DOGFISH

Uterus- functions in the egg development List of the 5 fins of the dogfish shark- 2 dorsal, pectoral,
pelvic, caudal
Pericardial Cavity- holds the heart and branching
arteries; protection The Depressor of the Pectoral Fin- allows the pectoral
fins to lower; located caudal side of the pectoral fin
Testes- oval shaped; dorsal to the liver; produces the
male gametes Pleuroperitoneal Cavity- holds all the organs in the
abdonimal cavity; such as liver, gallbladder, stomach,
Ovaries- two cream colored organs, dorsal to the liver;
pancreas etc..
function in the storage of eggs
Gallbladder- functions in storage and floatation; has 3
Heart- has two halves- atrium and ventricles; it is a
lobes liver
specialized muscle
functions in the storage of bile secreted from the liver;
Efferent brachial Arteries- Brings blood into the fins and
located within the smaller lobe of the liver
back to the heart
Adductor muscle- a large muscle just caudal to the eye;
Atrium- smaller and functions in forcing blood into the
its the main muscle in closing the jaw
ventricals
Esophagus - connects the mouth to the stomach
Gill rakers- increases the surface area of the gills in
order to take in more oxygen Esophageal papillae- helps move food to the stomach

Ventricle- larger and function in contracting blood to Stomach- a J-shaped organ; has a cardiac part and
the rest of the body pyloric part; functions in digestion

Gill arches- made of cartilaginous arches that support Pyloric Sphincter- the end of the stomach, a musclular
the gills and gill rakers ring which opens and closes the stomach to the
intestines
Nares- used to detect chemicals in the water
Duodenum- right after the stomach; recieves bile from
Ampullae of Lorenzini- allows the shark to detect prey
the gallbladder
by feeling vibrations from movement
Colon- Absorbs water and salts from the solid wastes
Spiracles- openings on the head, allow water to pass
before its stored in the rectum
through the gills even when the sharks mouth is closed
Ileum and spiral valve- After the Duodenum; absorbs
Gill slits- allow waer to exit after passing over the gills;
nutrients like Vitamin B12 and bile salts
they have 5
Rectum- functions in the storage of solid waste; btw the
Lateral line- a pale line begining at the pectoral fins and
intestine and the cloaca
ending at the pelvic fins; small openings that open into
the underlying lateral line canal, a sensory organ that Rectal gland- controls salt concentration within the
detects water movement body and releases it into the rectum to be excreted

Cloaca- the digestive tracts exit and opening for the sex Spleen- works with filtering blood; caudal to the
organs stomach and proximal to the spiral intestine

Claspers- a finger-like projection that assist in sperm Pancreas- has two parts; ventral and dorsal, long and
transfer during mating; males only! thin organ

Myomers- musclular bundles of segmented muscle in Dorsal Aorta- Distribution of blood throughout the body
the trumk and tail; arranged in a zig-zag pattern

Myosepta- where the muscle originates and inserts

PIGEON
Mouth:
Mouth is present at the tip of the head and is
bounded by horny upper and lower beak. Teeth are
totally absent.
Mouth cavity and pharynx:
Mouth leads into mouth cavity and pharynx.
These regions contain:
(a) Internal nostril:
It is a single opening on the roof of the pharynx
through which both the nares open internally.
(b) Tongue:
It is a prominent structure with free pointed
anterior end. Some taste buds and numerous
mucous glands are present on the surface of the
tongue.
(c) Glottis:
It is an aperture which leads into trachea and is
placed near the base of the tongue.
(d) Gullet:
It is the last part of the pharynx which continues as
an opening into the next part of the alimentary
canal.
Oesophagus:
It begins from the gullet and runs through the
ventral part of the neck as a straight tube. Near the
junction of neck and trunk it comes between skin
and muscle and enlarges to form a sac, called crop.
The crop plays a dual role in the life of pigeon and
other birds. It acts as a large temporary reservoir of
crude food grains.
The presence of crop enables the bird to ingest a
considerable quantity of food grains very quickly.
Food may be regurgitated from the crop to feed
the young. Besides its normal function of storage,
the crop glands present in the epithelial lining of
the crop produce a proteinaceous, white slimy
secretion called pigeons milk.
This is produced in both the sexes during breeding
season. The young squabs are fed by the parents by
regurgitation of the fluid. The secretory activity of
the crop-glands is controlled by the hormone called
prolactin of anterior pituitary.
The composition of pigeons milk is given:
Water … 65-81%
Protein … 13.3-18.8%
Fat … 6.9-12.7%
Ash … 1.5%
It has a great nutritive value, even more efficient
than mammalian milk. From the crop, the
oesophagus enters the cavity of trunk and passes
dorsal to the heart to open into the next part of the
alimentary canal called stomach.
Stomach:
It is divisible into two distinct parts:
(a) Proventriculus:
It is the first part of the stomach to receive the
oesophagus (Fig. 1.113A). It is tubular and
internally lined by numerous gastric glands. A red-
coloured small spleen remains morphologically
attached to the outer side of proventriculus.
(b) Gizzard:
It is the second part of stomach and is semi-circular
in outline. The walls of the gizzard are highly
muscular. It contains very little inner space.
Internally the wall contains numerous ridges and its
epithelial lining becomes very thick and tough. It
has innumerable small tubular glands.
A few stones, which are swallowed by the bird,
remain within the lumen and are responsible for
crushing the food (Fig. 1.113B). The function of
gizzard is purely mechanical and acts mainly as the
grinding machine to crush the food. The gizzard
compensates the role of teeth in pigeon.
Intestine:
Intestine begins from the gizzard near the opening
of proventriculus and is divisible into following
parts:
(a) Duodenum
(b) Ileum
(c) Rectum.
(a) Duodenum:
This is the first part of the intestine and is distinctly
‘U’-shaped in appearance. Internally, the
duodenum contains villi, crypts of Lieberkuhn and
goblet cells.
(b) Ileum:
It is the second part of the intestine having
numerous villi inside it. The length of the ileum is
shorter than that of other vertebrates. The first and
the last parts of the ileum are loop-like and the
middle part is spirally coiled.
(c) Rectum:
It is the last part of the intestine and is of same
thickness as that of ileum. Near the junction of
ileum and rectum, a pair of small lateral blind leaf-
like caeca originates.
Cloaca:
Rectum opens into a chamber called cloaca. The
cloaca is spacious, muscular and is elaborated into
three chambers: coprodaeum, urodaeum and
proctodaeum (Fig. 1.113C). The coprodaeum
receives the intestine. The urinogenital ducts open
within the urodaeum and the proctodaeum opens
externally by the vent.
In the nestlings, a special thick-walled glandular
chamber, bursa fabricii, remains in close
association with cloaca and communicates with the
proctodaeum. It degenerates in the adult bird. The
bursa fabricii may have some local protective
function in young ones.
Cloacal aperture:
The proctodaeum of cloaca opens to the exterior
through the cloacal aperture or vent. It is present
on the ventral side and near the base of the tail.
Membranes and Mesenteries:
There are membranes and mesenteries which
divide the body cavity into different parts and also
support the viscera.
The following membranes and mesenteries are
prominent:
(i) Parietal peritoneum is the membrane lining the
body wall.
(ii) Ventral ligament arises from the ventral body
wall to the gizzard.
(iii) Falciform ligament arises from the ventral body
wall to the ventral side of the liver. It is continuous
with the ventral ligament.
(iv) Oblique septum is a partition arising from the
lateral body wall to the centre which separates the
body cavity into an anterior and posterior
compartment. This septum is continuous with the
pericardial sac at the centre and encloses the
posterior air-sacs.
(v) Pericardiac sac encloses the heart. It is
composed of parietal pericardium and visceral
pericardium.
(vi) Coronary ligament attaches the anterior side of
the liver to the combined pericardial sac and
oblique septum.
(vii) Gastro hepatic ligament attaches the gizzard to
the liver.
(viii) Mesogastric mesentery connects the gizzard
to the dorsal body wall.
(ix) Meso-duodenal ligament connects the two
halves of the duodenal loop. The pancreas is also
located on this ligament.
(x) Mesentery proper attaches the small intestine
to the dorsal body wall.
(xi) Hepato-duodenal ligament connects the
duodenum to the liver.
(ii) Digestive glands:
Following digestive glands are associated with the
alimentary system:
Mucous glands:
These are present on the surface of the tongue and
crop and are responsible for moistening of the
food.
Salivary glands:
Paired angular and unpaired sublingual salivary
glands are located in the pharyngeal region. The
secretion called saliva moistens the food and also
contains diastatic enzyme.
Crop glands:
The secretion called “crop milk or pigeons milk” is
secreted by these glands. The secretion is used for
the nourishment of the youngs.
Gastric glands:
These are present on the internal lining of
proventriculus and secrete gastric juice.
Tubular glands:
These glands are present on the internal lining of
gizzard. The fluid secreted by these glands is thick,
yellowish green in colour.
Liver:
Paired deep brown coloured glands of immense
size are present ventral to the gizzard. It produces
the bile which passes through two bile ducts, one
coming from each lobe of liver. The bile ducts open
separately within the two limbs of the duodenum.
The gall bladder is absent in pigeon. Loss of gall
bladder is an adaptation to aerial life for reducing
the weight of the body.
Pancreas:
It is a pinkish white gland located in between the
two limbs of the duodenum. It is a combination of
both exocrine and endocrine glands. The exocrine
part producing pancreatic juice opens into the
duodenum by two or three pancreatic ducts. The
endocrine part produces insulin, which is directly
poured into the blood vessel.
Crypts of Lieberkuhn and Goblet cells:
These are present in the lining of the duodenum
and its secretion influences the pancreas to
produce pancreatic juice.
Glands in the ileum:
These glands produce digestive juices which
contain various enzymes.
Caecal glands:
Produce certain digestive juices for the digestion of
vegetable fibers. They are also concerned with the
absorption of water.
Physiology of digestion:
The physiology of digestion in pigeon involves the
three following steps:
Ingestion:
Pigeon is a grain or seed eater. It picks up grains
very rapidly which are quickly swallowed. The
shape of the beak is modified in such a way that it
helps in its ingestion. The swallowed food, being
moistened by mucus, is stored in the crop.
Digestion:
Within the crop the food is moistened and
macerated. The passage of food from crop to
proventriculus is regulated. Inside the
proventriculus, the gastric juices containing HCl and
pepsin act over the food. Within the gizzard the
food is completely churned by the action of gizzard
wall and stones. The secretion of gizzard glands
helps in the process.
The churned food, while travelling through the
duodenum, comes in contact with the bile and
pancreatic juice. The bile neutralizes the acidity.
Different enzymes are present in the various
digestive juices. The completely broken-down food
is absorbed through the lining of small intestine.
Residual part passes into the rectum where water
is absorbed and the fibres are broken down by the
caecal juice.
Egestion:
Residual part called faeces is temporarily stored in
the cloaca where it mixes with the urine and is
periodically dropped through the cloacal aperture.
TURTLE