206   Chapter 4    Power Transistors

Example 4.5  Finding the Snubber Values for Limiting dv/dt and di/dt Values
of a BJT Switch
A transistor is operated as a chopper switch as shown in Figure 4.47 at a frequency of fs = 10 kHz.
The circuit arrangement is shown in Figure 4.47a. The dc voltage of the chopper is Vs = 220 V
and the load current is IL = 100 A. VCE1sat2 = 0 V. The switching times are t d = 0, t r = 3 μs,
and t f = 1.2 μs. Determine the values of (a) Ls; (b) Cs; (c) Rs for critically damped condition;
(d) Rs, if the discharge time is limited to one-third of switching period; (e) Rs, if the peak dis-
charge current is limited to 10% of load current; and (f) power loss due to RC snubber Ps,
neglecting the effect of inductor Ls on the voltage of the snubber capacitor Cs.

Solution
IL = 100 A, Vs = 220 V, fs = 10 kHz, t r = 3 μs, and t f = 1.2 μs.
a. From Eq. (4.54), Ls = Vs t r /IL = 220 * 3/100 = 6.6 μH.
b. From Eq. (4.56), Cs = IL t f /Vs = 100 * 1.2/220 = 0.55 μF.
c. From Eq. (4.57), Rs = 22Ls/Cs = 216.6/0.55 = 6.93 Ω.
d. From Eq. (4.58), Rs = 1/13fs Cs 2 = 103/13 * 10 * 0.552 = 60.6 Ω.
e. Vs/Rs = 0.1 * IL or 220/Rs = 0.1 * 100 or Rs = 22 Ω.
f. The snubber loss, neglecting the loss in diode Ds, is

Ps ≅ 0.5Cs V 2s fs (4.59)

-6 2 3
= 0.5 * 0.55 * 10 * 220 * 10 * 10 = 133.1 W

4.12 Series and Parallel Operation

Transistors may be operated in series to increase their voltage-handling capability. It
is very important that the series-connected transistors are turned on and off simulta-
neously. Otherwise, the slowest device at turn-on and the fastest device at turn-off
may be subjected to the full voltage of the collector–emitter (or drain–source) circuit
and that particular device may be destroyed due to a high voltage. The devices should
be matched for gain, transconductance, threshold voltage, on-state voltage, turn-on
time, and turn-off time. Even the gate or base drive characteristics should be identical.
Voltage-sharing networks similar to diodes could be used.
Transistors are connected in parallel if one device cannot handle the load cur-
rent demand. For equal current sharings, the transistors should be matched for gain,
transconductance, saturation voltage, and turn-on time and turn-off time. In practice,
it is not always possible to meet these requirements. A reasonable amount of current
sharing (45% to 55% with two transistors) can be obtained by connecting resistors in
series with the emitter (or source) terminals, as shown in Figure 4.50.
The resistors in Figure 4.50 help current sharing under steady-state conditions.
Current sharing under dynamic conditions can be accomplished by connecting coupled
inductors as shown in Figure 4.51. If the current through Q1 rises, the L(di/dt) across L1
increases, and a corresponding voltage of opposite polarity is induced across inductor L2.
The result is a low-impedance path, and the current is shifted to Q2. The inductors would
generate voltage spikes and they may be expensive and bulky, especially at high currents.
BJTs have a negative temperature coefficient. During current sharing, if one BJT
carries more current, its on-state resistance decreases and its current increases further,

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 4.12   Series and Parallel Operation   207

IT
RC
Q2 Q1

IE2 IE1 
VCC
Re2 Re1 
Figure 4.50
Parallel connection of transistors.

IT
RC
Q2 Q1

IE2 IE1

Re2 Re1 VCC


L2 L1
Figure 4.51
Dynamic current sharing.

whereas MOSFETs have a positive temperature coefficient and parallel operation

is relatively easy. The MOSFET that initially draws higher current heats up faster
and its on-state resistance increases, resulting in current shifting to the other devices.
IGBTs require special care to match the characteristics due to the variations of the
temperature coefficients with the collector current.

Example 4.6  Finding the Current Sharing by Two Parallel MOSFETs

Two MOSFETs that are connected in parallel similar to Figure 4.50 carry a total current of
IT = 20 A. The drain-to-source voltage of MOSFET M1 is VDS1 = 2.5 V and that of MOSFET
M2 is VDS2 = 3 V. Determine the drain current of each transistor and difference in current
sharing if the current sharing series resistances are (a) Rs1 = 0.3 Ω and Rs2 = 0.2 Ω and (b)
Rs1 = Rs2 = 0.5 Ω.

Solution
a. ID1 + ID2 = IT and VDS1 + ID1 RS1 = VDS2 + ID2 RS2 = VDS2 = RS2 1IT - ID1 2.

VDS2 - VDS1 + IT Rs2

ID1 = 
Rs1 + Rs2 (4.60)
3 - 2.5 + 20 * 0.2
= = 9 A or 45%
0.3 + 0.2
ID2 = 20 - 9 = 11 A or 55%
∆I = 55 - 45 = 10%

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 208   Chapter 4    Power Transistors

3 - 2.5 + 20 * 0.5
b. ID1 = = 10.5 A or 52.5%
0.5 + 0.5
ID2 = 20 - 10.5 = 9.5 A or 47.5%
∆I = 52.5 - 47.5 = 5%

4.13 SPICE Models

Due to the nonlinear behavior of power electronics circuits, the computer-aided sim-
ulation plays an important role in the design and analysis of power electronics cir-
cuits and systems [20]. Device manufacturers often provide SPICE models for power
devices.

4.13.1 BJT SPICE Model

The PSpice model, which is based on the integral charge-control model of Gummel and
Poon [16], is shown in Figure 4.52a. The static (dc) model that is generated by PSpice
is shown in Figure 4.52b. If certain parameters are not specified, PSpice ­assumes the
simple model of Ebers–Moll as shown in Figure 4.52c.
The model statement for NPN-transistors has the general form
.MODEL QNAME NPN (P1=V1 P2=V2 P3=V3 ... PN=VN)

and the general form for PNP-transistors is

.MODEL QNAME PNP (P1=V1 P2=V2 P3=V3 ... PN=VN)

where QNAME is the name of the BJT model. NPN and PNP are the type symbols for
NPN- and PNP-transistors, respectively. P1, P2, c and V1, V2, c are the param-
eters and their values, respectively. The parameters that affect the switching behavior
of a BJT in power electronics are IS, BF, CJE, CJC, TR, TF. The symbol for a BJT is
Q, and its name must start with Q. The general form is
Q <name> NC NB NE NS QNAME [(area) value]

where NC, NB, NE, and NS are the collector, base, emitter, and substrate nodes,
respectively. The substrate node is optional: If not specified, it defaults to ground.
Positive current is the current that flows into a terminal. That is, the current
flows from the collector node, through the device, to the emitter node for an
NPN-BJT.
The parameters that significantly influence the switching behavior of a BJT are:
IS    pn-saturation current
BF   Ideal maximum forward beta
CJE  Base–emitter zero-bias pn capacitance
CJC  Base–collector zero-bias pn capacitance
TR  Ideal reverse transit time
TF  Ideal forward transit time

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