Organisational Behaviour (OB)

Lecture 4: Learning and Learning Organisation

4.0 Introduction
At different stages of our life, we are called to occupy different roles. Such roles may require a
different set of skills and knowledge that one may not necessarily possess. Therefore, it becomes
essential to bridge the deficiency in the skills and knowledge. Indeed, any skills and knowledge
gap can be bridged through “learning”. Learning can be “defined as the permanent change in
behavior due to direct and indirect experience”. In other words, learning implies a change in
behavior, attitude due to education and training, practice and experience. Hence, it can de deduced
that learning occupies a significant place in our life; which enables us to cope with the roles that
we have to play now and in the future. It, thus, becomes important for managers to understand how
individuals learn since learning affects human behaviour in organisations. Moreover, an
individual’s ability to learn has an impact on his performance. It is generally accepted that learning
theories have influenced a range of organisational practices concerning:

 The induction of new recruits

 The design and delivery of job training
 How supervisors evaluate and provide feedback on employee performance?
 The design of forms of learning organisation

Warm Up Activity 1

Using your own examples, explain the term learning.

Warm Up Activity 2.
Consider your first day at work.
1. Did you have all the required skills to perform the job?
2. Did you have sufficient knowledge of the organisation?
3. Do you think that you have the right skills and knowledge to perform the job that you are
doing?
4. Will your existing skills and knowledge be sufficient to meet changes in the
telecommunication industry?

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4.1 Definition of Learning
Cole (1998) defines learning as:
“A process by which people acquire knowledge, understanding, skills and values, and apply them
to solve problems throughout their daily life. The learning process engages an individual’s
emotional as well as intellectual dimensions, and enables him or her to control, or adapt to the
environment. Whilst much individual learning is put into store, most learning leads to behaviour,
which can be recognised and assessed”.

To Bass and Vaughan (1967), learning “is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs
as a result of practice or experience”

Wood (1998) describes learning as a “relatively permanent change in a person as a result of

experience.”

Sørensen (2009) relates learning “to the growth in knowledge” while Ranganayakulu (2005)
considers learning “as the acquisition of knowledge, skills and expertise”.

Reflect on the key attributes of the above definitions.

4.2. Characteristics of Learning

 Learning always involves some kind of experience – It is natural and normal process.
These experiences maybe derived from inside the body or they may be sensory, arising
outside. A change in behaviour demonstrates that learning has taken place.
 The behavioural changes that take place due to learning are relatively permanent.
However, some behaviours may change temporarily depending on external factors. For
example, when someone is under medication his behaviour may change temporarily.
 Learning cannot be observed directly. We can only observe a person's behaviour and
draw the inference from it that learning has taken place.
 Learning is both a personal and a social process.
 Learning is a formal, deliberate process (acquired from lectures, courses, etc).

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4.2.1 Learning Theories
Learning theories explain the process by which we acquire patterns of behaviour. These theories
have been classified as follows:

1. Classical conditioning theory (Thornedike, 1911; Pavlov, 1927).

2. Operant conditioning theory (Skinner, 1969).
3. Cognitive theories (Rogers, 1979)
4. Social learning theories (Bandura, 1977)

4.2.1.1 Classical conditioning theory (Stimulus Response Bond)

According to Reddy (2004:19), classical conditioning is passive (something happens and we react
to it). Learning is elicited in response to a specific, identifiable event and it explains simple
reflexive behaviour.

Figure 1: Classical Conditioning Theory

Source: Mullins (2016:157)

For instance, a pilot learning how to use a newly installed warning system. In this case, the
behavior to be learned is to respond to a warning light that indicates that the plane has dropped

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below a critical altitude on an assigned glide path. The proper response is to increase the plane’s
altitude (Rice University, 2020). According to Mullins (2016:157), the strength of the S–R link is
dependent upon the extent to which the experience is pleasurable. Behaviour that results in a
favourable outcome is more likely to be repeated. For example, people are trained (simulation
exercise) on the measures that they take under specific conditions. However, although classical
conditioning has proved to be useful in the area of training and development, it has also been
criticised for explaining only a limited part of total human learning. Furthermore, Skinner (1969)
argues that classical conditioning focuses on respondent, or reflexive, behaviors; that is, it
concentrates on explaining largely involuntary responses that result from stimuli.

4.2.1.1 Operant conditioning theory (Change in Behaviour based on the consequences)

Based on the work of Skinner, operant conditioning theory posits that behaviour is a function of
its consequences (Reddy 2004:19). It argues that people learn to behave to get something they
want or to avoid something they do not want (Robbins, Judge, Millett & Boyle, 2014:179).
Robbins et al. (2014:179) further note that operant behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement1or
lack of reinforcement brought about by its consequences. In contrast to reflexive behaviour,
operant behaviour means voluntary or learned behaviour. It can, thus, be concluded that a desirable
stimulus reinforces the behavior, making it more likely that the behavior will reoccur. According
to Mullins (2016: 158), the technique of shaping (modifying and controlling behaviour) and the
identification of the Stimulus-Response (S–R) bond can be applied to work situations. For
example, the use of rewards to bonuses, commission, prizes for reaching sales targets and
‘employee of the month’ awards to purposely modify and control behaviour. Hence, rewards are
considered more effective if they immediately follow the desired response while behaviour that is
not rewarded, or is punished, is less likely to be repeated.

4.2.1.2 Cognitive theories (Use of mind)

According to Mullins (2016:159), more advanced levels of learning require more active brain
processes. The cognitive theories of learning describe learning as a complex process involving
such skills as mental mapping, use of intuition and imagination, and problem-solving instead of
just applying rules (Cole, 1995:8). Such learning involves individual perceptions, attitude,

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Satisfaction
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personality and motivation that play their part in helping or hindering the learning process.
According to the cognitive learning theories, learning consists of (i) “making sense of” issues and
situations, (ii) developing insight and understanding and (iii) seeing patterns in the environment
(Cole, 1995:8). Individual’s behaviour is based on the interpretation they give to the concepts.

4.2.1.3 Social learning theories

According to Mullins (2016:158), supporters of the behavioural school appear to have neglected
the influence of broader social interactions. Pioneered by Bandura (1977), the social learning
theories focus on the importance of environmental influences on observable behaviour. According
to Bandura (1977), social learning theory is defined as the process of moulding behavior through
the reciprocal interaction of a person’s cognitions, behavior, and environment. To Mullins
(2016:159), social learning theory is based on the premise that people learn by observing and
interacting with others and through imitation. For example, a trainee watching a supervisor deal
with a customer complaint would need to attend to the customer’s emotions, note the reaction of
the supervisor and learn how the ‘lessons’ of this interaction could be applied to another situation
(Mullins, 2016:159). According Robbins, Judge, Millett and Boyle (2014:181), social-learning
theory comprises of two main elements:

1. Operant conditioning- that is behaviour is a function of consequences;

2. The effects of observational learning and perception.

People respond to the way they perceive and define consequences, not to the objective
consequences themselves. Social learning is very much influenced by the models from which one
learns. Robbins et al. (2014:181) propose the following four processes to determine the influence
that a model will have on an individual.

1. Attentional processes. People learn from a model only when they recognise and pay
attention to its critical features. We tend to be most influenced by models that are attractive,
repeatedly available, important to us or similar to us in our estimation.

2. Retention processes. A model's influence depends on how well the individual remembers
the model's action after the model is no longer readily available.

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 3. Motor reproduction processes. After a person has seen a new behaviour by observing the
model, watching must be converted to doing. This process demonstrates that the individual
can perform the modelled activities.

4. Reinforcement processes. Individuals are motivated to exhibit the modelled behaviour if

positive incentives or rewards are provided. Behaviours that are positively reinforced are
given more attention, learned better and performed more often.

4.3 Approaches to learning

Based on the behaviourist psychology and cognitive psychology, learning approaches can be
categorised in two namely the behaviourist and cognitive. These theoretical perspectives can be
viewed as complementary, although they are in many ways contradictory. Thus, they have very
different implications for organisation and management practice.

4.3.1 The Behaviourist Approach

Being the oldest theory of learning, the behaviourist or stimulus response approach is based on the
view that learning takes place in response to changing stimuli in the competitive environment.
Behaviourist psychologists analyses the association between stimulus and response and consider
learning as a result of experience. The Classical conditioning theory (par 4.2.1.1) and the Operant
conditioning theory (par 4.2.1.2) are the main theories that have been developed under this school
of thought to explain learning. In this approach, knowledge of the results of past behaviour is used
to change, modify and improve our behaviour in future. For example, at the workplace, employees
learn through feedback (past experience). Thus when a particular behaviour is rewarded, it is more
likely to be repeated.

4.3.2 The Cognitive Approach

Although feedback (information on past performance) can be used to modify or maintain previous
behaviours, it is also equally important to understand how the information is perceived, interpreted,
given meaning and used in decisions about future behaviours. In short, the feedback has to
processed and interpreted. Thus, cognitive learning theories are also called information-processing
theories.

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According to Hilgard and Bower (1967) learning is most effective when a cognitive approach is
adopted, especially where:

 Learners see relationships between all the elements in a situation; it starts from related
elements and builds into a more complex whole;
 Learning involves understanding rather than rote learning;
 Learning tests assumptions;
 There are clear goals to learning so that the process is not erratic;
 Both convergent and divergent thinking are encouraged so that radical, logical as well as
creative and inventive answers are achieved.

Table 1: A comparison between Behaviourist and Cognitive Perspective on Learning

Behaviourist (Stimulus-response) Cognitive (Information Processing)
Studies observable behaviours only. Studies the mental processes also.
Behaviour is determined by learned Behaviour is determined by memory, mental
consequences processes and expectations
Habits are learned. Cognitive structures and alternative ways to
achieve our goals are learned.
Problem solving occurs by trial and error. Problem solving also involves insight and
understanding.
May be dull and boring. Considered as being rich and interesting.
Source: http://www.arunk.com/pdf/study%20material/Unit-6.pdf, Date Accessed: 28.04.2020

4.4. Organisational Learning

Existing literature provides several definitions of organisational learning but a clear definition of
the term remains elusive (West & West, 2001:32). According to Garvin (1993), most theorists
seem to view organisational learning as a process that unfolds over time and link it with knowledge
and improved performance. Table 2 below provides the key issues in the definitions of
organisational learning.

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Table 2: Key Issues-Definitions of Organisational Learning

Author’s Name Key Issue for organisational learning

Argyris (1957,1977,1995)
Stata (1989)
Huber (1991)
Burgoyne (1992,1995)
Garvin (1993)
Fiol and Lyles (1985)
Garrat (1987, 1990)
Source: Adapted from West and West (2001:33)
Detecting errors
Everyone accepts change, shared insights, mental models, behaviour
change
Behaviour change through information processing.
Organisational transformation linked to the development of people.
Organisation creates, acquires and transfers knowledge, people
modify behaviour to reflect new insights.
Improving actions through better knowledge and understanding.
People learn naturally but the organisation should develop systems
to ensure it becomes effective and transformative.

What conclusion can you draw from Table 2 on the “Organisational Learning” concept?

4.4.1 Conditions for sustained Organisational Learning

Garatt (1995) indicates the following four key conditions necessary for sustained organisational
learning:

1. People are naturally learning while working, but they need help to learn both regularly and
rigorously from their work.
2. Such learning needs both robust organisational systems and positive organisational climate
to move to learning to where it is needed.
3. Learning is valued by the organisation in achieving its objectives.
4. The organisation is so designed as to be able to transform itself continuously through its
learning to the benefit of its stakeholders.

Therefore, it can be concluded that (i) individual learning is dependent on the learning
arrangements and facilities that exist within the organisation; (ii) learning arrangement is a crucial
element of both individual and organisational learning and in facilitating knowledge management
within the business.

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4.4.2 Types of Organisational Learning
There are two different types of organisational learning 2 namely the single-loop learning and the
double- loop learning.

4.4.2.1 Single-loop learning

According Argyris (1991), single-loop learning is defined as “learning that correct errors by
changing routine behaviours”. Considered as being incremental and adaptive, single-loop learning
implies the correction of errors by following the rules and operating norms. It involves enabling
people to develop knowledge and skills appropriate to and defined by present circumstances
(Mumford & Gold, 2004:96). Single-loop learning is very similar to Senge’s concept of adaptive
learning which centres on evolutionary changes in response to developments in the business
environment and which are necessary for survival of an organisation (Boolaky & Gokhool,
2015:94).

4.4.2.2 Double-loop Learning

On the other hand, double-loop learning corrects errors by examining the underlying values and
policies of the organisation (Mumford & Gold, 2004:96). In other words, it is error correction by
changing and critically questioning the rules and operating norms. It involves (i) redefining the
nature of problem faced by an individual or organisation and (ii) learning how to cope with the
new transformed understanding.

Double-loop learning is shown to be more suitable for operating in the ever changing environment
since it involves (i) questioning whether the norm is appropriate and (ii) justifying whether this is
the best means of doing things (Kantamara & Ractham, 2014:56). Moreover, it produces new
knowledge and innovation related to continuous improvement. Double-loop learning, also, has the
ability to develop new organizational knowledge which is consequently integrated into learning
organization model. This explains the possible positive relationship between organizational
learning and performance (Mabey & Salaman, 1995).

2 Process of detecting and correcting errors in organisations

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Double-loop learning also provides a general framework that allows individuals to make the
difference between “their perceptions or intentions and reality”. In other words, it allows the
examination of the individual’s values, beliefs and assumptions in the light of the results of his
action strategies. Methods of facilitating double-loop learning include feedback3 and reflection
which compare espoused beliefs and explanations with actual results.

4.4.3 Management Learning

Management education covers a broad range of philosophies, techniques, and tools concerned with
enhancing managers’ skills to run their organisations more effectively and efficiently. It generally
focuses on specific skills (e.g., negotiation, budgeting, technical), general abilities (e.g.,
communication, planning, organising, controlling), or personal development (e.g., leadership,
handling stress, time management) (Boolaky & Gokhool, 2015:86).

As stated at par (4.4.2.2), feedback and reflective thinking are management development
techniques that attempt to harness social learning in the workplace. Theories of adult learning (e.g.,
Rogers) that emphasise the importance of building upon or reinforcing the learner's experience
are also quite relevant to management education (Boolaky & Gokhool, 2015:86). According to
Travers, Rule, Syed and Lawlor (2017:24), one of the main adult learning principles is that
“learners are more likely to retain and be able to apply learning where they have had the
opportunity to both reflect upon it and practice it”. The Kolb’s learning cycle (see Figure 2-
Experiential Learning) is another approach that is frequently used in the management literature.

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Such learning takes place primarily through interaction with others.
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 Figure 2: Kolb’s learning cycle A new experience of situation is
encountered, or a reinterpretation of
existing experience.
Trying out what
you have learned Reviewing and reflecting
and assess results on the experience

Reflection gives rise to a new

idea, or a modification of an
existing abstract concept.

Source: Mullins (2013:160)

According to Kolb’s theory, effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle
of four stages namely experiencing, reflecting, conceptualising and experimenting.

According to Mullins (2013:160), Kolb’s theory provides useful insights into the nature of
learning, i.e.:

 It demonstrates that there is no end to learning but only another turn of the cycle.
 Learners are not passive recipients but need actively to explore and test the environment.
 It identifies the importance of reflection and internalisation.
 It is a useful way of identifying problems in the learning process.

Action Learning
According to Mullins (2013:160), the four stages of Kolb’s learning are the essence of action
learning which engages in individuals habits compatible with the notion of lifelong learning. Kolb
addresses his ideas to managers and suggests that experiential learning will enable managers to
cope with change and complexity (Mullins, 2013:160). The theoretical framework of action
learning has been widely applied to management education.

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Action learning is based principally on structured projects in organisations rather than the kind of
instruction received in the classrooms or lecture halls. Action learning, typically, involves a small
group of learners (action learning set) meeting regularly to undertake a practical, organisational-
based project. It is based on real work issues and designed to help develop both the manager and
the organisation. Action learning involves participants working together to find solutions to actual
problems and reflecting on their experiences (Mullins, 2013:160).

According to Boolaky & Gokhool (2015:86), the key elements of action learning are:

 Commitment to learning (not much can be achieved without commitment and involvement)
 Social interaction (social interaction is important to acquire experience and develop
interpersonal skills)
 Action plans (to put into practice what has been learned)
 Assessing the results of actions (particularly to get feedback on how things are going and
what must be changed etc)

Since adult learners are different from childhood learners (Robbins, 2009:56), it becomes essential
to understand how adults learn (learning styles) in order to make learning effective. The next
section presents the different styles.

4.4.4 Learning Styles

4.4.4.1 Kolb et al (1979)

Learning styles serves as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with and
responds to the environment. Insights on adults’ learning styles help in the design of training and
development programmes. Kolb et al (1979) identified four learning styles or preferences (refer to
table 3). They are (i) accommodators, (ii) divergers, (iii) assimilators and convergers.

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 Type of people who prefer
learning by feeling
Figure 3: Kolb’s Learning Styles

Feeling & Watching

Type of people who prefer
learning by doing AE/CE CE/RO

Type of people who prefer

Doing & Feeling learning by watching
&Watching

Thinking &
Doing Watching &
AC/AE AC/RO Thinking

Type of people who prefer

learning by thinking

Source: Adapted from https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&tbm=isch&source, Date Accessed:

01.05.20

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Table 3: Kolb’s learning styles
Learning styles Description

Divergers They are individuals who prefer to make use of their imagination to see things
under different perspectives. They take time to generate ideas and puzzle
things out. They are people who would not accept the first feasible solution
to a problem. Rather, they would try to understand the problem further and
they have the patience to generate and examine alternative solutions and
hence improve their knowledge in the process. Kolb called this style
'diverging' because these people perform better in situations that require
ideas-generation, for example, brainstorming. According to Kim (2013:58),
divergers learn best from lectures, readings, research observation.
Assimilators They are people who like to think and conceptualise. They are motivated to
develop theoretical models and excel in inductive reasoning. They develop
experience and knowledge as they indulge in such activities. People with this
style are more attracted to logically sound theories than approaches based
on practical value
Convergers The convergers are people who lie between abstract conceptualising and
active experimentation. Their greatest strengths lie in putting ideas into
practice. They prefer deductive reasoning and find motivation in testing ideas
that have been put into practice.
Accommodators They represent individuals who have strong preferences for concrete
experiences and active experimentation. These people prefer an action-
oriented approach to learning. They would not fit well in circumstances
where spoon feeding, etc is involved. According to Kim (2013:58),
accommodators learn best from new experience, games, discussions and
interactions.
Source: Boolaky & Gokhool (2015:88)

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 4.4.4.2 Honey & Mumford (1982)
Honey and Mumford (1982) applied a simplified version of Kolb’s questionnaire to identify
learning styles. They also identify four learning styles and associated patterns of behaviour namely
(i) Activists, (ii) Reflectors, (iii) Theorists and (iv) Pragmatists

Figure 4: Honey & Mumford (1982) Learning Styles

People learn better through their experience
Some people prefer to take
information, plan for the
future and ask “what if”

People learn better by reflecting

People developing their own ideas about

how the world works and prefer
theoretical impact
Source: Adapted from Morgan (2016:96)

Table 4: Honey & Mumford (1982) learning styles

Learning styles Description

Activists These persons learn through activity and challenge. They are open- minded and
involved themselves fully in new experiences. They are noted for their caution.
They are weaker in implementation or anything that requires sustained effort.
They are highly sociable and like to be the centre of attention.
Reflectors These persons are the thoughtful, cautious types who tend to have a low profile
in the organisation. They prefer to watch others rather than take an active role
themselves. They would add their own points only when the drift of the discussion
is clear.
Theorists They approach problems logically, step by step, and adapt and integrate their
observations into complex but coherent theories. They like to know the
underpinning theories before putting them into practice. They are dedicated to
rational objectivity and they are comfortable with things that fit into theoretical
framework.
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 Pragmatists These are action-oriented persons who like putting ideas into practice. They
succeed on new ideas, provided they can put them into practice and they are
confident about trying to apply new ideas. They are sure that there is always a
better way to do anything.

According to Landy and Conte (2010:323), individual differences in learning styles are important
to consider in advance of training since it allows the customisation of training to meet trainee
learning preferences.

4.5 Effective Learning

Learning is effective if it results in the performance of observationally learned responses.
According to Boolaky and Gokhool (2015:91), the following factors are key in making learning
effective:

 Relevance, Motivation and Interest (be interested and motivated, restrict to what is
relevant)
 Learning Objectives and Content (define the purpose of learning, what outcome is
expected)
 Guidance And Support (particularly to clear obstacles and frustration)
 Methods And Techniques (how to learn, which methodology)
 Involvement (commitment and involvement very important for obtaining results, you must
spare time)
 Feedback, Reinforcement and Satisfaction (important to follow up to see what is working
and what is not with a view to further up what is being learned)

Reinforcement is a powerful tool to facilitate learning. Hiriyappa (2010:10) defines reinforcement

as “anything that both increases the strenght of response and tends to induce repetitions of
behaviour which predicted the reinforcement”. The following paragraphs explain the role of
reinforcement in the learning process.

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4.6 Role of reinforcement in the learning process
Gilston (2020) define reinforcements as “stimuli that can strengthen or weaken specific behaviors”
while Boulding and Khalil (2002:56) define reinforcement as “the process that enhances the
likelihood of recurrence of a response”. Since reinforcement drives behaviour (O'Heare, 2004:10),
it is considered as a powerful tool in facilitating learning (Boolaky & Gokhool, 2015:91). The
reinforcement comes in the form of feedback to the learner. Feedback involves providing learners
with information about their responses. This information is necessary to correct mistakes and
develop new plans. On the other hand, reinforcement affects the tendency to make a specific
response again. In other words, feedback are meant to increase the likelihood that a desired
response will be repeated. Likewise, feedback can be used to minimise or eliminate certain
behaviour in the work place.

According to Schermerhorn (2010:373), four strategies of reinforcement can be used to

systematically reinforce desirable work behaviour and discourage undesirable work behaviour.
They are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction and punishment.

Reinforcement Strategies Description

Positive reinforcement Strengthens behaviour by making a desirable consequence

contingent on its occurrence.
Negative reinforcement Strengthens behaviour by making the avoidance of an undesiable
consequence contingent on its consequences.
Extinction Discourages behaviour by making the removal of a desirable
consequence contingent on its occurrence.
Punishment Discourages behaviour by making an unpleasant consequence
contingent on its occurrence.
Source: Schermerhorn (2010:373)

4.6.1 Reinforcement Schedule

Reinforcement can be scheduled at different intervals and times (Boolaky & Gokhool, 2015:92).
Klein (2008:140) classifies the reinforcement schedules into two namely fixed and variable
schedules. Schedules of reinforcement may be on the basis of:

1. Fixed Interval give reinforcer after specific time passes.

2. Fixed Ratio give reinforcer after specific number of responses.

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 3. Variable Interval give reinforcer at random times.
4. Variable Ratio give reinforcer after a random number of responses.

4.7 Types of Learning

The types of activity through which someone learns affects learning (Boolaky & Gokhool,
2015:92). According to Potter, Perry, Stockert and Hall (2017:338), learning occurs in three
domains namely cognitive (understand), affective (attitude) and psychomotor (motor skills).

1. Cognitive Learning: Cognitive learning requires thinking and encompasses both the
acquisition of knowledge and intelectual skills. It involves problem solving and decision-
making. Methods that are appropriate for cognitive learning include: Discussion, lectures
(help to acquire new knowledge), question and answers, Role Play (promote synthesis of
information and problem solving) and independent projects.

2. Affective Learning: Affective learning deals with expression of feelings and development
of values, attitudes and belief. Methods that are appropriate for affective learning include
role play ( allows expression of values, feelings and attitudes) and discussions.

3. Psychomotor Learning: Psychomotor learning involves acquiring skills that require both
coordination and the integration of mental and physical movements. Methods that are
appropriate for psychomotor learning include demonstration, practice, independent project,
games (that permits the learner to use new skills)

4.7 The Learning Organisation

The term learning organisation is not new- its origin can be traced back to the late 1970. However,
over the years, it has gained a lot of importance. Today, managers are increasingly aware that
sustained competitive advantage of their businesses can only be achieved by developing the
learning capacity of everyone within the organisation. Daft and Marcic (2008:26) define a learning
organisation as one “in which everyone is engaged in identifying and solving problems, enabling
the organisation to continuously experiment, change and improve, thus increasing its capacity to
grow, learn and achieve its purpose”. Pedler et al. (1998), describe a learning organisation as an
“organisation that facilitates the learning of all of its members and continuously transforms itself”.

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In a similar vein, Mullins (2016:620) defines learning organisation as one “that encourages and
facilitates the learning and development of people at all levels of the organisation, values the
learning and simultaneously transforms itself”. Furthermore, Bainbridge (2000:12) consider that
learning organisations “are in a constant process of organising, balancing the tendencies of
bureaucracies, allowing irregularities and innovation, then institutionalising then in regular
procedures.” Learning organisation tend to achieve continuous improvement which result in core
competences and potential competitive advantage.

Wood et al, (1998:224) consider the following factors essential in the creation of a learning
organisation:

1. Build a shared vision- Shared Vision involves creating shared “pictures of the future” that
foster genuine commitment and enrolment in all the stakeholders of an organisation rather
than mere compliance (Ghuman, 2010:608)
2. Develop strategies and action plans which will inspire commitment to achieve goals;
3. Consult continuously to achieve consensus and unity of thought;
4. Employ systems thinking to ensure the organisation focuses on internal and external
factors that are driving change. Systems thinking is generally oriented towards long term
and addressed the whole rather than focusing on parts;
5. Create self-directed teams of employees that are supported to make decisions at
appropriate level. When people learn together and act together, there are not only good
results but people also grow more rapidly that thy would have done otherwise (Ghuman,
2010:608)

A learning organisation creates an organisational context that both nurtures new knowledge and
exploits its existing knowledge assets. According to Rebelo and Gomes (2008), learning represents
an important source of competitive advantage as it keeps the organisation prepared for the future.
This explains why organisations are increasingly placing a lot of importance on the management
of knowledge (Soliman, 2015:255). Wilde (2011:19) identifies knowledge as a factor of
production which need to be managed. Knowledge which represents the information acquired
through the learning process (Donsbach, 2015:319) is being kept in databases and is used to
support decision making in multiple task and multiple user environments. Indeed, the

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competitiveness and sustainability of the organisation is determined by the extent to which it can
utilise the information in the most effective and efficient way that develop superior knowledge.

Explain the difference between information and knowledge.

4.8 Knowledge Management (KM)

According to Levinson (2008), KM is the “process through which organisations generate value
from their intellectual and knowledge-based assets. Most often, generating value from such assets
involves codifying what employees, partners and customers know, and sharing that information
among employees, departments and even with other companies in an effort to devise best
practices.” Davenport (1994) defines KM as the “process of capturing, distributing and effectively
using knowledge” while Garvin (1994) consider KM as “the creation, acquisition and transfer of
knowledge and modification of organisational behaviour to reflect new knowledge and insights”

Identify the key attributes of KM from the above definitions.

Explain the importance of KM to organisations. (Using appropriate examples)

According Guhl (1999:18) KM comprises of the following dimensions:

1. Content: Data, Information and knowledge, whether explicit or tacit, shared or individual,
recorded or not
2. Culture: Comprises the set of initiatives promoting a knowledge-sharing culture designed
to ensure that organisations are effective and efficient in using these intangible assets.
3. Infrastructure: Set of management processes designed to ensure that people, processes
and technologies are working together to deliver value

4.9. The Learning Context and Learning Culture

Stonehouse and Pemberton (1999) consider that three elements are important for an organisation
to continuously increase the effectiveness and the efficiency of its learning and knowledge
management processes and systems. These are organisational culture, structure, and
infrastructure. It is also important that in developing conditions that foster individual and
organisational learning, organisation “learn about learning”.

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4.9.1 Learning Culture
At the organisational level, culture implies the organisational values and norms with the focus on
assumptions and beliefs. Moorhead and Griffin (1998) define organisational culture as “a set of
values, often taken for granted, that help people in an organisation understand, that help people
in an organisation understand which actions are considered acceptable and which are considered
unacceptable”. Kummerow and Kirby (2013:5) summarise the following key characteristics of the
organisational culture:

 It is developed over time

 It is based on practical experience in adapting to the environment
 It is shared by the members of an organisation
 It influences how the members think and feel

According to Boolaky and Gokhool (2015:97), “the culture existing within the learning
organisation places great emphasis on learning and knowledge, creating an atmosphere of trust
within which individuals feel empowered to experiment with new approaches to business, often
resulting in the development of new core competences.”

4.10. Structuring for Learning and Knowledge Management

In formalising learning in an organisation, it is important that (i) the organisational vision is
communicated to all stakeholders, (ii) management’s commitment towards learning is visible
throughout the organisation (iii) a philosophy of continuous improvement based on sharing ideas,
trust, experimentation and external vision is encouraged.

Moreover, the creation of an organisational learning context depends on the organisational culture,
structure, and infrastructure. The organisational culture (values, attitude and belief) demonstrate
the extent to which a consensus has developed among organisation members about the value of
learning and use of new learning for creative purposes in the pursuit of organisational goals and
objectives (Neeta, 2017:104). According to Watkins and Marsick (1993), the organisational
culture supports the acquisition of information, the distribution and the sharing of learning and
recognises the application of learning as being critical for successful learning organisations.

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According to Chen et al. (2010), organisation structure shows the extent to which organisations
approve decision making power, standardise the rules and regulations and integrate members to
establish their organisation. In other words, it determines the tasks, relation paths and work
practices of employees. Extant literature widely accept that flatter organisational structures with
reduced cross-function boundaries is more appropriate for a learning culture (Hopper, 1990). For
example, hierarchical and bureaucratic organisational structures, which depend on rules and
procedures, act as barriers to the development and transfer of knowledge by discouraging initiative,
risk taking and innovation. Furthermore, a matrix structure is considered as the appropriate
structure in ensuring that specialist knowledge from related areas is fully integrated. This structure
also facilitates the development and sharing of knowledge across various functional groupings.
Networking (in the form of collaborative actions with other firms) may further increase the
propensity to develop and share new knowledge.

Infrastructure consists of formal and informal communication platforms (Neeta, 2017:104). These
platforms include Information and Communication Technology (ICT) which the potential of
increasing individual’s and organisational learning. Indeed, the media and channels of
communication that assist in the creation, storage, sharing and transfer of knowledge are an
integral part of building the learning organisation (Boolaky & Gokhool, 2015:100).

Conclusion
It can, therefore, concluded that for effective learning to take place, it is important that management
is aware of the way people learn and acquire knowledge. Moreover, the workplace should be a
place of continual learning if the organisation is to survive and succeed in the competitive market
place.

To recap the main aspects of Units (1-3), we can say that for an individual to fit in a job, he must
(i) have the right biographical details (age and educational level), (ii) have the ability, (iii) have
the right personality, (iv) have a positive attitude, (v) be willing to learn (vi) be motivated.

In the next Unit, the concept of motivation, its nature and importance in relation to human attitudes,
behaviours and performance will be addressed.

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