Ad Hoc Wireless Media Access Protocols

Lecture (7-8)

Chandra Prakash
Assistant Professor
LPU

1 Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab

 Introduction
 Introduction
 Problems in Ad Hoc Channel Access: Issues and need
 Classifications of Multicast Routing
 Protocols Synchronous
 Asynchronous MAC Protocols
 Receiver Sender initiated MAC Protocols
 Various ADHOC MAC protocols

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 Introduction
 Ad hoc network does not rely on a pre-existing infrastructure,
such as routers in wired networks or access points in managed
(infrastructure) wireless networks.
 In Ad-Hoc network Wireless media can be shared and any nodes
can transmit at any point in time. This could result in possible
contention over the common channel.
 Each node participates in routing by forwarding data for other nodes,
and so the determination of which nodes forward data is made
dynamically based on the network connectivity.
 Ad-hoc mobile device can be highly mobile, powerful and
heterogeneous.
 Routing protocol in ad hoc networks need to deal with the
mobility of nodes and constraints in power and bandwidth.
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Wireless LAN configuration

A B C

Laptops

radio obstruction
Wireless
D LAN
Palmtop E

Server Base station/

access point

LAN

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 When do we need MAC?

 2 types of links:
 Point-to-point.
 Shared.
 If more than 1 node transmits at the same time:
 Collision at receiver!
 MAC protocol:
 Arbitrate access to medium.
 Determine who can transmit when.

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 Expanded Data Link Layer
 Sublayers of data link layer:
 Logical Link Control (LLC): flow and error control.
 Multiple Access Control (MAC): multiple access resolution.

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 Media Access Protocols

MAC protocol is a set of rules or procedures to allow the

efficient use of a shared medium, such as wireless.
 Node: any host that is trying to access the medium.
 Sender: is a node that is attempting to transmit over the
medium.
 Receiver: is a node that is the recipient of the current
transmission.
The MAC protocol is concerned with per-link
communications, not end-to-end. While Routing
Protocol deal with end-to-end communication.
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 Types of MAC
Channel Access Policy
 Random access (or contention-based)
 No scheduled time for transmissions.
 No order for transmissions.

 Controlled access
 Stations coordinate access to channel.
 Station only transmits when it has right to send.

 Channelization
 Bandwidth of channel is statically partitioned.

8 Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab

 Problems in Ad Hoc Channel
Access- Issues and need
 Distributed operation
 fully distributed involving minimum control overhead
 Synchronization
 Mandatory for TDMA-based systems
 Hidden terminals
 Can significantly reduce the throughput of a MAC protocol
 Exposed terminals
 To improve the efficiency of the MAC protocol, the exposed nodes
should be allowed to transmit in a controlled fashion without
causing collision to the on-going data transfer
 Access delay
9 Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab
 Hidden Terminal Problem

A B C

 A and C cannot hear each other.

 A sends to B, C cannot receive A.
 C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium.
 Collision occurs at B.
 A cannot receive the collision.
 A is “hidden” for C.

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 Exposed Terminal Problem

 A starts sending to B.
 C senses carrier, finds medium in
use and has to wait for A->B to
end.
 D is outside the range of A, B
A
therefore waiting is not necessary. D
C
 A and C are “exposed” terminals

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 MAC protocol categories
 Based on operation :
 Synchronous protocols: All nodes need to be synchronized.
Global time synchronization is difficult to achieve.
 Asynchronous protocols: These protocols use relative time
information for effecting reservations.

 Based on who initiates a communication request.

 Receiver-initiated protocols
 Sender-initiated protocols

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 Types of protocol
1. Synchronous MAC Protocols
 In synchronous MAC protocols, all nodes in the network are
synchronized to the same time.
 Achieved by a timer master broadcasting a regular beacon.
 All nodes listen for this beacon and synchronize their clocks to the master's
time.
 Central coordination is, needed to synchronize time events.

2. Asynchronous MAC Protocols

 Nodes do not necessarily follow the same time.
 A more distributed control mechanism is used to coordinate
channel access
 Access to the channel tends to be contention-based.
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 Contention-Based Protocols

 A nodes does not make any resource reservation a priori.

 Whenever it receive a packet to be transmitted, it contends
with its neighbor nodes for access to the shared channel.
 Nods are not guaranteed periodic access to the channel
 Thus can’t provide QoS guarantees to sessions .
 E.g. :
 pure ALOHA, slotted ALOHA, CSMA, IEEE 802.11, etc
 The "listen before talk" operating procedure in IEEE 802.11 is the
most well known contention-based protocol.

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 Problems in Ad Hoc Channel Access

 Hidden Terminal Problem

 Shortcomings of the RTS-CTS Solution

 Exposed Node Problem

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 Hidden Terminal Problem
• Found in contention-based protocols.
 A contention-based protocol (CBP) is a communications
protocol for operating wireless telecommunication equipment that
allows many users to use the same radio channel without pre-
coordination.

• Two nodes are said to be hidden from one another (out of

signal range) when both attempt to send information to the
same receiving node, resulting in a collision of data at the
receiver node
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 Hidden Terminal Problem

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 Possible Solution

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 RTS-CTS handshake Protocol
 To avoid collision, all of the receiver's neighbouring nodes need to be
informed about the status of the channel.
 This can be achieved by using a handshake protocol
 reserving the channel using control messages
 Resolves hidden node problems

 An RTS (Request To Send) message can be used by a node to indicate

its wish to transmit data.
 The receiving node can allow this transmission by sending a grant using
the CTS (Clear To Send) message.
 Because of the broadcast nature of these messages, all neighbors of
the sender and receiver will be informed that the medium will be
busy, thus preventing them from transmitting and avoiding collision.

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 CSMA/CA: RTS-CTS Solution
 With collision avoidance, stations exchange small control
 packets to determine which sender can transmit to a
receiver.

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 RTS-CTS handshake

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 Shortcomings of RTS-CTS Solution
The RTS-CTS method is not a perfect solution to the hidden
terminal problem.

Problematic scenario occurs when

1. RTS and CTS control messages are sent by
different nodes.

2. Multiple CTS messages are granted to different

neighboring nodes, causing collisions.

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 a) Shortcomings of RTS-CTS Solution

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 a) Shortcomings of RTS-CTS Solution
 Cases when collisions occur and the RTS and CTS
control messages are sent by different nodes.
1. Node B is granting a CTS to the RTS sent by node A.
2. This collides with the RTS sent by node D at node C. Node D is
the hidden terminal from node B.
3. As node D does not receive the expected CTS from node C, it
retransmits the RTS.
4. When node A receives the CTS, it is not aware of any collision
at node C and hence it proceeds with a data transmission to
node B.
5. Unfortunately,It collides with the CTS sent by node C in
response to node D's RTS.

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 b) Shortcomings of RTS-CTS Solution
Multiple CTS messages are granted to different neighbouring nodes,
causing collisions.

25 Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab

 b) Shortcomings of RTS-CTS Solution
Multiple CTS messages are granted to different neighboring
nodes, causing collisions.

1. Two nodes are sending RTS messages to different nodes at different

points in time.
2. Node A sends an RTS to node B. When node B is returning a CTS
message back to node A, node C sends an RTS message to node B.
3. Because node C cannot hear the CTS sent by node B while it is
transmitting an RTS to node D, node C is unaware of the
communication between nodes A and B.
4. Node D proceeds to grant the CTS message to node C.
5. Since both nodes A and C are granted transmission, a collision will
occur when both start sending data.

26 Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab

 Exposed Node Problem
 Overhearing a data transmission from neighbouring nodes
can inhibit one node from transmitting to other nodes. This is
known as the exposed node problem.
 An exposed node is a node in range of the
transmitter, but out of range of the receiver.

27 Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab

 Solution to the exposed node problem
 Use of separate control and data channels
 Power-Aware Multi-Access Protocol with Signaling
(PAMAS)
 Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access (DBTMA) .

 Use of Antennas
 Directional antennas

28 Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab

 Use of antennas.
 Mobile node using an
Omni-directional
antenna can result in
several surrounding nodes
being "exposed“
 Thus prohibiting them from
communicating with other
nodes.
 Lowers network availability
and system throughput.
Omni-directional antenna radiates radio wave power uniformly in all directions in one
plane, with the radiated power decreasing with elevation angle above or below the plane, dropping to
29zero onChandra prakash, Lovely
the antenna's axis Professional University, Punjab
 Use of antennas (cont…)
 If directional antennas are
employed, the problem of
network availability and system
throughput can be mitigated.
 Node C can continue
communicating with the receiving
palm pilot device without
impacting the communication
between nodes A and B.
 The directivity provides spatial
and connectivity isolation not
found in omni-directional antenna
systems.

30 Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab

 MAC protocol categories
 Based on operation :
 Synchronous protocols
 Asynchronous protocols

 Based on who initiates a communication request.

 Receiver-initiated protocols
 Sender-initiated protocols
 Single-channel sender-initiated protocols: A node that wins the
contention to the channel can make use of the entire bandwidth.
 Multichannel sender-initiated protocols: The available bandwidth
is divided into multiple channels.

31 Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab

 Media Access Protocols
 Receiver-Initiated MAC Protocols
The receiver (node B) first has to contact the sender (node A),
informing the sender that it is ready to receive (RTR) data.
This is a form of polling, as the receiver has no way of knowing for
sure if the sender indeed has data to send.

32 Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab

 Receiver-Initiated MAC Protocols
 Passive form of initiation since the sender does not have to
initiate a request.
 There is only one control message used, compared to the
RTS-CTS approach.

Example: MACA-BI (By Invitation)

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 Media Access Protocols
 Sender-Initiated MAC Protocols

 This require the sender to initiate communications by informing

the receiver that it has data to send.

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 Sender-initiated MAC protocols
 Node A sends an explicit RTS(ready to send) message to
node B (the receiver) to express its desire to communicate.
 Node B can then reply if it is willing to receive data from
node A. If positive, it returns a CTS (Clear to send ) message
to node A. Node A then subsequently proceeds to send data.

 Examples:
 MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance),
 MACAW (MACA with Acknowledgment), and
 FAMA (Floor Acquisition Multiple Access).

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Classifications of MAC protocols
 Ad hoc network MAC protocols can be classified into three types:
 Contention-based protocols
 Contention-based protocols with reservation mechanisms
 Contention-based protocols with scheduling mechanisms
 Other MAC protocols
MAC Protocols for Ad Hoc
Wireless Networks

Contention-based Contention-based Other MAC

Contention-Based
protocols with protocols with Protocols
Protocols
reservation mechanisms scheduling mechanisms
Directional
RI-BTMA
Antennas
Sender-Initiated Receiver-Initiated Synchronous Asynchronous MACA-BI
MMAC
Protocols Protocols Protocols Protocols MARCH
MCSMA
RI-BTMA D-PRMA MACA/PR
PCM
Single-Channel Multichannel MACA-BI CATA RTMAC
MARCH RBAR
Protocols Protocols HRMA
SRMA/PA
MACAW BTMA
FAMA DBTMA FPRP
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Chandra prakash,
ICSMA
Lovely Professional University, Punjab
 Existing Ad Hoc MAC Protocols

 Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA)

 MACA-BI (By Invitation)
 Power-Aware Multi-Access Protocol with Signalling
(PAMAS)
 Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access (DBTMA)

37 Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab

1. Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA)
 Aims to create usable, ad hoc, single-frequency networks.
 Sender initiated MAC Protocol
 Proposed to resolve the hidden terminal and exposed node problems.

 Ability to perform per-packet transmitter power control, thus increase the

carrying capacity of a packet radio.

 Uses a three-way handshake, RTS-CTS-Data.

 Sender first sends an RTS to the receiver to reserve the channel. This blocks the
sender's neighboring nodes from transmitting.
 The receiver then sends a CTS to the sender to grant transmission. This results
in blocking the receiver's neighboring nodes from transmitting, thus avoiding
collision.
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 Sender can now proceed with data transmission.
 Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA)

39 Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab

 Wireless LAN Protocols

• MACA protocol solved hidden, exposed terminal:

– Send Ready-to-Send (RTS) and Clear-to-Send (CTS) first
– RTS, CTS helps determine who else is in range or busy (Collision
avoidance).

other node in other node in

sender receiver
sender’s range receiver’s range
RTS
CTS

data

ACK

40 Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab

Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA)
 When a node wants to transmit a data packet, it first transmit a RTS
(Request To Send) frame.
 The receiver node, on receiving the RTS packet, if it is ready to receive
the data packet, transmits a CTS (Clear to Send) packet.
 Once the sender receives the CTS packet without any error, it starts
transmitting the data packet.
 If a packet transmitted by a node is lost, the node uses the binary
exponential back-off (BEB) algorithm to back off a random
interval of time before retrying. In this each time a collision occurs the node
doubles its maximum back-off windows.
 The binary exponential back-off mechanism used in MACA might
starves flows sometimes.
 The problem is solved by MACAW.
41Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab
 MACA Protocol

The MACA protocol. (a) A sending an RTS to B.

(b) B responding with a CTS to A.
42Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab
 MACA
 Has Power control features :
 Key characteristic of MACA is that it inhibits a transmitter when
a CTS packet is overheard so as to temporarily limit power
output . This allows geographic reuse of channels.

For example,
 If node A has been sending data packets to node B, after some time, A
would know how much power it needs to reach B.
 If node A overhears node B's response to an RTS (i.e., a CTS) from a
downstream node C, A need not remain completely silent during this
time.
 By lowering its transmission power from the level used to reach node
B, node A can communicate with other neighboring nodes (without
43 Chandrainterfering with node
prakash, Lovely Professional B) during
University, Punjab that time with a lower power.
 MACA examples
 MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals
 A and C want to
send to B
 A sends RTS first RTS

 C waits after receiving CTS CTS

CTS from B A B C

 MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals

 B wants to send to A, C
to another terminal
 now C does not have RTS RTS

to wait for it cannot CTS

receive CTS from A A B C
44Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab
 MACA
 There is no carrier sensing in MACA so Collision occurs during the RTS-CTS
phase
 Each mobile host adds a random amount of time to the minimum interval
required to wait after overhearing an RTS or CTS control message.
 In MACA, the slot time is the duration of an RTS packet.
 If two or more stations transmit an RTS concurrently, resulting in a collision, these
stations will wait for a randomly chosen interval and try again, doubling the average
interval on every attempt.
 The station that wins the competition will receive a CTS from its responder,
thereby blocking other stations to allow the data communication session to
proceed.
 Compared to CSMA, MACA reduces the chances of data packet collisions.
Since control messages (RTS and CTS) are much smaller in size compared
45 toChandra
data prakash,
packets, the
Lovely chances
Professional of Punjab
University, collision are also smaller
 MACAW (MACA wireless )
 The binary exponential back-off mechanism used in MACA
might starves flows sometimes.
 The problem is solved by MACAW.
 The packet header has current back-off counter value of transmitting
node.
 It implements per flow fairness as opposed to the per node fairness
in MACA.

46 Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab

 MACAW
MACAW is proposed as a series of improvements to the
basic MACA algorithm.
1. Suggest a less aggressive backoff algorithm:
 a multiplicative increase and linear decrease(MILD) backoff
mechanism is used.
 Increasing BO by 1.5 after a timeout, and decreasing it by 1 after a successful
RTS-CTS pair.
2. proposes that receivers should send an ACK to the sender
after successfully receiving a data message.
3. Propose two related techniques for allowing transmitters to
avoid contention more effectively:
 Data sending (DS)
 Request-for-request-to-send (RRTS) Concept
47 Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab
 NPDU’s
 DATA Sending (DS) Packets :
 A DS packet should be sent after a successful RTS-CTS exchange, just before
the data message itself. The idea is to explicitly announce that the RTS-CTS
succeeded, so that if a node can hear an RTS but not the CTS response, it
does not attempt to transmit a message during the subsequent data transfer
period.

In MACA , an exposed node can received only the RTS and not the
CTS packet

 READY for RTS (RRTS):

 if a receiver hears an RTS while it is deferring any transmissions, at
the end of the deferral period it replies with an RRTS (“ready for
RTS”) packet, prompting the sender to resend the RTS.
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  MACA : RTS-CTS-DATA exchange mechanism

49
MACAW
Chandra : RTS-CTS-DS-DATA-ACK
prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab exchange mechanism
 2. MACA-BI (By Invitation)
 MACA-BI uses only a two-way handshake.
 No RTS. , the CTS message is renamed as RTR (Ready To
Receive).
 Type Receiver initiated MAC Protocol
 A node cannot transmit data unless it has received an
invitation from the receiver.
 Receiver node does not necessarily know that the source has data
to transmit.
 receiver needs to predict if node has data to transmit to it.
 The timeliness of the invitation will affect communication
performance.

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 MACA-BI (By Invitation)

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 MACA-BI (By Invitation)
 Packet queue length and arrival rate information is
piggyback into each data packet so that the receiver is aware
of the transmitter's backlog.
 For constant bit rate (CBR) traffic, the efficiency of
MACA-BI will be high since the prediction scheme will work
fine. However, will not perform well in case of bursty traffic.
 To enhance the communication performance of MACA-BI
under non-stationary traffic situations
 a node may still transmit an RTS if the transmitter's queue
length or packet delay exceeds a certain acceptable threshold
before an RTR is issued.
 MACA-BI now reverts back to MACA.
52 Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab
 MACA Vs MACA-BI
 As MACA-BI only uses a single control message, this turn around
limitation is reduced (i.e., up to 25 microseconds).
 MACA-BI is less likely to suffer from control packet collision since it
uses half as many control packets as MACA

53 Chandra prakash, Lovely Professional University, Punjab

3. Power-Aware Multi-Access Protocol
with Signaling (PAMAS)
 PAMAS is based on the MACA protocol with the addition of a
separate signalling channel.
 2 channel interface
 Signalling channel :
 RTS-CTS dialogue exchanges occur over this channel.
 Data channel

 PAMAS conserves battery power by selectively powering off

nodes that are not actively transmitting or receiving packets.

 In PAMAS, nodes are required to shut themselves off if they are

overhearing other transmissions not directed to them.
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 Power-Aware Multi-Access Protocol with
Signaling (PAMAS)

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 Power-Aware Multi-Access Protocol
with Signaling (PAMAS)
 Each node makes an independent decision about whether to
power off its transceiver.
 The conditions that force a node to power off include:
 If a node has no packets to transmit, it should power off if one of its
neighboring nodes is transmitting.
 If a node has packets to transmit, but at least one of the neighboring
nodes is transmitting and another is receiving, then it should power
off its transceiver.
 Use of probing to detect when a node should appropriately
power up. The duration of power-off is critical since it affects delay and
throughput performance.
 A node can selectively power down only its data
interface and leave the signalling interface power on.
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56
 4. Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access
(DBTMA)
 The single shared channel is further split into 2 sub channels :
 Data Channel : Data packets are sent over the data channel
 Control channels: control packets (such as RTS and CTS) are sent + busy
tone (BTt (Transmit busy tone) and BTr (Receive busy tone))
 One busy tone signifies transmit busy, while another signifies receive
busy.
 These two busy tones are spatially separated in frequency to
avoid interference.

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 Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access
(DBTMA)
 Uses two busy tone on the control channel BTt (Transmit
busy tone) and BTr (Receive busy tone) are used to notify
neighboring nodes of any on-going transmission.

 BT(t) used by the node that transmits data over the data channel

 BT(r) used by the node receiving data

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 Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access
(DBTMA)

 BTMA was used to solve the hidden terminal problem

 BTMA relies on a wireless last-hop network architecture, where

centralized base station serves multiple mobile hosts.

 When the base station receives packets from a specific mobile host, it
sends out a busy tone signal to all other nodes within its radio cell.
Hence, hidden terminals sense the busy tone and refrain from
transmitting

 Zygmunt Haas from Cornell applied this concept further for use in ad hoc
wireless networks
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 DBTMA (Cont…)
 An ad hoc node wishing to transmit first sends out an RTS message.

 When the receiver willing to accept the data, it sends out a receive busy
tone message followed by a CTS message.

 All neighboring nodes that hear the receive busy tone are prohibited from
transmitting.

 Upon receiving the CTS message, the source node sends out a
transmit busy tone message to surrounding nodes prior to data
transmission.

 Neighboring nodes that hear the transmit busy tone, are prohibited from
transmitting and will ignore any transmission received.
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 Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access (DBTMA)

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 5. Media Access with Reduced
Handshake: MARCH
 MARCH exploits the overhearing characteristic
associated with an ad hoc mobile network employing
omni-directional antenna.
 MARCH is a sender and receiver initiated protocol
 MARCH supports fast data transfer over a multi-hop route
 MARCH provides data flow control by using a
sequence number contained inside the CTS packet
 Improves communication throughput in wireless multi-
hop Ad-hoc networks by reducing the amount of control
overhead.

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 MARCH: Media Access with Reduced Handshake

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 MARCH (cont…)
 Exploits the broadcast characteristic of omni-directional
antennas to reduce the number of required handshakes.
 In MARCH, a node has knowledge of data packet arrivals at its
neighboring nodes from the overheard CTS packets. It can then initiate an
invitation for data to be relayed.
 Node C will receive the CTS1 message sent by node B.
 This characteristic implies that the overheard CTS1 packet can also be used
to convey the information of a data packet arrival at node B to node C.
 Subsequently, after the data packet has been received by node B, node C
can invite node B to forward that data via the CTS2 packet. Hence, the
RTS2 packet can be suppressed here.
 RTS-CTS handshake is now reduced to a single CTS (CTS-only)
handshake after the first hop.
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  For an ad hoc route of n hops, the number of handshakes needed to
send a data packet from the source to the destination is 2n is in
MACA, n in MACA-BI, but only (n + 1) in MARCH.
 If n is large, MARCH will have a very similar number of handshakes
as in MACA-BI.
 There are n – 1 intermediary nodes between the source and
destination.

 MARCH can be viewed as a request-first, pull-later protocol since

the subsequent nodes in the path just need to send invitations to
pull the data toward the destination node.
 The RTS-CTS message in MARCH contains:
 The MAC addresses of the sender and receiver
65  The
Chandraroute identification
prakash, Lovely number
Professional University, Punjab (RTID)
 MARCH: Media Access with Reduced
Handshake

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