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IT has long been known that, in any porous medium, the rate of flow of a
fluid through the mediuna is proportional to the pressure gradient in the
direction offlow(Muskat, 1937). Thus, if Q c.c./sec. are obtained from a
column of length L cm., and cross-sectional area A cm.2, when the pres-
sure difference across the column is AP g./cm.2, then
Then Klt which will be called the permeability, depends only on the
nature of the bed, and is independent of the fluid, of the pressure
gradient, and of the dimensions of the bed. In short, in a bed of rigid
particles, the permeability depends only upon the size, shape, and mode
of packing of the particles forming the bed. Many attempts have been
made to calculate Kx theoretically from these variables. The most widely
known and accepted is that of Slichter (1897-8), whose equation for a
bed of uniform spherical particles of diameter d cm. can be put in the
form,
^ = 10-2f, (3)
where Kz is a function of the porosity e, and varies from 84-3 when
e = 0-26 to 12-8 when e = 046, these being approximately the extreme
limits of e for spheres in regular modes of stacking. The variation in K2
stresses the importance of changes in porosity, and is, indeed, in rough
agreement with experimental values. In recent years, the theoretical
basis of Slichter's equation has been attacked (Graton & Fraser, 1935;
Darapsky, 1912), and, further, it has always suffered from the incon-
P. C. CARMAN 263
venience that no guidance is given for an "effective diameter" to be
substituted for d when particles are neither uniform nor spherical.
In the newer type of treatment (Kozeny, 1927; Carman, 1937, 1938;
Kriiger, 1918), size and shape of particle are included by the specific
surface, /Socm.2/cm.3 For uniform spheres, 80=6/d, and, conversely, for
irregularity of size and shape, one can define, if desired, an effective
diameter dm = 6/S0. In Kozeny's equation (Kozeny, 1927; Carman, 1937),
where the effect of porosity is given by the porosity function, e3/(l — e)2.
The derivation of this equation is as follows.
In a circular pipe, Poiseuille's law is given by
ad* AP /K .
u 5)
- s i jz- <
Now, if, instead of the diameter de, one uses the hydraulic radius m,
where
_ volume of pipe
~ area of wetted surface' ^'
it is seen that m = jde2L + TrdeL = -£, (7)
w (8)
so that 2 ^ '
In this form the equation becomes roughly applicable to pipes which
are not circular in section. Thus, for rectangular and elliptical pipes, if
one were to replace k0 for the factor 2-0, 1% would vary as follows:
Shape of cross-section k0
Circle 20
Ellipse:
(a) major axis = 2 x minor axis 2-13
(6) major axis = 10 x minor axis 2-45
Rectangles:
(a) width=height, i.e. square 1-78
(6) width = 2 x height 1-94
(c) width = 10 x height 2-65
(d) width is infinite 3-00
More complex shapes fall within the same limits of k0, the majority
grouping in the region &0=2-0-2-5. Now, the pore space in a granular
2.64 Permeability of Saturated Sands, Soils and Clays
bed may be regarded as a single channel of rather involved shape, but of
constant cross-sectional area, namely, eA, where e is the porosity and A
is the total area of the cross-section. If the cross-sections of the pore-
space were divided arbitrarily into simpler shapes, there would be a pre-
ponderance of elongated shapes, comparable with rectangles and ellipses,
rather than circular, square and triangular shapes. Thus, if equation (8)
were to be applicable, one would expect k^ to be nearer 2-5 than to 2-0.
It is particularly to be noted that the assumption of a constant fractional
free area within a given bed implies a random packing of the particles.
In regular modes of packing, as Graton & Fraser (1935) have remarked,
there is a large and regular variation of fractional free area from cross-
section to cross-section; and the average fractional free area in one
direction is different from that in another, so that permeability would
vary with the orientation offlowto the structure of the bed. A completely
random arrangement, from its very nature, must have the same permea-
bility in all directions, and this is also in accord with experimental
observations.
The essential part of the Kozeny theory lies in applying equation (8)
to granular beds. Once one has assumed that this is feasible, further
refinements are readily introduced. First, correction has to be made for
the actual length, Le, of the path taken by the fluid as it passes through
a bed of thickness L. Second, the actual velocity of the fluid in the pore-
space will not be u, i.e. the apparent velocity over the total area, A,
since the free cross-sectional area is only eA, and, further, it must actually
travel a distance Le when appearing to travel a distance L. Thus, the
actual velocity will be - -y-. Summarizing these points, one obtains
e LJ
K
e L 2-5 774 '
or
AP
and, if one substitutes u=Kx —=•,
•qL
E =€J
then i JT>
size, dm, by <?m = - V A 7 , . These data were then used to obtain the calcu-
lated values of K1 in Table II, where they are compared with "observed"
permeabilities. It will be noted that agreement was equally good using
both absolute ethyl alcohol and acetone, showing the validity of
equation (4).
Table I. Size analyses of spherical glass particles
Number of particles, N
Average size ,— j.
In Table III, there are given observed values of Klt and the values
calculated from these values of So. The two constituents were chosen to
provide a wide range of porosity, and the range of the porosity function,
es/(l — e)2, is shown in Table III. The agreement between the calculated
and the observed values of Kx shows undoubtedly that this function
expresses the true relation between porosity and permeability.
SUMMARY
It is shown that the permeability of a water-saturated sand or fine
powder can be calculated with considerable accuracy, if the porosity and
the specific surface are known. In particular, the Kozeny theory here
discussed leads to a very useful relationship between permeability and
porosity. It is shown that clays do not conform to the theory in its
simple form, but that it may be modified to give a satisfactory repre-
sentation of the data available. The physical grounds for this modified
theory are discussed in some detail, and it is shown that, while it is open
to criticism, it is at least in harmony with our present knowledge of clays.
An important deduction which follows from the modified theory is
that clays may have zero permeability at quite considerable porosities,
e.g. at e = 0-207 for a clay soil, and e = 0-355 for a plastic clay.
P. C. CARMAN 273
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