Optical Fiber Communication

Class code: fwparhr

 Course Objectives

To understand the basic concepts of fiber optical

Communication.

To understand photonic systems, modulation formats

and multiplexing technologies.

To study and understand optical switching and fiber

optical measurement.
 Syllabus
UNIT 1:

Overview of Optical fiber Communications, Principle of optical communication –

Attributes and structures of various fibers such as step index, graded index mode and
multi mode fibers. Propagation in fibers – ray mode, Numerical aperture and multi path
dispersion in step index and graded index fibers. Material dispersion and frequency
response. Self phase modulation, combined effect of dispersion and self phase modulation

UNIT 2:

Electromagnetic wave equation in step index and graded index fibers modes and power
flow in fibers. Manufacture of fibers and cables, fiber joints, splices and connectors.

UNIT 3:

Signal degradation in fibers – Attenuation, material dispersion, wave guide dispersion,

pulse broadening, mode coupling. Dispersion shifted and dispersion flattened fibers.
Attenuation and dispersion limits in fibers.
UNIT 4:

Optical sources – LED and laser diode, principles of operation, concepts of line width,
phase noise, switching and modulation characteristics – typical LED and LD structures.

UNIT 5:

Photo detector – Pn detector, pin detector, avalanche photodiode – Principles of

operation, concepts of responsivity, sensitivity and quantum efficiency, noise in
detection.

UNIT 6:

Optical switching Fiber Optical Measurements. Analog and Digital Links: Analog
links – Introduction, overview of analog links, CNR, multichannel transmission
techniques, RF over fiber, key link parameters, Radio over fiber links, microwave
photonics. Digital links – Induction, point–to–point links, System considerations, link
power budget, resistive budget, short wave length band, and transmission distance for
single mode fibers, Power penalties, nodal noise and chirping, Recent development in
optical communication.
 Course Outcomes
CO1:Demonstrate an understanding of optical fiber propagation
characteristics and transmission properties.

CO2:Demonstrate basic fiber handling skills, including connectors

and splicing

CO3:Calculate the attenuation and signal degradation due to

intermodal and intermodal distortion.

CO4:Understand the principle and characteristics of different optical

light sources and switching techniques

CO5: Describe the principles of photo detection and optical receiver

CO6:Apply relevant scientific and engineering principles to solve

real world optical engineering problems.
BOOKS:

• Optical fiber communication, principles and

practice: John M Senior PH International Service]

• Optical fiber communication: B Keiser [McGraw

Hill]

• Optical communication system: J Gower [prentice

Hall of India]

• Optical fiber system: Kao [Tata McGraw Hill]

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UNIT I
Introduction to Communication
A little bit of history
• The Morse telegraph was introduced in the 1860‘s.
Transmission rate: ∼1bit/s
Distance: Due to the application of relay stations: 1000km
• Invention of the telephone 1876.
• First coaxial cable system 1940 with the capability to transmit
300 voice channels.
• The first microwave system was put into service in 1948 with a
carrier frequency of 4GHz. Coaxial and microwave systems
were operating at 100Mbit/s. High speed coaxial systems need
repeater spacing of ∼1km.
Need for Fiber Optical Communication

A figure of merit of
communication
systems is the bit
rate – distance
product (BL), where
B- bit rate, and
1948
L- repeater spacing.
1940

1860 1876

Increase of the bit rate distance product, BL for different

communication Technologies over time.
Ref.: G.P. Agrawal, Fiber-Optic Communication systems
 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBERS
1. Very high information carrying capacity.
2. Less attenuation (order of 0.2 db/km)
3. Small in diameter and size & light weight
4. Low cost as compared to copper (as glass is made from sand.
The raw material used to make of is free.)
5. Greater safety and immune to emi & rfi, moisture & corossion
6. Flexible and easy to install in tight conduicts
7. Zero resale value (so theft is less)
8. Is dielectric in nature so can be laid in electrically sensitive
surroundings
9. Difficult to tap fibers, so secure
10. No cross talk and disturbances
 DISADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBERS…
1. The terminating equipment is still costly as compared to copper equipment.
2. Optical fiber is delicate so has to be handled carefully.
3. Last mile is still not totally fiberised due to costly subscriber premises
equipment.
4. Communication is not totally in optical domain, so repeated electric –optical –
electrical conversion is needed.
5. Optical amplifiers, splitters, MUX-DEMUX are still in development stages.
6. Tapping is not possible. Specialized equipment is needed to tap a fiber.
7. Optical fiber splicing is a specialized technique and needs expertly trained
manpower.
8. The splicing and testing equipment's are very expensive as compared to copper
equipment's.
 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBERS…

1. LONG DISTANCE COMMUNICATION BACKBONES

2. INTER-EXCHANGE JUNCTIONS
3. VIDEO TRANSMISSION
4. BROADBAND SERVICES
5. COMPUTER DATA COMMUNICATION (LAN, WAN etc..)
6. HIGHT EMI AREAS
7. MILITARY APPLICATION
8. NON-COMMUNICATION APPLICATIONS (sensors etc…)
SPECIFICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBERS…
SINGLE MODE OF
MULTI MODE OF
COMPARISION WITH OTHER MEDIA / TECHNOLOGIES
Introduction to Optical Communication
 Optical Fiber communication
 This is a method of transmitting information from one place
to another by sending light through an optical fiber.
 The light forms an electromagnetic carrier wave that is
modulated to carry information.
The process of communicating using fiber-optics involves the
following basic steps:
 Creating the optical signal using a transmitter,
 relaying the signal along the fiber, ensuring that the signal does
not become too distorted or weak,
 and receiving the optical signal and converting it into an electrical
signal.
 OPTICAL FIBER
 An optical fiber (or fiber) is a glass or plastic fiber that carries
light along its length.

 Light is kept in the "core" of the optical fiber by total internal

reflection.

Fiber Optic Cable

 A thin glass cable approximately a little thicker than a human hair
surrounded by a plastic coating and packaged into an insulated
cable.

 A photodiode or laser generates pulses of light which travel down

the fiber optic cable and are received by photo receptor.
 General Communication system

Optical Fiber Communication systems

 OPTICAL FIBER CONSTRUCTION

Core – thin glass center of the fiber where light travels.

Cladding – outer optical material surrounding the core

Buffer Coating – plastic coating that protects the fiber.

Fiber Optic Cable
 Refractive index
• The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the
velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in the medium.

• A ray of light travels more slowly in an optically dense medium

than in one that is less dense, and the refractive index gives a
measure of this effect.

When a ray is incident on the

Interface between two dielectrics
of differing refractive indices
(e.g. glass–air), refraction occurs,
as illustrated in Figure (a).
 Snell’s law

The angles of incidence φ1 and refraction φ2 are related to each

other and to the refractive indices of the dielectrics by Snell’s law of
refraction, which states that:

n1 sin φ1 = n2 sin φ2
When the angle of refraction is 90° and the refracted ray
emerges parallel to the interface between the dielectrics, the
angle of incidence must be less than 90°. This is the limiting
case of refraction and the angle of incidence is now known
as the critical angle φc, as shown in Figure (b)
Example
Calculate the angle shown as φ2 ,The first material has a refractive
index of 1.51 and the angle of incidence is 38° and the second
material has a refractive index of 1.46.

Starting with Snell’s law:

n1sinφ1 = n2sinφ2
 Example
1. Calculate the angle shown as φ2 ,The first material has a refractive index of 1.58
and the angle of incidence is 40° and the second material has a refractive index of
1.36.

1.36
1.58
40
Critical angle - Light Guiding
The value of the critical angle is given by:

sin φc = n1/ n2
At angles of incidence greater than the critical angle the light is reflected back into
the originating dielectric medium (total internal reflection) with high efficiency
(around 99.9%).
Hence, it may be observed in Figure (c) that total internal reflection occurs at the
interface between two dielectrics of differing refractive indices when light is incident
on the dielectric of lower index from the dielectric of higher index, and the angle of
incidence of the ray exceeds the critical value
Numerical aperture
 The numerical aperture of a fiber is a figure which represents
its light gathering capability.
 The acceptance angle also determines how much light is able to
enter the fiber and so we must expect an easy relationship
between the nummerical aperture and the cone of acceptance as
they are both essentially measurements of the same thing.
 The formula for the numerical aperture is based on the
refractive indices of the core and the cladding.

NA = n 2
core −n cladding
2

Acceptance angle=sin-1 NA
Figure shows a light ray incident on the fiber core at an angle θ1 to the
fiber axis which is less than the acceptance angle for the fiber θa. The
ray enters the fiber from a medium (air) of refractive index n0, and the
fiber core has a refractive index n1, which is slightly greater than the
cladding refractive index n2.
Assuming the entrance face at the fiber core to be normal to the
axis, then considering the refraction at the air–core interface and
using Snell’s law given by Eq.

n0 sin θ1 = n1 sin θ2

Considering the right-angled triangle ABC indicated in Figure,

then:

where φ is greater than the critical angle at the core–cladding

interface. Hence Eq. becomes:

n0 sin θ1 = n1 cos φ
Using the trigonometrical relationship sin2 φ + cos2 φ = 1, Eq. may
be written in the form:

When the limiting case for total internal reflection is considered, φ

becomes equal to the critical angle for the core–cladding interface
and is given by Eq. Also in this limiting case θ1 becomes the
acceptance angle for the fiber θa. Combining these limiting cases
into Eq. gives:

Apart from relating the acceptance angle to the refractive indices,

serves as the basis for the definition of the important optical fiber
parameter, the numerical aperture (NA). Hence the NA is defined as:
Since the NA is often used with the fiber in air where n0 is unity, it
is simply equal to sin θa. It may also be noted that incident
meridional rays over the range 0 ≤ θ1 ≤ θa will be propagated
within the fiber.
The NA may also be given in terms of the relative refractive index
difference Δ between the core and the cladding which is defined
as:

Combining the equations we get

 n1 sin φ1 = n2 sin φ2

sin φc = n1/ n2

Acceptance angle=sin-1 NA
N1 = 1.45
N2 = 1.35
▲=2%
N1=1.50
Attributes and structures of various fibers
Step index Fiber
The optical fiber with a core of constant refractive index n1 and a
cladding of a slightly lower refractive index n2 is known as step
index fiber. This is because the refractive index profile for this type
of fiber makes a step change at the core–cladding interface, as
indicated in Figure, which illustrates the two major types of step
index fiber. The refractive index profile may be defined as:
Figure (a) shows a multimode step index fiber with a core diameter
of around 50μm or greater, which is large enough to allow the
propagation of many modes within the fiber core.

This is illustrated in Figure (a) by the many different possible ray

paths through the fiber.

Figure (b) shows a single-mode or monomode step index fiber

which allows the propagation of only one transverse
electromagnetic mode (typically HE11), and hence the core
diameter must be of the order of 2 to 10 μm.

The propagation of a single mode is illustrated in Figure (b) as

corresponding to a single ray path only (usually shown as the axial
ray) through the fiber.
The single-mode step index fiber has the distinct advantage of
low intermodal dispersion (broadening of transmitted light
pulses), as only one mode is transmitted, whereas with
multimode step index fiber considerable dispersion may occur
due to the differing group velocities of the propagating modes.

This in turn restricts the maximum bandwidth attainable with

multimode step index fibers, especially when compared with
single-mode fibers.
However, for lower bandwidth applications multimode fibers
have several advantages over single-mode fibers. These are:

a) the use of spatially incoherent optical sources (e.g. most

light-emitting diodes) which cannot be efficiently coupled to
single-mode fibers;

b) larger numerical apertures, as well as core diameters,

facilitating easier coupling to optical sources;

c) lower tolerance requirements on fiber connectors.

Multimode step index fibers allow the propagation of a finite
number of guided modes along the channel.

The number of guided modes is dependent upon the physical

parameters (i.e. relative refractive index difference, core radius) of
the fiber and the wavelengths of the transmitted light which are
included in the normalized frequency V for the fiber.

There is a cutoff value of normalized frequency Vc for guided

modes below which they cannot exist. (2.405 for LP11 mode, 3.83
for LP02 mode, so on)

However, mode propagation does not entirely cease below cutoff.

Modes may propagate as unguided or leaky modes which can

travel considerable distances along the fiber.
Nevertheless, it is the guided modes which are of paramount
importance in optical fiber communications as these are confined
to the fiber over its full length.

It can be shown that the total number of guided modes or mode

volume Ms for a step index fiber is related to the V value for the
fiber by the approximate expression:

which allows an estimate of the number of guided modes

propagating in a particular multimode step index fiber.
N1= 1.36
Wavelength=0.78um
Core dia=90
Delta= 2.5%
 Graded index fibers
Graded index fibers do not have a constant refractive index in
the core but a decreasing core index n(r) with radial distance
from a maximum value of n1 at the axis to a constant value n2
beyond the core radius a in the cladding. This index variation
may be represented as:

where Δ is the relative refractive index difference and α is the profile

parameter which gives the characteristic refractive index profile of
the fiber core.
The above equation which is a convenient method of expressing
the refractive index profile of the fiber core as a variation of α,
allows representation of the step index profile when α = ∞, a
parabolic profile when α = 2 and a triangular profile when α = 1.
This range of refractive index profiles is illustrated in Figure 2.22
The graded index profiles which at present produce the best
results for multimode optical propagation have a near parabolic
refractive index profile core with α  2. Fibers with such core
index profiles are well established and consequently when the
term ‘graded index’ is used without qualification it usually refers
to a fiber with this profile. For this reason in this section we
consider the waveguiding properties of graded index fiber with a
parabolic refractive index profile core.
A multimode graded index fiber with a parabolic index profile core is
illustrated in Figure 2.23. It may be observed that the meridional rays
shown appear to follow curved paths through the fiber core.
Using the concepts of geometric optics, the gradual decrease in
refractive index from the center of the core creates many
refractions of the rays as they are effectively incident on a large
number or high to low index interfaces. This mechanism is
illustrated in Figure 2.24 where a ray is shown to be gradually
curved, with an ever increasing angle of incidence, until the
conditions for total internal reflection are met, and the ray travels
back towards the core axis, again being continuously refracted.
 Number of guided
The total number of guided modes or mode volume Mg supported
by the graded index fiber. It can be shown that:

Furthermore, the normalized frequency V for the fiber when Δ«1

is approximately given by:

Combining above two equations, we get,

Hence for a parabolic refractive index profile core fiber (α = 2),

Mg V2/4, which is half the number supported by a step index
fiber (α = ∞) with the same V value.
D=40um
Wav=2um
NA=0.36

V=22.61
Mg=128
 Self-phase modulation
Self-phase modulation (SPM) is a nonlinear optical effect of
light-matter interaction.

An ultrashort pulse of light, when travelling in a medium, will

induce a varying refractive index of the medium due to the
optical Kerr effect.

This variation in refractive index will produce a phase shift in

the pulse, leading to a change of the pulse's frequency spectrum.

Self-phase modulation is an important effect in optical systems

that use short, intense pulses of light, such as lasers and optical
fiber communication systems.
For an ultrashort pulse with a Gaussian shape and constant
phase, the intensity at time t is given by I(t):

where I0 is the peak intensity, and τ is half the pulse duration.

If the pulse is travelling in a medium, the optical Kerr effect
produces a refractive index change with intensity:

where n0 is the linear refractive index, and n2 is the second-

order nonlinear refractive index of the medium.
As the pulse propagates, the intensity at any one point in the
medium rises and then falls as the pulse goes past. This will
produce a time-varying refractive index:

This variation in refractive index produces a shift in the

instantaneous phase of the pulse:

Where are the carrier frequency and (vacuum)

wavelength of the pulse, and L is the distance the pulse has
propagated.
The phase shift results in a frequency shift of the pulse. The
instantaneous frequency ω(t) is given by:

and from the equation for dn/dt above, this is:

Plotting ω(t) shows the frequency shift of each part of the pulse.
The leading edge shifts to lower frequencies ("redder"
wavelengths), trailing edge to higher frequencies ("bluer") and the
very peak of the pulse is not shifted. For the center portion of the
pulse (between t = ±τ/2), there is an approximately linear
frequency shift (chirp) given by:
where α is:

It is clear that the extra frequencies generated through SPM

broaden the frequency spectrum of the pulse symmetrically.

In the time domain, the envelope of the pulse is not changed,

however in any real medium the effects of dispersion will
simultaneously act on the pulse.

In regions of normal dispersion, the "redder“ portions of the pulse

have a higher velocity than the "blue" portions, and thus the front
of the pulse moves faster than the back, broadening the pulse in
time.
In regions of anomalous dispersion, the opposite is true, and the
pulse is compressed temporally and becomes shorter.

This effect can be exploited to some degree (until it digs holes

into the spectrum) to produce ultra-short pulse compression.

A similar analysis can be carried out for any pulse shape, such as
the hyperbolic secant -squared (sech2) pulse profile generated by
most ultra-short pulse lasers.

If the pulse is of sufficient intensity, the spectral broadening

process of SPM can balance with the temporal compression due
to anomalous dispersion and reach an equilibrium state. The
resulting pulse is called an optical soliton.
Applications of SPM

Self-phase modulation has stimulated many applications in the

field of ultrashort pulse including to cite a few:

• spectral broadening and supercontinuum

• temporal pulse compression
• spectral pulse compression

The nonlinear properties of Kerr nonlinearity has also been

beneficial for various optical pulse processing techniques such
as optical regeneration or wavelength conversion.
 DISPERSION
• Dispersion is the spreading of light pulse as its
travels down the length of an optical fiber.

• Dispersion limits the bandwidth or information

carrying capacity of a fiber.

• The bit-rates must be low enough to ensure that

pulses are farther apart and therefore the greater
dispersion can be tolerate.
There are three main types of dispersion in a fiber:

Modal Dispersion.

Material dispersion.

Waveguide dispersion.
 MODAL DISPERSION
• Modal dispersion occurs only in Multimode fibers.
• It arises because rays follow different paths through the fiber and
consequently arrive at the other end of the fiber at different times.
• Mode is a mathematical and physical concept describing the
propagation of electromagnetic waves through media.
• In case of fiber, a mode is simply a path that a light ray can follow
in travelling down a fiber.
• The number of modes supported by a fiber ranges from 1 to over
100,000. Thus a fiber provides a path of travels for one or
thousands of light rays depending on its size and properties.

• Since light reflects at different angles for different paths (or modes),
the path lengths of different modes are different.
• The different rays take a shorter or longer time to travel the length of
the fiber.

• The ray that goes straight down the center of the core without
reflecting, arrives at the other end first, other rays arrive later.

• Thus light entering the fiber at the same time exit the other end at
different times the light has spread out in time.

• The spreading of light is called modal dispersion.

• Modal dispersion is that type of dispersion that results from the

varying modal path lengths in the fiber.

• Typical modal dispersion figures for the step index fiber are 15 to 30
ns/ km.
 Modal dispersion can be reduced in three ways

• Use a smaller core diameter, which allows fewer modes.

• Use a graded -index fiber so that light rays that allow longer
paths also travel at a faster velocity and thereby arrive at the
other end of the fiber at nearly the same time as rays that follow
shorter paths.

• Use a single-mode fiber, which permits no modal dispersion.

 MATERIAL DISPERSION

• Different wavelengths also travel at different velocities through a

fiber, in the same mode, as n = c/v.

• where n is index of refraction, c is the speed of light in vacuum

and v is the speed of the same wavelength in the material.

• The value of v in the equation changes for each wavelength, Thus

Index of refraction changes according to the wavelength.

• Dispersion from this phenomenon is called material dispersion,

since it arises from material properties of the fiber.
• Each wave changes speed differently, each is refracted
differently.

• White light entering the prism contains all colors. The prism
refracts the light and its changes speed as it enters the prism.
Red light deviates the least and travels the fastest.

• The violet light deviates the most and travels the slowest.
 WAVEGUIDE DISPERSION

• Waveguide dispersion, most significant in a single- mode fiber,

occurs because optical energy travels in both the core and
cladding, which have slightly different refractive indices.

• The energy travels at slightly different velocities in the core and

cladding because of the slightly different refractive indices of the
materials.

• Altering the internal structures of the fiber, allows waveguide

dispersion to be substantially changed, thus changing the
specified overall dispersion of the fiber.