telescope designs. It avoids astronomer Johannes Hevelius built instrument’s light. CO
the problems of chromatic aberration, but has its incredibly long instruments (up to -<
own imperfections known as spherical aberration 18, 21 and even just over 60m CO
long) that relied on asimple frame H
(see How It Works). Reflectors are more compact MONSTER MAGNIFIER
rather than an enclosed tube. Later, m
since it’s easier to grind amirror with ashorter Hevelius’ great telescope that
William Herschel built an enormous reached over 60m in length.
focal length, while the secondary mirror can fold
the path of the light rays on their way to the
focus. Apopular modern design is the Cassegrain,
o
which uses asecondary mirror to reflect light back
U
through ahole in the middle of the primary. This m
design is extremely compact, with the eyepiece
directly behind the primary mirror.
While most major telescopes are pure reflectors 0
of one design or another, both reflectors and
refractor instruments are popular in smaller >
observatories and among amateurs. Since the
1960s, ahybrid form known as the catadioptric T l
telescope has become increasingly popular with -<

amateurs, since it avoids the problems of both

chromatic and spherical aberration.
X
m
HOW IT WORKS
X
m
^CHROMATIC AND SPHERICAL ABERRATIONS m
>
<
hromatic aberration is an effect C H R O M AT I C A B E R R AT I O N flint glass
c
m
— c o r r e c t o r
caused by alens bending different c r o w n
CO
colours or wavelengths of light by slightly glass lens
varying amounts. As aresult, each
colour comes to afocus at different

distances from the lens, and the

resulting image is surrounded by
multicoloured fringes. Much of the
aberration can be removed by using a
lens bends different colours
second concave lens that bends the light by different amounts
back onto its correct paths.
Spherical aberration affects both SPHERICAL A B E R R AT I O N

lenses and certain shapes of mirror.

^It causes light rays striking the lens or path of
r e fl e c t e d
mirror around its edges to be brought light rays
to focus at aslightly different point
from those striking the centre. The
result is aslightly out-of-focus or hazy spherical
m i r r o r
appearance that can be corrected by
path of —I light rays from edges
Iusing certain mirror shapes or adding a refracted and centre come to

iglass “corrector plate”, as found in the light rays focus at different points
m light rays converge
catadioptric telescopes. at different points

A
Beyond the asteroid belt, in between the orbits of the solar
system's giant planets, orbit worlds of rock and ice, some
with tenuous atmospheres. These are the centaurs.
puntil the late 20th century, the solar
system’s smaller worlds were easily
divided up into two classes. Asteroids
rocky and orbited quite close to the Sun
w e r e
mostly in the main asteroid belt between Mars
and Jupiter), while comets were icy and generally
lurked beyond Neptune (although afew followed
long elliptical orbits that brought them close to the
Sun at one end).
AWORLD OUT OF PLACE
Things started to get more complicated in 1977
when astronomer Charles Kowal (see Space Stars)
discovered an unexpected new world that moved
too slowly to be an asteroid, and did not follow
any of the orbits typically associated with comets.
The new object, which spent most of its orbit
between Saturn and Uranus, was about 150km
across and seemed too large to be adormant
comet. So it was given an asteroid designation -
2060 Chiron -despite the fact that it didn’t really
fit into any of the neat categories used by
astronomers.
At first, Chiron was assumed to be arefugee
from the asteroid belt, perhaps ejected into its
current remote orbit by some cataclysmic event. WISE C E N TA U R
The new planetoid’s orbit actually turned out to Chiron was named after
be just across the orbits of Saturn and Uranus, awise centaur (seen on
the vase above) in Greek
although the arrangement of their orbits is mythology who tutored
such that Chiron usually stays tens of million of the hero Achilles.
CHIRON'S JOURNEY CO
The centaur Chiron
approaches the Sun on
O
its orbital jouirney.
>
N a m e Diameter Orbital period Closest to Sun Farthest from Sun
Chiron 1 5 0 k m 50.5 years 8.45 AU 18.89 AU CO
Pholus 1 8 5 k m 92.3 years 8.73 AU 32.13 AU -<
Asbolus 7 2 k m 76.7 years 6.83 AU 29.12 AU CO
G L O S S A R Y
Nessus 5 8 k m 122.6 years 11 , 8 5 AU 37.50 AU
Coma: Ahuge but 13,08 AU 18.65 AU m
Chariklo 5 1 6 k m 63.2 years
sparse ball of gases
Thereus 8 0 k m 34.7 years 8. 52 AU 12.75 AU
that forms around a
comet as it is warmed

by the Sun and ice *1AU =1astronomical unit, the average Earth-Sun O
evaporates from its
surface.
distance of approximately 150 million km.

a
kilometres from Saturn, even at its closest to the CHIRON'S COMA
Chiron's inner coma is
Sun, and keeps even farther away from Uranus.
capture by the Hubble 0
Things got stranger in 1988, when Chiron Space Telescope in 1996.
began to grow steadily brighter, suggesting that n :
m
something was happening on its surface. Then in
1989, astronomers Karen Meech, of the University O
of Hawaii, and Michael Belton, of the Kitt Peak
National Observatory, photographed Chiron >
through a4m telescope and discovered that it T O
was surrounded by adistinct hazy atmosphere, C D

resembling the “coma” (see Glossary) around a

comet. As aresult, Chiron was given asecond
designation as comet 95P/Chiron, making it one of

the very few objects in the solar system classed as

CHARLES TK0WAL'fB.i.g4oi both acomet and an asteroid.

FA M I LY P O RT R A I T
Chiron remained alone enigma in the outer solar
system until 1992, when David LRabinowitz,
working at the University of Arizona, discovered it
had aneighbour in the same region of space. Soon
named asteroid 5145 Pholus, this second centaur
had an even more eccentric path around the Sun,
ranging between the orbits of Saturn and Neptune.
It seemed that Chiron was not aone-off but the
first representative of anew class of outer-solar
system asteroids.
The 1990s saw major advances in the
techniques used for hunting asteroids (see
DISCOVERED Thsis
the first photo of the Technology), and as aresult several dozen centaurs
major centaur Chiron, have now been discovered. Of these, two more
discovered on .19 October
have turned out to be active comet-like worlds
1977 by OTCKowal
with distinct comas. It seems that, like comets,
centaurs only burst into activity when they are
/ closest to the Sun. Nevertheless, the active
centaurs are remarkably large compared to
comets and seem to awaken at far greater
distances from the Sun.

7
#
 TECHNOLOGY

on which the fastest-moving

The
University
Spacewatch Arizona’s
of
project has been asteroids [Near-Earth Objects that
among the most successful might present ahazard to our
discoverers of centaurs and Kulper planet) will make noticeable trails.
Belt Objects (KBOs). Set up in More distant objects will only be
1980 and still run by co-founder identified when two images taken

S PA C E - WAT C H I N G The

telescope domes of Kiti

Peak Observatory.

CENTAUR SECRETS ASBOLUS C R AT E R

An artist's
Although we have no detailed images from the
impression of the
surface of a"true” centaur, spectra of their light 80km wide centaur,
have revealed some of their secrets, and planetary 8405 Asbolus.

scientists think they’ve had aglimpse of acentaur- Scientists using the

Hubble Space
like object courtesy of the Cassini space probe. Telescope to
Centaurs seem to come in two distinct groups, measure its surface
discovered a
distinguished by their surface colours. Chiron
10-million-year-old
is the prototype of one class -objects that are crater that exposes
dark, and grey or blue-grey in colour-while underlying ice of a
Pholus heads the other class of bodies that are kind not seen
before.
brighter and distinctly red. There seems to be a

distinct rift between the two groups rather than

a
continuity from one type to the other, although
some characteristics are shared by both groups, for
example, the red and grey centaurs mix in similar

HOW IT WORKS

C E N TA U R E V O L U T I O N

A typical centaur begins its life in the Kuiper Belt

perhaps in an orbit similar to the dwarf planet Pluto.
From here, it may be disrupted by Pluto’s own gravity until
it falls into apath that brings it close to Neptune, and this
larger planet’s gravity pulls it into an eccentric orbit,
closer to the Sun. After aperiod of time in its centaur
orbit, repeated encounters with the giant planets push the
icy planetoid into the orbit of ashort-period comet, with a
perihelion in the inner solar system and an aphelion among
the giants. The additional heat from the Sun will almost
certainly turn it into an active comet, but afew hundred Kuiper Belt orbit
trips round the Sun will burn away the surface ice and C E N T A U R O R B I T: A c l o s e
leave the husk as adark, dried-out asteroid-like world.
Even this orbit is unstable, and further encounters with
2 encounter with Neptune
BIRTH: Acentaur perturbs the centaur into
larger planets may send it crashing into the Sun or agiant 1 starts its life orbiting atypical "centaur orbit"
planet, or eject it from the solar system altogether. in the Kuiper Belt. between Neptune and Jupiter.
 Iphitus CO
orbits, and both types can show comet activity. j i

So far as can be told, the surface materials o

on centaurs are quite variable, although only Euphemus
weak spectra can be gathered from these faint 7 ^
objects. Most experts agree that the redder CO
centaurs contain complex carbon-based “organic” C a n t h u s

chemicals, reddened by exposure to radiation from

the Sun. There also seems to be amixture of ices,
and minerals that are also found in rocky planets.
In terms of colour, Saturn’s outermost large
moon, Phoebe, sits neatly among the Chiron-type CD
centaurs -astronomers have long suspected that
it is arenegade world captured into orbit around D
the ringed planet. Today, most people agree that
it probably has apast history as acentaur. Photos
from the Cassini probe show an irregular world Erginus o i i e u s

some 220km across, covered in deep craters.

The surface is extremely dark, but
this seems to be arelatively thin
layer overlying abrighter and icier
i n t e r i o r.
U N S TA B L E E N D I N G
Orbiting as they do among the giant
planets, centaurs are doomed to a
short and turbulent life -their paths
through space are constantly being
altered by the gravity of their larger
neighbours, and the average centaur
orbit becomes unstable in afew
million years. Clearly they did not
form in this part of the solar system
Astronomers trace their origins back
to the doughtnut-shaped Kuiper
PHOEBE'S Belt just beyond the orbit of Neptune. Here, many
PREVIOUS LIFE
more centaur-like objects slowly orbit the Sun, and
Saturn's moon
o c c a s i o n a encounters with Neptune or other
Phoebe is thought to
have once been a external forces cause them to fall into more
centaur of atype eccentric orbits that come closer to the Sun. Once
similar to Chiron.
in acentaur orbit, it’s likely that these worlds will
eventually fall victim to one planet or another -if
they avoid close encounters or collisions with
Saturn, Uranus or Neptune, they will eventually be
yanked closer to the Sun by Jupiter -perhaps
absorbed into the planet itself, or transformed into
ashort-period comet (see How It Works).
jyEXT: VVEUm AT COMETS-DAZZUrseVISI^ I
rEARTH'S SKIES ON THEft'

I— Short-period \ce evaporating from

comet orbit PExhausted
rtentaur surface centaur remains

jits
/
f

COMET ORBIT: Jupiter's CHANGE: Ice DARK HUSK: Once

3 gravity eventually pulls 4 evaporating from the 5 the ice is exhausted,

the centaur into a centaur's surface gives it the centaur's remnants
acomet-like appearance. are adarkened husk.
short-period comet orbit.

<5
 .f.
i.

"^"1- “
V
"If

"1m

M PA C T
, - ; *■- i i

v‘ i
By deliberately setting aspace probe on a
collision course with acomet, NASA hoped
to answer some fundamental questions
a b o u t t h e c omet's formation.

eep Impact is ahighly to the spacecraft. Its payload was

innovative spacecraft that a370kg copper core, designed to
was-designed to produce ahigh-energy impact without > \
t fi \

investigate the composition of the need for explosives.

Comet Tempel LEarlier attempts to
study comets were flybys, which
photographed and examined the
surfaces from adistance. This
mission, in contrast, aimed to fly part features a2.8m square solar panel
of the spacecraft, the impactor, into
the path of the comet and record the
collision and its aftermath.
The so-called “Smart Impactor”
is in control of its own destiny.
Once separated from the main
Flyby” section, it was capable of
autonomously steering towards the
comet (see Technology) and capturing
images and transmitting them back
'Maryland
The flyby spacecraft is 3.2m long^
1.7m wide and 2.3m high. It
adebris shield and aIm diameter
high-gain antenna. The spacecraft
carries two cameras, the High
Resolution Imager (HRI) and the
Medium Resolution Imager (MRI).
The HRI is a30cm telescope that
combines avisible-light camera.
a n infrared spectrometer and a n An image taken
by Deep Impact's
imaging module. The MRI is the HRI seconds
backup device and was primarily after impact.^.

an area less than 6km in diameter from about

864,000km away.
To ensure success, the impactor used a
high-precision star tracker, the Impactor Target
Sensor (ITS) in conjunction with Auto-navigation
software to guide it to the target. It made minor
trajectory manoeuvres (of which there were
three) with asmall hydrazine propulsion system
 system. The finding indicates that comets
contain asubstantial amount of organic ALBEDO MAP This image shows the
material, some of which could reach Earth albedo (reflectivity) of Tempel 1*s nucleus
with any comet impact. just before impact.

Iused for navigation during the final
10-day approach.
MpUftist'sTf^ression
of the moment
of impact with 1 images of the fast-approaching
Tempel 1and the The complete spacecraft was
.formation of the
launched aboard aDelta II rocket
:.impact crater.
from the Kennedy Space Center on
I12 January 2005. The spacecraft
released the impactor o n 3July
2005 as it approached Comet
Tempers path. Over the course of
the next day, the impactor guided
itself to the comet nucleus on the
sunlit side. It sped towards the
comet at 10.2km/sec, capturing
surface and returning them to the
flyby spacecraft, which flew as close
as 500km until just before the actual
impact at 5:52 GMT on 4July.
The impact was equivalent to
exploding five tonnes of TNT and
excavated acrater approximately
100m wide and 28m deep. The
comet shone six times brighter than
normal -seen widely across the
world’s media. The data collected
revealed significant information
about Tempel 1and comets in
general (see Inside Info).
The success of Deep Impact’s
mission saw extra funding provided
to extend the mission, initially to
fly by Comet Boethin but, when
that could not be located, to fly by
Comet Hartley 2in 2010.

Or Pete Schultz, Deep Impact co-investigator

SPECTROMETER Deep GIANT CAMERA The

Impact's spectrometer, high resolution imager

shown above, analysed (HRI) is the largest.
the composition of material space-based instrument
ejected from Tempel 1by to have been built for a
the collision. space probe.
 [1]: STAR BIRTH
This mosaic of Hubble
images shows the 30
Poradus Nebula -avast
landscape of gas and
dust where thousands of

stars are being born.'

[11

OPEN STAR CLUSTERS

While the stars appear to
exist in isolation, many
millions in fact live out their
lives in groups called open
and globular clusters.

hile globular clusters are relatively

W ancient, dense groups of stars, open

clusters are young families of afew
hundred stars bound together by gravity. They
originate from vast clouds of dust and gas -the
star factories of nature -spread all over the Milky
Way. Many, such as the Pleiades and Hyades, are
large enough to be seen with the naked eye.
However, if you use atelescope with awide-
held eyepiece and low power, hundreds more will
suddenly become visible. Step up to professionally
run mountain-top observatories and the space-
based Hubble Telescope, however, and the
awesome beauty of these incredible celestial
objects can be fully appreciated.
12
[2] NEWLY FORMED
This image depicts
the bright blue, newly
formed stars that are >
blowing acavity in the G)
centre of astar-forming m
region in the Small
Magellanic Cloud. Q
>
[31 STELLAR NURSERY
This image, captured by
the ESO's telescope at m
La Silla, Chile, shows the 7D
open cluster Haffner 18, <
where new stars are borr

continuously.

[4] QUINTUPLET An
infrared Hubble image
shows this four-million-

year-old cluster, which

is slowly dispersing.
Some of the bright white
stars may be on the
verge of exploding in a
supernova.

fS] CHRISTMAS TREE

This is awide-field image
of the famous open
cluster also known as
NGC2264, captured
by the 0.9m telescope
at the Kitt Peak
Observatory in Arizona.
 ♦■
#

" ■■ >
♦

■ ^ *

4 ♦
♦

♦
"-.

♦ ♦

# 4-

♦" *

[6]

[6] THE SEVEN STARS: The Pleiades, also known as M45, is an open cluster in the constellation of Taurus. Among the nearest star clusters, not
onlyisitprobablythebestknownbutalsothemostobvioustothenakedeye;ithasbeenrecordedbyculturesaroundtheworldsinceancient
14
 ♦
>
o
m

O
*
>
♦

m
7D
<
m. ■
♦
0
o
" D
■
m

# ♦
* . ♦ CO
♦
#
>
T O

e
4 * C O
♦
#
: x i
C O

4 ‘
.4 ♦

times. The cluster is dominated by young, hot blue stars, which have been formed within the last 100 million years. Astronomers believe that it will
last for afurther 250 million years, after which its stars will have dispersed through gravitational interactions with its galactic neighbourhood.
5
 GREAT
DEBA
How big is our galaxy and where do we fit in? This
was ahot topic 100 years ago, and the answer
changed humanity's view of its place in the universe.
srecently as the 1920s,
A most astronomers thought
that our galaxy was the
whole universe and that it
encompassed all the stars and
distant “spiral nebulae” -assumed
to be clouds of dust and gas. Only a
few dared argue that space
extended way beyond our galaxy
and that spiral nebulae were “island
universes”.
The trouble was, no one knew
the galaxy’s true size, or our
location within it. This was “The
Great Debate” leading to afamous
discussion by two astronomers.
I roughly the same distance, and so
That the argument was ever
resolved is thanks to afemale
astronomer and atwinkling star.
Henrietta Leavitt (1868-1921)
was one of an all-female team
at Harvard College Observatory,
Massachusetts, who were analysing
star photographs. She was in
charge of photometry analysis,
PIONEER
Henrietta
measuring stellar brightness.
In 1908, Henrietta was
Leavitt was the
astronomer interested in aparticularly bright
whose work laid
the foundations
type of variable star called a 4
Cepheid. She was studying
for measuring the
distance to sequential photographs of 16
galaxies. Cepheids in the Small Magellanic
Cloud (SMC), in the Southern
constellation of Tucana. At 190,000
light years distant, the SMC (now
known to be adwarf galaxy) is one
of the remotest objects visible with
the unaided eye.
P U L S AT I N G B R I G H T LY
At the time no one knew the SMC’s
true distance, but since it was
clearly very far away, Henrietta
made the reasonable assumption
that all the Cepheids were at
their differing brightness reflected
differences in their intrinsic
luminosities. This allowed her to
recognise, in 1912, that the brighter
aCepheid is the slower its
pulsation rate (see Breakthroughs).
Astronomers already understood
that the brightness of stars was
apossible key to their distances.
Brightness diminishes with the
square of distance, so astar that
looks half as bright as acloser but
otherwise identical one must be
four times further away, and astar
one third as bright must be nine
times further away.
But how can you tell whether
astar’s brightness is due to areal
difference in its luminosity, or
purely due to distance?
S PA C E S TA R S H
HARLOW SHAPLEY {I885-1972)
m
LD
A farm boy from Nashville, Missouri and
high-school drop out, Harlow Shapley I
worked as acrime reporter before returning O
t o s c h o o l t o fi n i s h h i s e d u c a t i o n . H e e n t e r e d 7 3
astronomy by chance. His journalism course
was cancelled so he opted for the first
subject on the list (ignoring archaeology, O
which he couldn’t pronounce). After
graduation he studied under Henry Norris >
Russell, co-discoverer of the Herzsprung- CO
Russell Diagram, before working for George 1
Ellery Hale at Mount Wilson Observatory.
In 1921 he replaced Edward Pickering as O
director of Harvard College Observatory, S H A P

Cepheids offered asolution, briefly working with Henrietta Leavitt before tthe Milky^ay Was the
since the period of their pulsations her premature death. entire universe.
o

reveals their intrinsic luminosity and assumed this must be where the
hence their distance.
centre of our galaxy was, putting
0
H
Astronomer Harlow Shapley, the solar system in the outskirts. X

DWARF GALAXY of Mount Wilson Observatory, Star clusters were like the m

The Small Southern California (see Space galaxy’s “skeleton”, he thought. If o

Magellanic Cloud
was the source of
Henrietta Leavitt's
study of twinkling
Cepheid stars.
Stars) was interested in this. He
was studying 100 globular star
clusters, spherical star groups that
look like swarms of bees and can
contain up to amillion stars.
STAR CLUSTERS
Shapley noticed they were grouped
around adistant region of the Milky
Way, towards Sagittarius. He
he knew how far away they were m
he could work out the galaxy’s >.
H
overall shape and size. Shapley O
measured the pulsation rate of 230 m
□ □
nearby Cepheids and constructed >
H
agraph from the data. He then m
searched for Cepheids in star
clusters, measuring their pulsation
rates and determining their
distances from his graph.

BREAKTHROUGHS

^STANDARD CANDLES

Cepheids
first one are
giant pulsating
identified [Delta (5)yellow
stars.
Cephei) layThe
in
the constellation Cepheus, hence ail are called
“Cepheids”. Henrietta Leavitt studied hundreds of
Cepheids whose distance was already known by
o t h e r m e a n s t o e s t a b l i s h a l i n k b e t w e e n “ fl a s h e s ”
of peak brightness and intrinsic brightness. They
range from three-day Cepheids, 800 times brighter
than the Sun, to 30-day Cepheids, 10,000 times
brighter. Their signature “flashing” and visibility
over vast ranges made Cepheids aperfect guide to
stellar distances -or “standard candle”.

CEPHEUS The constellation close to the

N o r t h P o l e s t a r i n w h i c h t h e fi r s t

pulsating yellow star was found and that

gave Its name to this type of variable star.
I

I
I
1

From this he estimated the

ANDROMEDA

galaxy just like

A
CCTHESIGNIFICANCEOFMAN’SPLACEINTHEHEAVENS Milky Way’s diameter at 300,000
our own, argued HAS DWINDLED WITH ADVANCING KNOWLEDGE...”
Heber Curtis. light years -10 times wider and
Harlow Shapiey
1000 times greater in volume
than thought. He couldn’t believe
A
anything might lie outside
(H^
HEBER
DOUST
CURTIS
(ia72-i942) something so vast. Everything in
the sky, he wrote, including spiral
nebulae, lay within our galaxy.
B orn in Muskegon, Michigan, the son of aone-
a r m e d C i v i l Wa r v e t e r a n , H e b e r D C u r t i s w a s a Other astronomers contradicted
classics scholar and college Latin tutor who took up him and published their own views.
astronomy as ahobby.
When his college merged with another, Curtis THE GREAT DEBATE
accepted the post of professor of mathematics and
The scene was set for “The Great
astronomy, working at Lick Observatory part-time to
increase his knowledge. He then gained adoctorate Debate’’, held before the National
in astronomy at Virginia University, studying under Academy of Sciences at the
astronomer Ormond Stone (1847-1933). His Smithsonian Museum, Washington,
18 years at Lick included several expeditions to on 26 April 1920. Challenging
view solar eclipses and asurvey of nebulae, which
convinced him that spiral nebulae were galaxies. Shapiey was Heber DCurtis,
Director of the Lick Observatory,
HEBER CURTIS Best known as one Northern California (see Space
of the participants in The Great
Stars), who had been surveying
Debate of 1920, he served as Director
of the Allegheny Observatory. nebulae and had his own ideas.
Both sides put their case.

INSIDE INFO
T H E M I L K Y W AY
□UP galaxy, the Milky Way, is
so-called because It looks like amilky
pathway in the sky. Calculating its size
was amajor astronomical challenge. In
The Great Debate, Shapley said it was
300,000 light years across. Curtis
suggested 30,000 light years. It Is now
*#
M I L K Y WAY T h e
dense core of our
home galaxy in
the constellation
Sagittarius,
with the galactic*
centre highlighted. ,
L.
Curtis thought the Milky Way
was smaller than Shapley proposed
and put the Sun at its heart. He
maintained that the Andromeda
nebula (M31) was agalaxy like
ours. Many more novae -stars
that flare up and slowly fade -are
observed, he argued, in M31 than
in our galaxy. Why should atiny
region of space have more novae
than our whole galaxy unless M31
is an “island universe”?
Shapley suggested that if spiral
nebulae were galaxies they would
be uniformly distributed in the
sky. As this did not appear to be
the case they were unlikely to be
galaxies. He had support from
Dutch-American astronomer,
Adriaan van Maanen (1884-1946),
H
in putting the Sun off-centre. Curtis
X
was right in saying our galaxy was m
o n e a m o n g m a n y.
CO
Shapley had not known about
known to be 100,000 light years in H
diameter and 1000 light years thick. “extinction” -that light is absorbed
by interstellar dust and gas. This
O
From outside it appears as abarred 7 ^
spiral containing 400 billion stars, the obscured some spiral nebulae, <
majority in its lens-shaped core. The Sun which were evenly distributed
lies roughly half way -26,000 light years after all. In addition, van Maanen’s o
-from the centre.
“sightings” were false. Spiral
galaxies do rotate, but too slowly to >
CO
be seen in ahuman lifetime.
7 ^
FINAL PROOF
O
The issue was resolved by
astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889-
* /
:
1953) using Mount Wilson’s giant
O
250cm telescope. In 1924 he
identified Cepheids inside M31 and
<
put their distance at “something
over 300,000 parsecs” -one
0
H
million light years -three times X
m
i %
farther than Shapley’s estimate of
our galaxy’s size. Spiral nebulae o
% " were galaxies after all. Hubble m
confirmed this with other galaxies >
and wrote to Shapley, who said, o
“Here is the letter that destroyed m
0 0
" "
my universe.” >
# H
The Great Debate launched
m
cosmology -the study of the
* "
I
universe. It showed the value of
good science and revealed man’s
of Mount Wilson Observatory. true place within the universe.
While comparing photographs -- , T^=T -
of seven spiral nebulae, including ^4-
M31, taken afew years apart,
van Maanen claimed to see stars m
following circular paths, suggesting
that spiral nebulae were rotating.
If they lay outside our galaxy
they would be huge and spinning
faster than light speed. This was
t
impossible, so nebulae must be
smaller and within our galaxy -not
“island universes” at all.
HUBBLE'S
WORK at the
RIGHT AND WRONG
Mount Wilson
Both astronomers would be proved Observatory
right and wrong. The Milky Way proved that
the universe
(see Inside Info) is smaller than extended far
Shapley estimated but bigger than beyond our
Curtis thought. Shapley was correct Milky Way galaxy.
 ♦
#

HERCULES #

;,*V4'
Astrong man kneels with one COLOUR
CONTRAST The
■
foot on the head of Draco, the red giant Alpha
Herculis and its
dragon, in the northern skies. blue companion. ■ *

This muscular giant is the

constellation Hercules. iP **♦
A. /

ercules is the fifth-largest constellation but it

:
is not prominent. The constellation’s most
distinctive feature is aquadrilateral of stars \ ■ ,

r . .
I
called the Keystone, formed by Epsilon, Zeta, Eta and ■
%

Pi Herculis. Representing the strong man’s pelvis, the " .

V-*.
Keystone can be found about one-third of the way
M13 MESSAGE ♦

between the bright stars Vega and Arcturus. In 1974, aradio

z

message was
VA R I A B L E S A N D D O U B L E S beamed at Ml 3 <

o
Near the constellation’s southern border with in the hope that <
o

intelligent life
Ophiuchus is Alpha Herculis, also called Rasalgethi, a forms might
bloated red giant that fluctuates erratically between dwell in this

3rd and 4th magnitudes. Through small telescopes a globular cluster. 5th-magnitude blue-green companion can be ,
seen near to it, forming an attractive colour contrast
with the main star.

HI Other attractive doubles in Hercules within easy,

range of small telescopes are Kappa Herculis, a
ercules is the Roman name for the Greek mythological yellow and orange pair of 5th and 6th magnitudes;
H character Herakles. In Greek myth, Hercules was an Rho Herculis, a6th-magnitude blue-white pair; 95
illegitimate son of the god Zeus. Hera, the wife of Zeus, hated Herculis, asilver-and-gold pair of 5th magnitude; and
IHercules because he was not her own and cast acruel spell 100 Herculis, apair of 6th-magnitude blue-white stars.
Ithat turned him mad and caused him to kill his own children.
tTo atone for these murders, Hercules was sent to serve his
MAGNIFICENT GLOBULAR
Icousin. King Eurystheus of Mycenae. The King set him aseries
On one side of the Keystone, about one-third of the
aof
12
tasks,
known
as
the Labours of Hercules,
way from Eta to Zeta Herculis, lies M13, the finest
Iafter which Hercules would globular cluster in the northern skies. M13 contains an

released.
IbeThese
tasks
included killing afearsome estimated 300,000 stars and is over 100 light years in
lion [depicted in the sky diameter. Under clear, dark skies it can be glimpsed
i\ by the constellation Leo) with the naked eye and is easily seen in binoculars as a
and destroying the multi- fuzzy patch half the apparent width of the full Moon.
iheaded monster Hydra. 7
Telescopes can resolve the brightest of the individual
In the sky, the great
phero Hercules has one stars in M13, which lies 25,000 light years away.
Another globular cluster in Hercules is M92, to the
Ifootontheheadofa 7
Idragon, in the form 6^ north of the Keystone. Through binoculars it can easily
Wof the neighbouring be mistaken for astar, but small telescopes reveal that
iconstellation Draco. it is indeed aglobular cluster, more tightly packed than
M13 and somewhat more distant, about 29,000 light
L years away. M92 has an estimated age of 13 billion
years, making it the oldest globular known.
20
 . D R A C O
. i r
N
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20°

111 y " / \
HERCULES
f
93 ^
a
^ A
‘ H 1 1 CO
t
Rasalgethi^^,
L
» 1
6 0 X
2 9
1
#
A
#

/OPHIUCHUS i

WHERCULES^/#* " ^ f HERCULE'S

KEYSTONE
To t h e l e f t o f

ercules lies in the northern sky, between this image is the

H the prominent constellations Lyra and
constellation of
Hercules and the
Bootes. It is highest in the evening sky during four corners of
June and July. Hercules can be fully seen aquadrilateral
throughout the northern hemisphere on of stars (marked
Earth and down to latitude 38 degrees south below) called the
of the equator. Keystone.

ABBREVIATTION Her

BEST SEASON

June-July
BRIGHTEST S TA R

Kornephoros (p) 2.8

SIZE RANKING 5

POSITION Northern
 or SOLAR tne

SYSTEM?
GIANT SHIELD Does the giant planet Jupiter protect the solar system's
Does Jupiter
protect Earth inner worlds from the full force of planetary bombardment
from the majority -or does it add to the hazards we face?
of comets
and asteroids
heading towards
our planet? ■ W-
he scarred surfaces of the though the processes of erosion hide
Ujr.
rocky planets offer plentiful them well. When astrobiologists try
evidence that our solar to assess the chances of life

system is aviolent place, where elsewhere in the cosmos, they must

impacts from comets and asteroids take into account the periodic w
are inevitable. Even Earth bears the disruptions and mass extinctions of
ghosts of many impact craters, life caused by the largest blasts (see

1 ^
BREAKTHROUGHS
m
^THE K-T BOUNDARY
. 1
he first evidence for impacts from widespread in comets and asteroids, and
T space affecting life on Earth emerged inspired atheory that the “iridium spike”
in 1980, when ateam of US scientists was caused by an impact from space. V v

investigating the so-called “K-T boundary” (a In 1990, the Chicxulub crater beneath
transition in the rock strata that coincides M e x i c o ’s Yu c a t a n P e n i n s u l a w a s l i n k e d

with the disappearance of the dinosaurs to an impact from space. It now seems
63 million years ago] found that it was that this impact -from a10km asteroid
enriched with unusual amounts of iridium. -played apivotal role in the extinction of
This element is rare in Earth’s crust, but the dinosaurs.

K-T STRATA This “hoodoo”

(an eroded spire of soft,
sedimentary rock, topped by a
Breakthroughs). Some of the key
cap of harder rockj is found in questions are: what controls the rate
the Dinosaur Provincial Park,
at which these big impacts occur,
in Canada. It displays the K-T
boundary in its rock strata. and can we guess how other solar
systems might compare?
As astronomers began to
recognise the different “families” of
comets in the solar system and new
classes of object such as centaurs,
they started to realise the effect
that giant planets -and Jupiter in
particular -have on smaller worlds.
 CO
THE JUPITER EFFECT 7 0
1925-2006)
In 1991, geologist George Wetherill >
(see Space Stars) observed the way O
that Jupiter affects comets entering Wetherill played an important m
the inner solar system. It seemed Geophysicist
role in George
forming our modern theories of the
CO
Earth’s formation. After service during World War II,
that encounters with the giant o
Wetherill studied at the University of Chicago,
planet helped to neutralise many of m
specialising in methods of natural radioactive decay.
the high-speed objects approaching Joining Washington’s Carnegie Institute, he worked Z
the Sun from the outer edge of the with ateam developing methods for precise dating of o
solar system -flinging them out or ancient rocks -pivotal to working out the history of m
the Earth. At the University of California from 1960
at least shifting them onto less
threatening, slower-moving paths.
onwards, he extended these techniques into space,
dating meteorites and moon rocks brought back by
0
Apparent confirmation of the Apollo astronauts. In 1975 he returned to the o
Wetherill’s theory came in 1994, Carnegie Institute, where he concentrated on >
when astronomers got to see aspects of the early solar system including the widely C O M E T WAT C H E R 70

Jupiter’s disruptive effect in action. accepted “accretion theory’’ of planet formation, and George Wetherill who discovered o

In 1992, acomet with adiameter the “Big Splash’’ explanation for the Moon’s origin. the way Jupiter affects comets. >
of several kilometres had crossed
O

aRATHERTHANITBEINGACLEARCUT X
CASE THAT JUPITER ACTS AS ASHIELD, IT SEEMS THAT m

JUPITER ALMDST GIVES WITH DNE HAND AND TAKES CO

n O
AWAY WITH THE DTHER.
Dr Jonathan Horner 7 0

CO
-<
we should look for solar systems infall of many comets and pushes CO
H
whose inner, habitable realms are them into centaur-like orbits, these m

also guarded by a“shield of giants’’. are unstable, and will ultimately

The lack of such systems among
those discovered so far suggests
that life elsewhere might face a
tougher environment than it does
on Earth.
" o
be pushed towards the inner solar
system by further encounters.
Horner’s study concluded that
the rate of impacts from centaurs
and Kuiper Belt Objects onto Earth
was the same with or without a

PROS AND CONS Jupiter in the solar system. The

Recently, computer models of the study also unexpectedly showed
evolution of the solar system show that aSaturn-sized world where

Jupiter’s path, and had been
broken apart by powerful tidal
forces and strung out in a“string
of pearls’’ along its orbit. Named
Shoemaker-Levy 9, the comet was
on acollision course with Jupiter,
and struck it in July 1994, creating
aseries of massive explosions, each
with the energy of up to 6million
megatons. Here, apparently, was
an example of the theory in action,
and to find life on other planets
that Jupiter, in particular, has amore
complex effect than previously
thought, and new discoveries in the
D E E P I M PA C T outer solar system have revealed
An artist's
hitherto unknown populations of
impression of a
large asteroid objects -including the centaurs -
hitting Earth 65 that can present athreat to Earth.
million years ago Dr Jonathan Horner of Britain’s
and forming the
Chicxuiub crater Open University set out to test
in Mexico. the theory methodically, building
adigital solar system that can
simulate the real thing over periods
of up to 10 million years. The
results proved that Jupiter’s gravity
cuts both ways -while it stops the
Jupiter now lies would be bad news
for Earth, significantly increasing
the rate of impacts.
However, Horner’s work so far
has only focused on worlds from
the Kuiper Belt and it seems likely
that Jupiter has amore beneficial
effect in deflecting comets from the
more remote Oort Cloud -while
conversely, its ability to perturb
objects in the asteroid belt could be
more harmful. One thing is for sure,
though -Jupiter’s influence over
the small worlds of the solar system
is acomplex one.
COMING SSUE
^AnEagi,

^ILD
AMODEL
%JJ
f^ fffn

SOLAR
SVSTBW M
^precision ^ 34^
-engineered orrery ♦

AJO.URMgyf W i t h the

OMETS o f

this ISSUE:,,91-tooth gear TO DR

R've your pi A N E T
tr URANUS G^ART■ r a / n

Comets -“dirty snowballs” that Did life begin on Earth courtesy of

travel from beyond the giant
planets and burst into life as they
approach the Sun.
"Find out how the Stardust
spacecraft collected dust from a
comet and returned it to Earth.
avisiting comet? We investigate
„the controversial theory of
panspermia.
Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,
C€ Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 STS
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"How Edwin Hubble proved that

there was more to the universe
than just the Milky Way.
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 BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
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FEATURES I M P O R TA N T
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4

with care to prevent damage to its
\YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL parts, and stored or displayed safely to
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Learn about telescope mounts, the humble devices the parts. For best care, use the
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SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE "When assembling parts, lay them on a
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m 1^ M I S S I O N S
Stardust was atiny craft that managed to collect dust
m

from acomet and return it to Earth for analysis. ♦

Credits I 11 I I
IMAGE GALLERY
12) View some incredible images of comets -both from IMAGES: FC NOAO/AURA/NSF/

WIYN/TA Rector (University of

Earth and from the surface of an imaginary comet. Alaska)/Z Levay &LFrattare
(STScI); 3Science Photo Libray/
Frank Zullo; 2NASA/JPL; 4-5 (tl)
T H E S TO R Y O F A S T R O N O M Y iStockphoto/James Benet, (bl)
Meet Edwin Hubble -the astronomer who proved Pikaia Imaging, (tr) Celestron, (br)
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Archives/American Institute of

ImageState, (bl) Wikimedia Physics, (tr) Science Photo Library/

S TA R M A P Commons, (tr) Science Photo
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Find out how best to observe comets and how to join Archives/American Institute of
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Levay &LFrattare (STScl), (be)
ESO/SebastlanDairies,(tr)Galaxy|Winter.
Picture Library/Peter Lawrence,
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m
i

MOUNTS
Atelescope's mount does more tfieri just support it. a m a t e i f f a s t r o n o r fi e f * i n
Ingenious designs allow it to mirr<^the movement of the desert near Lake
the heavens themselves. Pleasant WAf\zom^
points his equatorialiy
mounted instrumenf at ^ O
the rising Moon» a
m
norder to put atelescope to use, it needs a
mount that offers both solid support and a
means of smoothly changing the instrument s 0
direction. The length and weight of ungainly tubes
on early refracting telescopes made it almost
impossible to keep them steady when holding CO
them by hand. O
Nearly all small, portable telescopes are O
“ D
supported on atripod, with legs that can be
adjusted to level the top of the instrument,
known as the “head”. The mounting device is o
c
either attached to, or an integral part of the
head. The telescope is then either bolted
CO
directly onto it, clamped into acylindrical
cradle, or firmly fixed between aforked
pair of arms. i i

SIMPLE MOUNTS I I

Larger instruments require more

sophisticated, custom-designed
mounts, and some behemoths
of the past, such as the Earl of
Rosses “Leviathan” (see Issue 27,
The Story of Astronomy) have
been so ambitious that their

movement was extremely

limited.

The simplest form of

mount allows atelescope
to move up and down,
or parallel to the horizon,
following the system of sky
co-ordinates known as altitude

and azimuth (see Issue 14,

Your Solar System Model).
 An “alt-azimuth” mount typically has joints that
can swivel in both these directions, or lock tight
MOUNTING LARGE TELESCOPES to hold the telescope steady. Alt-azimuth mounts
have the benefit of simplicity, but present some
Ithough large refractor telescopes in observatories may still
A use equatorial or alt-azimuth mounts, the very largest reflecting problems as well. Most significantly, it’s almost
telescopes are usually mounted in asupporting "cradle” that impossible to use meaningful celestial co-ordinates
holds and pivots the primary mirror and supports the secondary with them, since while an object’s right ascension
above it. Large amateur reflectors, meanwhile, often and declination (see Glossary) can be converted
use a"Dobsonian” mount -an alt-azimuth design that
into alt-azimuth quite easily, the alt-azimuth
ksupports
the
telescope
around
its
base.
While
computer control is essential for large
co-ordinates themselves are constantly changing as
the Earth spins on its axis, completing its turn once
professional instruments, the wide field
of view offered by the largest amateur every 23 hours, 56 minutes.
Kreflectors can allow an experienced
Mastronomer to point them by hand ~INE ADJUSTMENTS
^ w i t h s u r p r i s i n g a c c u r a c y.
As aresult, only an experienced astronomer willing
to do acertain amount of “star hopping” (see
Glossary) will be able to find faint objects with a
basic alt-azimuth mount. And even then, keeping
them in the telescope’s limited field of view will
4 DOBSONIAN This
custom-made Newtonian require constant adjustments in both the mount’s
telescope features a axes of movement to account for Earth’s rotation.
Dobsonian mount -

simple, rugged and Fortunately many mounts are fitted with

affordable and ideal for
the larger instrument.
L A
adjustment rods that allow an experienced
operator to adjust the telescope’s direction
smoothly in both axes at the same time.
However, there is another type of telescope
mount that works more harmoniously with the

declination axis

altitude T right ascension

a x i s
rotation

azimuth polar axis

altitude
rotation
rotation
th rotation

adjustment
r o d s

A LT- A Z I M U T H M O U N T A n a l t - a z i m u t h m o u n t EQUATORIAL MOUNT AGerman equatorial

allows the telescope to rotate around two axes, mount has four axes. One pair sets the alignment
producing movement equivalent to altitude and of the polar axis. The second pair allows
azimuth co-ordinates in the sky. movement in right ascension and declination.
 -<
G L O S S A R Y

O
©BREACOMPUTERISED
KTHROUGHS TELESCOPES ^
Star hopping: Amethod
of finding faint celestial
objects by following
c z

ince the 1980s, computer-controlled instruments convenient alignments .

s have revolutionised many aspects of astronomy.
and patterns among
brighter stars.
CO
Given the right information about its location and o
alignment, it’s simple for acomputer to control apair Right ascension :: '
of motors and keep it aligned with the stars, even if and deciination;
Measurements of an
5
the mount is essentially alt-azimuth in design. As a PD
object’s position in
result, traditional equatorial mounts are less common equatorial co-ordinates, CO
than they once were, though they are still used for which remain fixed for -<
small refractor instruments and for long-exposure long periods and have CO
therefore become the
photography of the sky. Perhaps the ultimate in
standard system of
convenience are “GoTo” telescopes that can point to celestial measurement.- m
any object in the sky at the push of abutton.
Hour angle: Ameasure
of an object's position in
the sky In the equatorial
A LT - A Z I M U T H T h i s " G o To ”
Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope is
co-ordinate system, taking
into account the sky’s
O
computer-controlled to follow
daily rotation. The hour Q
celestial objects automatically. It
angle reveals the object’s
is ideal for astrophotography. direction relative to the r
observer ’s “meridian" (the
north-south tine across

the sky). 0
sky’s daily rotation. This is the equatorial mount,
asystem that essentially pivots the perpendicular
axes of the alt-azimuth system so that they match Once correctly aligned, the observer only needs m
CO
the axes of right ascension and declination in an to adjust asingle axis to keep the object in their O
observer’s sky. field of view as the sky rotates. The mount can O
HD
In order to use an equatorial mount, it must first even be powered by amotor so that its right m

be aligned with whichever celestial pole is visible ascension alignment keeps pace with the stars.
to the observer. These poles are the only fixed O
S PA C E S TA R S e
points in the heavens, since they lie directly above
Earth’s north and south poles, and the sky appears ^HENRYHINDLEY[1701-1771] H
C O
to rotate around them. However, their precise
altitude in the sky from aparticular location he first equatorial telescope mount was invented by Henry Hindley,
depends on the observer’s latitude. Some mounts
T arenowned instrument maker of the mid-18th century. Little is
known of Hindley except that he was born in Manchester and probably
incorporate athird and afourth axis of rotation so apprenticed to aclockmaker there before setting up trade in York
that they can be aligned to the celestial pole. There around 1730. As well as building
are various designs but the most common are the numerous clocks, he began to build
“German equatorial” and the fork mount. Another scientific Instruments, perhaps
alternative is to insert asloping “wedge” on top inspired by his friendship with
the civil engineer John Smeaton.
of the tripod head, in order to tilt and align an alt¬
He perfected a“dividing engine”,
azimuth mount towards the pole. capable of accurately marking
the gradations on acircular arc,
ALIGNED WITH THE STARS In 1739, and built alarge clock
f o r Yo r k M i n s t e r I n 1 7 5 2 . H i s
Once properly set up, an equatorial mount reflects
earliest known equatorial telescope,
the movements of the heavens and makes it easy
completed in 1760, was sold to the
to use equatorial co-ordinates. An object’s Constable family in 1760 for the
declination is easily set by pivoting the telescope princely sum of 100 guineas.
up or down from the celestial equator, and its right
PRECISION INSTRUMENTS
ascension by sweeping the telescope in the other A n a c c l a i m e d c l o c k m a k e r,
axis, parallel to the celestial equator. The object’s Hindley also made scientific
In stru me n ts, su ch a s th i s
current “hour angle” (see Glossary) is easy to find telescope which is now In
by subtracting its fixed “right ascension” from the London’s Science Museum.

observer ’s local time.

<F

Comets are small worlds
of rock and ice that spend
most of their lives far from
the Sun, only to awaken into
spectacular life as they pass
through the inner solar system
BREAKTHROUGHS
^BRAHE AND THE GREAT COMET
norder to work out the distance of
Ithe Great Comet of 1577, Danish
astronomer Tycho Brahe collected
observations from astronomers
around Europe. He was less
iinterested in the appearance of the
comet than in its position relative to
the background stars, since this
would reveal any signs of a“parallax”
effect: If the comet was indeed a
feature of the upper atmosphere,
\then observers in different places.
J U S T PA S S I N G B Y
An artist's impression
of acomet passing safely
over aplanet's upper
atmosphere as it travels on
orhit toward!^ the Sun.
C
omets hav^ been fascinating and
memorable visitors to Earth sskies since
prehistory, recorded from the earliest
times as omens and portents of doom. The name
comet comes from Latin, and means literally "hairy
G L O S S A R Y
Solar wind: A 'earn of
star”. Yet traditionally, following the theories of the high-speed, electrically
charged particles blowing
Greek philosopher Aristotle, most astronomers and out from the surface of
the Sun
astrologers believed that comets were actually and losing s p e e d
atmospheric phenomena -longer-lived versions of
as they move acroi
solar system.
>the
meteors and fireballs.
e :
'■H
observing at the same time, should
have seen it in different parts of the
sky. However, the comet followed the
same path through the stars from
every location. Based on the
precision of his measurements,
Brahe thought he could have
detected parallax in an object four
times more distant than the Moon,
so he realised that the comet must
be farther away than that, and firmly G R E AT C O M E T T h e G r e a t C o m e t s e e n
in the realm of the planets. over Prague on 12 November 1577.
 CO
faint light that can only be identified because of its
'j -■

^FRED WHIPPLE (19ob-2oo4] ,’ n. gradual movement against more distant stars. It is o

only when the comet’s orbit brings it closer to the >
m Sun than Jupiter that things start to change. 7D
CO
a s m m WAKING UP <
The first sign of activity in acomet is the CO

development of ahazy, spherical cloud of light

m

Haround
comet’s
the
“nucleus”.
solidisThis
the “coma”, effectively acomet’s atmosphere,
and it may grow to an enormous size -the G)
I
largest can be as big as the Sun.
HAs the comet travels towards the Sun, the a
central regions of the coma grow denser and m
m i eH. Hl^brighter.Meanwhile,the“solarwind”(see
pRGlossary)thatflowsaroundthecometstarts
Jto carry material away from the nucleus to
A
*;" »>■ form atail that leads away from the Sun. n
o
Some comets can develop multiple tails
W ' of different colours that point in different
■f .
-idirections -usually abluish one that points C O

I 4 ' : * directly away from the Sun, and ayellowish

one that curves away from the direction of
the comet’s motion.

All that changed in 1577, when Tycho Brahe
successfully measured the distance of abrilliant
comet and realised that it lay far beyond the Moon
(see Breakthroughs). But even then, it would be
another century and more before Edmond Halley
computed the orbit of the famous comet that is
named after him (see Issue 35), and astronomers
finally got to grips with the complexities of a
comet’s life cycle.
C O M E T A N AT O M Y
Isaac Newton and the philosopher Immanuel Kant
T R A N S F O R M AT I O N A were among the first people to speculate that a
comet's coma develops as
comet contained large amounts of ice or water.
it emerges from the outer
solar system. By the time However, the discovery, in the mid-19th century, of
it crosses Earth's orbit, the the link between comet orbits and those of regular
tail will have formed, meteor showers meant that the ice was seen for a
which then fades on the
comet's return journey.
long time as asmall component of the whole -

ONCE AROUND THE SUN n i j c l i a u s

rliicst! ttaii _

Nearly all comets travel in highly elliptical orbits

that take them far from the Sun at one end,
typically with an aphelion (their farthest point from
the Sun) among or beyond the giant planets, and
bring them much closer at the other end, often
with aperihelion (their nearest point to the Sun)
closer than Earth or Venus. In accordance with

Kepler’s l a w s of planetary motion, any object

speeds up when at its closest to the object it is
orbiting, so comets typically spend just afew
months travelling at high speeds through the inner
solar system, but can dawdle for many years at the
other end of their orbit.

For most of the time, acomet is indistinguishable

from an asteroid -aslow-moving, star-like point of
7
 instead, comets were thought to be celestial
gravel banks”, flying around the Sun and trailing
debris in their wake.

It was only in 1950 that Fred Whipple (see

loose clumps of
Space Stars) came up with amore satisfactory ice and dust

theory to explain both the spectacular appearance

of comets, and the trails of solid particles they left h e a t fr o m the sun

evaporates the ice,

behind them. Whipple’s “dirty snowball” theory causing jets of gas
reasoned that comets are balls of ice with some

rocky rubble embedded within them, coated in rocky core

dark surfaces that absorb heat from the Sun.
i
As acomet approaches the Sun, its coma and
tail form from the evaporation of various frozen dark, heat-absorbing
surface
ices -
not just water but also other chemicals, such
as methane and carbon monoxide.

The comet’s bluish gas or “ion” tail consists COMET COMPOSITION

of gas molecules, electrically charged by their The structure of acomet

interactions with sunlight so that they glow with
abluish light. These molecules are swept up
the solar wind straight out behind the comet. The
yellowish dust tail shines by reflected light alone,
and because its particles weigh more than gas
molecules, they have atendency to follow the path
of the comet’s own orbit. Occasionally, comets can
develop multiple complex tails as jets of material
emerge in different directions from the nucleus.
C O M E T FA M I L I E S
Almost as soon as astronomers began to work out
the orbits of comets, it became clear that they fell
into two distinct categories (although we now
know of several other groups of comets). The basic
distinction is between “short-period” comets that
(left). Often referred to
i n as a"dirty snowball".
comets are aggregates
of ice and dust
surrounding arocky core.
return to the inner solar system in amatter of
decades (normally less than 200 years), and “long-
period” comets that can take many thousands of
years to complete an orbit.
Most short-period comets have orbits that
resemble the famous Comet Halley, reaching
aphelion somewhere beyond the orbit of the planet
Neptune. However, there are also the centaurs
whose orbits keep them permanently in the realm
of the giant planets, asmall group known as the
“Jupiter family” that never stray far beyond that

H E A D S A N D TA I L S N A S A’ s
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
captured this image of Comet
Bradfield in 2004, with its bright head
and long white tail trailing behind it.
Some
long-period
comets
approach
the
Sun in such wildly elliptical orbits that
they pass extremely close to its surface. A
few of these “sungrazers” manage to pass
within afew thousand kilometres of the solar
X
photosphere and survive intact, but many
o others break up, either due to the extreme MINI COMETS
tidal forces of the Sun’s gravity, or because

]
V In 1995, Comet 73P/
the intense heat evaporates too much of the Schwassmann-
ice that binds them together. Wachmann, began to fall
Space-based solar observatories, such as apart, creating astring of
m i n i c o m e t s w h i c h fl e w
the SDHO satellite, have revealed many more
sungrazers than were previously suspected past Earth in 2006. This
-some of which end their lives with adirect image shows Fragment B
of the comet. The
crash into the Sun. Many of these objects coloured trails of the
seem to have originated from the breakups of
surrounding stars reveal
much larger comets many centuries ago. t h e d i f f e r e n t fi l t e r s u s e d

to track the fragment. 1

8

planet’s orbit, and recently discovered “main belt”
KOHOUTEK Hyped by
the media as the "comet comets that orbit within the asteroid belt.
of the century". Comet
Most long-period comets have orbits that take
Kohoutek's actual display
failed to brighten to them out to avast cometary reservoir called the
expected levels. Oort Cloud (see Issue 40) believed to be roughly
50,000 AU, or nearly alight
*year from the Sun. However
I
small numbers of comets seem
to be visitors from interstellar
space, on orbits that will bring
them past the Sun only once,
never to return. We’ll look at
the origins of comets in more
detail in future issues, but most
astronomers agree that short-
period comets begin their
active lives in much longer
orbits, before their aphelia are
brought much closer to the
- n
fcf-; Sun by encounters with the
CO
BECOMING BRIGHTER
Acomet’s brightness at any time depends on its O
distance from Earth and from the Sun, but the
>
amount of activity and brightness also varies 7D
unpredictably from comet to comet, and from one (/)
“apparition” or passage round the Sun to the next.
As arule of thumb, longer-period comets are likely LD
to be brighter than shorter-period ones, but there
m
are plenty of exceptions on both sides.
Some short-period comets may be unusually
bright thanks to unexpected bursts of activity, or o
because they have only recently been captured into c z
their, current orbits.
a
Some long-period comets (such as the infamous m
Comet Kohoutek of 1973) promise brilliance as
they emerge from the gloom of the outer solar
system, only to produce adamp squib on their
passage round the Sun. O
o
Occasionally, though, all these factors coincide to
produce the unforgettable sight of an exceptionally
m

giant planets. bright “Great Comet” in Earth’s skies. CO

# N E X T: H A L L E R
AND THE

^ S C h F I
^ D E E P I M PA C T
omets, like Near-Earth
C Asteroids [see Issue 18, Solar
System Guide), present a
significant threat to life on Earth,
and it’s probable that the object
that hit the Gulf of Mexico 65

million years ago at the end of the

reign of the dinosaurs was acomet
rather than an asteroid.

Unfortunately, the approach of

along-period comet on acollision
course with Earth might leave
us with only afew years, or even
months, to prepare. The 1998
movie Deep Impact tells the tale
of mankind’s attempts to counter
such athreat, as Captain “Fish”
Tanner, played by Robert Duvall,
leads the Messiah mission in an

attempt to destroy an incoming

comet with nuclear explosives.

FINAL APPROACH
An artist’s impression of an
approaching comet, seen between
Earth and the Moon, with amere

Four hours left until impact.

In 1999, NASA launched aspacecraft that would not only
analyse dust from acomet, but would also collect the
dust and interstellar particles and return them to Earth.
i
he Stardust spacecraft was
relatively small by NASA
standards, just 1.7m long,
roughly the size of afridge. Its
component parts were virtually all
off-the-shelf -several were designed
for the Cassini mission, and some
under the Small Spacecraft.
\
Technologies Initiative (SSTl). i'
A .

At one end was the Sample

Return Capsule and at the other Don Brownlee, principal inuestipator of the Uniuersitp of Washington at Seattle
were the main dust shield and the
connector to the launch rocket. On

two sides were the solar arrays. Navigation camera. This had adual
Stardust lifts off
The other two sides contained function, being used to navigate to
aboard aDelta it
the communications dish and the the flyby of the targeted comet, Wild rocket from Cape
s c i e n ti fi c i n s tr u m e n ts. 2, and to collect images. In order to Canaveral,
The instruments included the Florida on 7
keep the body of the camera out of
February 1999.

■Vi
 #

RETURN
Observed from
NASA's Airborne
Laboratory, the
Stardust Return

Capsule streaks
through the
night sky (left).

DESCENT

The Sample
Return Capsule
parachuting
down to Earth on

15 January 2006.

1
the path of damaging dust particles,
it peered through amoveable This
i t * '

periscope. image of the

Another significant instrument comet is one
of several
was the Comet and Interstellar Dust
photographs
Analyzer (ClDA). This was amass captured by the
spectrometer, identical to that on spacecraft.
the Giotto Halley’s January 2001 to enable aflyby -and Stardust brought the samples back
Comet probe, dust collection -from Comet Wild 2 to Earth, releasing the Sample
which was used on 2January 2004. On the way, in Return Capsule just outside the
to intercept and March to May 2000 and July to atmosphere and manoeuvring itself
perform real-time December 2002, the spacecraft had to avoid re-entry. The capsule free-
analysis on the acquired interstellar dust (some of fell through the atmosphere before
composition of which was believed to have originated deploying aseries of parachutes,
dust grains that outside the solar system) on the slowing from nearly 46,000 to
collided with its reverse side of the sample collector. 16km/h in just 13 minutes. It
silver impact plate. Two years after the comet landed, as planned, in the US Air
When it was in .encounter, on 15 January 2006, Force Utah Test and Training Range.
position to collect
the dust particles, the return capsule
opened and extended the tennis
racket-sized sample collector. This
contained 90 blocks of Aerogel (see wMMB

Technology) to capture dust particles

without damaging them. m

Cosmic dust particles travel at aspeed

of 6100m/sec (about nine times
faster than arifle bullet). When adust
particle hit the Aerogel, it buried itself
a s
in the material, creating acarrot¬
TRACKS These
shaped track up to 200 times its own particles were
length as it slowed to ahalt. fi r e d a t A r e o g e l
After its launch in 1999, Stardust as part of an
experiment.
took agravity assist from Earth in

k 11
THE LIGHT FANTASTIC
Smudged balls of light with translucent, luminous tails, comets are some of
the most exciting and beautiful celestial objects to visit our skies.
.13]

t
 \
\

nancient times, people thought of comets as

travelling stars containing an ominous message >
warning of imminent disaster. In fact, the word \
G)
disaster is derived from the Latin "astrum”

meaning “star”. Nowadays we look upon these

travellers with less apprehension and can marvel at O
their fantastic displays of light. \ >
Comets are difficult to detect in the outer solar

system. They are small, frozen bodies of ice and m

rock with dark surfaces that reflect very little light.
But as the images in this gallery show, when their
orbit takes them into the inner solar system, it’s
adifferent story. Warmed by the Sun, they burst
0
into activity -emitting aspectacular trail of gas and j :
dust particles that are illuminated by the Sun. m

Most comets are never bright enough to be seen

by the naked eye and sightings usually require the O

use of atelescope. However, acomet sometimes

becomes so incredibly bright that it is noticed by
>
casual observers, as well as astronomers. These
“great comets” appear in our skies usually once
>
every decade. Predicting when agreat comet wi C O

appear is difficult as so many factors can change

O
acomet’s appearance along its orbit. However it
the comet has alarge, active nucleus and passes
close to the Sun without being obscured by it, then
chances are that we on Earth will experience the
beautiful spectacle of agreat comet.

[1] CLOSE SHAVE
Passing just 0.1 AU
(15 million kilometres)
from Earth on 25 March
1996, Comet Hyakutake
was dubbed "The Great
Comet of 1996".
[2] LONG DISTANCE
T R AV E L L E R S h o w n o n i t s
inbound journey from the
distant solar system, the
naked-eye Comet NEAT
passed inside Earth's
orbit in May 2004.
[3] GREAT COMET 2007
Comet McNaught
captured over the Pacific
Ocean in March 2007. At
its peak, McNaught's tail
measured 35° in length.
[4] SWAN SONG
Anon-periodic new
comet from the Oort
Cloud, Comet Swan
appeared in Earth's night
skies in 2006, making its
first and last journey into
the inner solar system.
[5] TWO TAILS
This image taken in
1997 in Devon, shows
the double tail of Comet
Hale-Bopp. The blue tail
is ionised gas streaming
off the comet's head,
while the white-green tail
is dust from the comet's
nucleus.
[6] TOWARDS THE SUN An artist's impression of aview from acomet's surface as it approaches the Sun, seen here with ahalo around it caused by
sunlight reflecting from ice crystals In the coma. As it nears the Sun, the comet begins to heat up and some of the rock and ice that form it begin
 #
Hubble proved that the universe was vast
and getting even bigger. This discovery
ended "The Great Debate" in astronomy "
and launched an even bigger one.
dwin Powell Hubble (1889-
1953) might have been
_i. many things -athlete,
basketball coach, school teacher,
lawyer or boxer. He shone in all
these fields, but his childhood love
of Jules Verne’s science fiction tales
sparked afascination with space,
and that is where he would make
his name.
Hubble's career as aprofessional teacher and basketball coach. But
astronomer coincided with the
completion of the world’s biggest
telescope, situated on Mount
Wilson, California. He would
employ the power of this mighty
eye to probe the far reaches of
space and prove the immensity of
the universe.
i t f f
A L L - R O U N D S TA R
Born in Marshfield, Missouri,
Hubble moved to Wheaton,
Illinois, aged nine, where he
excelled at school and college -
not only in academic pursuits
but also in sports.
His first-class degree in maths
and astronomy from Chicago
University, combined with his
sporting ability, earned him a
Rhodes scholarship to Oxford
University, where he studied law.
16
honouring apromise that he had
made to his dying father.
It was during this time that
Hubble assumed the accent,
clothes and mannerisms of an
Oxford don that would stay with
him all his life. Returning to the
US in 1913, Hubble opened a
law practice in Kentucky, then
abandoned it to become ascience
astronomy remained his first love.
In 1917, he enrolled at Yerkes
Observatory in Wisconsin, gaining
MOUNT WILSON adoctorate for “Photographic
Hubble using the
investigations of faint nebulae’’
1.2m Schmidt
camera at the -many of which Hubble thought
Palomar would prove to be groups of stars
Observatory in and possibly galaxies, if only he had
California.
atelescope powerful enough to see.
N E W O B S E R VAT I O N S
PC' After military service in World War I,
Hubble was recruited by telescope
pioneer George Ellery Hale (1868-
PIONEER Edwin
1938) to the Mount Wilson
Hubble -
astronomer,
Observatory. Finally, aged 30,
cosmologist Hubble had fulfilled his dream. It
atheiete and was as if the fates had held him
boxer -proved
the existence of back until the time was right. Hale
galaxies outside had just built the world’s biggest
our own.
telescope -the giant 2.54m Hooker
 S PA C E S TA R S
^HENRIETTASWAN LEAVITTn868-1921
assachusetts-born
M Henrietta Swan
Leavitt studied astronomy
at Radcliffe College and
again after graduating.
H
adiscovery that galvanised
X
astronomy, using atechnique
m
developed by Henrietta Swan
based on the variation in CO
Leavitt (see Space Stars). She
brightness of Cepheid had realised that atype of giant
1
stars. She standardised O
pulsating star known as aCepheid 7D
stellar photographic
variable could be used to calculate
measurement and

She joined Harvard I d e n t i fi e d 2 4 0 0 v a r i a b l e distances to faraway star groups.

College Observatory in stars -half of all those While studying an irregular
o
then known. She was n
1895, rising to be head
of stellar photometry, and described as having the >
worked on analysing star “best mind at the CO
light. observatory”.
In spite of her family
duties and frequent ill O
health (causing deafness],
Henrietta achieved much in

alife cut short by cancer. V I TA L W O R K L e a v i t t ’ s

i O
She worked out away of work led to the

calculating star distances discovery of galaxies.

0
m
reflector. Hubble would use the In 1920, Shapley moved to D
instrument to good effect. Harvard College Observatory as
The hottest topics then were director, leaving Hubble to research
the size of the Milky Way and nebulae, which many astronomers X

the possible existence of "island -including Shapley -thought were CD

universes". While based at Mount VA R I A B L E S TA R
merely clouds of dust and gas. U J
These two
Wilson, astronomer Harlow Shapley images, taken by m

(1885-1972) found evidence that NOTICING NEBULAE the Hubble Space

the Milky Way was much bigger than Using the powerful new Hooker Telescope in May
1994, show how
previously thought. He believed the telescope, Hubble saw that the the brightness of
universe was too small to contain nebulae were in fact full of stars.
aCepheid star
more than one galaxy the size of ours. In 1923, Hubble made changes.

INSIDE INFO

HUBBLE’S GALAXY TYPES

Tl ubble classified galaxies by shape, content,

brightness and other criteria as:
>elliptical -featureless balls of stars with
uniform brightness
>irregular -varying shapes of uneven
brightness
4^ lenticular -lens-shaped with acentral ball
of stars and astellar halo

4^ spiral -bulging central bail of stars with

spiral arms
Lenticular and spiral types are subdivided
according to whether they have acentral bar.
Stars in lenticular and spiral galaxies revolve in
one direction, unlike those of elliptical and
Irregular types. Spirals and irregulars contain HUBBLE SEQUENCE Adiagram showing galaxy
the most interstellar gas and dust -the classifications (called nebulae here) for the different types of
birthplace of stars. elliptical and spiral galaxies. This system is still used today.
L
 MOUNT WILSON
It was while

®BREA
KTUHR
H BO
UG
B LH
ES
’SLAW using the 2.5m
telescope at this
observatory that
ubbie’s assistant Milton Humason was adept at spectroscopic
H analysis. This technique splits the light from galaxies into H u b b l e fi r s t s a w
Cepheid stars in
discrete wavelengths to reveal patterns of spectral lines. When the Andromeda
agalaxy is moving away relative to Earth, its light appears to nebula, proving
be stretched, shifting the spectral lines towards the longer red it was agalaxy
outside our own.
wavelengths in the spectrum (red-shift). By contrast, light from an
approaching galaxy appears compressed, its spectral lines shifting
towards shorter blue wavelengths (blue-shift). Hubble and Humason
noticed that all the more distant galaxies appeared to be receding.
The farther away they were, the faster it was happening -this is
now called “Hubble’s Law”.

DOPPLER EFFECT
Spectroscopic
analysis of agalaxy
can reveal whether

it is moving towards
or away from us.
The dashed lines BARRED SPIRAL
show where the This Hubble of the light from galaxies. This
spectra would be If Space Telescope identified the types of stars galaxies
the galaxy was image of NGC
stationary. The solid contained and their chemical
1300 is one
lines show ablue-
of the largest composition. Humason’s analysis
shift (top) “galaxy ever made of a
approaching showed the most distant galaxies
complete galaxy. I
towards us -and a
At Hubble's to be “red-shifted” -apparently
red-shift (bottom) -
galaxy moving away r e s o l u t i o n fi n e moving away from each other and
from us. details of this the solar system. In 1929, Hubble
barred spiral
published the “Relation between
galaxy were
revealed for the distance and radial velocity among
nebula, NGC 6822, Hubble spotted space. Hubble was an overnight very first time. extra-galactic nebulae” -later called
aCepheid. He began to hunt for sensation: he was invited to society
more in other nebulae, finding two events and conducted celebrity
in the Andromeda spiral nebula. tours of Mount Wilson.

Using Leavitt’s formula, Hubble

calculated it to be 800,000 light
years distant -much farther than
Shapley’s estimate of the Milky
Way’s diameter. This was no gas
cloud but astar-filled galaxy like ours.
I N V E S T I G AT I N G G A L A X I E S
Hubble’s next step was to classify
galaxies according to type. Not
all were spirals. There were
elliptical, lenticular (lens-shaped)

CCthe history of astronomy is ahistory of

RECEOING HORIZONS.”
Edwin Hubbie

Hubble discovered 23 more and irregular galaxies. He devised

galaxies containing Cepheids,
publishing his findings in “Cepheids
in spiral nebulae” (1924). He had
resolved The Great Debate -the
Milky Way was not the entire
universe, merely one of many
galaxies in the infinite reaches of
18
the Hubble Sequence, which
became the standard system used
in astronomy (see Inside Info:
Hubble’s Galaxy Types).
Hubble’s talented assistant,
Milton Humason (1891-1972),
carried out spectroscopic studies
 H
astrophysicist Georges Lemaitre
X
(1894-1966) both suggested that the m
universe was expanding. They based
CO
this on Albert Einstein s1915 general
theory of relativity. Einstein himself
O
had opposed this saying, “To admit
such possibilities seems senseless.” In -<
1931 Einstein visited Mount Wilson

to thank Hubble personally for his O

Hubble’s Law (see Breakthroughs).
Other astronomers had noticed this
red-shift, including Vesto Slipher
(1875-1969) of Lovell Observatory,
Arizona.
B a s e d o n H u m a s o n ’s
measurements of speed and his
own measurements of distances
from Earth, Hubble worked out
aformula to calculate the rate
galaxies were receding. This
discovery, even though it had proved
him wrong. >
CO
H
BIGGER AND BETTER 7D
Following aperiod in military research o
during World War II, Hubble returned
to astronomy and lobbied for a
o
telescope even bigger than the
Hooker. A$6 million grant from the
Rockefeller Institute paid for the 5m
Hale reflector on Mount Palomar,
relationship between speed and HALE This 5m Southern California. It was completed
O
m
distance is now known as the telescope at in 1948. ABBC reporter asked
the Palomar D
“Hubble Constant”. Hubble would
Observatory,
Hubble what he expected to find. He
leave it to others to explain how California was replied, “We hope to find something
and why galaxies appeared to be completed we hadn’t expected.” n
in 1948 after
Hubble urged the Nobel Prize d
moving apart.
lobbying from □ Q
Hubble. Committee to make astronomy a 00
Einstein's thanks branch of physics so that astrophysical m
Two scientists had already discoveries could be recognised.
proposed atheory that would Many thought that Hubble deserved
explain Hubble’s findings. The recognition, but by the time the
Russian mathematician and committee agreed, Hubble had died
meteorologist Alexander Friedman of astroke. The Nobel Prize is not

(1888-1925) and the Belgian awarded posthumously.

□
ver time, atmosphere, pollution and
background lighting has limited visibility
for ground-based optical telescopes.
Putting telescopes into orbit resolved this.
Appropriately, the best known space telescope
bears Hubble’s name.

The Hubble Space Telescope, aNASA-

European Space Agency collaboration, was
carried into space in 1990 aboard Space Shuttle
Discovery. It has corrected Hubble’s figures,
giving more precise values for distances to
Cepheid stars and the universe’s rate of
expansion (Hubble Constant). The HST looks S PA C E T E L E S C O P E T h r -
farther in distance and hence time than Hubble
,telescope tH^t bears Hubble’s
could have dreamed possible, seeing some -name debiting at 600km above
galaxies as they were 13 billion years ago. the Earth.
C O M E T W AT C H I N G
From time to time, aghostly apparition can be seen hanging
in the night skies of Earth. This is acomet, one of the minor
bodies of the solar system.

hen far from the Sun, acomet consists so diffuse, their brightness is difficult to judge. The
GIANT COMA
When Comet

Holmes passed
through the
W only of anucleus adirty snowball of ice
and dust up to afew tens of kilometres
across. But as the nucleus approaches the Sun, it heats
solar system in up and releases gas and dust, producing atransparent
2007, its coma coma, 10,000km or more wide.
grew to
One or more tails can issue from the coma. Gas
adiameter
larger than that tails are relatively straight, whereas those composed
of the Sun. of dust are usually curved. The longest tails stretch
for 100 million kilometres or
more and can span half the sky.
For all their magnificence, the
coma and tail of acomet are so
tenuous that background stars
can be seen through them.
OBSERVING COMETS
Comets are best studied with
large binoculars or wide-field
telescopes. Amateurs can draw
or photograph the changing
structure of the comet’s head
and tail and estimate their
dimensions. Because comets are
u s u atechnique is to compare the coma to the image
of an out-of-focus star. Comets bright enough to be
visible to the naked eye are rare, but dozens can be
seen each year through amateur telescopes.
DISCOVERING COMETS
Amateurs patiently searching the night skies have
discovered many comets. In the last decade, though,
the development of professional surveys to look for
asteroids and comets approaching the Earth has
largely supplanted the role of amateur observers.
However, anew opportunity for amateurs has been
provided by the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
Satellite (SOHO) launched in 1995. Its images, freely
available on the Internet, reveal many comets passing
close to the Sun, which would otherwise not be seen
from Earth. Such Sun-skimming comets, termed
“sungrazers”, are thought to result from the break-up
of one or more giant comets in the past. Over 1500
comets have been discovered on SOHO images, many
by amateurs. To find out how to join in, visit www.
build-solar-system.com and click on the “Astronomy
Online” section.

MYTHS AND LEGENDS

omets have long been regarded as omens

of doom or disaster. Asilk scroll over

2000 years old, unearthed from atomb at

M l a w a iingdui, C h i ii n a contains drawings showing
different forms of comet tails with alist of

the evils they foretold, such as death, plague

or drought. Comets have been visualised as
swords in the sky, proclaiming wars and mass
slaughter. One of the most famous Images of a
comet is to be found on the Bayeux Tapestry,
depicting Halley’s Comet which appeared in
1066, presaging the defeat of King Harold at
the Battle of Hastings.

MEDIEVAL STAR Halley's Comet

can be seen in the top band of this
section of the Bayeux Tapestry.
 v;’COMETS

omets approach the Sun from all directions

c so they can appear in any part of the sky, evening sky,
brightening as it
unlike the planets. Comets are usually brightest
approaches the
when closest to the Sun. Alow horizon will
Sun, then
then be needed to see them after sunset or
disappearing
before sunrise, although dusk or dawn twilight completely
will tend to swamp them. However, if acomet before

happens to pass close to Earth it can be seen reappearing in

retreat across
well against adark sky. Bright comets are
unpredictable and can turn up at any time. the morning sky.

c o m e t s

HALE-BOPP

SUNGRAZERS Comet Hale-Bopp

seen over the
Two sungrazing ruins of Reculver
comets race
Church in Kent.
towards the Sun.
 %

of LIFE? ( [z\\

Could comets spread organic matter around

the galaxy and even have seeded life on
Earth? This is the basis of acontroversial
/ / / /

theory known as panspermia .

.LIFE ONBOARD An artist's «

WO of the great unanswered questions of
modern science are: “How did life begin on G L O S S A R Y
Earth?” and “Is life widespread throughout Late Heavy
Bombardment: A
.,the universe?” Traditionally, scientists have
period of intense
approached these two issues separately. The origin bombardment when
impression o*f acomet
heading towards Earth. "
Was such an event
responsible for sowing the
"seeds of life on our planet?

of life is aquestion for chemists and biologists, fci th and the other

planets “soaked up” the

while the possibility for life elsewhere is asubject remaining large debris on Earth in the first place? What if our young planet
for astronomers, seeking out planets whose in the solar system. was seeded with life, or at least the building blocks
(See also Isi;sue 19,
parameters are sufficiently Earth-like for there to be for life, from comets?
Solar System Guide.)
some prospect of life. But what if life did not begin
LIFE BETWEEN THE STARS

The idea of “panspermia (meaning “life

'I .T-—-IKRSr^
everywhere”) was first proposed in the 5th century
Bc by the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras, and was
investigated by several respected scientists in the
l S a
19th century. It owes its current revival to the
a i s S i
realisation that “organic” (carbon-based) chemicals
are everywhere within interstellar matter, as
Li \predicted and discovered by the Sri Lankan physicist
\ l Chandra Wickramasinghe (see Space Stars).
Proponents of the theory argue that the fossil
evidence shows life getting afoothold on Earth
extremely quickly: roughly 3.9 billion years ago, the
Li Late Heavy Bombardment (see Glossary) is thought
to have sterilised the surface of the planet, and yet
a by 3.5 billion years ago (and perhaps much earlier)
relatively complex single-celled organisms were
widespread.
S B £
%
SUSPICIOUSLY SPEEDY
S i

Lii Advocates of panspermia say that the speed with

which life took hold is suspicious - e s p e c i a
since, at around the same time. Earth was probably
being bombarded with thousands of comets that
22
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*The story of the Giotto spacecraft Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,
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WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
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BUILD AMODEL
S'^LAR
SYSTEM
FEATURES
3YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL
Add Uranus to your solar system lodel to complete
Phase 6of Stage 2.
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE
0 The Story of Halley's comet -the most fa
familiar comet to visit Earth's skies.
MISSIONS
8
In the fleet of five space probes to encounter Halley's
Comet in 1986, Giotto came the closest.
IMAGE GALLERY
Get an insight into Halley's orbit with these
fascinating images from its journey through space.
T H E S TO R Y O F A S T R O N O M Y
The debate about the state of our universe and how
t w o a s t r o n o m e r s f o u n d o r o o f It was expanding.
S TA R M A P
This week, cast your eyes up to the constellations of
Sagittarius, Corona Australis and Telescopium.
S PA C E S C I E N C E
The amazing technology of the Keck Telescope s
how they see into the farthest corners of space.
UNEXPLAINED
Why is Comet Halley's orbit so unpredictable? Could
an undiscovered planet disrupt its journey?
♦
#
I M P O R TA N T
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%
Credits I II
IMAGES: FC Science Photo
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ESA, (r) Eaglemoss/Simon Anning;
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Richard JWainscoat/Peter Arnold
Inc, (bl) Stuart Schneider/www.
wordcraft.net, (tr) The Art
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«
'Halley's Comet, Memories of *
1910' by Roberta Etter &Stuart
Schneider, published by Abbeville
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Publishing Limited
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 % - <
o

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>

*hase 7
*

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.« "
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With this issue you can* complete the seventh

phase of Stage 2of the solar system rr^odel and.
add Uranus to'the Already completed fmase Six. o
n
m
f t

4 1
‘4/

ou have now collected all the

Y components to build the seventh phase

I♦of Stage 2of your solar system rrodel. in
which you add the planet Uranus and its .moon
- U R A N U S
0

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i

e-gear set that drives them.

The completed Phase
^7 wRich drives the planet
Uranus on your solar
I
The assembly inftructions for this phase are on y

system model. Also r ■ -

pages 3-5 of l$sue 31. Don’t forget^o align attached is the gear chain
UranusagainstitssymhUftonthebaseplate that will link to Neptune
and top engraved gear. in tPe'next phase.
«

I P

T H R O U G H T H E S TA R S
Halley's comet, viewed
from Australia in March
1986, passes in front of a
starfield as it approaches
the Sun.
he 1910 and 1986
T Halley’s Comet were greeted
with outbreaks of comet-mania
that expressed itself through
articles in the popular press,
comet parties and all manner of
merchandise ranging from sheet
music to prophylactic “comet
pills”. Advertisers were also swift
to cash in, featuring the comet in
promotions for everything from
soap to cars.
4
;
The brightest and most active of all the short-period comets,
Halley's Comet returns to the inner solar system every 76 years
and has been afamiliar visitor throughout recorded history.
niquely among comets, Halley does not
bear the name of its discoverer -instead
it honours the man who, in 1705, was the
first to work out that the comets seen in 1531,
1607 and 1682 were probably one and the same.
Edmond Halley (see Space Stars) further predicted
that the comet would return in 1758. In that year,
astronomers scanned the heavens to see if he was
right. They had to wait longer than expected as
during this orbit the comet happened to have its
r
returns of
m
1910 Pills at $1 apop "guaranteed"
protection from the poisonous gases
in the comet’s tail!
retLfrn delayed by*a passage close to Jupiter. The
gravitational disturbance caused by this is just one
of many that have altered the comet’s orbit
throughout its history (see this issue’s
Unexplained).
Nevertheless, the comet was eventually
sighted on Christmas night, by aGerman amateur
astronomer called Johann Palitzsch. Halley’s
predictions were vindicated, and the comet was
posthumously named after him.
In modern terms it is called Comet 1/P Halley,
indicating that it was the first periodic comet
(see Glossary) to be discovered. As aresult of its
brightness and predictable returns, Halley is the
most intensively studied, and best understood,
comet of all.
ORBIT AND ORIGINS
Comet Halley orbits the Sun roughly once every
75.3 years, on apath that takes it out to beyond
the orbit of Neptune at its farthest from the Sun,
and to within the orbit of Venus at its closest
approaches. The orbit is tilted at 162 degrees to
the plane of the solar system, and is unusual for a
short-period comet since it is “retrograde” -in
other words, Halley goes the wrong way around
 G L O S S A R Y
CO
Ta

EDMQND HALLEY n656-1742)

Periodic comet: Another ; O
name for ashort-period
comet -in other words,
one that returns to

perihelion in 2(X) years or 7D

f e w e r.
CO

CO
POWERFUL JETS

Evaporating gases burst m

from Halley's nucleus,
captured by the Uppsala
Schmidt telescope at
Siding Spring O
Observatory, Australia. a

a
m

0
X
>

m
-<
C O

* n
o
the Sun compared to the planets and most of the started life in the Oort Cloud, and that the outer
m
smaller worlds in the solar system. limit of its orbit was brought within the Kuiper Belt
Halley sorbit is aclue to its origins. Like most by aclose encounter with one of the giant planets.
short-period comets, it reaches its aphelion in the
Kuiper Belt of small icy worlds beyond Neptune. H A L L E Y AWA K E S

Many short-period comets are thought to originate
here but, unlike Halley, Kuiper Belt objects all have
n o r m a l o r prograde" orbits, since they formed
from the same rotating disc of material as the
planets. While perturbations and gravitational
Like all comets, Halley spends most of its orbit in a
dormant, deep-frozen state, only becoming active
as it nears the Sun and the ices on and just below
its surface evaporate. The Giotto comet probe
discovered that the surface of the solid nucleus

iiIFACCORDINGTOWHATWEHAUEALREADYSAID[THECOMETlSHODLD
RETDRNAGAINABOUTTHEYEAR1758,CANDIDPOSTERITYWILLNOTREFUSETO
ACKNOWLEDGE THAT THIS WAS FIRST DISCOVERED BY AN ENGLISHMAN”
Edmond Halley

disturbances can pull them into cometary orbits,
they could never be strong enough to reverse the
direction of those orbits, so Halley cannot have
begun its life in the Kuiper Belt.
In fact, the inclination and direction of Halley’s
orbit is more like that of along-period comet
-those rare visitors that originate in the distant
Oort Cloud of comets surrounding the solar system
at adistance of up to alight year. These comets
may take thousands of years to complete an orbit,
and can approach the Sun from any direction,
prograde or retrograde.
Most astronomers agree that Halley probably
(roughly 16km x8km x8km) is extremely dark,
reflecting just three per cent of the light that strikes
it. As asuper-efficient absorber of heat too, it helps
to warm the trapped ice until the evaporating
gases burst through the surface as jets that can be
surprisingly powerful.
The jets are blown away from the comet by their
interaction with the solar wind, forming two distinct
tails -agas or ion tail of glowing blue gases that
always points directly away from the Sun, and a
yellowish dust tail of particles from the surface that are
less easily influenced by the solar wind, and therefore
tend to bend towards the path of the comet sorbit.
 direction of comet’s movement

Halley’s
1986
opportunity returnoffered
to study the
first
abright, space-age
active comet. Several Sakigake Vegal
space agencies took up the challenge, collaborating 11/3/86 ,
_ 6 / 3 / 8 6
to create an “armada” of probes that would fly
past the comet on different dates and at different
distances. Japan’s twin probes, Suisei and Sakigake, ■■■ i _1,000,000km
photographed the comet’s outer coma in ultraviolet
■M
light and studied its interaction with the solar wind of OO.OOOkm
particles streaming from the Sun. solar wind

The Soviet Union, meanwhile, launched apair of Vega

I k m
probes that dropped landers and balloons Into the
Venusian atmosphere before flying on through Halley’s V#'
"coma, photographing the nucleus from about 8000km
"during close approaches on 6and 9March 1986.
Suisei %
As well as studying conditions in the coma, the Vega 3 / 3 / 8 6
probes helped pinpoint the location of Halley’s nucleus
for the last probe of the armada, Giotto (see this
issue’s Missions]. Vega 2
9 / 3 / 8 6

HALLEY’S VISITORS This diagram

shows the position of the space Giotto —

probes and the date of their 14/3/86

encounters with Halley's comet.

With each pass around the Sun, alittle more

«
of the comet’s overall mass of ice boils away into
space, so the comet leaves the inner solar system
with slightly less material to fuel activity on its
next return. Every May and October, Earth passes
close to the stream of small debris particles that
^ ■ # have now spread around Halley’s orbit. Some of
the debris falls into Earth’s atmosphere and burns
up, and we experience showers of shooting stars
named the Eta Aquarids and Orionids from the
■■ ' f c

V parts of the sky where they appear to radiate.

As aresult of this repeated erosion, most short-
♦

♦ * period comets that have been in their present

* s
m orbits for along time are comparatively faint and
unspectacular. Halley’s brightness is an exception
to this rule -partly aresult of its relatively long
«

period, and partly asign that it may have entered

its current orbit quite recently, perhaps only making
afew dozen revolutions of the Sun since then.

T R A C E S T H R O U G H H I S TO RY
Nevertheless, the brightness of each perihelion
passage also depends on the relative positions of
H E AV E N LY J O U R N E Y comet. Sun and Earth -and, as aresult, Halley can
Halley's Comet % give avariable show. Throughout history, though, it
(bottom centre) darts
has frequently made enough of an impression to
across an Australian
night sky bejewelled be recorded by contemporary astronomers on all
w i t h t h e s t a r fi e l d s o f but two occasions, and the record of its apparitions
the Milky Way. now stretches back to China in 240bc.
PREVIOUS VISIT CO
Halley's Comet
photographed in 1910. o
>
CO
-<
CO

Its most spectacular appearance of all was in HALLEY'S PROFILE

ad837 when stunned Chinese astronomers saw This false-colour image of

Halley's Comet shows a
it pass within just five million kilometres of Earth colour profile of its
-only eight times farther away than the Moon. nucleus, describing the
In 1066, it made asimilarly lasting impression brightness increasing
from green on the
on William, Duke of Normandy, whose court outside to purple
astrologers (unusually) interpreted the comet towards the centre. The

as agood omen for his forthcoming invasion of red halo is evaporating

gas and dust.
England, leading to it being immortalised in the
Bayeux Tapestry.

SCI-FI

HALLEY IN FICTION
MODERN COMET

alley’s 1986 return inspired anumber of science fiction stories.
H Controversial astronomer Fred Hoyle published atale in which
life was found on the comet (in keeping with his own theories of
panspermia -see Issue 34,
Space Science). David Brin and
More recent appearances have varied alot.
Halley’s return in 1910 was spectacular, and saw
Earth actually pass through the comet’s tail s o m e
24 million kilometres from the nucleus. But the

ARTHUR C. Gregory Benford produced Heart

of the Comet, the tale of an
1985-6 apparition was something of adamp
squib visually, since the comet was 48 million
attempt to capture the comet kilometres away even at its closest. Despite this,

CL E and mine its resources during

the 2061 return. Arthur
Clarke chose 2061 as the
C
the most recent return offered us views of Halley in
unprecedented detail thanks to advances in Earth-
based telescopes, and the fleet of five international
setting for the next novel in his
Space Odyssey sequence. space probes dispatched to intercept the comet
Meanwhile on television, Colin (see Inside Info).
#
Baker in Doctor Who thwarted a Unfortunately, the forthcoming 2061
fiendish plot by the Cybermen to apparition of Halley will be even poorer than the
alter history by crashing the previous one. However, it will doubtless also be
comet into Earth.
accompanied by further, more advanced space

20
C O M E T I N S P I R AT I O N A r t h u r C probes and another bout of Halley-mania among
Clarke’s third book 2061 Odyssey
Three was inspired by the future
the general public.
apparition of Halley’s comet.

I
ODfSSf
7
 One of the armada of spacecraft
to visit Halley in March 1986,
Giotto enjoyed the most
spectacular success, capturing
images from just 600km away.
iotto was the European budget cutbacks, ESA took the
Space Agency’s (ESA) decision in 1986 to proceed alone.
first deep-space mission. In order to meet the tight
Its aim was to encounter Halley’s schedule, Giotto was essentially
Comet on its return to the inner an off-the-shelf spacecr^, based
solar system in 1986. Giotto was ; on the geostationary Earth-orbiting
just one of five probes research satellites that were built by
1
I I I
.
HI

Ketier, tile ttaxi^nck ins^e M :ei

accompanying two Soviet (Vega 1 r f fl U : e r o ^

It was reli
and 2) and two Japanese (Sakigake
and Suisei) craft. It was originally diameti ier,
planned as ajoint US/European high. Inside were the science
programme, but when the experiments and control
Americans withdrew because of and on top was the 1,5
m
iPPPPpPicfeh antenna. The main
^ifcjet'rtrotorwas:positionedin
CCTtre of the cylinder with
thienoz^.p^^ing from the
E^ttom^Eiectpealpowercame
s i fi c o n solar array.

£
ie biggest challenge for the
designers, however, was the comet
;dust. As the probe and comet
were heading towards each other

TECHNOLOGY

EXTENDED MISSION

Ithough Giotto was designed for a
A single mission -to Halley’s Comet -
its launch was unexpectedly accurate.
placing the spacecraft in orbit with an
i excess of manoeuvring gas. So, as Giotto
j:-
approached Halley’s Comet, ESA mission
to fly on through Halley’s tail and on to a
r e n d e z v o u s w i t h a n o t h e r, o l d e r, c o m e t ,
Grigg-Skjellerup. But two seconds before
it made its closest pass of Halley, Giotto if
went dead. Twenty one seconds later, it ]
recovered but acollision with comet dust

controllers decided to use the spare gas
put half of its instruments out of action.
Nevertheless, the flyby of
Grigg-Skjellerup on 10
July 1992 was
successful, returning
results that contrasted .

with those from Halley.

'#
ENCOUNTER Giotto
I I S
(blue} encounters
Halley (yellow). The .i
Earth’s orbit is green.

1 ■A’
■3,
m

r T s ': -Si
3

M l j m m
 : a .

lotto’s second rendezvous was with this periodic comet,

G discovered In 1902 by John Orlgg of New Zealand and
rediscovered In 1922 by John Francis Skjellerup, an Australian, m.
then living and working In South Africa. In 1987, computer iThe 2July 1985 from ESA's launch site
analysis showed it to be the same object as Comet 1808 III - first ever pictures Kourou, French Guiana. The
of acomet
originally discovered by
Jean-Louis Pons on nucleus obtained encounter with Halley took place in O
with the Halley the first few minutes of 14 March
6February 1808. It is O
Multicolour
smaller and much less
Camera on
1986 at precisely 00:03:02GMT.
active than Halley’s Giotto.
o
Comet, having lost a
large amount of gas
The probe survived despite being hit
and dust through
repeated warmings by some small particles. One impact
with each close pass of sent the probe spinning off its
the Sun it has made. stabilised spin axis so that the dust
shield no longer protected its
instruments (see Technology).
The probe was damaged but
still functioning and it was decided
COMET An Image of
Comet Grigg-Skjellerup, to extend the mission (see Inside
captured on 24 May 1987. Info) to study the Grigg-Skjellerup
Icomet. In 1992, the mission was
terminated and Giotto left to orbit

the Sun; its greatest success having

at acombined speed of 245.000km/ At the front was aImm-thick undoubtedly been the identification
h. aO.lg dust particle would aluminium sheet, which would of acometary nucleus.
penetrate 8cm of solid aluminium. Avaporise all but the largest dust
600kg solid aluminium shield would particles. Spaced 23cm behind that
do the job but was far too heavy. was a12mm-thick sheet of Kevlar,
The solution was aWhipple shield, which would absorb any debris that
asandwich design proposed by did pierce the front barrier.
astronomer Fred Whipple in 1947. The spacecraft was launched

GROUND CONTROL Personnel at the A S S E M B LY Te c h n i c i a n s in aclean

European Space Operations Centre assembly room lower Giotto and its '-'M T■I t
in Darmstadt, Germany monitor the adapter ring onto the third stage of
spacecraft throughout its mission. the Ariane 1launch vehicle.
 HEAVENLY HALLEY %

Provoking fear and fascination, Halley's comet has captured: the human
imagination for thousands of years. As technology advances, we learW;’ y
i
m

more about this heavenly visitor with each new apparition. -V' f

3 assing through Earth sskies roughly once every

76 years, Halley sComet has an intriguing
Since then, our knowledge of Halley’s Comet ^
has come on in huge leaps. On its following#isit„ »;
*

‘once-in-a-lifetime’ quality to it. Records of this sophisticated telescopes picked up its approach ir> *" ii'

stunning celestial object stretch back as far as 240bc.
Its closest approach to Earth was in ad837, with atail
said to have stretched 90 degrees across the sky. In
1066 it was four times the size of the planet Venus and
as luminous as the Moon. The first time Halley’s
Comet was photographed was in 1910, when its
October 1982 while it was still 1.6 billiort kilometres *" .
away -three years before the main periocf.of naked: ". ‘
eye visibility from November 1985 to May 1986.* ;" **
V
What’s more, the Giotto space probe’s encounter
with Halley returned important information about the^ *:
comet’s surface and composition. Our last glimpse %

path came very close to Earth, sparking fears that Halley was taken in 2003 by the Very Large Telesto^e
our planet would be engulfed by poisonous gases in Chile, at 4.2 billion kilometres away. We’ll nqw’have *
as we passed through its tail. to wait until 2061-2062 to see it again. *"* . *

[1]
[11 BIRTHPLACE The Oort
Cloud lies just under two i.

light years away from the

Sun (a glimpse of which is
seen below) and contains
billions of cometary nuclei.
It is thought that Halley .*

started life here, before

being sent into closer
orbit to the Sun after an
encounter with one of the
giant planets.

■
. t

- ^ % . . .

4^'
i .

■ V "

" l i

V i .
4
4

r M " i

4
*
...*

y-:
" * i
\

.t:
r

[2] "

10
 >
CD
m

CD
>

glittering Milky Way. This the sky with light trails 1986. This false-colour

imagf was taken in 1986, of stars in the background. image was generated
the last time for 76 years This image was taken from ablack and white

that Halley would be the night before Halley's photograph taken by

observed with the naked closest approach to Earth the 1.2m UK Schmidt

» . eye from Earth. in 1986. Telescope in Australia.

I
. T
 UNIVERS
If all the most distant galaxies were moving away from
us, then what was happening to our universe?
The answer to this cosmic conundrum would come from
aRussian weatherman and aBelgian priest.
dwin Hubble had provided universe was not static, Hubble had but adistortion -or curve -in

convincing evidence that the opened acosmological Pandora’s box. spacetime”. He based this on 10
_farthest galaxies appeared to “field equations” (see Glossary) that
be speeding away from our galaxy Einstein's puzzle determined the exact curvature in

(see Issue 34, Story of Astronomy).
But what did it mean? Hubble
himself didn’t feel qualified to take
the matter any further -but he
knew aman who could.
He wrote to Dutch astronomer
Willem de Sitter (1872-1934) in
Until Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
published his general theory of
relativity in 1915, most astronomers
thought the universe had
undergone little overall change
throughout eternity. They knew that
small-scale changes could occur, as
spacetime caused by the presence
of energy and matter.
These equations described the
observed motions of the celestial
bodies -especially discrepancies in
Mercury’s orbit -more accurately
than had Sir Isaac Newton’s 228-

1931, describing the “apparent stars were born, completed their year-old theory of gravitation. WILLEM DE
velocities” of the distant life cycles and died -often Acceptance of general relativity SITTER In

galaxies and suggesting “the
interpretation... should be left
to you and the very few others
competent to discuss the matter
with authority”. By proving the
14
explosively. Otherwise, scientists finally came when aprediction working with
Einstein made came true. He had Einstein, de Sitter
assumed, the cosmos was pretty
said that one effect of “curved
helped prove the
much as it always had been. theory of an
Now Einstein had shown space” was that amassive object expanding
universe.
that gravity was not aforce like the Sun would bend light.

%
i*
\ 25 kilometres per second. Agalaxy two million
%
I i . /'"
\
t ■ .
, #
l i
r
% workouttherateof
Astronomer Arthur Eddington
(1882-1944) photographed the
Sun in 1919 during asolar eclipse.
His photo showed astar seemingly
alter position as its light was bent
by the Sun’s gravity. He wrote a
light-hearted verse to celebrate:
“One thing is certain and
the rest debate,
Light rays, when near the Sun,
do not go straight!’’
STAYING STATIC
Eddington had confirmed general
relativity, but there was apuzzle.
Einstein’s field equations also
suggested the possibility that
the universe was expanding (or
contracting), although Einstein
; distant galaxies
himself thought this unlikely.
In 1916, while war raged in
neighbouring France and Belgium,
Einstein and Willem de Sitter
met in neutral Holland to discuss
how to reconcile general relativity
with belief in astatic universe.
Einstein introduced a“cosmological
constant” to his equations to
counterbalance the expansion and
keep the cosmos static. But he
I
§ H
photograph the spectra of spiral
INSIDE INFO
galaxies (then called “nebulae”). In m
T H E H U B B L E C O N S TA N T 1912, he found that the Andromeda
( / )
he Hubble Constant is regularly revised as galaxy was approaching the solar I
T more precise data become available. The system at 300km per second, as
o
i
current estimate is that the universe is expanding revealed by the blue-shift in its
at around 25 kilometres per second per million spectrum (see Glossary). <
light years. This means that agalaxy one million Over the next three years,
’ 4 light years from Earth is receding at arate of
Slipher studied 25 more galaxies,
O
light years away is receding at 50 kilometres discovering that all but three were,
Hper second, and so on. This rate is accelerating. in fact, receding -they showed a >
CO
Consequently over time the most remote objects red-shift. Not knowing Einstein’s I
currently detectable from Earth (on our “event theory, Slipher could only suppose
*horizon”) will recede beyond the range of our
**astronomical instruments.
the Milky Way was drifting in space. O
By 1929, Hubble had confirmed
that the galaxies were receding
O
and that the farthest galaxies were
RECEDING GALAXIES Created by the Hubble receding the fastest. He published
Space Telescope, this is possibly the deepest optical this as the “Relation between
sky image ever taken. It shows what may be the
first class of galaxies, receding at an accelerated
rate according to the Hubble Constant.
distance and radial velocity among
extra-galactic nebulae”, later called
0
■A Hubble’s Law. He went on to
m
m
admitted this was amathematical expansion (see Inside X
“fudge” because there was no 1 Info: The Hubble n o
>
evidence for it. De Sitter put Z
forward an alternative theory, calculate this, D
To
ICo
which only worked if the universe ^astronomers
O
contained no matter and was Imustmeasure CZ
driven by unknown forces. Despite Icosmic z
their efforts, evidence for an Idistances <
expanding universe was emerging. Iaccurately. m
^One of the CO
m
NEBULOUS PROOF most accurate
Astronomer Vesto Slipher (1875- A ^ methods is
1969), of Lovell Observatory, based on the
Arizona, had developed ahigh¬ apparent brightness
speed camera specifically to of objects called Type la
VESTO SLIPHER supernovae (see Inside Info:
Slipher's Type la supernovae).
measurements of
the red-shifts of
E X PA N S I O N T H E O R I E S
contributed to the Discussing Hubble’s findings at the
creation of Royal Astronomical Society meeting
H u b b l e ' s L a w.
in 1930, de Sitter and Eddington
admitted that a“static” model for
DOUBTING
the universe now seemed unlikely.
EINSTEIN
The trouble was, no one seemed to
It took Einstein a
while to accept have abetter one.
that his theory of In fact, asolution had been
general relativity
found by Russian meteorologist
suggested the
universe was and mathematician Alexander
expanding. Friedman (1888-1925). He put
 forward amathematical model G L O S S A R Y

Field equations:
966) of an expanding universe in his Physical theories
paper “On the possibility of aworld that explain how
afundamental

Georges
studied Lemaltre was
physics and aBelgian
maths -in Catholic
which hepriest
who also
received adoctorate
with constant negative curvature
of space”, published in 1922 and
force interacts

w i t h m a t t e r.
in 1920. In 1923 he enrolled at Cambridge, studying cosmology
under Arthur Eddington. The following year he worked with again in 1924. Friedman died of Blue-Shift/Red-
Harlow Shapley at Harvard typhoid the following year. Einstein, Shift: Apparent

College Observatory. Contact one of the few to read Friedman’s shifts in light
w i t h t w o s u c h i n fl u e n t i a l wavelengths
paper, rejected it out of hand. towards the blue
astronomers ensured that
or red ends of

his theory of the universe S L O W A C C E P TA N C E the spectrum

expanding from asingle depending on
cosmic event -later called ABelgian Catholic priest and whether a

celestial body is
the “Big Bang” -received astrophysicist, Georges LemaTtre approaching or
serious consideration. (see Space Stars) published his own receding.
Lemaltre lived long enough theory of an expanding universe
to learn that his theory had in 1927. He even worked out the
b e e n c o n fi r m e d w h e n c o s m i c
rate at which the universe was
background radiation, left
over from the Big Bang, was expanding, several years before
detected in 1964. Hubble had done.
Lemaitre discussed this with
PROVED RIGHT LemaTtre's ideas
Einstein during the 1927 Solvay
about an expanding universe
Physics Conference, but Einstein
were initially rejected. Eventually
they were accepted and gave again rejected the theory, telling
rise to the Big Bang theory. LemaTtre, “Your maths is correct
but your physics is abominable!”
Eddington, one of LemaTtre’s
CtYOURMATHSISCORRECTBUTYOURPHYSICSIS former teachers, also read

ABOMINABLE!” LemaTtre’s paper, and promptly

forgot about it.
Albert Einstein in 1927 to Georges LemaTtre on his theory of an expanding universe
LemaTtre, reading of Hubble’s

T Y P E i A S U P E R N O VA E

star’s brightness diminishes with

A distance. So if you know how bright
a s t a r w o u l d b e a t s o m e k n o w n fi x e d
distance, you can estimate how far
away it is. Distances on cosmic scales
are often based on studies of Type la
supernovae -exploding white dwarf stars
that are also binaries (gravitationally
bound to companion stars).
Such acombination produces an
extremely bright, consistent light. AType
la supernova called SN 1997ff,
discovered in 2000 with the Hubble

Space Telescope, is estimated to be 11.3

billion years old -just 2.4 billion years
younger than the universe.

BACK IN TIME This exploded star -atype la

supernova (the bright star seen bottom left) ~is
in the galaxy of NGC 4526. it can be used to
trace what the universe is doing back in time.

%
 H
A L E X A N D E R discovery, reminded Eddington the concept further. If the universe
FRIEDMAN X
of his paper on the subject and was getting bigger, he reasoned, it
His mathematical m
word soon spread. De Sitter wrote must once have been much smaller.
model of an
But how much smaller? CO
expanding to Harlow Shapley (1885-1972),
universe was Hubble’s former colleague and In 1931, LemaTtre proposed that
unfortunately O
now Director of Harvard College the universe we see today is merely
rejected by
Einstein. Observatory, saying: “I have found “the ashes and smoke of very
asolution, or at least apossible rapid fireworks". Where there are
LOWELL solution, in apaper... which had fireworks there are bangs, and the O
O B S E R VAT O R Y n
escaped my notice at the time.” bigger the firework the bigger the
Vesto Slipher's
discoveries were Einstein was forced to accept that bang. LemaTtre was proposing an >
CO
made with the LemaTtre and Friedman had been explosive idea.
help of the Clark Sceptical scientists, including
right and that the universe was 7 0
telescope, below,
expanding (see Breakthroughs). Einstein, would need more
at the Lowell O
Observatory. convincing before they would
COSMIC FIREWORKS willingly accept the concept of a
universe coming into existence in
O
Today, Friedman and LemaTtre both
get credit for the “expanding asingle cosmic event -the “Big
universe” theory. But LemaTtre took Bang” (see next issue).

0
®BREA
KTHRSO
MU
IG
CH
SE X PA N S i O N l
H
C O JZ
m

m
istant galaxies are not separating would appear to be receding -with the X
D under their own volition but are farthest galaxies receding the fastest. " D
>
"carried” away as space itself expands. This only occurs over cosmic distances, z
The principle is similar to inflating a however. Neighbouring galaxies remain D
balloon marked with evenly spaced dots. relatively close, bound by gravitational
You would see that all the dots separate effects that resist expansion.
at auniform rate. The farther apart
any two dots were, the greater the GALAXIES IN MOTION Galaxies receding z
expansion. Similarly, if you could stand at auniform rate, shown in three stages in <
anywhere in space, all distant galaxies the diagram below. m

CO
m

clusters and groups

stay together under
their own gravity

expanding space —in general, every

carries galaxies galaxy gets farther
away froi e a c h away from all the
o t h e r o t h e r s
 SAGITTARIUS, CORONA
AUSTRALIS and TELESCOPIUM
An archer draws his bow in the south on northern summer
evenings. This is the constellation Sagittarius.

he main stars of Sagittarius form ashape

resembling the outline of a with the star
fields of the Milky Way rising like steam from the
spout. The richest part of the Milky Way is astar cloud
four Moon diameters wide to the north of Mu Sagittarii,
listed as M24 in the catalogue of comet-like objects
compiled by the French astronomer Charles Messier.

MESSIER MARVELS

Messier listed 15 objects in Sagittarius, more than in

any other constellation. Among the best for small
instruments are the globular cluster M22 and the
gaseous nebula M8. M22 is visible through binoculars
as ahazy patch almost as large as the full Moon and is
detectable to the naked eye under good conditions. LAGOON N^BUL^

Through small telescopes, the brightest of its individual M8, or the Lagoon
Nebula, is one of
stars can be picked out.
the brightest star¬
M8, popularly known as the Lagoon Nebula, forming regions Q

appears through binoculars as an elongated patch of in the sky. " z

haze three times wider than the full Moon. Embedded

©Wh^rcher on one side is the open cluster NGC 6530, containing

about two dozen stars of 7th magnitude and fainter.
agittarlus represents acentaur -acreature that is half¬ In the other half of the nebula is 9Sagittarii, a6th-
s h u m a n , h a l f - h o r s e . T h e G r e e k s i d e n t i fi e d h i m a s C r o t u s ,
magnitude blue supergiant.
■the inventor of archery, which is why he holds abow and
■arrow. In the sky, the bow is outlined by the stars Lambda, Less easy to see is M17, the Swan or Omega
;Delta and Epsilon Sagittarii, Nebula, an arch-shaped loop of gas on the northern
Twhile Gamma is the tip of border of the constellation, and the Trifid Nebula,

a
\

the arrow. According \ 'j

/
t
I
M20, so named because dark lanes of dust divide it
to legend, Crotus also into three when seen through larger telescopes.
provided musical V Look also in the far south of the constellation for
;accompaniment to v,v Beta Sagittarii, anaked-eye double of unrelated stars,
^the Muses, who sang
;; for the Greek gods, both of 4th magnitude.
and it was they who \
asked Zeus to place NEIGHBOURING FIGURES
/ /
his image among the Beneath the feet of Sagittarius lies Corona Australis, an
s t a r s . ■f t
)
\ i ( arc of stars representing alaurel wreath, while farther
south lies Telescopium, amodern constellation
/(
introduced in the 18th century by the French
astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille. Neither

constellation contains any objects of particular note.

1
 --- r#:
NGC 6818 SCUTUM \\
SERPENS CAUD/l\
"f V

$ NGC 6822 Ml7 '

M 1 8 m
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\ 4 3 NGC 6716 M 2 4 M 2 3
5 6
OPHfUCHUS /
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^ M 7 $ M 2 2
¥ 1 2 8

/CAPRICORNUS 5 2
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S A G I T TA R I U S
MICROSCOPIUM Y 8
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" E
STAR EIELDS
SAGITTARIUS, CORONA AUSTRALIS n The Milky Way

AND TELESCOPIUM "*. #" "" “ * \r\ Sagittarius,

seen'*bver

treetops in .
agittarius, Corona Australis
s and Telescopium are all
New Zealand-

southern constellations that lie

highest in the evening sky in July

and August. All of Sagittarius
and Corona Australis can be seen a #
from latitudes up to 44 degrees
north, while Telescopium rises
fully above the horizon only as
far north as latitude 33 degrees.
Sagittarius is aconstellation of
the zodiac, through which the Sun
L O C AT I O N MAP
passes from mid-December to
mid-January.

ABBREVIATION CrA ABBREVIATION TgI

ABBREVIATION Sgr
BEST SEASON BEST SEASON BEST SEASON

July-August July-August July-August

BRIGHTEST S TA R BRIGHTEST S TA R BRIGHTEST S TA R

Epsilon [e] 1.8 Alpha [a] Beta [p] 4.1 Alpha [a] 3.5
SIZE RANKING 15 SIZE RANKINS 57
SIZE RANKING 80
POSITION Southern POSITION Southern POSITION Southern
 The construction of the Keck
Observatory's enormous twin
telescopes on top of Hawaii's Mauna
n e Kea heralded the beginning of anew
era for Earth-based astronomy.

he WMKeck Observatory is
one of the world’s leading
centres for astronomical
observation. At the time of
construction, the twin telescopes
were the largest ever built, with a
diameter of 10m each. Astep
change from the previous generation
of single-mirror giants, each of the
Keck telescopes uses multiple-mirror
technology to combine the light
CC
GREAT
TELESCOPES
LIKE
THE
KECK’S
ALLOW
US TO EXPLORE THE RIUER OF TIME BACK TOWARO
ITS SOURCE.”
Earth’s atmosphere, guaranteeing
clear nights all year round and
avoiding the turbulence typical of
the thick, polluted lower layers.
The only disadvantage is that,
like mountain climbers, the
astronomers need aprolonged
period of acclimatisation before
attempting to work on the summit.
Fortunately, in an era of computer-
controlled telescopes, most
s
®BREA
KT
H HR
O OUG
W TH
OSW E I G H AGALAXY
□ ne of the Keck Observatory’s most
impressive achievements has been to detect
tiny “dwarf galaxies” at enormous distances
from Earth. In 2007, astronomers discovered
and measured one whose image is magnified
thanks to its location directly behind anatural
“gravitational lens” (see Issue 32, Story of
Astronomy]. The galaxy lies six billion light
years from Earth but weighs just one per cent
of our own Milky Way -the team were able to
estimate its weight by combining optical images
of its stars from the Hubble Space Telescope
with infrared images of its dust and gas content
from Keck.

Professor Sandra Faber, University of California

from 36 precisely controlled and
supported mirror segments (see
Issue 29, Space Science). This keeps
the weight of each telescope down
to asurprisingly light 270 tonnes.
Sitting at the 4145m peak
of aextinct Hawaiian volcano,
the observatory shares its view
with several other world-class
telescopes. Mauna Kea sits above
most cloud tops and 40 per cent of
astronomers can use the telescope
from the comfort of the observatory
headquarters at the nearby town of
Kamuela, or even online from their
own institutions.
I N S T R U M E N TAT I O N
Each telescope has aCassegrain-
like design in which light from
space is reflected off the primary
mirror array to asecondary mirror
that sends it back through ahole in
the centre of the main array. A
variety of instruments can be used
at the back of the telescope, either
for imaging the sky directly, or for
splitting and analysing the light
from separate objects in the field of
view. For example, the High-
Resolution Echelle Spectrometer
(HIRES) can measure the precise
intensity of thousands of different
TWIN'S PEAK The Keck
twin telescopes, centre
and right. Each one is
eight storeys high and
weighs approximately
2 7 0 t o n n e s . To t h e
far left is the Subaru
telescope.
 V-' CO
HOW IT WORKS r a
INTERFEROMETRY >
O
he principle of interferometry long tunnels called “delay .light paths from m
T is to reconstruct the lines”. If the waves combine “in
one part of the
star arrive at the CO
properties of light or any phase” with one another, they telescopes out of
phase
O
■other form of radiation by produce amore intense signal,
m
combining the signals received but If they are out of phase,
at two well-separated sources. they Interfere “destructively” to
;The combination Is done by a weaken the signal. waves

to cancel
interfere

each
O
process called “superposition”, These effects are very m
other out
In which adetector measures sensitive to the direction from

the Intensity of the combined which the light is coming. So, by ^lightpathsfrom
signal when the two radiation adjusting the length of the delay /another part of the
/star arrive at the
waves are allowed to interfere lines, the Keck Interferometer
telescopes in phase X
with one another. can be used to cancel out the m

In the Keck Observatory’s light of arelatively bright star, 7 ^

In order to look for features m
case, this process takes place
in an underground laboratory such as planet-forming dust In i i o
A
waves interfere
to which light Is routed through orbit around it.
to reinforce

each other m

L m
wavelengths (colours), revealing the
detailed spectral features in distant
objects, while the Deep
Extragalactic Imaging Multi-Object
Spectrograph (DEIMOS) can gather
lower-resolution spectra of more
than athousand objects at atime.
The Low-Resolution Imaging
Spectrograph (LRIS), meanwhile,
captures spectra from the faintest and
¥ r most distant galaxies in the universe.
INTO THE INFRARED
The Keck Observatory’s view of the
universe is not limited to visible
light alone. The telescope also
CO
O
MIRROR IMAGE SHARPEN UP O
" O
Each of the
To create the sharpest possible m
CO
primary mirrors
in Keck Iand images, the Keck telescopes use
Keck II is asystem of “adaptive optics”
composed of 36 (see Issue 29, Space Science) to
.1
hexagonal mirror
segments. compensate for distortions by
monitoring the light from a“laser
guide star” -an artificial star
created by projecting alaser 90km
up in the atmosphere. This expands
the Keck’s infrared reach by afactor
of eighty.
HOT SPOT This
In order to go even farther and
infrared image produce high-resolution images in
of Saturn was the mid-infrared (wavelengths more
taken by the
than five times longer than visible
Keck telescopes
studies infrared wavelengths from and shows light), it’s even possible to link
objects too cool to emit visible light. temperature the two telescopes together by a
The Keck’s infrared instruments variations on the
technique called interferometry (see
planet, including
are spectrometers and cameras How It Works), creating asingle
an unexpected
similar to those used for visible instrument with the resolution of an
hot spot at its
light, but since infrared radiation south pole. 85m telescope.
has longer wavelengths than visible
light, atelescope of agiven size
will produce acruder image with
lower resolution. Atmospheric
distortions will have agreater effect
on the clarity of images, and at
the longest infrared wavelengths
the telescope’s own heat will risk
drowning out the faint radiation
from space.

if
 J
j r

AMYSTERIOUS
DISTURBANCE
The return of Halley's Comet is never entirely predictable. Near the
outer edge of its orbit, it suffers disruption from the giant planets, but
could it also be disturbed by the gravity of an undiscovered world?

PLANET X? An artist's
omet Halley reaches perihelion roughly Brady, aphysicist from the University of

C once every 75.3 years, but even on its

first predicted return it showed how
unreliable it can be, arriving somewhat later than
California’s Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, found
what appeared to be unexplained delays and early
arrivals of up to four days on either side of the
impression of acomet
passing amystery planet
and its moon.

Edmond Halley had foretold. The delay on that
occasion was due to encounters with Jupiter and
Saturn that slowed its perihelion by 618 days.
Acting like anatural probe, Halley ventures out
beyond Neptune and returns to our planetary
neighbourhood, bringing with it information about
the gravitational disturbances it has encountered
along the way. Careful research into the comet’s
historical appearances has also allowed some
astronomers such as FRichard Stephenson (see
Space Stars) to derive information about Halley’s
past journeys around the Sun.
U N E X P E C T E D D ATA
However the most thorough attempt to analyse
Halley’s orbit in the early 1970s revealed
something unexpected. By studying recorded
observations dating back over 1700 years, Joseph
predicted perihelion dates.
Something unknown appeared to be slowing
meritus Professor of Physics and East Asian Studies at the
I E University of Durham, FRichard Stephenson has areputation
for discovering gems of astronomical data in historic records.
i
For example, through analysis of the dates, times and
locations of eclipses throughout history, he was able to ^
work out the precise rate at which the Earth’s rotation
has varied over the past 3000 years.
Stephenson is probably best known for his
identification of records of Halley’s Comet in ancient
Chinese and Babylonian texts dating back to 240bc.
ASTROHISTORIAN Asteroid
107979 Frstephenson is
n a m e d a f t e r t h e p r o f e s s o r.
■^5

22
 X
4240bc First recorded as a European chroniclers. KEEPSAKE Memorial n o
“broom star” by Chinese Immortalised in the Bayeux silver spoons were
a s t r o n o m e r s Tapestry. popular when the comet >
appeared
>164bc Recorded on Babylonian >1301 inspired Italian artist in 1910.
Cuneiform tablets Giotto di Bondoni to include it as
I >12bc Observed in China and the Star of Bethlehem in his m

sometimes suspected as the Adoration of the Magi. /

U
it >1456 Passed close to Earth
original “Star of Bethlehem”,
was also seen in Rome as an

omen foretelling the death of the

^1607 Recorded by Johannes
Kepler
0
Roman General Agrippa 4- 1682 Seen by Edmond Halley >
>ad837 Hailey’s closest approach >1759 First predicted return
SET IN STONE This
to Earth -just 5.1 million 4^ 1910 Earth passes through the
Babylonian diary, dated comet’s tail L D
kilometres away
164bc records an early
sighting of Halley’s 4- 1066 Recorded as “dragon-like”, 41986 Visited by space probes m

Comet. 4- 2061 Due to return

with multiple tails, by various

0 0

Halley down near the outer edge of its orbit. sceptical astronomers beat him to it. They s s h o w e d

0 0
At the time, knowledge of the outer solar that, despite the predicted planet’s ty
system was incomplete compared to what enormous distance from the other planets, its
X I
we know today. No space probe had travelled enormous mass meant that in theory it would have CD

still left an unmistakeable mark on their orbits. >

farther than Jupiter, telescopes were relatively
primitive, and computer modelling of solar system Planet Xit seemed, did not exist.
o
interactions was in its infancy.
As aresult, many astronomers still seriously JET-POWERED ORBIT
c o n s
idered the possibility of a"tenth planet” So what of the unexplained changes to Halley’s
orbit? Some astronomers identified the true cause HALLEY'S COMET
lurking in the space beyond Pluto (at that time
tit was not until 1986 that Giotto’s
Aphotograph taken on
still officially the solar system’s ninth planet). at the time, n i l

6January 1986 from East

Astronomers had been searching for this infamous close-up photos provided cl :hing evidence, Sussex, UK, at the most

"Planet X” for most of the 20th century and its The iets of some com including Halley, a ' e recent appearance.

discovery had become something of a"Holy Grail”. s o p o w erful that they create a
t

noticeable reaction in the comet - t »

PLANET XDISCOVERED? this is in accordance with Newton’s

$

Now Brady thought he had convincing evidence. third law of motion: every action $
/
/
He was even able to work out details of th l e w las an equal and opposite reaction. ' / /
t
# /

planet’s orbit and current position. He calculated With each passage roun : h S u / i
h
t t

that it was 50 per cent farther from the Sun than jets can slowly push acomet off its
Pluto, with an orbit of 464 years, and weighed predicted orbit, slowing it down or /
/

speeding it up in away that is totally

/

roughly three times as much as Saturn. Strangest 4

4
I

of all was the planet’s orbital tilt -Brady claimed independent of planetary influences.
it lay at 60° from the plane of the ecliptic and the But while Halley’s orbit can $ t

rest of the solar system. And what was more, this be explained without the call for *

orbit was apparently retrograde -in other words, it another large planet in the solar t 4
4

went the wrong way around the Sun. system, that’s not quite the end
i
At the time of his discovery, Brady predicted of the story. Some astronomers t

that the planet was located in the constellation now believe that the distribution of
i t

Cassiopeia, hoped that it might be tracked objects in Halley’s sometime home, /

down by some sharp-eyed astronomer scanning the Kuiper Belt, must point to the
t

photographic plates. To reinforce his claim, he influence of another body - a p l a n e t i

4i
4

began work on modelling the planet’s effects X-that still lies beyond the
on the rest of the outer solar system, but more a w a iting discovery.
/

/
/
#

/ '
COMING i "
ISSUE *

NEPTUNE SUPPORT ARM f.

j'T.

^ILDAMODEr '.' f11

system ^
»

;y->
a

66
APRECIS --G/N^EE
SION-EN . REf -/"
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1 K ‘
^orrery'
i l i i
" ■ fi
iii
<)
_ 3 near to

? i r.
f-£
Neptune
The BLUE
y -

■M- »

;?■

rr NEPTUNE our solar m

system
■I ■■ 0

a ;

PLUS
''Y/THthisISSUE;"planet NEPTUNE
-SUPPORT
ARM
and
NE^ptune's moon
^tK-;

III?

"IMeptune -the blue-green giant "Your simple step-by-step guide to

that marks the outer limits of our building stage 2, phase 8of your
planetary system. solar system model.
"Find out how our universe came Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,
C€ Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 STS
into being with the “Big Bang”. WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
Keep out of reach of children. Keep this information for reference.
Applies to ail issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.
"Diamonds raining down from the
sky? We investigate how IMeptune’s
internal heat engines could create
this strange phenomenon.
(S)AnEaglemossPublication-AWeeklyPublication.UK£5.99ROI€9.99Malta€8.99Australia$14.95NewZealand$16.99SouthAfricaR89.95

BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM -f- 36)

APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY

GETTING NEAR to

NEPTUNE
03

mh:

The BLUE GIANT that

lurks in the OUTER
REGIONS of our solar
system

WITH THIS ISSUE: PLANET NEPTUNE, SUPPORT ARM AND NEPTUNE'S MOON
BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
1 i

F E AT U R E S / I M P O R TA N T
"The orrery is aprecision-engineered
kit. It St be assembled and handled
"Parts not to be sold separately.
"The publisher cannot replace any
with care to prevent damage to its parts that are damaged or lost by the
parts, and stored or displayed safely to customer without charge.
YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL
0 Begin building Stage 2, Phase 8of your solar system
ensure no parts are lost.
"Never use liquids or solvents to clean
the parts. For best care, use the
"The publisher cannot be responsible
for any damage that may occur as a
result of incorrect assembly or
model, adding Neptune and its moon Triton. polishing cloth and dusting brushes mishandling of the orrery. Please ensure
supplied with the toolkit (free to you read ail the instructions thoroughly
subscriptions customers). when assembling the parts.
"When assembling parts, lay them on a "All tools must be used with care,
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE
0 We visit the distant planet Neptune, with its
flat table and keep screws and all small
items on atray so they can't roll away
and get lost. Unpack ail parts carefully.
following any safety guidelines provided
by the ma f a c t u r e r .
"The publisher cannot be responsible
dramatic dark spots and supersonic winds. "The publisher reserves the right to for any Injuries caused by any tools or
materials.
alter parts and their design at any time.

MISSIONS
10
Learn about the launch of the Hubble Space
Telescope and the problems it overcame in orbit.

IMAGE GALLERY
This issue's Neptune-themed gallery gives you a
stunning close-up view of the blue planet.

THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY

16 Credits
How the "Big Bang" won the battle as the preferred I ■I I I
model to describe the origin of the universe. IMAGES: FC Science Photo TopFoto, (tr) NASA/COBE, (cl)
Library/Detfev van Ravenswaay; 2- Getty Images/Ted Thai/Time Life
3Hubble Heritage Team/NASA/ Pictures, (cr) Hubble Heritage
S TA R M A P
2 0 ESA; 3-5 Eagelmoss/Julian Team/NASA/ESA, (b, from left)
Put your eye to your telescope and search out Fletcher; 6-7 (tc,br) NASA/JPL, (bl) IScience Photo Library/Mark
Pikaia Imaging, (tr) Science Photo Garlick/Michael Gilbert/SPL/
Neptune's blue disc in the night skies.
Library/Royal Astronomical Laguna Design/Steve Munsinger/ -yr- 4

Society; 8-9 (tl,tc,tr,br) NASA/JPL, Eye of Science/Mauricio Anton;

S PA C E S C I E N C E (br) Courtesy of Paramount; 10-11 20-21 Pikaia Imaging (tc) Galaxy
2 2 Picture Library/James Jefferson,
Could the heat process in Neptune cause it to rain Hubble Heritage Team/NASA/
ESA; 12-13 (I) Science Photo (cr) Galaxy Picture Library/Arthur
diamonds down through the planet's atmosphere? LIbrary/Detlev van Ravenswaay, Davis; 22-23 (tc) NASA/JPL/T Pyle
(tr,br) NASA/JPL; 14-15 Science (SSC), (cr) NASA/JPL, (bl) Pikaia
r
Photo Library/David AHardy/ Imaging, (br) Courtesy of
Futures: 50 Years in Space; 16-17 Raymond Jeanloz.
m
(tl) Science Photo Library/Mark
Garlick, (tr) Science Photo Library/
Emilio Segre Visual Archives/
American Institute of Physics, (cr) REPRO: Stormcreative

Science Photo Library, (br) Kobai Publishing Limited

Collection/Rank; 18-19 (tl) Science PRINTING: Century Lltho (Truro)
Photo Library/Nick Sinclair, (tc) Limited

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 JBUILDING
r IS
NEPTUNE With the parts
' O supplied with Phase 8,
you can build the gear
I'hst akihllA aljaBs of stage 2ad(fs Neptune and its moon, train and support arm
that carry Neptune and
ort arm and gears. its moon, Triton, in orbit
beyond Uranus.

O
a

MMW
m

T m

to be slackened off so that Neptune can be aligned against its symbol on the
base plate and top engraved gear.
 Loosely thread two grub screws (M3G 5mm) into the
gear collar (31) as shown. Construct the Neptune
gear set by creating a“sandwich”, with the 98-tooth gear
(63) underneath and the 106-tooth gear (51) on top, and
the gear collar (31) and gear spindle (33) in the middle.
Hold these elements in place with three crosshead self¬
tapping screws (M2.3S 6mm) at the top and bottom.

Lock the gear collar (31) to the gear

spindle (33) by tightening the grub
screw (M3G 5mm).

(VI2.3S^
W
V^Smm J’E

5 5

3 Create the small gear “sandwich” with the 30-tooth

gear (55) at the top, the planet gear arm (50), gear
axle 1(70) and gear axle 2(71) in the centre, and the
22-tooth gear (48) at the bottom. Ensure gear axle 1(70)
goes on top as shown. Fix these elements in place with
two crosshead self-tapping screws -use the last
remaining 6mm M2.3S for the top and the one longer
8mm M2.3S for the bottom.

No Part Qty
1 0 NEPTUNE SUPPORT ARM 1

3 1 GEAR COLLAR 1

3 3 PLANET SPINDLE 1

4 8 22-TOOTH GEAR 1

5 0 PLANET GEAR ARM 1

5 1 106-T00TH GEAR 1

5 5 30-T00TH GEAR 1

6 3 98-TOOTH GEAR 1

7 0 GEAR AXLE 1 1

7 1 GEAR AXLE 2 1

N E P PLANET NEPTUNE 1
y/Removethebaseplate(65)fromyourpreviously
Icompleted Stage 2Phase 7by loosening the grub
N M O NEPTUNE’S MOON 1
screw in the column support (66) using a2.0mm alien
M 3 G GRUB SCREW 5mm 3
key -see Issue 1, page 10. (Keep the assembly
M2.3S S E L F - TA P P I N G SCREW 6mm 7
upright to ensure you don’t lose the planets -or
M2.3S S E L F - TA P P I N G SCREW 8mm 1
remove the planets for safe-keeping while completing
W A S PLASTIC WASHER 2
the next steps.)
 ■iai'

-<
a ’’ w l » ' ' S O
c

L n

O
i. I
*ui ii'i 11 ijjii;ift*:ltfTffj1'nf fI
5
7Q
L n
<
L D

“ ' . T r i f . ' H w i . 1 .■» . - . ' H

L k m

■■ m/

M 3 G
O
Q
m
was: n

0
6 4

5 Slip one plastic washer (WAS) onto the

protruding top of the planet spindle (33) of CD
the large gear “sandwich”. Slide the entire
6 the central column and engage it around
Slip the second plastic washer (WAS) onto C

“sandwich” up the central column (64) and mesh

D
the upper 106-tooth gear (51) with the 22-tooth the protruding lower rim of the planet spindle CO
gear (48) on the underside of the planet gear arm (33). Slide the small gear “sandwich” up the H
>
previously assembled in Phase 7. central column, mesh the two gears and secure O
the entire stage by tightening a5mm grub m

r o
screw (M3G) into the planet gear arm (50).
u
Refit the central column (64) to the column JZ
support and tighten the grub screw using a >
CO
2.0mm alien key. m

CX)

NEP

7 Now attach the Neptune

support arm (10) to the
large gear set. Feed the arm into
7 0
the designated hole on the collar
and secure with agrub screw
(M3G 5mm). Push the pin of
planet Neptune (NEP) through
the hole in the collar of the
7 1
Neptune moon (NMO), then
locate the pin at the base of
4 8
planet Neptune with the hole in
M 2 . 3 S the top end of the arm.
8 m m

-(F
 NEPTUNE
An azure giant marks the outer limit of our planetary
system. But while Neptune is similar In some respects to
Uranus, in other ways it is totally unique.

urkingattheouteredgeofthesolarsystem,^ O O

Neptune is the only planet that never PLANET PROFILE NEPTUNE

reaches naked-eye visibility, and is also the
only one to have been discovered through the
power of mathematics. 1
[ i Ti l
The planet was spotted by German astronomer
Johann Galle on the night of 23 September, 1846.
But it is French mathematician Urbain Le Verrier

(see Space Stars) who is usually given the credit

m lira
for finding the planet, since Galle essentially SIS

turned his telescope towards aspot that Le Verrier

had predicted. The Frenchman had calculated
the position and mass of Neptune from the
disturbances it was causing in the orbit of the

recently discovered Uranus (see Issue 32, Your

1 For 140 years, the eighth planet was amystery
eptune, like its near sibling Uranus, is an “ice giant” -alarge
N planet whose interior is dominated by aslushy, turbulent mix
of chemical “ices” including water, ammonia and methane. While its
upper layers are dominated by hydrogen and helium, the planet’s
interior transforms into aliquid mantle from about 2500km
down. Some of the mantle layers conduct electricity, and swirling
movements within these are probably
responsible for Neptune’s magnetic rock/ice core
Solar System Model).
-little more than ablue blob in the most powerful
of Earth-based telescopes. Analysis of Neptune’s
light revealed that it, like Uranus, has asmall but
significant amount of methane in its atmosphere,
which absorbs the red component of sunlight and
gives the planet its distinctive colour.
Astronomers used to think that the differences

fi e l d , w h i c h i s o ff s e t f r o m t h e in colour between Uranus and Neptune were due

axis of rotation at an angle to differing levels of methane in their atmospheres.
of 45°, and does not even However, this can’t be the case since we now
pass through the planet’s
know the two planets contain more or less the
centre. The core itself,
meanwhile, is asolid bail same amount, which is roughly 1.5 per cent. So
of rock and ice, probably colour differences between the planets must
about the size of Earth. be due to another, so far unidentified, chemical
compound or physical process.
liquid lower
atmosphere

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

hydrogen, helium
Neptune’s enormous distance did not deter
and methane upper astronomers from working out many of its physical
atmosphere
water and
properties. Le Verrier’s calculations had already
ammonia ‘iccss’ given arough estimate for Neptune’s mass. The
discovery of alarge satellite, Triton, in orbit around
6
 CO
o

7 ^
CO

. G )
d

it allowed these estimates to be refined (since

HIGH A LT I T U D E CLOUD
Neptune’s own mass affects the properties of AVoyager 2image of
Triton’s orbit). Meanwhile, rare occupations of t h e c l o u d - fl e c k e d

distant stars by Neptune revealed its size. Neptune Neptune.

t u r n e d o u t t o b e s m a l l e r b u t w i th a so me w h a t

greater mass than Uranus

voyager ’s discovery
It was Voyager 2’s flyby of the blue planet in 1989
that began to reveal some of its more fascinating
features. Before this rendezvous, most people
expected Neptune would be aplacid world
similar in appearance to Uranus when Voyager had
flown past that planet in 1986. There seemed to
be asimple rule at work among the planets, with
planetary weather systems growing weaker farther
out in the solar system, where there was less heat
from the Sun to power them
It was therefore quite asurprise when the
first images showed Neptune looming out of the
darkness, its face marked by an enormous storm
that was soon nicknamed the Great Dark Spot
There were also streaks of lighter cloud and a
distinctly banded appearance across the entire
planet. In general, it would seem that Neptune’s
weather had more in common with the planet
Jupiter than with Uranus.
Analysing the cloud streaks allowed the mission
7
 W E AT H E R S Y S T E M S move around the planet at high speed
Hubble Images of the Most impressive, though, are the major dark
opposite hemispheres of
Neptune reveal clouds storms. The Great Dark Spot in Neptune’s
and the dark blue southern hemisphere proved to be short-lived. By
equatorial jet. the time the latest generation of giant telescopes
turned towards Neptune in the early 1990s, it had
disappeared, only to be replaced five years later by
asimilar dark storm north of the equator. The dark
spots seem to occur low in Neptune’s atmosphere,
opening “clearings” that allow aview through to
[yP darker and deeper layers of cloud below. So far, no
CLOUDS AVoyager
t '
weather feature observed on Neptune has lasted
. L l * - . image that shows vertical
for more than afew months.
relief in Neptune's bright
■^4: cloud streaks. The active weather patterns and high wind
1

SCI-FI

scientists to refine their estimates of Neptune’s

^EVENT HORIZON
f

rotation, discovering that the planet spins on its

axis once every 16 hours. Since it is also tilted at Paul
WSAnderson’s
1997
s c i - fi h o r r o r m o v i e E v e n t

an angle of 28 degrees from upright, it experiences Horizon tells the story of an

expedition to investigate an
seasons quite similar to those on Earth. The main
abandoned spaceship in orbit
difference is that, with an orbit of 165 Earth years, around Neptune.
each of Neptune’s seasons lasts 41 years. The Event Horizon’s crew

have apparently disappeared

WIND SPEEDS while testing an experimental
The clouds also allowed acalculation of wind “stardrive” aimed at

harnessing wormholes in
speeds in the atmosphere, resulting in another big space and time to travel
surprise. Neptune turned out to have some of the faster than light.
strongest winds in the solar system, with As the rescue crew

high-altitude white clouds being blown around the investigate the ship, it
becomes clear that the
planet at near-supersonic speeds of up to 600
metres per second. new propulsion method has
opened aportal into another
Neptune’s weather patterns include high- dimension somewhere inside
altitude “jet streams” of white cloud that cast Neptune’s Great Dark Spot. From there HORROR The Event
shadows onto the blue layers below. The weather an unspeakable evil has emerged. Horizon is possessed by evil.
patterns also feature “scooters” -relatively small
high-altitude storms with bright white clouds that
BREAKTHROUGHS
/^X\
^NEPTUNE’S RINGS I
following
a r o u n d the
Uunexpected
r a n u s i n 1 9 7 7discovery
, a s t r o n o mrings
of
ers
wondered if Jupiter and Neptune had rings of
- <
their own. In 1982, Edward Guinan of Viilanova
University, Philadelphia, reviewed observations
he had made as far back as 1968 and believed

he had photographed two faint rings, but the

proof remained frustratingly elusive. Attempts
to identify occultations caused by the rings were
CD
contradictory, and eventually experts concluded
that Neptune might have incomplete “ring arcs’ c
rather than complete circles of material. o
Voyager 2’s flyby proved this was not too far
from the truth -while the rings can be traced
all the way around the planet, much of their
material seems to clump together in certain
regions, perhaps influenced by the gravity of Neptune’s innermost THE RINGS This pair of
shepherd moons. Elsewhere, the fine particles of icy, dust-coated Voyager images reveals
Neptune’s ring system. U
material are thinly spread and effectively transparent.

NEPTUNE RISING ^speeds suggested that Neptune must have an

Acomposite image internal power source. It is this that helps drive
showing Neptune on
Tr i t o n ' s h o r i z o n . T h e its climate in aregion where the Sun’s radiation is
ridges on the surface of barely athousandth of its strength at Earth.
Neptune's major moon Sure enough, infrared measurements of the
are evidence of
atmospheric temperature confirmed this. They
cryovolcanic flooding.
revealed that Neptune’s cloud tops have a
temperature of -218°C -pretty much the same as
that on Uranus despite being 50 per cent farther
I from the Sun. The nature of this power source
has led to some astounding suggestions (see this
issue’s Space Science).

THE NEPTUNE SYSTEM

Like all the giant planets, Neptune has powerful

gravity that makes it the centre of its own system
Iof rings and moons. The rings are extremely
narrow and elusive (see Breakthroughs), but there
s e e m
to be three complete rings and anumber of
- V
Iincomplete “ring arcs’’. Neptune’s satellite system.
meanwhile, consists of asingle major moon
Triton, and ahost of smaller worlds. Some of these
may be natural satellites that formed in orbit
around the planet, while others are probably
captured asteroids, comets or centaurs. Triton’s
o w n
origins, and its effects on the other moons
are acomplex story in their own right, and one to
which we shall return in the next issue.
 Having beamed hundreds of
thousands of images back to Earth,
Hubble has helped to solve many of
the great mysteries of astronomy.

he idea for aspace telescope

was first suggested in 1923
by Hermann Oberth, a
German rocket scientist. It was due,
however, in large measure to the
driving force of American
astrophysicist Lyman Spitzer Jr that
the Large Space Telescope, as it
was then called, was approved by
NASA in 1969 and construction
eventually got under way in 1975.
Hubble sprimary mirror is 2.4m in
diameter and its optical system is
held together by agraphite skeleton
5.3m long and 2,9m in diameter.
There are two main computers,
which girdle the telescope: one
handles the telescope's science and
data transmission; the other looks
after the gyroscopes and systems.
which point the telescope in the
B-
■ above the atmosphere effectively avoids both of
m
Putting
atelescope
problems that faceinto
space solves
Earth-based two
instruments,
both of which are caused by the atmosphersizwo
matter how large or advanced telescopes are,
shifting pockets of air will always distort their
view. This “atmospheric distortion” is the reasorr
that stars appear to twinkle.
The other issue is that the atmosphere also
blocks or absorbs certain wavelengths of
radiation like ultraviolet, gamma and X-rays,
before they reach Earth. Placing atelescoj^ei
these problems.

Professor Sandra Faber, University of California, Santa Cruz

required direction. Flanking the

telescope's tubes are two wing-like
solar arrays, generating some 2800
watts of electricity.

Readied for launch in October

1986, the destruction of the
Challenger shuttle in January 1986
Workers study put back the Space Telescope
Hubble's primary launch until 24 April 1990. By then
2 . 4 m m i r r o r.
it was renamed the Hubble Space
in this image,
the hole in the Telescope, and finally set off aboard
centre of the the shuttle Discovery. The first
mirror, through images, however, were blurry and
which the light
is bounced, has upon investigation it was found that
been covered up. ithe primary mirror was faulty.
 X ■
c :
: - 0 0
CD
HUBBLE BUBBLE SERVICE MISSION
An image of the Bubble Astronauts replace the Wide
Nebula, taken with Field and Planetary Camera, r o
unprecedented clarity which is the size of agrand >
by Hubble's Wide Field piano and weighs 227kg on o
Camera 2. m
Earth, but nothing in space.
m

m
Embarrassed but determined to four service missions have been in New Mexico and Maryland, USA. C O

O
resolve the issue, NASA sent arepair carried out to repair systems and Hubble is Among its achievements have o
mission on the shuttle Endeavour modernise instruments. attached to the “ D
been to help estimate the age of m
docking station
in December 1992, correcting of the space
the universe. It has shown that

the optics of the faulty mirror by
fitting anew optical system that
compensated for the mirror flaw.
The first set of new images,
released on 13 January 1994,
were stunning. Hubble had been
transformed into the telescope
that had been promised. Afurther
Hubble orbits the Earth every
97 minutes, moving at aspeed
of 8km/sec. Communication is
via the Tracking and Data Relay
Satellite system, which is aseries
of (currently) nine satellites in Earth
orbit relaying data to ground stations
shuttle in order black holes are probably common
for repairs to in the centres of galaxies, and it was
be carried out.
The size of a perfectly placed to witness the
bus, Hubble collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9
completely with Jupiter in 1994. Hubble has
fi l l e d t h e s h u t t l e
also been used to study objects in ;
Discovery's cargo
bay on the trip the outer solar system, including
from Earth. the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris.

^HOW IT WORKS
HUBBLE’S OPTICS

ubble is aCassegrain reflector telescope. Light hits the

H telescope’s main, or primary, mirror. It then bounces off
the primary mirror and encounters asecondary mirror. The
secondary mirror focuses the light through ahole in the
centre of the primary mirror that leads to the telescope’s
science instruments. As of mid-2008, these were:
4^ The Advanced Camera for Surveys |ACS] helps map the
distribution of dark matter and detects the most distant
objects in the universe
4The Near Infrared Camera and MultKIhject Spectrometer
(NICMOSJ observes deep space objects hidden by
interstellar dust
4The Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph CSTISl
provides data on temperature, chemical composition,
density and motion
4The Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2(WFPC2) the
most widely used imaging camera
4The Fine Guidance Sensors (FGS) keep Hubble pointed in
the right direction
 m pS;
m m

[1] AZURE GLOBE An

artist's impression of
Neptune, pictured with
the Milky Way behind
it in distant space.
Neptune's Great Dark ^ 3 #
Spot is also depicted -
seen in 1989 by Voyager
2, it had disappeared by
the early 1990s.
Y
[2] TRITON APPROACH
EsJm
Amontage showing
Neptune as it would
appear to aspacecraft
approaching the south
polar cap of its largest ■ V -
moon, Triton.

[3] LOOKING BACK

m
AVoyager 2's post¬
encounter view of

Neptune's illuminated ■, jm
."<:4
south pole, taken as the
probe sped away on a m m
T ■

southward trajectory m r
from the planet. ^I’S

H - m
%
r~

BEAUTY
The farthest planet from the
Sun and the smallest of the gas
giants, Neptune is amysterious
and beautiful blue world.

14.5 billion kilometres from the Sun

A Neptune isn’t an easy planet to observe.

It wasn’t until Voyager 2made its final and
closest flyby on 25 August 1989 that we finally got
some detailed information. Voyager 2is the only
spacecraft to have visited Neptune. Data from the
probe took 246 minutes to reach Earth and yet the
pictures it took were stunning.
Neptune’s blue appearance is amystery -it has
the same amount of red-light absorbing methane
its atmosphere as Uranus, and yet Neptune’s azure
colour is far more vivid than its pale, aquamarine
neighbour. There is clearly far more to discover about
Neptune, but for now, let’s simply admire the view
[4] TRITON ERUPTS An artist's impression of Neptune seen from the surface of its moon, Triton. Triton is 2700km in diameter and ageologically
active world, with erupting geysers that shoot liquid nitrogen high up into the air. Caught by strong, high-altitude wind currents, the liquid
 «

-rom STEADY #
STATE

to KGHANG
BIG BANG
Conceptual
Cosmic creation seemed too Biblical for some scientists, who
artwork of the
initial expansion
preferred to think space was eternal and unchanging. It took an
and subsequent accidental discovery to prove who was right.
evolution of the
universe.

ythe early 1930s, belief in arose out of asingle cosmic event. come into being in asingle event,

B an expanding universe, as
proposed by Russian
Mathematician Alexander Friedman
Other cosmologists suggested
alternative theories. It would be

decades before awinner emerged.

(1888-1925) and Belgian priest and
astrophysicist Georges LemaTtre
(1894-1966), had gained
widespread acceptance. LemaTtre
wanted to take the concept further.
He reasoned that everything in
the observable universe -stars,
galaxies, interstellar gas and dust -
COSMIC EGG
In 1931, LemaTtre had been invited
as apriest, to address the British
Association on spiritual aspects of
his expanding universe theory. It
was here that he first put forward
the idea that the universe had
describing it variously as the
“Primeval Atom” or “Cosmic Egg”.
Many scientists who had
supported LemaTtre’s idea of an
expanding universe now rejected
the concept of acreation-like
event such as the “Primeval Atom”
as being too close to the Biblical
story and hence owing more to
LemaTtre’s religious faith than
objective science.

16)
 S PA C E S TA R S
after that initial creation event.
GEORGE GAMOW (i They also predicted that cosmic
m
background radiation left over from
CO
eorge Gamow, aRussian physicist the birth of the universe would still
Gand cosmologist, studied at Leningrad be detectable.
University under Alexander Friedman, the O
co-discoverer of the expanding universe theory. 7 0
STEADY STATE
After two unsuccessful attempts to flee
Stalin’s Russia by kayak, Gamow defected in Anew theory emerged in 1948 that
1933 at aBrussels conference along with his began to win support. It would
O
r i
wife Lyubov. become best known as the “Steady
His interests included nuclear physics and State Theory” and its main >
DNA, but he is best known for describing helium CO
proponents were the Austrian-born
and hydrogen formation following the Big Bang.
He predicted the Big Bang’s “cosmic afterglow” astrophysicists Thomas Gold TO
would be detected as microwave radiation (see (1920-2004) and Hermann Bondi o
G A M O W
Breakthroughs) and as aresidual temperature (1919-2005), and the British
George Gamow,
of less than 5°C (actually 2.7 X) above advocate of the
astrophysicist Fred Hoyle (1915-
absolute zero. Big Bang theory,
2001). Hoyle had conceived the
O
idea after watching the 1945 film
proposed the
Steady State Dead of Night (see Sci-Fi).
RIVAL THEORIES suggested that the universe was In aBBC radio interview in 1950,
An alternative idea, given in a1929 undergoing cycles of expansion and
theory.
Hoyle mocked the
0
■ n
address to the National Academy of contraction. Lemaitre- Gamow

Sciences by Swiss-American theory, calling it the o

astronomer Fritz Zwicky (1898- ORIGIN OF ELEMENTS “Big Bang” and the
CO
1974), was called the “tired light Backing for LemaTtre’s “Primeval name stuck. Now

hypothesis”. Atom” theory was growing in some there were two m

>
This said that galaxies were not quarters, however. Among the new clearly different O
-<
receding, as seemed to be the case. supporters were Russian-born models of the early
C O
Instead, their light was losing energy physicists George Gamow (see universe -Steady
and turning redder as it crossed the Space Stars) and Ralph Alpher State and Big H
vast distances to Earth, making it (1921-2007). Bang. Cosmologists m

H
appear as if they were receding. Their joint 1948 paper, “The began to take
O
In 1934, US physicist Richard origin of the chemical elements”, sides.
CD
Tolman promoted another theory of explained how the lightest elements Steady State
O
the “oscillatory universe”. This was in the universe -especially asserted that
CD
first proposed by Friedman and hydrogen and helium -arose shortly although the >

O
SCI-FI
n^Studios
present
MICHAEL
REDCRAVE
-GOOBLE
WITHER^
DEAD OF NIGHT MERVYN JOHNS BASIL RADFORD^ ^
NAUNTON WAYNE SALLY ANN HOWES
r ROWLAND CULVER FREDERiOX VAU
red Hoyle developed the “Steady State” theory while
F watching this 1945 sci-fi horror. Mervyn Johns
played architect Walter Craig who arrives at adinner
party with the feeling he has been there before. Guests
take turns recounting bizarre experiences -such as the
ventriloquist (Michael Redgrave) who is taken over by
his dummy. Scenes grow increasingly nightmarish until
Craig wakes in bed, realising it was adream. The film
ends with Craig arriving at adinner party. The cyclical
nature of the film suggested the idea of auniverse with
no beginning or end.
H O R R I B L E I N S P I R AT I O N T h e 1 9 4 5
film poster for the Dead of Night.
 ANTI-BANG
universe was expanding, it was A s t r o n o m e r atomic particles
not changing significantly in overall Fred Hoyle, appeared within the
shape. The universe was driven who scornfully first second, forming
coined the term
by the “Creation-field” (C-field) into hydrogen and
"Big Bang",
which pushed space outwards helium atoms from
photographed in
London in 1963. which all matter
by the creation of new matter,
while keeping the density uniform arose (“Big Bang
overall. nucleogenesis”).
This model of cosmology made Over time, gas and
dust condensed into

point called a“singularity”. From cloud-like nebulae and star-filled

then on space has been expanding, galaxies (see Big Bang Timeline).
O N E O F
THREE Sir getting steadily cooler and less and Gamow and Alpher’s paper did not
Hermann Bondi, less dense. explain how elements other than
mathematical
Although events at the moment hydrogen and helium came into
physicist and the
of the Big Bang and very shortly being. It was Hoyle who suggested
third champion
of the Steady after are still debated, the generally that heavier atoms are forged inside
State theory. accepted theory states that sub- stars (“stellar nucleosynthesis”) and

m
BREAKTHROUGHS

B A C K G R O U N D R A D I AT I O N

Evidence for
the
by accident. Big
Bang
Two was found
physicists from Bell
Laboratories, New Jersey, German-born
Arno Penzias and American Robert

Wilson, were using an ultra-sensitive

microwave receiver to study stellar radio
space infinite in time, with no signals when they detected unexpected
measurable beginning. Space was background radio noise wherever it
of asimilar density (on average) at was pointed. After ruling out New
all points and times, because new York city interference, and cleaning off
pigeon droppings from the receiver,
matter, especially hydrogen and
they consulted physicist Robert Dick of
helium, was being continuously Princeton. He confirmed that they had
created to keep the universe in a detected radiation from the Big Bang.
“steady state”. Because of universal expansion this was
“red-shifted” into the microwave region
BIG BANG of the spectrum. Penzias and Wilson
received the Nobel prize.
Big Bang saw the universe as finite
in time -with ameasurable A C C I D E N TA L H E R O E S A r n o P e n z i a s a n d
Robert Wilson standing by the radio
beginning. Space and time (“space- antenna that accidentally picked up
time”) came into being from an background radiation.

infinitely hot and infinitely dense

BIG BANG TIMELINE

1 FIRST NUCLEI
-IQ BIG BANG -0 EXPANSION Space starts to
{2 An infinitely hot and £; spread, cool and thin. Gravity, Protons and neutrons
Qdense event -time Qelectromagnetism and the combine to form
and space begin. Unuclear forces separate. Matter helium nuclei.
(D and anti-matter particles form
and annihilate each other

continuously. Matter particles PA R T I C L E S T h e fi r s t

Vdominate and anti-matter
protons (hydrogen
vanishes, then electrons appear.
nuclei) and neutrons
a p p e a r.
 released in supernova explosions. \
I
One of Hoyle’s chief objections
m
to the Big Bang theory was
I that Gamow’s cosmic CO
H
background radiation had
yet to be detected. A
o
- 7Q
-<
" V

R A D I AT I O N
FOUND O
n
In 1965, however,
background radiation >
CO
was discovered by I
accident when two
7D
i physicists were studying stellar o
radio signals (see Breakthroughs).
1;
Physicist Stephen Hawking (1942-),
h
\
an outspoken critic of Hoyle,
o
described this discovery as “the COSMIC MAP Walker” concept, as it was now 1989, and the Wilkinson Microwave
Amap from the -<
▶
final nail in the coffin of the Steady called. By the mid 1960s, the Anistropy Probe (WMAP), launched
COBE satellite
State theory”. universe was being studied across
British mathematician Geoffrey
showing cosmic
background the electromagnetic spectrum,
in 2001, have now mapped the
cosmic background radiation in detail.
0
T 1
radiation
Walker (1909-2001) and American including radio waves, with ever The Big Bang remains the
fl u c t u a t i o n s .
mathematician and physicist more sophisticated techniques. preferred model to describe the O
Howard Robertson (1903-1961) origin of the universe. But it has yet
C O
refined the Big Bang theory. E A R LY G A L A X Y MOUNTING EVIDENCE to explain fully all the more recent H
The luminous
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, Further evidence supported aBig discoveries. For example: m
core of aquasar, >
support steadily grew for the as photographed Bang rather than aSteady State. "why is there is more matter than D
“Friedman-LemaTtre-Robertson- -<
by Hubble. For example, dense radio galaxies antimatter in the universe?
t n
and quasars (QUASi-stellAR radio "why is the expansion of the
I
sources) were being found at universe accelerating? >.
remote distances only -not in "and if all the matter in the

nearer regions -indicating that observable universe accounts for

o
they developed during avery less than six per cent of the
OD
early period of cosmic history and gravitational forces within and o
have never formed since. This between galaxies, what’s causing
'■:d OD
gave weight to the concept of an the rest?
>
initial creation event (Big Bang), New theories have been put
o
rather than acontinuously evolving forward to explain these apparent
universe (Steady State). anomalies and will be discussed in

Space probes including the alater issue. Clearly, though, the

Cosmic Background Explorer universe is not going to give up all
Satellite (COBE), launched in its secrets just yet.

F I R S T S TA R S G a s mSOLAR SYSTEM ^ FIRST HUMANS

clouds condense to FORMS Sun and
ro
form massive stars planets condense
0) 0) I
^that are destroyed out of stellar debris. , m
in supernova
Electrons and n u c l e i c e i i i i
explosions. Galaxies
combine to form o o % o «501l
form around their
;hydrogen and helium remains.
“T; atoms. The universe "‘-*1 Single-celled
-Q
Qjj becomes transparent. fi i microbes form.

r o O ' i n
o
o
 FINDING NEPTUNE
Neptune is the most distant of
the eight major planets, iGOD^QFTHESEA
orbiting so slowly that it has eptune was the Roman
not quite completed one N counterpart of the
Greek god Poseidon. In Greek
circuit of the Sun since it was mythology, Poseidon was the
discovered in 1846. Because of brother of Zeus (who ruled the
heavens) and Hades (who ruled
its distance, it is faint and the underworld). Poseidon was
difficult to observe from Earth. god of the sea. His queen was
Amphitrite, with whom he had a
s o n , Tr i t o n . P o s e i d o n w a s a l s o
god of horses and sometimes
tits brightest, Neptune reaches about

A
magnitude 7.8, far too faint to be seen with
the naked eye. It is, however, within range of
binoculars, which will show it as apoint of light moving
against the star background from night to night.
Neptune’s existence was predicted from the effects
of its gravity on the motion of Uranus. Working from
positions supplied by the French mathematician Urbain
Le Verrier, astronomers at Berlin Observatory discovered
it in September 1846.
he was known as “Earth-shaker”
because he was thought to cause
earthquakes. In one famous story,
Poseidon seduced the beautiful
young Medusa in the temple of
the goddess Athena. Outraged by
this sacrilege, Athena condemned
Medusa to alife of ugliness and
transformed her into agorgon, he
hair turning to writhing snakes.

OBSERVING NEPTUNE

Through atelescope, Neptune displays asmall, bluish

disc barely one-tenth the apparent diameter of the
globe of Saturn. Neptune’s colour is more prominent
than that of Uranus.

No markings can be seen through amateur

telescopes, although large instruments, and space
"s 4
probes, have shown that Neptune is more active than
bland Uranus, with occasional dark spots and whiter
clouds coming and going over aperiod of years. Most
prominent of these was afeature called the Great
Dark Spot, an equivalent of Jupiter’s famous red spot,
discovered by the Voyager 2space probe in 1989.
This dark spot had vanished when the Hubble Space
Telescope looked at Neptune in 1994, but other spots
have appeared since.
CXQUARIUS
As with Uranus, variations in the planet’s brightness
9 7
have been reported, possibly due to changes in its
atmosphere caused by solar radiation.
Neptune has over adozen known moons but even
the largest of these, Triton, is of only 14th magnitude
and requires afair-sized telescope to be seen.

/
20
IMGC >
 SIZE IT UP N E I G H B O U R S

Acomparison in Uranus (lower

size of Jupiter, left) and
below, and Neptune (upper
Neptune, right) together eptune crawls around the sky, returning
directly above. in the sky. N to opposition only two days later each
year. Currently it is in Capricornus and moving
northwards along the ecliptic. It will enter
Aquarius in 2010, when it will also complete its
first orbit of the Sun since its discovery.
Adetailed star chart will be needed to locate it

from among the surrounding stars; such charts

are published in monthly astronomy magazines
and yearly almanacs.

Oppositions of Neptune until 2020, with its

distance from Earth and constellation within
which it lies on each occasion:

Distance
D a t e from Earth Constellation

[million km)

Aug 15 2008 4 3 4 2 Capricornus

Aug 17 2009 4341 Capricornus j
Aug 20 2010 4 3 3 9 Capricornus !
Aug 22 2011 4 3 3 8 Aquarius
Aug 24 2012 4 3 3 6
4 3 3 4
Aquarius |
Aug 27 2013 Aquarius i
Aug 29 2014 4 3 3 3 Aquarius
Sep 01 2015 4331 Aquarius j
Sep 02 2016 4 3 3 0 Aquarius
Sep 05 2017 4 3 2 9 Aquarius
Sep 07 2018 4 3 2 8 Aquarius
Sep 10 2019 4 3 2 8 Aquarius
Sep 11 2020 4 3 2 7 Aquarius

.44 .3
PSadalsuud
5
4
3 0
NEPTUNE'S JOURNEY

This map shows the 8) December 2010

position of Neptune in the 9) April 2011
sky for the next few years. 10) August 2011
4 6 N e p t u n e ’s m o t i o n a c r o s s 11 ) D e c e m b e r 2 0 11
\
4 7
\ 1 7 the sky is interrupted by 12) April 2012
. 1 9
backward or “retrograde” 13) August 2012
loops that last for several 14) December 2012
r 17 12
\ months of each year: 15) April 2013
mm. 38\ 9
16) August 2013
1 3
14 \'
11 1) August 2008 17) December 2013
CAPRICORNUS
\ 1 0 m m 2) December 2008 18) April 2014
4 2 \ B® 8 3 . 1 8

50 45 ®i7mm 4 5
3) April 2009 19) August 2014
4 2
4) August 2009 20) December 2014
2
5) December 2009 21) April 2015
45.44 1I
^6)
April
2010 22) August 2015
. 2 9
7) August 2010 23) December 2015
6
Deneb Algedi
Nashira

3 0 0
3 5 .19

K . 47
8 \

3 J \ 21
>93
4 1 /.33
 in the
Deep inside Neptune, mysterious processes generate heat to
power the planet's weather. But could these same processes mean
that, beneath the outer cloud layers, it literally rains diamonds?
G L O S S A R Y eptune’s internal “heat layers. In Jupiter and Saturn, both giants”, with aconsiderable amount
Hydrogen
engine” is reckoned to of which are mainly made of liquid of methane in their atmosphere.
molecule; A

pair of hydrogen produce at least 1.6 times hydrogen and helium, particles of Methane weighs eight times as
atoms bonded
as much energy as the planet denser material tend to sink much as ahydrogen molecule (see
to each other
-the usual form receives from the Sun. This helps to towards the core. This generates Glossary) or ahelium atom -so
when mixed with these materials in
in which pure drive the high winds and large heat by friction as they push down
hydrogen is found
unless energy is storms that are typical of the blue past lighter material. The planet’s the high-pressure interior of an ice
applied to break planet’s weather. Relative to its size, outer appearance changes little. giant, the methane naturally sinks
it apart. down to the core.
Neptune’s heat
What’s
Diamond anvil:

Alaboratory
engine is UONCE
THESE
DIAMONDS
FORM,
THEY
FALL
LIKE
RAINDROPS w more, methane
device used
considerably OR HAILSTONES TOWARD THE CENTRE OF THE PLANET is amolecule
for testing the stronger than Laura Robin Benedetti -Department of Physics, University of California, Berkeley, 1999
behaviour of
those of either composed of
small samples
since the overall gravity that holds several atoms,
under enormous Jupiter or Saturn (Uranus
pressures. By seems to have no such engine). the upper atmosphere in place and, under high pressure, it will
compressing
material between
remains the same. split into its constituent parts -four
t h e fl a t s u r f a c e UNDER PRESSURE Something similar seems to atoms of hydrogen and one of
of two diamonds, carbon. The carbon atom accounts
pressures of up
The best current theory to explain happen inside Neptune, but
for most of methane’s mass -it
to 1million Earth
these heat engines is that they are there the process is affected by
atmospheres can
powered by the gravitational the planet’s distinctive makeup. weighs twelve times more than a
be produced.
contraction of aplanet’s inner Neptune and Uranus are both “ice hydrogen atom.

HOW IT WORKS increasing molecules disintegrate

hydrogen temperature into hydrogen and

FROM METHANE TO DIAMONDS m e t h a n e

molecule —, molecule and pressure carbon atoms

ethane makes up just 1.5 per cent

M of Neptune’s upper atmosphere, but
helium
is thought to concentrate In much greater atom _
amounts in the planet’s interior. Beneath
about 3000km, the methane is compressed
to liquid form, alongside other ices. Then at i
greater depths, the pressure becomes so
extreme that the methane atoms split apart w)
Into their constituent hydrogen and carbon.
It is this carbon that eventually compresses methane molecules LIQUEFIED Gases PRESSURE Increasing
into hardened crystals of diamond.
more tightly packed
in liquefied form
1 are liquefied at the 2 pressure and
base of the atmosphere. temperature break
methane molecules apart.
2^
 . 0

CO
DIAMONDS microscopic diamonds formed
I N S PA C E T h i s
within. Born in ahigh-pressure, >
f: artist's concept
A * laser-assisted diamond anvil
.f
shows amultitude O
of tiny diamonds (see Glossary), these particles m
n e x t t o a h o t s t a r.
evaporated as soon as they were CO
Scientists believe
released from their confines. But
that Neptune's O
interior may in the pressurised atmosphere m
house adiamond¬ of Neptune, there would be no
making "factory"
Z
such relief. The diamonds would
powered by o
methane. persist, drifting down through the
atmosphere until they eventually
0
u
>

'r-i's
o
✓
■' i a
L D

So, below acertain depth in the seams. The big question is whether
atmosphere, it’s probably mostly processes inside aplanet, such H
X
carbon that is sinking towards the as Neptune, could exert asimilar m
core of these giant planets. In 1981, pressure, and concentrate groups C O
%
Dr Marvin Ross of California’s of carbon atoms into asmall space. Zs

Lawrence Livermore Laboratory Recent laboratory experiments

made astartling suggestion: what seem to have proved that it
if the pressurised carbon inside could happen. In 1999, ateam
Neptune behaved in the same way at the University of California at
as carbon under pressure on Earth, Berkeley, working under Professor
bonding together into its crystalline Raymond Jeanioz (see Space Stars),
form -better known as diamond? HOT SPOT
successfully compressed laboratory settled on the planet’s solid core.
Thermal images
samples of methane to roughly the Here, layers of accumulated
of Neptune show
LABORATORY TESTS pressure just one tenth of the way the "hot" south particles under even greater
Diamond is the hardest known inside Neptune. pole through pressure could metamorphose into
which methane
substance, due to the extremely The results were impressive. larger crystals, perhaps coating the
escapes.
rigid lattice of chemical bonds Their clear samples of liquid entire core in aforever-inaccessible
that form between carbon atoms methane turned dark as landscape of diamonds.
under intense pressures. On Earth,
S PA C E S TA R S
it generally forms in underground
carbon deposits such as coal W., RAYMOND, JEANLQZ
rofessor of Astronomy, ice giant planets, he has
each atom p Earth and Planetary shown that the boundary
tightly packed bonds with
Science at the University between Earth’s own core
carbon atoms ,— four others
of California at Berkeley, and mantle is adynamic
Raymond Jeanioz leads a and violent region. Aside
team studying the physics from planetary science,
of planetary interiors. They he is also an expert on
use laser-heated samples national security and has
in diamond anvils to sat on several committees

recreate these extremely investigating the threat of

0CRYSTALS
Carbon
atoms are forced
together forming
diamond crystals.
high pressures. As well nuclear weapons.
as proving that diamonds
nform in conditions
d i a m o n d JEANLQZ An expert on
nilar to those within planet interiors.
crystals
grow larger
COMING ISSUE
»Of<9.99 ^

^ILDAMODEr" ■#11^ »r: .

SOLAR „
system jR
Aprecision-engineeered orrery
3 7 i

tantalising ■■

A
triton
COMPLEX - a

heldCAPTIVEby
Neptune*?

^ '

THIS ISSig^ 106-TOOTHGEARF

■OR THE PI
ANETNEPTUNEG’EAR TRA/N

% ;
106-T00TH GEAR

" We i n v e s t i g a t e Tr i t o n - t h e g i a n t "IMeptune must have once had

icy moon that dwarfs IMeptune’s
smaller satellites.
"If space is avacuum, devoid of
oxygen, how can the Sun burn?
Find out about the fuel source
that powers the stars.
several large satellites in orbit
around it -so what happened to
its lost moons?
C€
Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,
Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 STS
WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.
Keep out of reach of children. Keep this information for reference.
Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.

"The story of Voyager 2and its final

planetary encounter on the edge of
our solar system.

J
^An Eaglemoss Pul^ication -AWe^Iy Publication. UK £5.99 ROI €9.99 Malta €8.99 Australia $14.95 New Zealand $16.99 South Africa R89.95

BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM
APREC SON-ENGINEERED ORRERY -

TA N TA L I S I N G ' '

TRITON
COLD, COMPLEX-and
held CAPTIVE by
Neptune?

WITH THIS ISSl^S 106-TOOTH GEAR FOR THE PLANET NEPTUNE GEAR TRAIN

kOTJGHNCOUCH ADAMS (1819-1892)
orn the son of apoor tenant farmer in
B Cornwall, John Couch Adams showed his
mathematical brilliance at an early age,
but might never have fulfilled his promise
if his mother had not inherited enough
wealth for him to study at Cambridge.
I t w a s h e r e i n 1 8 4 1 t h a t h e fi r s t
learned of the supposed missing
planet responsible for Uranus’ orbital |
Irregularities. I egotistical “Le Verrier”.
Following the controversy over
Neptune’s discovery, Adams was i
appointed to alifelong fellowship at
Cambridge University, and continued to
work on problems connected to planetary
orbits. In 1866, following that year’s
great Leonid meteor storm, he calculated the
meteor stream’s 33-year orbit: an important
step towards proving the link between comets
and meteors. In 1881 he was offered the post
of Astronomer Royal, but declined.
of 23 September 1846, thanks to some accurate
charts of the region that they had previously compiled,
Galle and his assistant Heinrich d’Arrest took just a
few minutes at the telescope to track it down.
The discovery of the new planet was seen as a
triumph for mathematics, and French mathematics in
particular. Within weeks Airy himself had launched a
counterclaim that Adams should have ashare of the
credit. Le Verrier, determined to assert his priority,
. abandoned his original proposal that the planet
be named Neptune, in favour of the rather more
| Eventually, though, an agreement saw Le Verrier
take the lion’s share of the credit, but ensured an
M AT H S G E N I U S
Adams predicted the
position of Neptune
using mathematics.

in astronomical circles. William Herschel’s 1781

discovery of Uranus, and the asteroids found

between Mars and Jupiter in the early 19th century,
DISCOVERY Adetail
proved that the solar system could still hide from "Caricature of the
undiscovered worlds.
discovery of Neptune",
Furthermore, attempts to predict the motion apolitical cartoon that
appeared in the French
of Uranus had proved so frustrating that French
periodical L'lllustration
astronomer Alexis Bouvard had concluded in 1821 on November 7 deiaBOHw’ieplaufee.)
that its path was probably disrupted by the gravity of November 1846.

another large object. But calculating the orbit of

that missing world and predicting Its position was
INSIDE INFO
adifficult task, and one that Bouvard eventually left
TUfZ MCDTI IMP DADPDQ
to others.

airy's FOLLY In
astory
worthy
of
aconspiracy
thriller,
staff at the Greenwich Observatory
The first to attempt it was English mathematician successfully covered up some aspects of
John Couch Adams (see Space Stars). He the Neptune War for more than 150 years.
calculated arough position in the sky where he The file on Airy and Adams’ correspondence

thought the new planet lay, and sent the details of
his work to the British Astronomer Royal, George
Bidden Airy.
According to later accounts. Airy failed to act
upon Adams’ work, and so the planet remained
undiscovered until Le Verrier began to tackle the
problem in 1845. By summer 1846, the French
astronomer had aprecise location pinned down,
and persuaded Johann Galle of Berlin Observatory to
launch asearch for the new planet. The hunt did not
last long -Le Verrier’s proposed location was within
one degree of the planet’s true position. On the night
f was kept secret, locked away, and eventually
mislaid until the late 1990s, when it was
found among the effects of astronomer Olin J
Eggen in Chile.
Finally published in 2001, the “Neptune
Papers” revealed that Adams’ predictions were
not as precise as Airy later claimed, and his
positions for the planet varied by as much as 20°
from one calculation to the next. Furthermore,
ASTRONOMER Sir
Airy did eventually take notice of them, asking
George Airy, the
James Challis of the Cambridge Observatory to
English Astronomer
Royal who missed launch asearch that was still underway when
Neptune’s discovery. news of the discovery arrived from Germany.
J
 -<
INSIDE INFO o
c
GALILEO AND GALLE’S NEPTUNE ALIGNMENTS

sing your solar system Object 28 January 1613 Object 23 Septemb«« 184S t n
u model, you can recreate Mercury 7 4 " Mercury 1 3 1 "
O
Venus 203"’ Venus 1 2 9 "
the conditions of the early
sightings of Neptune by
Galileo Galilei in 1613 and
Earth
M o o n
1 2 9 "

Equivalent to 32
Earth
Moon
4 "

Equivalent to 212" 5
M a r s
7 0
by Johann Galle in 1846. 1 0 1 " M a r s 1 7 3 "
Ceres Ceres 4 5 “ LT)
Jupiter 1 6 8 ° Jupiter 6 5 "
Saturn 3 4 9 " Saturn 3 2 9 " CO
Uranus 8 5 " Uranus 1 2 "
1 7 5 " 3 2 7 " m
Neptune Neptune
Pluto Pluto 2 5 °

Uranus /
-1^ Earth fi a t i u r n

Pluto o
0
m
ulupiter

Mercurv

Uranus

M a r s

'r
Earth V e n u s

Mercurij
M o o n

Venus '

Jupiter

CClEVERRiERRISESFROMHIS who had looked for the planet at Airy’s request, soon POISED AND READY An

CALCULATIONS AND POINTS TO THE SKY
-101’ THERE ANEW PLANET IS FOUND.
55
Charles Fort, New Lands, 1923
honourable mention for Adams. Recent research,
found that he had overlooked it twice in the two artist's impression of the
telescope at the Berlin
months prior to its discovery. In 1980, astronomers Observatory on the night
discovered Challis was in distinguished company. Neptune was discovered.
In that year, Charles Kowal of Palomar
Observatory and Stillman Drake of the University
of Toronto announced the results of their search

though, shows that Adams may have got too much
credit (see Inside Info, The Neptune Papers).
LOOKING FOR PRECOVERIES
Just as had happened with the discovery of Uranus,
for early records of Neptune. By targeting
Neptune’s close alignments with Jupiter, they
hoped to find chance observations, and struck
gold as they searched the notebooks of the Italian
astronomer Galileo Galilei.

astronomers soon began to scour through records in
search of previously ignored sightings of the new
planet. Such “precoveries” are not mere historical
curiosities, since they can help astronomers to refine
anew planet’s orbit without the need to track its
movement for many months or years. James Challis,
Galileo had seen Neptune not once, but twice -
in December 1612 and again in January 1613 -
noting the movement of the faint “star”! It’s
fascinating to think that, if he had pursued his
observations further, he might have discovered
Neptune more than 200 years before its time.
 rj.'tl': i i I (/)
o
■
7D
riton is somewhat denser than the icy moons
T of Saturn and Uranus, suggesting that it CO
contains alarger proportion of rock, in terms
of volume, however, its interior is dominated by R CO
water ice. The signs of cryovolcanic activity on its
surface suggest that its interior is differentiated
into distinct layers, with the rock towards the
centre and the ice forming amantle around it.
Shifting currents in the moon*s interior could O
be enough to pull the deep-frozen surface around
to create the tectonic rifts and valleys on the
surface. But some astronomers believe that
m
a
conditions just beneath Triton’s surface might be m
warm enough to create aglobal ocean layer of
liquid water, similar to those found on some of
Jupiter’s moons.
0
m
O
>

there’s something else even stranger about it. orbit. Where most natural satellites orbit more

While Triton follows aperfectly circular orbit, it or less above the equator of their parent planet, >
goes the wrong way around the planet compared to Triton’s motion is tilted at an angle of 157 degrees
Neptune’s own rotation. This “retrograde” motion relative to Neptune’s own axis. Since the moon o
is usually only found in captured satellites, not in has a“synchronous” rotation (see Glossary), its o
those that formed naturally from the same rotating orbital inclination combines with Neptune’s own D
nebula as their parent planet. Most astronomers, 28-degree tilt, to give Triton far more extreme
therefore, believe that Triton, too, is acaptured seasons than its parent planet. Most of the winter >
7 D
moon, though one of enormous size. hemisphere experiences a41-year night, while
CO
Another clue to Triton’s unusual origins the summer hemisphere receives 41 years of
is the extreme tilt or “inclination” of its permanent sunshine.

S PA C E S TA R S

WILLIAM LASSELL (1799-1880)

olton-born William Lassel! was one of the foremost astronomers

B of the mid-19th century, despite being an amateur. His successful
b u s i n e s s i n t e r e s t s a l l o w e d h i m t o fi n a n c e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a m b i t i o u s

telescopes, including the first large, equatorially

mounted reflectors to observe all parts of the sky.
He also developed the first automatic grinding
and polishing machine -adevice vital to the
construction of large, accurate mirrors.
Lassell soon established areputation as
aplanetary observer and, following his
discovery of Triton in 1846, went on to
discover two of the moons of Uranus,
and Saturn’s satellite Hyperion. He
also claimed to have discovered aring
around Neptune, though this was almost \ f
G L O S S A R Y
certainly an observing error.
Synchronous rotation:
Arotation period of a
satellite that matchi its
AMBITIOUS AMATEUR Having
orbital period, so that the
m a d e h i s f o r t u n e a s a b e e r b r e w e r,
satellite keeps one face
Lassell was able to spend it on his
permanently toward its
p a s s i o n f o r a s t r o n o m y.
Pi 'ent body.

7
 1

Prior to 1989, scientists knew very little about into three distinct terrains -an icecap around COLOURFUL CLOSE-UP

Triton. It was known to have asurface temperature This false-colour image

the south pole, plains dominating the eastern
terrain map gives a
around -235°C, making it one of the coldest places hemisphere, and “cantaloupe terrain” in the c l o s e r v i e w o f Tr i t o n ' s
in the solar system. Analysis of its spectrum had western hemisphere. Ridges and valleys crisscross cantaloupe terrain j n

revealed characteristic signs of nitrogen, water ice the entire surface and suggest that tectonic forces blue-grey) and a
smoother adjacent area
and carbon dioxide, and most scientists expected have been at work in the past, pushing and pulling (in reddish colours)
these to form ice deposits on the surface. However, at the surface. s c a r r e d w i t h fi s s u r e s a n d

as Voyager’s photos began to arrive back on Earth
after their two-hour, light-speed trip across the solar
system, everyone was in for ashock.
REVEALING PICTURES
The flyby happened to coincide with southern
Triton’s southern polar cap is composed largely cryovolcanic activity.
of bright nitrogen ice, but is covered by distinctive
parallel blue-grey streaks leading from the sunlit
pole towards the dark side. Eventually photographs
taken from different angles revealed the origin of
these streaks -at the root of each lies afissure

summer, and as aresult, it could only photograph
40 per cent of Triton’s surface in daylight.
Nevertheless, it found avaried terrain that has
clearly had an active history. Significantly, impact
craters on Triton are quite rare, suggesting that the
surface gets re-covered and wiped clean by other
forms of activity in just afew million years.
The visible parts of the satellite split neatly
in the ice, through which Voyager photographed
erupting clouds of dust-laden gas (see How It SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
Works). As these “ice geysers” belch their contents This polar projection
to high altitudes in the weak gravity, they are image gives afascinating
v i e w o f Tr i t o n ' s s o u t h
eventually caught up in prevailing winds that blow
polar cap with its bright
through the sparse atmosphere from the summer fringe of nitrogen frost,
pole towards the winter side. blown into rays by north-
The discovery of geyser activity on such acold moving winds.

HOW IT WORKS

—Neptune southern Neptune northern

^TRITON’S ICE GEYSERS s u m m e r s u m m e r sunlight

niton’s unusual orbit means that each pole in I

T turn spends 41 years in the full light of the
■k.
Sun. Although solar radiation is weak this far out
in the solar system, it is still sufficient to create
atype of “greenhouse effect” beneath the
I
nitrogen ice that dominates Triton’s surface. As
subsurface nitrogen evaporates, the pressure o n e h e m i s p h e r e o f Tr i t o n opposite hemisphere in ice melts beneath

in permanent sunlight pemanent sunlight the surface

and temperature build up, until the layer of Ice
above thins and cracks, allowing the subsurface
EXTREMES: The arrangement
2 GAS TRAPS: Sunlight is
ice to boil away into space, carrying dust with it. 1 o f t h e o r b i t s o f b o t h Tr i t o n a n d absorbed by the summer
As the ice geyser rises into the thin atmosphere, Neptune gives the moon extreme Ice cap and traps nitrogen
it is swept up in the prevailing winds, creating seasons with summer days and gas just below the surface.
the familiar streaky marks. winter nights lasting 41 years.

world was completely unexpected. But most
astronomers now think that the activity is driven
by the heating effect of sunlight on the polar cap.
If they are right, then the activity probably moves
CO
resurfaced in the fairly recent past -probably the
last few tens of millions of years. Broad plains O
of frozen ice can frequently be traced back to
volcano-like calderas and other fissures in the

from one pole to the other over Neptune’s long crust, and it seems that cryovolcanism has been CD
year (see How It Works). the dominant force in shaping this landscape.
Triton’s eastern plains, in contrast, show no CO
signs of present-day activity, but have clearly been T E L L - TA L E T E R R A I N

The western hemisphere’s “cantaloupe terrain’’,

meanwhile, is different again -abizarre dimpled
landscape that looks like the fruit after which it is o
named. It consists of jumbled circular depressions c z
30km or more across, with adistinctive blue colour
a
and smooth, rolling “walls’’ between them. This m
part of Triton’s surface seems to consist of frozen
water ice, and it seems likely that the dimples have
formed above diapirs -rising “currents’’ of warm
0
or low-density ice that have pushed their way to o

the surface. Diapirs are often responsible for >

making similarly geometrical patterns in Earth’s
own arctic regions. >
While Triton’s present-day polar geysers can be
explained through the heating effects of sunlight, o
the plains of icy lava and diapirs of the cantaloupe G)
terrain can only have formed with the assistance of U
heat from inside Triton. This suggests that until very
recently in geological terms the moon was warm. >
Astronomers now believe that Triton’s unusual
C O
activity, its strange orbit and the mysterious state
of Neptune’s other moons, can all be explained
by asingle theory -that Triton is indeed apassing
world that Neptune snatched into orbit around it.

INItlr' IUlMiI DM ICLLI IDUA IA f

preuaiiing wind from summer
lUame Diameter (km) Closest to Farthest from
to winter hemisphere

i\leptune lUeptune
Naiad 9 6 x 6 0 x 5 2 48,208km 48,246km
particles sift back
geyser boils bo surface Thalassa 1 0 8 x 1 0 0 x 5 2 50,065km 50,085km
into space _
Despina 1 8 0 x 1 5 0 x 1 3 0 52,515km 52,537km
Galatea 2 0 4 x 1 8 4 x 1 4 4 61,953km 61,953km
Larissa 2 1 6 x 2 0 4 x 1 6 4 73,427km 73,574km
Proteus 4 3 6 x 4 1 6 x 4 0 2 11 7 , 5 8 8 k m 11 7 , 7 0 6 k m
Triton 2 7 0 7 354,800km 354,800km
cracks open in I— dark streaks lead Nereid 3 4 0 1,372,000km 9,655,000km
s u r f a c e away from geyser vent
Halimede 6 0 6,747,000km 24,709,000km
Sao 3 8 15,852,000km 28,992,000km
GEYSERS: Where the surface is weakest, the
3 nitrogen can force its way to the surface, Laomedeia
Psamathe
3 8
2 8
13,557,000km 33,565,000km
boiling away into the thin atmosphere and 25,682,000km 67,708,000km
being carried by prevailing winds from the Neso 6 0 24,435,000km 73,339,000km
summer to the winter hemisphere.
 " \

NEPTUNE
Following on from the introductory look at the Voyager
missions in Issue 1, it's time to see what happened
when the second spacecraft encountered Neptune.

aunched on 20 August images of the planet. The

1977, Voyager 2 most obvious feature in
visited jupiter in t h e Images » t h e
1979, Saturn: in 1981
and Uranus in 1986,
before making its
closest approach to
Neptune c*:25 August
1989, pa^ng
4950kmabovei;|^north
pole. The spacecraft had
travelled 12 years at an
average speed of 19km/sec to
I
reach the^pianet, located 30 times An image
does Jupiter. Several large, dark
farther from the Sun than Earth. of the Great spots were found, similar to
Upon its arrival, Voyager Dark Spot Jupiter's hurricane-like storms. The
observed Neptune almost captured by
largest was called the "Great Dark
Voyager from
continuously from June to October 2.8 mil lion Spot". Big enough to fit Earth inside
1989, collecting some 10,000 kilometres. it, the spot appeared to be an
anticyclone like Jupiter's Great Red
BREAKTHROUGHS Spot. Voyager's studies, though,
showed it to be much more variable
NEW MOONS
in size and shape.
Voyager also measured the heat
In
addition to
the
previously
Triton, Nereid known
and Larissa, satellites,
Voyager 2 radiated by Neptune’s atmosphere.
d i s c o v e r e d fi v e s m a l l , d a r k m o o n s t h a t a r e
It found the atmosphere above
invisible to Earth-based observers.
the clouds to be hotter near the
The unusually red Proteus is one of the
darkest objects in the solar system. Although equator, cooler in the mid-latitudes
larger than Nereid, to Earth-bound observers it and warm again at the south pole.
is lost in the glare of sunlight reflected off its Temperatures in the stratosphere
extremely close parent, Neptune. were ascorching 480°C while at
The other newly discovered moons were
PROTEUS The second largest of the 100 millibar pressure level,
Despina, Galatea, Thalassa and the tiny Naiad. Neptune’s satellites, Proteus is also
All orbit in the same direction as Neptune, close deep within the gas giant, the
the largest non-spherical moon in
to the planet’s equatorial plane. the solar system. temperature was achilly -220"^C.
Voyager images also showed
cloud streaks casting their shadows
 ca
S PA C E S TA R S

^CHARLES KOHLHASE
aving come to JPL in 1959 and worked or

V
H several early projects, mostly Mariner
missions, Charles Kohihase was appointed
design manager for Voyager in 1974. His job
was to take the scientific objectives and build a
mission around them.

Following Voyager, he was the science and

<
mission design manager for the Cassini/ o
Huygens mission to Saturn and Titan. And r <
the wake of that success, he worked as a >
o
consultant on the Genesis, Kepler and Mars m
Exploration Program missions :xi
Nowadays, Kohihase lends his mission design hO
expertise to the Planetary Society Advisory KOHLHASE **
>
Council. He also works as aphotographer and (i^ The design
manager for the
artist, specialising in combining computer
Voyager mission.
graphics and photography. m

Z
m
on cloud decks about:50 to likely ge^^ted by the motions
An artist s

impression of
100km belovy. As for the; winds of conductive rnated^pr^bably
TVoyager 2at on Neptune, most were found to water) in its \ A A \ a i sai v e r s i

Neptune on 24 be blowing in awesterly dif^cdon-, |

August 1989,_The opposite.to th.e rotation: ofiffie
bright star at the
top is the Sun. planet. Close to the
Spot, winds were found to isit, mrssicife
Iblowing up to 2400krti/h -the controllers decided to make aclofS^^
strongest on any planet, including flyby of the moon Triton. Data
member of the
Voyager Mission windy Saturn, returned revealed the moon to be
imaging team Voyager also discovered that the same general size, density.
works on an
Neptune's magnetic field is, like chemical composition and
image at NASAs
Jet Propulsion ^that of Uranus, oddly oriented temperature as Pluto. Following the
flyby, Voyager 2continued its journey
to the edge of the solar system.

WHITE CLOUDS Capt j r € d b y NEPTUNE'S RINGS This Voyager

image, taken through the camera's
clear filter, is the first to show the
main rings in detail.
 I

STARB RTH NEBULAE

Beyond our solar system
lie infinite stars, born in
spectacular fashion in regions
known as nebulae.

eptune is the outermost known planet i

our solar system. Our Sun, though, is
just one of countless stars, each formed
in awe-inspiring interstellar clouds of dust,
hydrogen gas and plasma.
These nebulae form from the gravitational i

collapse of gas and dust in the interstellar medium

creating ragged-edged clouds that glow as they
are excited by radiation from newborn stars. Their
complex shapes are sculpted by stellar winds that
blow through them.
All of these regions, though, can barely be seen
with the majority of amateur telescopes and the
images on these pages have been captured either
from large Earth-based observatories or from
orbiting space telescopes.
[1] EAGLE NEBULA A
Hubble Space Telescope
image showing adetail of
the Eagle Nebula. Light >
from nearby bright, hot, O
young stars causes the m
gas to glow.
CD
[2] M42 The Orion >
Nebula is one of the
brightest and most
obvious star-forming
regions in the sky. 1500
light years away and 30 <
light years across, the
nebula is home to dozens
of young stars, including
the bright Trapezium
cluster, just 30,000 years
old, at its heart.

[3] ROSETTE NEBULA

This false-colour image of
the Rosette was captured
by the 0.9m telescope on
Kitt Peak, Arizona.

[4] AXIS OF EVIL This

image of the Axis of
Evil, ahuge jet of gas
pouring from the poles
of anewborn star in
the Carina Nebula was
captured by the 4m
telescope at the Cerro
To l o l o I n t e r - A m e r i c a n
Observatory in Chile.

iSt

0
 m
[5]

[5] CARINA NEBULA This 50-light-year-wide view of the Carina Nebula -one of the largest panoramic images ever taken with Hubble's cameras
-was released in celebration of the 17th anniversary of the launch and deployment of NASA's Hubble Space Telescope. The immense nebula
 >
CD

CD
>

X I

contains at least adozen brilliant stars that are roughly estimated to be at least 50 to 100 times the mass of our Sun. The most remarkable and
opulent inhabitant is the star Eta Carinae, in the final stages of its brief and eruptive lifespan, at the centre of the opposite page.
 SOURC
STARS
The search for the source of the Sun's heat
and light uncovered the power at the heart
of the atom and revealed life's origins
among the stars.

stronomers thought the you light afire inside an upturned

A Sun and stars were giant

balls of fire until two

discoveries made them think again.

In 1660, English chemist Robert
Boyle (1627-1691) proved fire
couldn’t burn without air. His
assistant Robert Hooke (1635-
1703) built the first vacuum pump,
which Boyle used to show that if
bell jar and then remove all the air,
the fire goes out. If space is a
vacuum, how could the Sun burn?
In the 19th century,
spectroscopic studies showed that
the Sun and stars were giant balls
of hot gas -mostly of hydrogen
and helium. Also around this time,
studies of fossils and sedimentary
HOT STUFF

The temperature
HOW IT WORKS
distribution in the

^HEAT AND LIGHT Sun's corona.

Dark areas are
usion reactions in the Sun’s core release cooler and bright
F deadly gamma-ray photons. These get
core -hydrogen
atoms fuse into
a r e a s a r e h o t t e r.

re-absorbed by dense matter in the core, helium

reducing their energy. Over time, they force

their way into the radiative zone of the Sun.
Over thousands of years they pass through, radiative zone

reducing their energy still further until they

become X-rays and ultraviolet rays. They
then pass into the convective zone where
convective zone
powerful currents lift them to the surface.
By the time they burst out of the
photosphere they are at visible, infrared and
ultraviolet wavelengths that bathe Earth in photosphere

life-giving light and warmth. -where the

Sun becomes

transparent

16.

rocks revealed that the Earth was
not thousands of years old, but
had been formed many hundreds
of millions of years ago. The Sun
must be even older, so why hadn’t
it used up all its gas?
H E AT F R O M G R AV I T Y
The first scientists to offer a
plausible explanation were German
physicist Hermann von Helmholtz
(1821-1894) and Scottish physicist
William Thompson (later Lord
Kelvin, 1824-1907). They proposed
that as astar’s gas contracted under
the force of gravity it would
become increasingly dense and hot,
creating heat and light in the
1
m
i t s
LO
ny atom consists of aheavy nucleus of positively charged protons and chargeless 1
A neutrons, orbited by lightweight, negatively charged electrons. The number of o
protons in the nucleus defines which element the atom forms -the lightest and simplest 7 0
element, hydrogen, has alone proton as its nucleus. Inside astar, electrons are stripped <
away to expose atomic nuclei, and
pressures are so extreme that O
protons can overcome the natural
repulsion of their similar charges,
and nuclei can fuse together to >
CO
create new elements. Sometimes
I
acaptured proton turns into a
TO
neutron, releasing aneutrino
(see Glossary) that escapes, and O
apositron (a positive version of
an electron). When the positron O
encounters an electron, they destroy
each other, releasing gamma rays.
COLLISION: Fusion between two
nuclei generates aburst of energy to
p o w e r t h e i n t e r i o r o f a s t a r.
o
X
T 1
Sun and stars behave early on in and can be converted from one to m
their formation, as they condense the other. The equation also L D
out of interstellar gas and dust. But, revealed the vast energy store o
locked inside all matter. c
according to their “Kelvin-Helmholz T O
timescale”, this contraction could The equation states that energy O
only provide energy for 20 or 30 (E) is equal to mass (m) multiplied
million years maximum. There must by the speed of light (c) squared (^) o
be an unknown fuel source that -an enormous figure. Therefore a GO
could provide longer-lasting power. tiny amount of astar’s mass could. >
theoretically, convert into large T O
L D
E N E R G Y F R O M M AT T E R amounts of energy -but how?
G L O S S A R Y
Neutrino: A
In 1905, Albert Einstein (1879- British chemist and physicist
particle with no 1955) published his special theory Francis Aston (1877-1945) found
charge and little of relativity, with the now famous an important clue while working
mass that
usually passes equation E=mc^ proving that at the Cavendish Laboratory in
straight through Cambridge. In 1920 he used a
matter without
interacting.
device called amass spectrometer
to measure the masses of hydrogen
and helium. He discovered that
four hydrogen nuclei (protons)
were slightly heavier than one
helium nucleus.
Hydrogen and helium are
FRANCIS ASTON
abundant elements in the Sun
Inventor of
the mass and most stars. British astronomer
spectrometer Arthur Eddington (1882-1944),
which allowed
an expert on relativity, recognised
him to identify
isotopes in a the significance at once. In his
substance. paper “The internal constitution
m
 #
/TN BREAKTHROUGHS
vJ^THE
PROTON-PROTON
CHAIN
" * W hen
m-
IMeutr( YGamma Ray
VNeutrino
of stars”, published in 1920, he
pointed out that (using E=mc^) in
converting four hydrogen protons
into ahelium nucleus, 0.75 per
cent of the leftover mass would
be released as energy. This tiny
amount of excess mass from each
fusion reaction would be enough to
power the Sun for billions of years.
Protons are positively charged and
normally repel each other. But
the intense heat and pressure of
astar ’s core could overcome this
barrier, allowing them to fuse (see
Inside Info).
PRODUCTION PROCESS
In 1939, German-born physicist
Hans Bethe (1906-2005) published
“Energy production in stars”, in
which he described two ways that
hydrogen atoms could fuse into
helium atoms -the proton-proton
chain and the carbon-nitrogen-
oxygen (CNO) cycle.
The proton-proton chain is the
main power source in Sun-size
stars with core temperatures up
to 15 million°C. First, two protons
elements gain or lose neutrons
they become different isotopes.
When they gain or lose protons they
become different elements. The proton-
proton chain converts hydrogen nuclei
into helium nuclei via aseries of stages,
releasing energy at each stage. This
process provides along-lasting fuel source:
1. Two protons {hydrogen nuclei) fuse. One
proton becomes aneutron to form the
“heavy” hydrogen isotope deuterium. A
positron and an electron annihilate each
other and energy is released. converts carbon-12 to nitrogen-13,
then into carbon-13, then nitrogen-
2. Aproton fuses with deuterium to 14, oxygen-15, nitrogen-15 and back
become the “light” helium isotope helium-3.
to carbon-12 again, releasing energy
Energy is released.
at each stage (see Breakthroughs
3. Two helium-3 nuclei fuse, becoming -The CNO Cycle).
ahelium nucleus. Two protons are Fusion reactions like these
released to repeat the chain. (proton-proton/CNO) can only
occur in the star’s core, where
HANS BETHE
temperatures are so intense that
Bethe won the hydrogen atoms are stripped of
Nobel Prize in their electrons, to become free
Physics for his protons that fuse more easily with
work on stellar
each other. The energy generated
nucleosynthesis.
fuse, creating deuterium (“heavy
hydrogen”). Athird proton fuses
with deuterium to form helium-3
(“light helium”). Finally two helium-
3nuclei fuse, forming ahelium
nucleus and releasing two protons.
At each of these stages, energy is
released (see Breakthroughs: The
Proton-proton Chain).
The CNO cycle is the main power
source in larger stars with higher
core temperatures. It involves
stable and unstable “isotopes”
(types of element). The CNO cycle
 iir. :

i-iQi enables the star to resist the inward form from hydrogen -but what of
Im pull of gravity, keeping it in astate heavier elements, such as iron?
am of equilibrium. British physicist James Chadwick
(1891-1974) had made an important
EASY ENTRY breakthrough while carrying out
research at the Cavendish. He
These processes also helped to
explain how lighter elements, such as discovered the neutron, an atomic
nitrogen, oxygen and carbon, can particle that has no charge and so,
unlike the proton, is not repelled.
This enables the neutron to enter
other nuclei easily, sometimes
forming an unstable isotope and
converting into aproton to form a
new element.
MARGARET
BURBIDGE One
of the trio to STELLAR FORGE
discover how
In 1957, British astrophysicists Fred
stars can produce
heavier elements Hoyle, Geoffrey Burbidge (1925-),
out of lighter his wife Margaret (1919-) and
o n e s .
American astrophysicist William
reaches the point where helium can
become the primary fuel source, in m
some cases synthesising elements of
CO
higher mass.
I
Low-mass stars create helium
o
only, while Sun-size stars produce 7 0
other light elements such as carbon, <
nitrogen and oxygen. But massive
stars keep condensing as each new
o
r i
fuel source becomes exhausted, until
they have synthesised all the chemical >
CO
elements up to and including iron. I
Iron fusion uses energy rather TO
than creates it, so by this stage
O
stars no longer have the power to
resist gravity and collapse, forging
still heavier elements in the process
O
before tearing themselves apart in
supernovae explosions. This scatters
their contents far and wide.

Fowler (1911-1995) published Over time the debris condenses.

0
“Synthesis of the elements in stars”. Hydrogen and helium form new X
WILLIAM ALFRED
This paper explained how astar stars, while heavier elements become
FOWLER Another
co-author of the
contracts as its hydrogen is used up. planets. On Earth, some of the CZ
1957 paper that As the star’s density increases, heat carbon makes plants, animals -and m

explained the and pressure at its core rise until it us. We are stardust.
C O
abundance of
elements in the o
■■ KEY
d
cosmos through -X)
stellar nuclear
reactions. ®BREA
TK
TH
H ER
OCUG
NH
OSC Y C L E
Proton

Neutron
Positron

7Gamma Ray
- ^
O
m

O
nlarger stars carbon, nitrogen and oxygen isotopes act as VNeutrino * n

catalysts, converting protons to helium nuclei and releasing C O

H
gamma-rays, neutrinos and positrons (antimatter electrons).
>
1. Carbon-12 captures aproton to become unstable C O

nitrogen-13. Energy is released.

2. The proton changes to aneutron, converting

nitrogen-13 into carbon-13. Aneutrino and a
positron are produced. The neutrino escapes.
The positron and an electron annihilate each
other. Energy is released.

3. Carbon-13 captures aproton to become

nitrogen-14. Energy is released.

4. Nitrogen-14 captures aproton to become

ELECTRON unstable oxygen-15. Energy is released.
DENSITY The

negatively 5. Aproton changes to aneutron, converting

charged electron oxygen-15 into nitrogen-15. Aneutrino and apositron
cloud that I
are produced. The neutrino escapes. The positron and
surrounds a
helium atom.
an electron annihilate each other. Energy is released.
The blue area
shows the 6. Nitrogen-15 captures aproton to become carbon-12
highest density Ahelium nucleus is produced. The cycle repeats.
of electrons.

1
 Ahero with wings on his shoes
flies to the rescue of aprincess
chained to arock in the skies of
northern autumn and winter. The
hero is Perseus, and he carries
the severed head of Medusa, the
snake-haired Gorgon.

3 erseus holds his sword aloft, and in that hand

lies abeautiful pair of star clusters. They can
*V- be seen with the naked eye as abrighter knot
in the Milky Way, and are an excellent sight through
binoculars and wide-angle telescopes.
Their catalogue numbers are NGC 869 and NGC
884, but amateur astronomers usually term them
■■ .VCAUFdRNiA^ !- simply the Double Cluster. Both contain young, blue
This nebula, * ‘ stars but ahandful of those in NGC 884 have evolved
"VNGC1^ lying - into red giants. The Double Cluster lies about 7500
;'at the foot of
light years away in aneighbouring spiral arm of our
; vthe figure, is
Galaxy called the Perseus Arm.
-"called ; ^ 0
"California" ,I*"
’ . because it v -. " STELLAR SOCIETIES
/' resembles the /
outline of the a;" Two other prominent clusters of stars lie in Perseus.
A m e r i c a n s t a t e , r. The scattering of stars around the constellation’s
brightest member, 2nd-magnitude Alpha Persei, might
- i not look like acluster at first but is indeed agenuine
grouping. Binoculars bring many additional members
;lfeWHERESCLlED?BRIDE into view. Amore obvious cluster is M34, on the
border with Andromeda. Binoculars show dozens of
nGreek legend, Perseus was the hero who rescued
Princess Andromeda from the jaws of the sea monster stars splashed over an area larger than the apparent
Cetus. Perseus had been sent to cut off the head of Medusa size of the full Moon. Through small telescopes,
the Gorgon, whose gaze could turn men to stone. He had a several of the stars appear to form pairs.
sword made by Hephaestus, ahelmet from Hades that made
him invisible, abronze shield from Athena and wore winged
W I N K I N G S TA R
shoes from Hermes.

Perseus crept up on Medusa while she was asleep, cut off The head of Medusa, the Gorgon, is marked by the
h e r h e a d a n d fl e w o f f w i t h i t . H e w a s celebrated variable star Beta Persei, better known as
on his way back from this exploit Algol. Its variations were discovered in 1782 by an
when he saw Andromeda,
English amateur astronomer, John Goodricke, who
who had been chained to
arock as a s a c r i fi c e % proposed (correctly, as we now know) that one star
to the sea monster. was being partly eclipsed by afainter companion,
Swooping down, iEvery 2days 21 hours Algol’s brightness drops
A
Perseus killed from magnitude 2.1 to 3.4, returning to normal after
the monster
^about 10 hours. Many such eclipsing binaries are
and released ^ M now known, but Algol remains the easiest to observe.
Andromeda,
taking her as If. ^Predictions of its forthcoming eclipses can be found in
his bride. feastronomymagazinesandonline.
IFourMoondiameterssouthofAlgolliesavariable
Istarofadifferentkind:RhoPersei,apulsatingred
ggiant that varies between magnitudes 3.3 and 4.0
Eevery seven weeks or so.
 M34 This open CO
star cluster
contains about
ahundred stars
>
and is visible to

Perseus
Auriga lies
in
the
and mid-northern sky,
Cassiopeia. Arich between
stream of the
the naked eye.

Milky Way passes through it. Perseus is highest >

in the evening sky in November and December. “ D
It can be fully seen throughout the northern
hemisphere on Earth, and down to 31 degrees
south of the equator.
T)

ABBREVIATION Per CO

BEST SEASON

November-December 0 0

(evenings)
BRIGHTEST S TA R

Mirphak (a)
1.8

SIZE RANKING 24

POSITION Mid-northern

L O C AT I O N MAP

0
CASSIOPEIA
/
■NGC 869

CAMELOPARDALIS NGC 884

* i r i
\
4 M

M76 \
//

\
/
NGC 1528

T
X /
NGC 1545
<!>

X T
3 4 . "\
^*^\Mirfak 0-
5
53 " / 4 8 W ¥
A N D R O M E D A

AURIGA

® - K
PERSEUS
c*;
58-^ 3 2 * M34 ,
/
. 5 2
P
j
Algol 4 12. 1
8
CO

1 6
NGC1499^ NGC 1342
m
5 4 1 7

2 4
" 4 0
TRIANGULUM
o

IC 348
\
 WHATEVER HAPPENED

to NEPTUNE’S
MOONS?
All the evidence points to the idea that Triton
was captured by Neptune's gravity and
disrupted its original satellite system. But
what exactly happened, and where might the
original moons have gone?

V any astronomers believe that Triton was

captured as it passed by Neptune on its
/

own path through the outer solar

system. Everything suggests that forces involved in
the “snatch” triggered volcanic activity that not only
re-shaped the satellite itself, but left its mark on G L O S S A R Y
anything that got in Its way. But the biggest mystery Conservation of y

of all remains: how did Triton end up In orbit momentum: The principle
that the overall
around Neptune in the first place? momentum of asystem
(dependent on the mass

SEARCHING FOR SOLUTIONS and velocity of its

component objects) is m

In order to be captured, Triton must have lost a preserved during collisions %

or other interactions -
considerable amount of momentum and speed, but
most commonly seen on a
Neptune’s gravity alone would not have been strong snooker table.

enough to do this for such alarge world.

HOW IT WORKS

circular orbits impact

P L A N E TA RY P I N B A L L

riton was originally captured Into orbit around

T Neptune at agreater distance from the planet,
and it is still very slowly spiralling inwards. During
its slow waltz with the planet, it has already
disrupted the orbits of any original outlying moons,
and as it continues its inevitable descent, it will
destroy or eject the surviving moons.
In around 3billion years, it will get so close to IN THE BEGINNING
Neptune that its orbit will become unstable and it 1 Neptune forms with a 2THEN CAME
Triton THE
COLLISION
swings into the system
will either break up to form arich, Saturn-like ring normal system of satellites and collides with one of the
system, or crash spectacularly into the planet. around it. satellites. Or, alternatively...

22
 J‘' T< 1

X
t. -.^'■A,4:
}'■
?->.■ ’i:
‘'1^- I ' h
P - X
'M ‘f- V i**r?
SPOTTED AVoyager
image of Neptune's two
:.3f.
orbit. Only the inner shepherd moons remained
brightest rings. Each ring ;j^v unscathed, and as aresult, Neptune’s natural satellite
A
lies just outside the orbit
i
‘fX m
Y > system is cut short at Proteus.
of anewly discovered X
m o o n . 3 %
’TJ
'Xi
%■ \ L i \ " f :■ WHERE ARE THEY NOW?
CAPTIVE MOON? Is
m
But what happened to those other moons? Some >
Neptune really Triton's H e
m
planetary parent, or was
'"'A
■A A.
may have been diverted into orbits that ultimately
saw them collide with Neptune itself, while others
i

this icy world simply 5fW- m

5^-:;
caught up by the ice may have gained enough momentum in close
giant's powerful gravity?
a
. ' V- encounters to escape the solar system alto: [ether.
This artist's impression ■■r?
m m m m
f

It’s possible that Neptune managed to cling onto

shows Triton, Neptune
and part of the planet's
"5'

one of the smaller moons -some astronomers think A

thin ring system. -'K
i>f-
Two other possibilities fit the facts -the first is that
Triton made adirect collision with alarge satellite
already in orbit around Neptune, and the law of
conservation of momentum (see Glossary) left the
shattered debris with just afraction of Triton’s original
momentum. Over time, the moon could then have
reassembled itself-just as Earth’s moon did.
The second option is more intriguing: assuminj
that Triton came from the Kuiper Belt, then what
if, like many of its cousins, it was originally abinary
world with amoon whose mass approached that
of Triton itself? In this case, the system could have
lost the necessary momentum by ejecting “Triton
B" into its own orbit around the Sun, where it might
still await discovery.
.Iff
>j#--
that Nereid may have originated as anatural moon
in amore circular orbit closer to the planet. >
But the most enticing possibility is that some of
the moons ended up in their own orbits around the <
m
Sun (see Inside Info). These might patiently remain
to this very day, awaiting discovery or recognition
>
for what they are. Some might have ended up in " U
centaur-like orbits between the giant planets, only
to be disrupted further and perhaps sent plunging
into Jupiter or the Sun itself.
O
~ D
ver since its discovery in 1930, some
E astronomers have speculated that Pluto
might actually be alost satellite of Neptune,
but unfortunately the facts don’t fit this neat C O

LOST WORLDS theory. Although Pluto’s orbit comes nearer

to the Sun than Neptune, the two planets
Mention of Triton’s possible lost moon raises another themselves never come close.
o
tantalising question. If Neptune’s formation followed o
However, we now know that Pluto is just
the pattern seen In other giant planets, then it must one of many icy “Kuiper Belt Objects’’ in C O
" o
once have had several large natural satellites in orbit similar orbits. Triton itself probably started life
around it. Even if one of these fell victim to acollision as one of these worlds, and today it is among
them that we might have the best chance of
in order to capture Triton, the others must have been
finding one of Neptune’s lost moons.
ejected by encounters with the interloper’s powerful
6 ' ivity as it slowly spiralled in towards its current

Triton captured Tr i t o n s p i r a l s
inuuard i n t e r i o r lelts Tritoi

4
T
Nereid
N e r e i d

original possibly
.Proteus and other
binary coi ipanioi m o o n s t h r o w n

ejected o u t w a r d s Lcryovolcanism surviving moons

ejected
onto surface

(B) OR DOUBLE TROUBLE SPOT OF DISRUPTION SOME VOLCANIC ACTION FOR THE MOMENT
2 Triton arrives at Neptune as 3 Triton's gravity disrupts 4 Ti d a l f o r c e s m e l t Tr i t o n ' s 5 Neptune's system. But
adouble planet. One member orbits of other moons that are interior, triggering cryovolcanic Triton is still slowly spiralling
ejected the other into orbit. flung away from Neptune. activity on the surface. to aspectacular demise.
COMING a-:
SSUE

MDAMoBel n

;|l;

sOLAR .
30-T00TH GEAR
system M
Aprecision-f ^ 38)

DlSCn\/Fi:

The
^fSITOR S f r o m p e r i o d i c
^across thw
solarsys
£
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SCREWS 30-toothgear,gear£ol■LARAND P L A N t
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5MM GRUB SCREWS

What makes a“great comet”? Discover how your solar system

We look back in time to trace the model belongs to atradition with
biggest and brightest of them ail. origins as old as astronomy itself.
"Find out how astronomers learned Eaglemoss Publications Ltd,
C€ Beaumont House, Avonmore Road, London W14 STS
to plot the life of stars and WARNING! Accessible gears and small parts.

ultimately predict their death. Keep out of reach of children. Keep this Information for reference
Applies to all issues of 'Build AModel Solar System'.

Why were comets given such

sinister and fateful significance by
ancient civilisations? Was there
more to their beliefs than just pure
superstition?
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BUILD AMODEL

SOLAR
SYSTEM ^ 38)

APRECISION-ENGINEERED ORRERY
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'‘30-TOOTH GEAR, GEAR COLLAR AND PLANET SPINDLE

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BUILD AMODEL
#
^

SHAR m
«

SYSTEM. *

«"
iFEAtURES
#

m I M P O R TA N T
# "The orrery is aprecision-engineered
kit. it must be assembled and handled
with care to prevent damage to its
parts, and stored isplayed safely to
YOUR SOLAR SYSTEM MODEL ensure no parts are lost.
3 "Never use liquids or solvents to clean
Discover the early origins and development of the parts. For best care, use the
mechanical models of the solar system. polishing doth and dusting brushes
# supplied with the toolkit (free to
subscriptions customers).
"When assembling parts, lay them on a
SOLAR SYSTEM GUIDE
0 Find out about the great comets, those brilliant
visitors in our skies that outshine the stars.
flat table and keep screws and all small
items on atray so they can't roll away
and get lost. Unpack all parts carefully.
"The publisher reserves the right to
alter parts and their design at any time.
#
"Parts not to be sold separateiy.
"The publisher cannot replace any
parts that are damaged or lost by the
customer without charge.
"The publisher cannot be responsible
for any damage that may occur as a
result of incorrect assembly or
mishandling of the orrery. Please ensure
you read ail the instructions thoroughly
when assembling the parts.
"All tools must be used with care,
following any safely guidelines pi r i d e d
by the manufacturer.
"The publisher cannot be responsible
for any Injuries caused by any tools or
materials.

MISSIONS t
%
10
Read about Rosetta's historic mission to land a #

spacecraft on acomet. 9

#
IMAGE GALLERY > *

1 £ ^
Gaze in wonder into deep space at the awesome ti
regions where families of stars thrive.
Credits
THE STORY OF ASTRONOMY IMAGES: PC Galaxy/Michael
16
For the last 200 years astronomers have struggled to ^Stacker; 2-3 Hubble Heritage
Team/NASA/ESA, (r) Eaglemoss/
piece together the lifecycle of stars.
Simon Anning; 4-5 (tl) AKG
London, (tc,bcr) AAA Collection/
S TA R M A P Robert Sheridan, (tr) AKG London/
20 Gerrard Degeorge, (bcl) Mary
Learn where to find the constellation of Eridanus, the
Evans Picture Library; 6-7 (tl)
celestial river that meanders from the foot of Orion.
Topfoto/AP, (tr) Topfoto/World
Archive, (be) NOAO/AURA/NSF/
UNEXPLAINED Roger Lynds, (br) ESO; 8-9 (tl)
Getty/AFP/Mike Nelson, (bl.tr)
For ancient man, comets foretold of doom. But were 4Galaxy Picture Library/Michael
their beliefs superstition or founded on real fears? 1Stacker, (c) Galaxy Picture Library/
Robert McNaught; lO-ll(bl) ESA/
Flemming Pedersen, (c,tr,br) ESA,
(ber) Science Photo Library/David
AHardy; 12-13 (tl) Jim Misti, (bl)
I 1 1 ■I I I
0
(tr) Eaglemoss/Donna Askem; 18-
19 (tl) Science Photo Library/
Omikron, (c) Science Photo
Library, (bl) Hubble Heritage
Team/NASA/ESA, (tr) Hubble
Heritage Team/NASA/ESA, (br)
Science Photo Library/David A
Hardy; 20-21 (bf) NOAO/AURA/
NSF/Hillary Mathis, (tc) Galaxy
Picture Library/DSS (tr,bc,br)
Pikaia Imaging; 22-23 (cl) NASA/
JPL, (bl) NASA/JPL/M Kelley,
University of Minnesota, (c)
Bridgeman Art Library/
Mesopotamian/Louvre, Paris, (tr)
Bridgeman Art Library/Biblioteca
Nacional, Madrid/Giraudon, (br)
Chuck Shramek.

^NASA/JPL-Caltech/L
AHen/IRAC
GTO Team, (c) ESO, (tr) Hubble
Heritage Team/NASA/ESA, (br) ©
* 2005RichardYandrick;14-15 REPRO: Stormcreative

NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA; 16-17 Publishing Limited

(bcl) Science Photo Library, (ber) PRINTING: Century Litho (Truro)
#
Science Photo Library/Chris Butler, Limited

MODEL DESIGNED AND ORlGlfJ LOUIS CALMEL5 Ir

CONSULTANT GILES S PA R R O W
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capable of working as both educational models u
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i*’detail at its origins.and development. name orrery

wa?not^oineduntilthe18thcentury,butsuch
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FIRST CELESTIAL MODELS
. H
§ ♦ Thfeearliestattemptstomodelthesolarsystem
appear to have taken place in ancient China,
perhaps as early as IOOObc. That said, the
first real evidence for early orreries only
■; i! pgins
to
emefge
from
classical
Greece
and
fi 1
# " Rome the 1st century bc.
The great l^oman historian Cicero
I records two orrery-like devices in his
If fi De Re Publica. The first had been
A n M ■tii demonstrated to him by adescendant
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invention of the Greek philosopher I

1 Posidonids
(see
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Stars).
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device
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m Iff
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system model is heir
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would not come to the fore for more

than 1500 years.

Another early forerunner of the
orrery appears in the early Christian
era, where chronicles of the life of
St Sebastian record that

the Governor of Rome,

Chromatius, showed
the saint a“cubiculum

holovitreum” (literally a
room made of glass). The
room incorporated various
mechanisms to show the
m m
motion of the planets.

CLOCKWORK POWER
While European science
fl o u n d e r e d i n t h e D a r k

Ages, other inventors took

The tragic murder of the
great Greek inventor
Archimedes, who is said
to have produced one
of the first orrery-like
devices.
similar to -and even adirect ancestor of -the
famous Antikythera Mechanism (see Issue 3).
Although astronomers are far from certain about
the original construction of that device, some
researchers have argued that it is actually based
on the “heliocentric” principle that the Earth goes
round the Sun. If this is true, then the mechanism
would be doubly unusual, since at the time of its
construction in the 2nd century bc, this heliocentric
up the baton. Alandmark
came in ad721 in China,
when Yi Xing, acourt official in the Tang
Dynasty, built awater-powered
astronomical clock in the Imperial Palace
was capable of accurately tracking the time and
also showing the motions of the stars and planets.
This ingenious mechanism was the first clock
to use an escapement (see Glossary) to beat out
time accurately. Throughout the Middle Ages, the
idea of clocks incorporating astronomical features

■ A

IPpQSIDONIUS of APAMEIA (c,i35Bc-5iBtV .

reek philosopher Posidonius was aleading light
G of the “Stoic” school, and one of the great minds
of his day, although his works have been almost
entirely lost to posterity. Born in aGrecian city in
Syria and educated in Athens, he spent most of
his life on Rhodes, though he travelled widely for
scientific purposes and for his diplomatic career. His
numerous writings covered subjects as diverse as
geology, biology, anthropology and astronomy, all of
which he attempted to unite in asingle world view.
As well as designing an early form of orrery, he
r e fi n e d m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e E a r t h ’ s d i a m e t e r a n d
G L O S S A R Y
the distance of the Sun, and correctly identified the
Escapement: A
Moon as the cause of tides on Earth.
mechanism that converts

acontinuous force (such

as the fall of water or

the downward pull of a POSIDONIUS The Greek

weight) into aregular
philosopher made an orrery that
oscillating motion that I displayed the motions of the Sun,
can drive atimekeeping | Moon and the five known planets.
device.

J
 ANTIKYTHERA DEVICE
-<
T h e fi r s t k n o w n O
mechanical computer, c
dated around 150-100bc, 'Xi
was used to calculate
nmediaeval European tradition, clocks were ( j )
astronomical positions.
designed not just to tell the time, but to
demonstrate the workings of the cosmos.
O
Elaborate designs kept track of the Sun’s
m' movement through the zodiac, the phases of
; d
■ w m the Moon, the positions of the planets and even
the state of the tides. CO
One of the most celebrated was built by - <
It
Richard of Wallingford for St Albans Abbey CO
If- in the 1330s, while the “Astrarium”, built H
m
r>.
by Giovanni de Dondi in Padua from around
1350 onwards, had seven separate faces,
I
/■m demonstrating different celestial rhythms.
Although both these devices are sadly
lost, many others still keep time in palaces
f O
and cathedrals across Europe. They vary in
sophistication and accuracy, but the most
a
m
detailed are even able to keep track of the
; r
lunar i n e o f n o d e s ’ (see Issue 11) in order to

predict eclipses.
PRAGUE CLOCK This
0
famous astronomical clock CO
I
dates back to 1410.
O
: x i
- <

CC ITHE] sphere recently constructed by my friend POSIDONIUS ... O

DISPLAYS IN EACH REVOLUTION THE POSITIONS IN THE HEAVENS OF SUN,

19 n :
MOON AND PLANETS FOR EACH SEPARATE DAY AND NIGHT. m
SYRIAN ASTROLABE
Cicero, Roman statesman, lawyer, political theorist and philosopher.
This 13th-century o
instrument was used 7 3
73
by aMuslim priest to
calculate the times for became widespread. Islamic scholars soon transformed western astronomy in the 17th 7 3
- <
prayers at sunrise .built water-powered astrolabes, while in century that it was possible to attempt the
and sunset. 7 0
/Europe, weight-driven mechanisms were construction of atruly accurate “planetarium” (as >
7 3
used to power astronomical clocks. Using the devices were then known). H
rotating arms driven by precisely designed A

gears, these designs were also ancestral to HUYGENS' MACHINE

modern orreries. The major difference
was that they worked at the true
ace of celestial clockwork, rather
than allowing the motion of
the miniature solat system
kto be speeded up or slowed
down(seeIrjsideInfo),just
as significantly, though, they
relied on calculations of the
planetary motions made with
the traditional Earth-centred
(geocentric) or Ptolemaic
system.
It was not until Copernicus’s
Hiocentric theory and
ler’s laws of planetary motion
The first person to do this, around 1680, was the
great Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens, then
working in Paris. Huygens gave his successors a
new and accurate method for calculating the gear
ratios needed to represent the “celestial
clockwork”, and even incorporated telescopic
tubes and asystem of uneven gear teeth in order
to mirror the variations in the planets’ distance
from the Sun and speed in orbit.
But the end result, adevice known as the
“automaton planetarii”, was strangely inaccurate.
Huygens used only rough estimates of the periods
of planetary orbits, and so the machine soon
went out of synch with reality. It would be alater
generation of British craftsmen that would finally
perfect the model solar system.

(s
HALE-BOPP Known as
the Great Comet of
1997, this was visible for
arecord 18 months. It

Incited some degree of

panic and even amass
suicide among followers
of aUS cult called
Heaven's Gate.

‘ i
V

.jtr

GREAT COMETS
Every few decades, atruly brilliant comet appears in Earth's
skies, outshining the stars and perhaps even becoming visible in
daylight. This phenomenal apparition is known as aGreat Comet.

he exact definition of a“Great” comet is it is more likely to contain copious reserves

c a s e

highly subjective. The variations in size and of subsurface ice that will allow it to develop a
the difficulty of making aprecise spectacular coma and tail. This is the same ice that
measurement of acomet's overall brightness gets rapidly exhausted in acomet that has made
makes it hard to set an objective standard. Typical more than afew dozen orbits.

features of these celestial fireworks include abright

or large coma, along tail and aprolonged period
of visibility. Of the short-period comets that have
made many orbits around the Sun, only Halley’s
can approach this sort of brightness. Even then, it
w i
only do so if it comes close to Earth around the
time of its perihelion.
The kind of activity and brilliance associated
with aGreat Comet usually requires that it is arare
visitor to the inner solar system. It may have an
orbit that takes many tens of thousands of years to
complete, or it may have been recently disrupted
from its place in the distant Oort Cloud and
making its first close approach to the Sun. In either
G R E AT H I S TO R I C A L C O M E T S
Even long-period comets that are fresh and have
active surfaces are not guaranteed to rise to
greatness. Their appearance from Earth will also
depend on how close they come to us, and at what
stage in their orbit. Nevertheless, the appearance
of atruly Great Comet in Earth’s skies can be a
wondrous and daunting sight. These comets are
not only significant for their memorable
appearance, but because their arrival has often
been the trigger for great discoveries about the
nature of comets and the solar system.
Because of their brightness, great comets are
 CO
we can learn alot about them. For example,
Greek historian Ephorus famously recorded a
o
m
comet that split in two around 373bc. This was an
N a m e Perihelion date early observation of aphenomenon that was not 7 0
Magititucle
Great March Comet 27/2/1843 - 3 confirmed until the mid-19th century, when the CO
Donati*s Comet 30/9/1858 0 . 5 short-period Comet Biela split in two and then
1.0 CO
Great Southern Comet 14/1/1865 fragmented. Other famous early observations
Great September Comet 17/9/1882 - 3
include the comet of September ad178 whose tail
Great Comet of 1910 17/1/1910 1 . 0
21/10/1965 2 . 0
stretched across more than 70 degrees of the sky,
Ikeya-Seki
Bennett 20/3/1970 -1 and the comet seen over Rome at the time of Julius
W e s t 25/2/1976 -1 Caesar sfuneral. O
Hyakutake 1/5/1996 1 . 5 Comets continued to be recorded throughout
Hale-Bopp 1/4/1997 -0.7
the European Middle Ages. But it was only with U
McNaught 12/1/2007 - 6
the Renaissance and its accompanying revival in m
scientific reasoning that they were
i subjected to real scrutiny.
.We’ve already seen in
0
1 5 7 7 G R E AT C O M E T by far the most likely to have been seen A m G)
Issued in November of
that year, this medal
by historical observers. The earliest ^issue34howtheyoung 7 D

commemorated the visit verifiable report of acomet originates &

of what was also known
as Brahe's comet.
'0^ Danish astronomer
>
from China in 1059bc. But some i UglTychoBrahemeasured
the distance of the
researcherssuspectthatdescriptions| n

in various early epics and religious I O

texts are actually records of comets. ^
Some of these may help to explain
mankind’s longstanding awe and even
rGreat
Comet
1577.
of This proved that it lay
far beyond the Moon
and, therefore, that
CO

fear of them (see this issue’s Unexplained) the realm of the planets
Although alot of historically recorded was subject to change. Later
bright comets have actually proved to be returns astronomers became fascinated

of Halley’s Comet, there are more that have by the detailed features that the brightest comets
IKEYA-SEKI The Great not. Thanks to the meticulous observations of could display. Features like bizarrely shaped tails,
Comet of 1965 was seen
Chinese and Babylonian astronomers especially. jets and streamers within the coma, and strange
to break into three
pieces -each continuing
in almost identical orbits.

reat comets frequently the plane of the comet’s orbit.

G r e v e a l impressive features The brightness of great comets
that are hard to detect in their also makes it easier to analyse
fainter brethren. One example their light spectra and detect
is the striae (bands of dark chemical molecules within them.

and light) seen in the dust Studies of Comet Hyakutake, for

tails of Hale-Bopp and Comet example, showed considerable
West. One theory is that these amounts of the gases ethane
bands actually mark regions of and methane.

denser dust that have escaped These gases were completely

into ring-like orbits around the
comet while it was still far from
the Sun.
“Anti-tails” are another
occasional highlight ~spike¬
like features that point from
the coma towards the Sun.
I ANTI-TAIL Adistinct spike is visible
’ %
These are caused by sunlight
reflecting off scattered dust in
unexpected and have not been
seen in other major comets. This
suggests that Hyakutake may
have adifferent origin, within or
beyond our solar system.
on the Hale-Bopp comet as it speeds
away from the Sun.

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M O V TA U G H T T h e G r e a t
Comet of 2007 was
easily visible to the
naked eye for observers
in the southern
hemisphere in January
and February.
CO
O
>
CO
CO
U
H YA K U TA K E T h e G r e a t
.Comet of 1^96 made
one of the closest 0
com^ary approaches of
the pl-evious 200 years. G)
>
Bopp sbrightness and the “early warning” given o
by its discovery allowed astronomers to study it o
in great detail. That said, there was, of course,
no chance of sending aspace probe to such an
CO
unexpected visitor. Nevertheless, Earth-based
observers made plenty of discoveries, including
anew type of tail composed of sodium. Comet
Hale Bopp was seen and remembered by millions,
although it also inspired some tragic delusions (see
this issue’s Unexplained).
N E X T G R E AT C O M E T
The most recent “Great Comet”, Comet
McNaught, was different again from either
Hyakutake or Hale-Bopp. Discovered in late 2006,
it actually grew brighter than any other recent
visitors. Its orbit, however, put it close to the Sun
throughout its period of maximum brightness, so
that it was hard to track down in the evening or
morning twilight. Only as it retreated from the Sun
in early 2007 was it clearly visible to southern
hemisphere skywatchers as it moved eastward
across the evening sky. But even then, its total
period of naked-eye visibility was just afew weeks.
No one knows when the next Great Comet will
appear in Earth’s skies, or who might discover
it. But whether we have to wait afew months or
afew decades, the sight of amagnificent comet
streaking through the sky is, once again, sure to
unite humanity in awe and wonder.
NEXT: HOW DID THE PLANE iM?:TH| KTISSUE
LOOKS FOB I N
9
 riginally planned as a
Comet Nucleus Sample
Named after the Rosetta Stone, the key to Egyptian
Return mission, budget hieroglyphs, the European Space Agency's mission ■"4

demands saw ESA redesign Rosetta hopes to unlock secrets of the solar system's formation.
as an asteroid flyby, followed by a
comet rendezvous and landing.
Rosetta's mission is to study the
origin of cometary and interstellar
material with regard to the origin
of the solar system. The spacecraft
is based on a2,8m x2.1m x2m

box-type central structure on

which all sub-systems and scientific
equipment are mounted. Rosetta Stone, is attached to the
spacecraft side. On the opposite
side is the high-gain antenna.
On either side of the spacecraft The lander weighs just 100kg
body, two solar panels, with a and comprises acarbon fibre
combined area of 64m^ stretch out. plate, which is aplatform for the
^-The total span from tip to tip is science instruments, and ahood
32m. The lander, named Philae covered with solar cells for power
after the island in the Nile whose generation. After detaching itself
monuments helped translate the from the main spacecraft, the

CLEAN MACHINE

osetta was built in aclean

R room according to COSPAR

(Committee on Space Research)
rules -which aim to prevent any
lifeform on Earth from

contaminating acelestial body or,

in fact, space itself. That said,
sterilisation was not crucial in

this case, because, according to

Rosetta Project Scientist,
Gerhard Schwehm, comets are
not usually regarded as objects
on which you can find prebiotic
molecules. These are not living
microorganisms themselves but
have the potential to develop into
primitive life.

TESTING Rosetta
at ESA’s Compact
Test Range.
 M A R S F LY B Y A n a r t i s t
impression of Rosettf’s
gravitv assist at Mars

n27 February 2007, Rosetta was scheduled

0 to flyby Mars in order to use the gravity of
■t h e R e d P l a n e t t o m a k e a c o u r s e c o r r e c t i o n . I t

was arisky manoeuvre nicknamed “The Billion

Dollar Gamble”. Firstly, the flyby was close, a
mere 250km above the surface of the planet.
PD
Secondly because the spacecraft would be on the
far side of Mars, in its shadow for 15 minutes, o
C O
there would be no solar light and, therefore, a m

severe shortage of power.

So Rosetta was put into standby mode, flying >
on batteries that were not designed for the task,
without any means of communication.
Fortunately, all went welt and the mission was
able to continue as planned.

lander will fall towards the comet
and land on three legs.
The spacecraft was launched
f r o m ESA' slaunch
site in Kourou,
French Guiana. The 10-year journey
to its encounter with Comet 67P/
probe with sufficient orbital energy Immediately after touchdown, the
to reach its target. The long mission lander will fire two harpoons into the
duration will also require extended surface to prevent it escaping the
hibernation periods, where the craft comet's extremely weak gravity.
will be put into standby mode. Once attached to the surface,
In May 2014, Rosetta will enter Philae will begin its science mission,
transmitting the data back to
I Earth via the Rosetta orbiter. The

I : orbiter carries 11 instruments,

f: J-

such as cameras and radio science

Oavld Sottthwiiiifi, Oireclor of Science at iSII :
measuring tools. Philae carries a
further 10 instruments for surface
Rosetta ready to
lift off inside the Churyumov-Gerasimenko will take avery slow orbit around the comet measurements and analysis.
upper casing of the spacecraft past two asteroids and gradually slow for the lander
an Ariane 5G+
rocket at the
-Steins on 5September 2008 and separation. After falling from the
Guiana Space Lutetia on 10 July 2010. main spacecraft, Philae will approadi
Centre on 2 One Mars and three Earth gravity 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko at
March 2004. i assists are required to provide the arelative speed of about 1m/sec

PHILAE LANDER RADIO DISH The

An artist's DIANE Ground
impression of Station is located
the descent afew kilometres
onto comet from the launch
67P/Churyumov- pad in Kourou,
Gerasimenko. French Guiana.
 [1] RUNNING MAN
Captured by amateur
astronomer, Jint Misti
from his mountain-top
home^nArizona,this
image shows swirls o%
interstellar dust partly
obscuring the area of
intense starbirfh in
Orion's sword.

[2] CORONET Three

times closer than the
Orion nebula, the
Coronet contains a

#
loose cluster of afew*
dozen young stafs .
at various stages of
evolution. *

MULTIPLE STARS
These groupings straddle the
divide between binary stars
and larger clusters.

V any of the stars that emerge from a

star-forming nebula will remain locked
in orbit around each other for life, ▶
even as the cluster in which they are born #

disintegrates over time. Most are simple binaries,

but triplet stars and even more complex groupings
are not uncommon -in fact, lone stars like the Sun 1
are probably in the minority throughout our galaxy.
HD 98800, the subject of pages 14-15, is
aquadruple-star system in the TW Hydrae
association. It features dusty discs that may be a
birth pool for planets. Visible from Earth-bound
observatories, the four stars only revealed their
true nature when the Spitzer Space Telescope,
using an infrared spectrometer, turned its gaze [2] «
towards them.

12.
«
 %

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13] CHAMAELEON This [4] TRAPEZIUM Aswarm [5] ALBIREO Situated

sky area, captured on of newborn brown dwarf 380 light years away.
1April 1999, is host stars surrounds this towards the constellation
to acomplex of bright famous young quadruple of Cygnus, this bright
nebulae and hot stars at the heart of the Great double" star is really
in the constellation of Orion Nebula, 1500 light atriple as the brighter
Chamaeleon. years from Earth. yellow star is abinary.
[6] HD 98800 Based on data from NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope, this artist's concept shows aquadruple star system, approximately 10
million years old and 150 light-years away in the constellation Crater. Using Spitzer's infrared spectrometer, astronomers detected the
 >
o
m

O
>

- <

presence of two belts in the disc. Such discs are thought to give rise to planets. Moreover, instead of asmooth, continuous disc, the
telescope detected gaps that could indicate that planets have already begun to form, carving out lanes in the dust.
 s AR
VOLUTION
Once astronomers knew what powered the stars they could piece
together the lifecycle of stars like our own Sun, and even predict
how they will die.
S
tars last billions of years so it
is impossible to follow one
throughout its life.
Astronomers deduced stellar
evolution by studying stars of
different ages, rather like working
out the lifecycle of an oak by
examining trees at different stages of
their development. To work out
their evolution, astronomers first
had to sort the many types of stars
into some kind of categorisation.
FIRST CLASSIFICATIONS
During the 19th century, stars were
discovered in all sizes and colours,
but discerning apattern proved
difficult. An important breakthrough
was made by the team of female
astronomers at Harvard College
Observatory, in Massachusetts, USA
(see Issue 29, Story of Astronomy).
They developed aclassification
system based on astar’s luminosity
and spectrum. This information
gives astar’s surface temperature
and its chemical composition.
Antonia Maury (see Space
Stars) joined the team in 1889 as
assistant to observatory director
Edward Pickering. While studying
photographs of agroup of bright
stars, she noticed their spectra
were much more complex than
D E AT H O F
previously thought. To cope with
THE SUN
these differences, Maury developed
Artwork depicting
her own more complex classification the Sun, having
(see Breakthroughs). used up its
nuclear fuel.
Pickering, though, regarded her
transforming into
system as "too cumbersome” and aplanetary
after clashing with him, she felt nebula. Earth is in
compelled to leave. the foreground.
stripped of its
It fell to Danish-born astronomer
atmosphere.
Ejnar Hertzsprung (1873-1967)
S PA C E S TA R S
^ANTONIA MAURY (1866-1952]
Antonia
into Maury was born
adistinguished
scientific family that included
her grandfather and uncle,
the astronomers John and
Henry Draper. Although
highly educated, Harvard
Observatory employed her
mainly because she could be
paid less than aman. As well as
her classification system, she
studied spectroscopic binaries
-companion stars distinguished
by their spectra.
She left Harvard after
falling out with its director
but returned shortly before
his death and worked there
until retirement, publishing the
“Spectra of bright stars” in the ANTONIA MAURY
Harvard Annals of 1897 and
A n o u t s t a n d i n g a s t r o n o m e r,
winning many awards. underpaid for her innovative work. ■
m
INSIDE INFO
X

T H E S U N ’ S L I F E H I S TO RY
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♦
ftj

the brightest and hottest at the top RUSSELL With star’s core. Stars were kept in
and the dimmest and coolest at the the help of Ejnar equilibrium for billions of years by
Hertzsprung's
bottom: the red giants and white work, Henry the pressure of radiation forcing its
dwarfs were in separate regions. Norris Russell way out from within.
From this, Russell deduced that produced the In his book The Internal
Hertzsprung-
stars evolved from “M-type” giants Constitution of Stars (1924),
Russell Diagram.
that condensed into main sequence Eddington suggested that the
stars before collapsing into white outward pressure from nuclear
dwarfs. This fitted atheory, formed
I
jointly by German physicist I

Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-

1894) and Scottish physicist William
Thompson, that stars generate their much older than this. While gravity
heat as they condense under the might help warm astar in its early
V O N
force of gravity. stages, it could not keep it shining
H E L M H O LT Z
for billions of years. Apolymath,
POWER SOURCE The main power source, identified revered in the

But although it was possible for this in 1920 by astrophysicist Arthur late 19th century
as ascientist-
“gravitic contraction” to power astar Eddington (see last issue’s Story of sage, much like
for 20 or 30 million years of life, it Astronomy) turned out to be the Albert Einstein
soon became clear that stars were nuclear fusion of elements in the later on.

CCSOMEWHEREIN
THEGALAXY
THERE
ARESTARS-PERHAPSDOZENS
OF THEM -THAT ARE THE BROTHERS AND SISTERS OF THE SUN, FORMED
n
FROM THE SAME CLOOD COMPLEX SOME FlUE BILLION YEARS AGO.
Carl Sagan, astronomer and author

>^THESTELLARNURSERY
Starsformoutofregionsofgasand
dust called molecular clouds.

Formation may begin with acollision

I
between clouds, or acloud may pass
through the dense star-filled spiral arm
of agalaxy. Sometimes collisions
between galaxies start the process.
Whatever the trigger, the cloud grows
\
dense enough to contract under gravity,
breaking up into smaller regions. As
J i each region condenses it begins to spin,
forming aglowing ball called aprotostar.
When this reaches adensity and
temperature high enough to start
y-y
n u c l e a r f u s i o n , i t b e c o m e s a t r u e s t a r.

p-

4.
COSMIC CRADLE The gas pillars of
'm
the Eagle Nebula are dense clouds
of hydrogen and dust containing
embryonic stars.
 BREAKTHROUGHS
X
^ M A U R Y ’ S S TA F YSTEM m
c/)
he Harvard system grouped When Ejnar Hertzsprung
T stars into classes 0, B, A, F, combined Maury’s system
1

G, Kand M, based on absorption with his own data on stellar O

lines in their spectra, where
chemical elements in the star
absorbed certain wavelengths.
Antonia Maury revised
the system to include the
appearance of these spectral
lines, not just their presence
or absence. Normal lines were
“a”, sharp lines "b” and hazy
lines “c”. Those in between
were “ab” or “ac”.
luminosity, he realised “c-
type” and “ac-type” stars were -<
giants. Finding the link between
O
spectra, size and luminosity n
helped unravel stellar evolution.
>
( / )
SUPERGIANT Betelgeuse is one of I
the largest stars known. Its spectra!
type is class M, which is host to most
giants and some supergiants.
O

reactions in the core was in a
delicate balance with the inward
force of gravity, keeping each layer
within the star in “hydrostatic
equilibrium”.
Changes to the strength of the
star’s internal power source (when,
for example, its main supply of
hydrogen fuel begins to run low)
could change the balance and cause
the star to expand or contract.
Since the star’s changing surface
O
and their actual sizes. Similarly, the This “mass-luminosity S TA R C Y C L E T h e
relative masses of well-separated relationship” in fact proved vitally diagram below
binary stars could be worked out shows the stages
from the shape of their orbits.
important to working out the
power source of stars, and the true
of the life of a o
s t a r. T h e b o t t o m CO
path of stellar evolution. track shows the H
m
SIZE MATTERS There was, however, still one evolution of a r ”
star like our Sun.
By collating all the available crucial piece of the puzzle missing
-the details of how stars die. And The top track
information from previous studies shows amore
m
and interpreting it in the light of his while Eddington was working m a s s i v e s t a r,
<
“hydrostatic equilibrium” model, out the physics of “normal” stars, which undergoes O
ared supergiant
Eddington established that the others were developing bizarre d
stage and then
brightness of astar on the main models of strange “end states” -as a s u p e r n o v a

area and energy output affect the sequence depended on its mass. we shall see in the next issue. explosion. o
z
amount of heat escaping through
each region of the surface, these
fluctuations are accompanied by
hydrogen
changes in the surface temperature, burnt up
supernova

colour and spectral type of the star.

STELLAR INSTABILITY star burns

hydrogen
Radiation pressure, Eddington red supergiant
believed, also set an upper limit on
the mass of stars. Those with more
than 50 times the mass of the Sun

were inherently unstable, and even ■» ;

stars of 10 times the Sun’s mass i " -

protostar forms from

would be rare. gravitational contraction
of cloud of gas
Amid all this theory, there were
uuhite dwarf
two practical ways of measuring the
physical properties of stars. In rare
cases, one could find the relative
outer layers shed
sizes of apair of close binary stars exposing carbon-
rich core
if they happened to eclipse one
m
another, blocking out each other’s
light for periods that depended on ’ V, red giant

the speed of their motion in orbit.

star burns hydrogen
i

hydrogen burnt up

I .
-RIDANUS and
HOROLOGIUM
Acelestial river meanders its way southwards from the foot of Orion.
This is Eridanus, aconstellation known to the ancient Greeks. Near its '
southern end are two modern constellations. Horologium and Reticulum.
he brightest star in Eridanus is Ist-magnitude
Achernar, aname that comes from the Arabic
meaning “river’s end”, for that is where it is
located, deep in the southern sky.
In ancient Greek times, the river ended farther
north, at the star now labelled Theta (0) Eridani.
During the Age of Exploration, as European navigators
headed south and saw stars that had been below the
horizon from Greece, they extended Eridanus to the
present-day Achernar.
In northern Eridanus lies aremarkable multiple
star called Omicron-2 (o) Eridani or 40 Eridani. It is a
4th-magnitude orange star accompanied by both ahot
♦
.
white dwarf and acool red dwarf. The white dwarf, d
10th magnitude, is visible with asmall telescope and is
the most easily seen white dwarf in the sky.
D W A R F C O M PA N I O N S
This white dwarf forms abinary with asomewhat
fainter red dwarf. These contrasting dwarfs orbit each
other every 250 years. Just as exciting scientifically,
SPIRAL GALAXY although less interesting visually, is Epsilon (e) Eridani,
NGC1300 is an
a4th-magnitude orange star slightly fainter and cooler
almost face-on
than the Sun.
barred spiral
galaxy in Epsilon Eridani has aplanet only about 50 per cent
Eridanus. more massive than Jupiter, which orbits it every seven
years, and there may be others too small to detect. At
adistance of 10.5 light years, this would be the closest
planetary system to our own.
BARRED SPIRAL
Probably the best-known object in Eridanus is the
barred spiral galaxy NGC 1300. At 10th magnitude it is
unfortunately too faint to see well with amateur
telescopes. But CCD images reveal its classic shape,
with acentral bar of stars and acurving arm emerging
from each end.
Near the southern end of Eridanus are two relatively
insignificant constellations introduced in the 1750s by
INicholas Louis de Lacaille: Horologium, the pendulum
Iclock and Reticulum, representing the cross-hairs
iin Lacaille’s eyepiece, which helped him measure
istar positions. Reticulum contains an interesting pair
Iof 5th-magnitude stars similar to the Sun, Zeta (Q
iReticuli, that can be distinguished with binoculars.
I

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