IE 366

Chapter 2 (2[1] – 2[6])

Anatomy
Biomechanics
Work Physiology

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Musculoskeletal Anatomy and
Musculoskeletal Injuries
● Skeletal System
● Spine
● Upper extremity
● Lower extremity
● Joints
● Tendons
● Muscles
● Nerves

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Skeletal
System

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Source (Left): Wikimedia Commons, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Human_skeleton_front_en.svg, accessed 19 Jan 10.
Source (Right): Wikimedia Commons, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Human_skeleton_back_en.svg, accessed 19 Jan 10.
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Vertebral Column/Spine

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Source (Left): Wikimedia Commons, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_vertebral_column.jpg, accessed 19 Jan 10.
Source (Right): Konz & Johnson, Work Design, 6th edition.
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Vertebrae, Side-View

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Source (Right): Wikimedia Commons, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray301.png, accessed 19 Jan 10.
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Vertebrae/Disk, Oblique View

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Source: Wikimedia Commons, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ACDF_oblique_annotated_english.png, accessed 19 Jan 10.
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Vertebra Cross-Section
(cervical vertebra)

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Source: Wikimedia Commons, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cervical_vertebra_english.png, accessed 19 Jan 10.
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Upper Extremity

Notes: Skeleton is
facing observer.

Skeleton's left hand

(on observer's right)
is supinated (palm
toward observer).

Skeleton's right
hand (on observer's
left) is pronated
(back toward
observer).

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Source: Wikimedia Commons, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Human_arm_bones_diagram.svg, accessed 19 Jan 10.
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Shoulder

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Source: Wikimedia Commons, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray326.png, accessed 19 Jan 10.
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Wrist

Palmar/Volar (palm-side) View Dorsal (back-side) View

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Source (Left): Wikimedia Commons, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray334.png, accessed 19 Jan 10.
Source (Right): Wikimedia Commons, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray335.png, accessed 19 Jan 10.
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Wrist Cross-Section

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Source: Wikimedia Commons, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray422.png, accessed 19 Jan 10.
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Lower Extremity
● Legs
– Unequal leg lengths can cause back pain.
– Leg structure causes sway and forward-
bending moment.
● Most problems are in ankle and foot.
– Ankle injuries result from inward or external
rotation of foot.
– 80% of foot fractures involve the toes.
– Heel pad is an important shock absorber.

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Joints

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Ball and Socket Joint
(Shoulder)

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Source: Wikimedia Commons, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray327.png, accessed 19 Jan 10.
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Hinge Joint (Knee)

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First-class lever
● Fulcrum in the middle
(e.g. seesaw)

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Source: Konz & Johnson, Work Design, 6th edition.
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Second-class lever
● Fulcrum at one end (e.g.
wheelbarrow)

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Source: Konz & Johnson, Work Design, 6th edition.
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Third-class lever

● Fulcrum at one end,

resistance has
mechanical
advantage (e.g.
forceps)

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Source: Konz & Johnson, Work Design, 6th edition.
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Muscles

in synovium

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Nervous System

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Source: Wikimedia Commons, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nervous_system_diagram.png, accessed 19 Jan 10.
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Neuromuscular Unit

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Muscle Force

Forces (kg) exertable on a vertical handgrip

with the right arm at various elbow angles:

60 90 120 150 180

Pull 28.6 40.0 47.3 55.5 54.5
Push 41.8 39.1 46.8 55.9 62.7

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Work Physiology
“An aspect of industrial engineering that takes into
account metabolic cost, measurement and
prevention of work strain, and other ergonomic
factors in the design of tasks and workplaces.”
Answers.com

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Cardiovascular Anatomy
(Engineer’s Schematic)

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Metabolism
● Definition
– Transformation: chemical energy work

● Units of Measurement
– kilocalorie (kcal)
– 1 kcal = 1000 cal = 1 Cal
= heat required to raise 1 liter H2O
from 15 °C to 16 °C

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Alternative Units
● Common rate units: kcal/min
● Text rate units: W
● 1 W ≈ 0.014 kcal/min
● 1 kcal/min ≈ 73 W
● Note:
1 W/kg x 70 kg x 0.014 ≈ 1kcal/min
text typical slides
units male units

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Cellular Metabolism (1)

glycolysis
carbohydrates glucose pyruvic acid

oxidation
fats fatty acids acetic acid
deamination
proteins amino acids deaminated AAs
digestion

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Cellular Metabolism (2)

glycolysis
carbohydrates glucose pyruvic acid

oxidation
fats fatty acids acetic acid
deamination
proteins amino acids deaminated AAs
digestion

CO2

energy

H2O

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Cellular Metabolism (3)

glycolysis
carbohydrates glucose pyruvic acid

oxidation
fats fatty acids acetic acid
deamination
proteins amino acids deaminated AAs
digestion
CO2

energy
adenosine triphosphate
H2O

adenosine diphosphate + PO4

creatine + PO4 creatine phosphate
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Cellular Metabolism
(Summary)
● ADP + CP + energy (input) → ATP + Creatine + H2O
● ATP + Creatine + H2O → ADP + CP + energy (output)
● Muscle activity runs on energy derived from breakdown of ATP
to ADP. ATP is recharged by rebuilding from ADP with energy
from “combusition” of glucose, fatty acids and amino acids.
● Aerobic Metabolism: adequate oxygen
● Anaerobic Metabolism: inadequate oxygen, buildup of lactic
acid
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Body Metabolism:
Components

Total Metabolism =
Basal Metabolism (life support)
+
Activity Metabolism (work, leisure)

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Basal Metabolism, Resting
Metabolism
● Male ( 70 kg )
– 1700 kcal/day ≈ 1.0 kcal/min
● Female ( 60 kg )
– 1400 kcal/day ≈ 1.0 kcal/min
● Factors:
– Sex
– Size
– Age
● Resting metabolism ~10% - 15% higher

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Metabolism
● Response to Exercise
– ↑ heart rate
– ↑ stroke volume
– ↑ artery-vein differential
– blood distribution to muscles
– oxygen debt (anaerobic metabolism)
● Factors Affecting Energy Expenditure
– Gender
– Age
– Training
● Measurement
– Oxygen uptake
– Heart rate
– Standardized tests (e.g., with bicycle ergometer)
– Activity standards 33
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Energy Cost of Work

(Activity Standards)

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Grades of Physical Work

(Activity Standards)

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Recommended Limits
● Energy Expenditure (kcal/min, average)
8-hour shift 4-hour shift
Male < 5.00 < 6.25
Female < 3.35 < 4.20

● Heart Rate (beats/min, average)

Arm work < 99
Leg work < 112

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Whole-Body Fatigue
● Symptoms
– Slight tiredness → weariness → complete
exhaustion
– Impaired muscle performance
– Falling asleep
● Exact nature & cause unknown
● Inability to reach steady state (@ 40-50% MPWC)
● Exacerbated by heat stress

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Whole-Body Fatigue
● Engineering controls
– Automation
– Workstation layout
● Administrative controls
– Job rotation
– Work/rest scheduling
– Rest time:
R = rest time
T (K −S ) T = total working time
R= K = work metabolic rate
K −1.5 S = standard metabolic rate
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Rest Time Examples

T = 60 min
K = 6 kcal/min
S = 4 kcal/min

T (K −S ) 60(6−4) 120
R= = = ≈27 min
K −1.5 6−1.5 4.5
T = 60 min
K = 10 kcal/min
S = 4 kcal/min
T (K −S ) 60(10−4) 360
R= = = ≈42 min
K −1.5 10−1.5 8.5
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Static Work & Muscle Fatigue

● Muscle contraction with minimal movement
● Symptoms
– Discomfort, pain
– Reduced coordination
– Tremor
– Injuries, accidents
– Connective tissue damage
● Causes
– Impeded, occluded blood flow
– Anaerobic metabolism → lactic acid
● Endurance = f(% MVC) [Maximum Voluntary Contraction]
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Static Work & Muscle Fatigue

● Engineering controls
–Reduce loads
– Eliminate static postures
– Workstation layout
– Supports
– Use alternating muscle groups
● Administrative controls
– Rest
– Job rotation
– Encourage postural changes

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