Interpretations

of
Early Buddhist Teachings

Prof. G. D. SutnalUJpala
Abhidhammic Interpretations

Of

Early Buddhist Teaching

Prof. G. D. Sumanapala
· Abhidhammic Interpretations
of
Ear)y Buddhist Teachings

Prof. G. D. Sumanapala
B. A. (Hons.), M. A. PhD
Professor of Pali and Buddhist Studies
University of Kelaniya
S,.;l..anka

Published by
Buddhist Research Society
" Geylang, Singapore
2005
 Published by
Buddhist Library - Buddhist Research Society,
No. 2 and 4 Geylang Road, Singapore 398526

Phone : 67468435
Fax : 67417689
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ISBN : 981-05-3005-6

© G. D. Sumanapala

First Edition : 2005

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#03-34 Singapore 40856 4
 D r!?tida l'fI!?travabhagnanca
bhral'flsancapek!?ya karmanam
desayanti jina dharmal'fl
vyaghri potapaharavat

Seeing fear in both, falling into wrong views and

neglecting the theory of karma and effect, the
Buddhas preach dharma as a tigress takes its cubs
with i ts teeth without hurting the neck and not letting
it fall down.

Abhidharmakofia, Pudgalanirdefiah, ed.

Ven. Moratuve Sasanaratana Thera,
Colombo, 1976, p. 133
 Preface

This short treatise entitled "Abhidhammic Interpretations of Early

Buddhist Teachings" was prepared as a guide to the students of the
Postgraduate Diploma Course in Buddhist Studies at the Graduate School of
Buddhist Studies, Buddhist Research Society in Singapore. I was invited by
Ven. Bellanwila Dhammaratana Thera, the chief advisor of the Buddhist
Research Society, to give a series of lectures on Abhidhamma for the
students of the above mentioned course. The lectures that I gave there
within a period of one month were transformed into a boo klet due to the
request made by the students.

The chapters of the booklet were selected by closely following the

syllabus of the Diploma Course. An attempt was taken to clarify
Abhidhammic interpretations along with the relevant teachings in early
Buddhism. However, the main aspects of each topic have been introduced
without detailed accounts. Thus the students can easily grasp the essence
of the relevant topics and expand them with reference to the secondary
sources written on the subject. It should be mentioned with gratitude that I
have closely followed "Compendium of Philosophy" by S. Z. Aung, a
translation o f the Abhidhammatthasarigaha for the English translations of the
Abhidhammic terms.

should express my sincere gratitude to Ven. Bellanwila

Dhammaratana Thera for his encouragement in this attempt and the
members of the Buddhist Research Society, especially Miss Lyla, the
secretary for type-setting and publication of this booklet. Further, it is my
duty to mention here the support given by my wife Chandrika and two children
Nalini and Dipeepa by creating a convenient environment for doing this work.

I am grateful to Mr Sumal Chandrika Weerarathna for making the final

type-setting. Last but not least, I am fully indebted to Miss Shanta Chow for
accurately re-typing the whole manuscript as I lost the final draft from the
computer at the last moment when it was ready to be sent for printing.

I also should be very thankful to Ven. Rambukewela Gnanaseeha

There of Samadhi Buddhist society Singapore for his assistan ce.

May all beings be well and happy.

Pr01. G. O. Sumanapala
 Dedication

This short treatise is respectfully dedicated to the Late Ven.

Medamulle Sila val}"ksa Nayaka Thera who inspired me to the

Ps/i Literature and t o Mr H. D. S. Ratnasooriya of Akarangaha

who was one of my teachers and is still a source of inspiration
to me to engage in Works like this.

vi
 Abbreviations

DA. Di ghanika y a -a tthaka thta

DhsA. Dhammasarigaoi-a tthakatha
MA. Majjhimanika ya -a tthaka tha
ADSVT Abhidhamma tthasarigaha -vibha vin i -tika
A. Ariguttar anika y a
D. Dighanikaya
S. Sarpyuttanika ya
Vin o Vinayapitaka
M. Majjhimanikaya
PTS. Pali Text Society

vu
 T able of Contents
Pages
Preface iv

Abbreviations vii

Chapter 1 � The Early Buddhist Teachings and 1 7 �

the Evolution of Abhidhamma (Abhidharma)

Chapter 2 � Dhamma Theory as the Abhidhamma View 8 � 23

of Existence

Chapter 3 - Levels of Reality and Degrees of Truth 24 - 36

(Sammuti and Paramattha)

Chapter 4 - Theory of Moments as the Abhidhamma View 37 -44

of Impermanence

Chapter 5 - Analysis of Matter (rupa) into Primary 45 - 5 6

(mahabhlita) and Secondary (upada) Elements

Chapter 6 - Analysis of Mind into Consciousness (citta) 57 -70

and Mental Concomitants (cetasika)

Chapter 7 - Bhavariga and Abhidhamma Theory of 71 - 76

Perception

Bibliography 77 - 78

Index 79 - 80

Vlll
 CHAPTER 1

THE EARLY BUDDHIST TEACHINGS AND THE EVOLUTION OF

ABHIDHAMMA (ABHIDHARMA)

There is a common agreement among the scholars that the Four

Nikayas or Agamas1 mostly represent an earlier period of Buddha's teachings.
They are preserved as Suttapitaka in the Thera vada tradition. Suttapitka
includes five Nikaya s and the fifth Nikaya consists of fifteen texts some of
which can be considered as representing an earlier period.2

These earlier teachings or discourses underwent a considerable

development in the period of at least 300 years after the Buddha's passing
away. This development which is particularly related to the three Buddhist
councils 3 held in India can be explained under several themes which will be
discussed later. The result of this development is the present collection of
Tripitaka, the three baskets of the Buddha's teachings.

The teaching of Buddha included in the three Pitaka s were written on

ola leaves in the first century AD in Sri Lanka during the reign of King
Vattagamanl Abhaya 4 after its introduction to Sri Lanka by Ven. Mahinda in
5
the third century BC.

The discourses found in the Suttapitaka have mainly been classified

not according to the subject matter but mostly as to the external features.
When taken as a whole the discourses are given in a conventional form of
language though some of them can be considered purely doctrinal or
philosophical. The reason for this diversity or mixed nature of the discourses
is that they were delivered on different occasions for various purposes
depending on the nature of the audience.
 The above mentioned complicated nature of the discourses creates
difficulty in understanding their true sense. This was evident even during
Buddha's time. A monk called Sati held the view that the consciousness
transmigrates from existence to existence and a carpenter called
Pancakanga held the view that there are only two kinds of feelings as to the
teachings of the Buddha against the view held by a monk that there are only
three kinds of feelings in Buddha' s teachings. 6 At a later period, as recorded
in the Kathavatthuppaka ra(1a, misinterpretation of Buddha's discourses was a
?
prominent case among the various Buddhist sects.

For example some interpreted the term "Puggala - person" in the

discourses as representing an agent out of the five aggregates which
transmigrates from existence to existence. 8 The emergence of various
Buddhist schools was mainly due to the different interpretations of the
Buddha's teachings.

Thus we can see that t he interpretation of the Buddha's discourses

has been a point of controversy since the time of the Buddha. The evolution
of the Abhidhamma as a separate canon should be identified as a result of
the gradual development of the discourses and search of a methodology for
accurate interpretation of the Buddha's teachings.

Although we can conclude that the evolution of Abhidhamma as a

result of finding a methodology for accurately interpreting early Buddhist
teachings, this process of development can be basically explained under
three headings:

1. As a process of systematization of the Buddha' s teachings

2. As a process of searching for a reliable basis for the human
action, responsibility and rebirth

2
 3. As a process of searching for a methodology for accurately
interpreting the early Buddhist discourses

At the time of the Buddha's passing away, his teachings had not been
collected and classified systematically and extensively. They were
introduced by the disciples as Dhamma and Vinaya (doctrine and discipline),
Na vangasatthusasana (ninefold teaching of the Buddha) or simply as
Dhamma. After the demise of the Buddha, the leading disciples realized the
importance of collecting and classifying the Buddha's teachings for the sake
of future generation. This was done to a certain extent at the first Buddhist
Council held in Rajagaha during the reign of King Ajatasattu three months
after the Buddha's passing away.

The teachings were mainly classified into two sections as Dhamma and
Vinaya. Dhamma was further classified into four or five sections as Nikayas
or Agamas. Vinaya consisted of two main parts, Bhikkuvinaya and
Bhikkhunivinaya. It also had some sub-divisions as Parajikas, Sanghadisesas
and A niyatas according to the strength of the disciplinary rules.

The third step of systematization of the teachings was to abstract

doctrinal teachings from the discourses in order to preserve them as pure
cI1ammas without distorting with the other conventional teachings. Here it
should be noted that there was a division of the Buddha's teachings as
conventional and absolute. This division was based on the teaching of two
kinds, neyyattha and nitattha. Neyyattha suttas had to be interpreted by
adding meanings to them and nitatthasuttas had to be interpreted as they
are. The former paved way for the concept of conventional teaching or truth
3'ld the latter for absolute teachings or absolute truth in the later
Abhidhammic explanations. The doctrinal aspects abstracted from the
discourses can be identified as matikas or topics (subjects of doctrine). They
included the topics such as:

1- Five aggregates
2. Four great elements
3. Twelve faculties
4. Eighteen elements and
5. NibbaQa

It is a fact that such lists of doctrines were compiled as separate

discourses which are called Dha rma-siitras. Even in the present collection of
Tripifaka such discourses including only the lists of doctrines arranged in an
order can be found. The Angutfaranikaya itself can be considered as an
attempt to present various doctrinal facts in a systematic order and the
suttas such as Sangiti and Dasuttara are of the same style.

In the fourth stage the followers understood the importance of

analyzing or defining these doctrinal concepts without contributing to the
conventional form of language. It was felt that the use of highly technical
form of language to define such doctrines will prevent the disciples from
misinterpreting the Buddha's discourses. This process of defining and
analyzing the doctrinal concepts created many problems among the disciples
belonging to different Buddhist sects.

However, the Buddhist community of Sangha split into two divisions

after the Second Buddhist Council and in the subsequent period these two
divisions split further into about eighteen Buddhist sects. The second
Buddhist Council was held after one hundred years of Buddha's passing away
in the city of Visala and the third Council after about two hundred and thirty­
six years of Buddha's passing away in Patna. The different Buddhist sects

4
interpreted the teachings of Buddha in various ways and as a result there
came into being a large number of theories of Buddhism related to doctrinal
and ethical aspects of his teachings. These various interpretations and
theories are recorded in the Kathavatthuppaka ra l)a, the seventh book of the
Abhidhammapitaka. The controvertial points of the different Buddhist sects
recorded in the Kathavatthu have been classified into ten headings by Shwe
Zan Aung and Mrs Rhys Davids as follows:

i. Of the Buddha
ii. Of other Ariyans
a. The A rhant
b. Those in the Lower Path-Stages
c. Of the A riyan Nature and Path
iii. Of the Average Man or Worldling
iv. Of Devas
v. Of the Order
vi. Of the Religion or Church (sasana)
vii. Of the Individual
viii. Of Cosmology
ix. Of the unconditioned
x. Some ethical points

Thus the definitions, analyses and interpretations of the doctrinal facts

by the various Buddhist sects were different from each other. As a result
they compiled their own collections of such analyses and some of them even
debated on such controvertial matters. The Kathavatthuppakara(la was
compiled by Ven. Moggaliputtatissa in order to establish Thera vada point of
view regarding such controvertial points. Further, there was no unanimity
among the Buddhist sects regarding the number of doctrinal aspects so far

collected and classified in the course of time. Thus the collections,

5
classification and definitions of different sects were preserved as separate
canonical texts and they were introduced by a new term called Abhidhamma
(P81i) or Abhidha rma (Sanskrit). It is a fact that the Sutta (discourses) and
Vinaya (disciplinary rules) of early collections of the Buddha's teachings are
very similar to a certain extent but the Abhidharma collections are very
different from each other. This also proves the fact that Abhidhamma came
into being as a process of interpretation of the early Buddhist teachings by
different Buddhist sects.

It should also be remembered that in this process of interpretation the

disciples had to face a number of problems regarding not only the
philosophical and psychological points but also ethical and social aspects.
Some of these problems could not be satisfactorily solved in the absence of
a systematic philosophy (in the modern sense) of the early Buddhist
teachings. The early teachings were recorded in a conventional form of
language and they were not essentially connected with each other so as to
provide a consistent philosophy of the world and the final aim of life. Thus the
compilers of the Abhidhamma canon had to introduce new concepts to fill the
gap and new arrangements of the philosophical aspects so as to prepare a
sound basis for the Buddha's teachings. The attempt taken by Abhidhammic
traditions to fulfil the above purpose should be studied under the topic of
Doctrinal Interpretations in the Abhidhamma.

6
End Notes

1
Law, B. C., A History of Pali Literature, Delhi, 1933, pp. 1 - 42; Malalasekara, G. P., Pali Literature
of Ceylon, Colombo, 1928, p. 14
2 Anesaki, M., Some Problems of the Textual History of the Buddhist Scriptures and the Four
Buddhist Agamas in Chinese, Translations of the Asian Society, Japan, xxxx, parts 2, 3, 1908;
Beal, s., Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from Chinese, London, 1871
3 CuHavagga xii, PTS, p. 407; Mah8vaf!7Sa, v, ed. Geiger, Colombo, 1950, pp. 1- 4
4 Mah8vafJ1Sa, ed. P. Buddhadatta, Colombo, 1959, pp. 102 - 103
5 Anuradhapura Period, ed. Amaradasa Liyanagamage, Ranaweera Gunawardana, University of
Vidyalankara, 1965, p. 161
6 Majjhimanik8ya, I, PTS, 1888, pp. 396 - 400
Kath8vatthuppakara1J8 (Points of Controversy), PTS, 1915, pp. xiv - xvii
a
Ibid.

7
 CHAPTER 2

DHAMMA THEORY AS THE ABHIDHAMMA VIEW OF EXISTENCE

The term ltharma though simply means "doctrine" is a key term in the
' "

Abhidhamma literature which has a wider and technical sense covering the
whole philosophy of Abhidhamma. M. Geiger and Professor W. Geiger in their
treatise called "The Pali Dhamma" and Th. Stcherbatsky in his The Central
Conception of Buddhism and the Meaning of the Word "Dh ar ma"have made
an attempt to clarify the meaning of the term "Dhamma " (Dha rma) on
philological and philosophical basis respectively.1 Here my attempt is not to
deal with it extensively but to present a general nature of the theory of
Dha rmas held by the Buddhist traditions.

The term 'lthamma" has been used in various contexts with a wider
range of meaning in the canonical texts. 2 Attempts have been made to
elucidate its diverse meanings by ancient commentators as well as modern
scholars. The commentaries on Dhammapada and Dighanikaya ascribe the
following meanings to it:

"GUlJa (quality or virtue), desana (teaching), pariyatti (the canon),

Nissatta nijjiva (impersonality, lifeless), etc.,,3

The Atth asali nipresents the following meanings:

''pa riyatti, hetu (cause), gUlJa, nissattanijjivata" etc.4

 The commentary on Majjhimanikaya gives a longer list of meanings:

'Pa riyatti sacca (truth), samadhi (concentration), panna (wisdom),

pakati (nature), sabbava (own nature), sunnata (voidness), punna
(meri!), apatti (commission of a crime), neyya (that which should be
known)'; etc. 5

The Abhidhanappadipika, an ancient Pali dictionary, has an even longer

list of meanings:

"Sabbhava, pariyatti, panna, naya (right manner) sacca, pakati, punna,

neyya, gU(la, acara (civility), samadhi, nissattata, apatti, kara(la
(cause)'; etc.6

As for western scholars, Willihelm and Magdalene Geiger after

considering the commentarial interpretations suggest five uses for it as
follows:

"Gu(la , desana, hetu, pa riyatti, nissatta (nijjiva}"7

Jhon Ross Cater, on the basis of the Pali commentaries, the

Abhidhammapifaka and some other Sinhalese texts, including altogether nine
sources, gives thirty-three definitions of the term dhamma claiming that the
scope of the meaning of the term was still not exhausted by those definitions.
They are as follows:

"Gu(la, desana, pa riyatti, nissatta, nissatta-nijjivata, sunnata, hetu,

saccani, catusaccadhamma, sacca, samadhi, panna, pakati, neyya,
naya , acara , kara (la , maggaphalanibba(la (paths-fruits-nibbana),
ariyamagga (noble path), vya vahara (that which is customary),

9
 kusaladhamma (dhamma that pertain to what is wholesome), vik8ra
(constitution of quality), paccaya (condition), paccayasamuppanna
(that which has arisen conditionally), visaya (object), yutti (custom or
fitness), nibb8na, tripifakapiili (the texts that a re the three pitaka),
suca rita (good beha viour or good conduct), buddhabh8sita (that which
was spoken by the Buddha)': 8

Most of these definitions seem to be synonymous and can be included

in the list from the Abhidhanappadipikii as follows:

1. sabhiiva
2. pariyatti: desanii, tripifakapiili, buddhabhasita
3. punna
4. naya
5. sacca: sacciini, catusaccadhamma, maggaphalanibbana ,
nibbiina , a riyamagga
6. pakati
7. punna: kusaladhamma, yutti, suca rita
8. neyya
9. gUlJa
10. aciira, vya vahara
11. sam8dhi
12. nissattat8: nissatta, nijjfvata, sunnata
13. apatti
14. karalJa: hetu, paccaya, paccayasamuppanna

The above grouping of the items appears reasonable in accordance

with the meanings of the terms as far as their wider usage is concerned.
Thus only the two definitions "vik8ra" and "visaya" from Carter's list can be

10
considered as showing different meanings of the term "dhamma" from those
of the Abhidhanappadipika list.

Some of the above meanings of the term "dhammaHare comparable to

the term "paramatthadhamma" or "dhamma" in the Abhidhamma.
Nevertheless, it is not possible to definitely comment that those meanings
completely represent the connotative and denotative meanings of the term
paramattadhamma or dhamma as explained in the whole range of
Abhidhammic literature because this Abhidhammic term has obviously been
interpreted in various ways according to new environments in later
Abhidhammic literature. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the
Abhidhammic compendia, sub-commentaries and the commentaries on sub­
commentaries, in order to understand the concept adequately. However the
following meanings of the term dhamma among those listed above, are
affiliated with the concept of dhamma in the Abhidhamma.

1. Nissatta-nijjivata - impersonality, lifelessness

2. Sunnata - emptiness or voidness
3. Sabhava - own nature or inherent nature
4. fiJeyya - that which is to be known
5. Paccayasamuppanna - that which has arisen conditionally
6. Panns - wisdom

Thus it is evident how the dhammas are presented in the different

Buddhist Schools in their Abhidhammic Literature.

In the former chapter, attention was drawn to the fact that in the
process of systematization of the early Buddhist teachings, the main
doctrines included in them were abstracted in order to prevent them from

u
being subject to misinterpretations. The abstracted doctrines from the
discourses can be listed as follows:

1. Four Great Elements (catumahabhata): earth (pa!ha vi), water

(apo), fire (tejo), air (vayo)
2. Five Aggregates (pancakkhandha): form (rapa), sensation or
feeling (vedana), perception or memory (sanna), dispositions or
kamma (sankhara), consciousness or initial a wareness (vinna(Ja)
3. Twelve Faculties (dvadasayatana) and Eighteen Elements
(a !!harasadhatu):

Senses Sense-Objects Related Consciousness

1) Cakkhu- eye Rapa - form Cakkhu-viiina(Ja
Eye-consciousness
2) Sota - ear Sadda - sound Sota- vinna(Ja
Ear-consciousness
3) Gha(Ja - nose Gandha - smell Gha(Ja- vinna(Ja
Nose-consciousness
4) Jivha tongue
- Rasa - taste Jivha- vinna(Ja
Tongue-consciousness
5) Kaya - skin Pho!!habba - touch Kaya- vinna(Ja
Skin-consciousness
6) Mana - mind Dhamma - mental objects Mano- vinnlJ(Ja
Mind-consciousness

In the above list the six senses and the six sense-objects are termed
as Twelve Faculties and the Twelve Faculties together with six types of
consciousness are termed as eighteen elements.

12
 4. Four Noble Truths (catu-a riya-sacca):

i. Dukkha-ariya-sacca - Noble truth of unsatisfactoriness

ii. Dukkha-samudaya-a riya-sacca - Noble truth of the cause
of unsatisfactoriness
iii. Dukkha-nirodha-ariya-sacca - Noble truth of the cessation
of unsatisfactoriness
iv. Dukkha-nirodha-giimini-pafjpadii-ariya-sacca - Noble truth
of the path leading to the cessation of unsatisfactoriness
v. Emancipation or Final Freedom (NibbiiQa)
vi. Threefold Training (Tayo sikkha):
a. 817a - morality
b. samiidhi concentration
-

c. pannii wisdom
-

Although there are other numerous lists of doctrines both philosophical

and ethical, they can be included in the lists mentioned above. All these lists
have been classified under four groups in the Abhidhamma as follows:

1. Cifta - mind
2. Cetasika - mental concomitants
3. .RiJpa - form or material aspect
4. NibbiiQa - final freedom

The former three groups refer to the Buddhist analysis of the world of
experience or in a wider sense the existence. The existence has two
aspects as mental and material. The former two groups refer to the mental
aspect and the third one to material aspect while the fourth indicates the final
aim of Buddhist path leading to the cessation of unsatisfactoriness.

13
 As pointed out earlier the list of dhammas and their classifications vary
in different Abhidhamma traditions. The following tables of dhammas or
dha rmas will show such differences belonging to Thera vsda , Sa rvastivada,
Sautrantika and Yogscara traditions:

1. Thera vada Abhidhamma

i. Cifta - consciousness - 89 or 121 types

ii. Cetasika - mental concomitants - 52
iii. ROpa - material elements - 28
iv. NibbsfJa - unconditioned element - 1
Total - 170 or 202

The above list can be presented in relation to the teaching of five

aggregates as follows:

i. ROpa - matter - 28
Vedana feeling

}
ii. - - 1
iii. Sanns perception
- - 1 52 (cetasika)
iv. Sat!*hara - dispositions - 50

v. VinnSfJa - consciousness - 89 or 121 (citta) .

NibbsfJa is not included under the five aggregates because it is an

unconditioned element. All other elements are conditioned. The five
aggregates themselves are also conditioned.

14
 2. Sarv8stiv8da Abhidharma.

i) Gitta (manas. vijiiana) - consciousness - 1

This is treated as pure, without content but the following seven
divisions can be presented.
Manas - consciousness
GakljUr-vijii8na - eye-consciousness

Srotra-vijii8na - ear-consciousness (auditory)

Ghr81JB-vijii8na nose-consciousness (alfactory)
-

Jihv8-vijii8na tongue-consciousness
-

K8ya-vijii8na - skin-consciousness (tactile)

Mano-vijiiana - mind-consciousness

ii) Gaitta - mental concomitants - 46

Hi) ROpa material elements
- - 11
iv) ROpa-citta-viprayukta-safJ7Skara - forces which can
neither be included among material nor among spiritual
elements - 14
v) AsafJ7Skrtadharma - unconditioned elements - 3
Total - 75

The above list can be presented in relation to the five aggregates as

follows:

i) ROpaskandha - the physical elements (matters) - 11

ii) Vedan8skandha - feeling - 1
iii) SalJ7jii8skanclha - perception - 1
iv) SafJ7Skaraskanciha - dispositions - 58
v) Vijii8naskandha - consciousness - 1

15
* Here including Vedana and Saf!7jna the mental concomitants are 46
and they together with 14 forces become 60. Fourteen forces are
connected with dispositions:

i)
ii)
Vedana-1
Saf!7jna-1
} mental concomitants - 46

iii) Saf[1Skara - 44
iv) Citfa viprayuktaS8f!7Skara -14
Total - 60

* The three unconditioned elements are not categorized under the five
aggregates because they are unconditioned. All other elements are
conditioned. The five aggregates themselves are also conditioned.

3) Sautrantika Tradition:

Although Sautrantikas did not accept the Abhidhamma theory of

elements, their analysis of the world of experience can be presented in
relation to the five aggregates as follows:

i) Rapa - matter - 8
ii) Vedana feeling - 3
-

iii) Saf!7jiia perception - 6

-

iv) Saf!7Skara - dispositions - 20

v) Vijnana - consciousness - 6
vi) Nirvana - the unconditioned - 1
Total - 43

16
 4) Yogacara Tradition

i) Citta - consciousness - 8
ii) Cetasika - mental concomitants - 51
iii) ROpa - matter - 11
iv) Citta viprayuktasa fJ1Skara - forces - 24
v) AsafJ1Skrtadha rma - the unconditioned elements - 6
Total - 100

All the above listed dha rmas of the Buddhist traditions can be
summarized in relation to the five aggregates as follows:

Conditioned Elements:
i. ROpa - matter Thera vada - 28
Sa rvastivada - 11
Sautrantika - 8
Yogacara - 11
ii. Vedana feelings- Thera vada 52 -

iii. Sanna perception

- Sarvastivada 60 -

mental
iv Sankhara - dispositions, concomitants Sautrantika - 29
thoughts, Yogacara 75
-

or forces
v. VinnalJa - consiousness Thera vada - 89 or 121
Sarvastivada - 1
Sautrantika - 6
Yogacara - 8

The unconditioned elements also vary in the four traditions, thus they
can be summarized as follows:

17
 Unconditioned Elements:

The unconditioned elements Thera vada - 1

(including Nirvana) Sarvastivada - 3
Sautrantika - 1
Yogacara- 6

* It should be remembered here that the Sautrantikas do not consider

the material elements as real.

The above lists of dharmas in the four Buddhist traditions reveal the
fact that the analysis of the so called person and the related external world
(the world of experience or existence) is basically the same but they vary in
classifications and analyses. Further, they have come to accept different
theories as a result of such analyses. Nevertheless, all of them have
explained their views of existence keeping the early Buddhist conception of
five aggregates as the basis. Therefore, the Abhidhamma view of existence
means nothing but a full pledged analysis of the five aggregates. Now the
occasion has come to considering the five aggregates in detail with some
passing comments on different views held by the aforesaid Buddhist
traditions.

All the Abhidhammic traditions agree that the various lists of elements
or forces mentioned above are constituents of the world of experience or
existence and the unconditioned reality. Those elements are called
Dhammas (Pa/i), Dharmas (Sanskrit), Paramatthadhammas (Pa/i),
Paramarthadha rmas (Sanskrit), Abhidhamma (Pa/i), Abhidha rma (Sanskrit) or
Abhidhammatthas (pa/i). Here, we use the common Pa/i term Dhamma for
easy reference.

18
 The Buddhist traditions hold different views about the nature of
Dhammas as a whole and their analyses and the number of such elements.
The Theravada Abhidhamma explains the general nature of Dhammas under
several conditions which, can be summarized as follows:

1. The dhammas are so called because they bear their own nature

2. The own nature of dhammas is not anything separate from the

dhammas. The own nature or own characteristic is given for
each and every dhamma for the sake of understanding its
peculiar nature

3. The dhammas are defined in accordance with a fourfold method

of analysis:
i) Lakkhal}a own characteristics and common
characteristics
ii) Rasa - the specific function of dhammas
iii) Paccupaffhana the effect of the function
-

iv) Padaffhana - the proximate cause or the nearest cause

that influences the arising of the dhamma

4. All conditioned dhammas are impermanent, unsatisfactory and

essenceless and these three characteristics cannot be applied
to unconditioned dhammas.

5. The dhammas do not move from one place to the other and they
disappear immediately after their arising. The succession of
these moments of arising and disappearing is seen as moving
but in reality it is an illusion.

19
 6. The dhammas come into being without having been before their
arising and disappear without leaving anything behind. This
means that the dhammas have no real existence in the past and
in the future.

7. All conditioned dhammas are conditioned by a number of causes

and they never arise because of a single cause and without any
cause.

8. There is no agent or doer who or which controls the dhammas

and they arise and disappear naturally due to various causes
and conditions.

9. The dhammas represent the real nature of the world of

experience and they are classified into three main categories:
i. material elements
ii. mental or spiritual elements
iii. unconditioned elements
Material and mental elements are conditioned elements.

10. Even artificial divisions of dhammas are accepted for the sake
of definition.

11. The dhammas are called real not because they are permanent
but as they can be fully understood only by insight developed
through meditation.

The Sarvastivadins' definitions of dhammas are in agreement with

those of Thera vadins but there are some specific theories held by them.

20
 1. The own nature of dha rmas exists in the three periods of time
viz. - past, present and future.
2. The change of dha rmas is their active phase but not the change
of own nature. Thus the dharmas which are active are called as
present dharmas, the dha rmas whose function is complete are
past dharmas and the dharmas whose function is not
commenced yet are called future dharmas. ,,, , "7'

3. Not only Nibbana but space also is taken as an unconditioned

dharma which is considered as a concept (not a real dha rma) in
the Thera vada tradition.
4. A category of dharmas which cannot be directly connected with
mind or matter has been accepted which is not available in
The ra vada Abhidhamma.
5. The dha rmas move from future to the present and from present
to the past.

The Sautrantikas did not agree with many of the theories and
definitions of the Sarvastivada Abhidha rma. The Sarvastivadins analyzed
the matter into atoms and they stated that the smallest unit of matter cannot
be further analyzed. This concept of atom was criticized by Sautrantikas as
supporting the concept of permanent soul. The non-mental non-material
elements were categorically rejected by the Sautrantikas and they were very
faithful to the sOtras. Thus they were called Sautrantikas, the adherents of
the sOtras. In their definitions the objective world is a mental projection and
not a reality. The idealistic trend of the Sautrantikas was the main basis for
the e mergence of Yogacara tradition in Mahayana.

The Yogacara or Viji'iana vada is one of the two Mahayana traditions

which emphasized only the reality of mind. They also followed the list of
dharmas presented by the Sarvastivadins with some additions. They

21
increased the number of dharmas from seventy-five to one hundred by
adding the following items:

i. The sixfold consciousness was increased up to eight by adding

impure mind (Kli$!amanas) and store-consciousness
(Alayavijnana).
ii. The forty-six mental concomitants were increased up to fifty­
one by adding five dha rmas.
iii. The fourteen forces were developed by adding ten more forces
iv. The three unconditioned dha rmas were increased up to six by
adding three others.

Although the Yogacarins included one hundred dha rmas in their

analysis of the world of experience, their main theory was that only mind is
real and all others are illusory. But for the explanation of the mental process
of perception, they needed to accept dha rmas in their own way and closely
followed the Sarvastivada analysis of the existence for that purpose.

22
End Notes

1 Geiger, M. Geiger. W., Pali Dhamma. Munich, 1921; Th. Stchebatsky, The Central Conception of
Buddh ism and the Meaning of the word "dhamma", Calcutta. 1961
Pali Text Society - Pali English Dictionary - S. V. Dha.mma
DA. I, p. 99; DhpA. I. p. 22
DhsA. p. 38
MA. I. p. 17
6 Abhidh§nappadipik§, ed. Subhutitthera, Colombo, 1938, p. 108 (Stanza no. 784)
Geiger, M. Geiger, W., Pali Dhamma, p. 4
Carter, John Ross, A Study of a Religious Concept, pp. 156 - 159

23
 CHAPTER 3

LEVELS OF REALITY AND DEGREES OF TRUTH

(SAMMUTI AND PARAMA TTHA)

As was already mentioned, one of the most important purposes of

introducing Abhidhamma was to find a reliable method to interpret early
Buddhist discourses amidst of the misinterpretations of various Buddhist
sects current at the time. Thus, one of the methods introduced to tackle with
this problem was to divide the Buddha's teachings into two main groups as
Sammutidesana - conventional teachings and Paramatthadesana - absolute
teachings. This was done not merely depending on imagination but
concentrating on the Buddha's teachings themselves. It is important to note
that the early compilers of commentaries followed two methods when
introducing new facts into Buddhist philosophy. They are called:

Agama proof of the Buddha's teaching

Yuttl logical basis 1

Following the above two methods, the division of Buddha's teachings

into two groups as Sammuti and Paramattha has been developed as a main
Abhidhammic theory of the Pali commentarial literature.

As stated earlier, the Buddha ' s teachings were given on different

occasions to various individuals and groups of people in a number of Indian
states where different dialects were spoken. In such a situation the
discourses of both, the Buddha and the disciples necessarily take different
styles of language, sometimes philosophical and sometimes conventional.
The problem arises when others attempt to interpret them according to their
own way of comprehension. In this attempt it is obvious that the two forms of
language may create problems especially regarding the terminology which
bears much similarity between Hinduism and Buddhism. For instance, the
terms like Brahma, atta (alma), sagga (sva rga), si/a (si/a), dana, jhana
(dhyana) and Nibbana (nirvana) have different connotations in Hinduism,
Buddhism and Jainism though they are synonymous in pronunciation. Some
of their meanings in different contexts can be illustrated as follows:

Buddhism Hinduism
Brahma Great or higher The creator god
Alia Personality (five aggregates) Eternal soul
Sagga Place of happiness Heaven
Sila Morality as the first stage of Rites, rituals and
the threefold training observances recommended
in Hinduism
Dana Giving in order to reduce Giving food etc. and even
greed and develop kindness sacrificing animals
Jhana Trances that come in the Trances that have taken as
second stage of the path ends themselves
leading to Nibbana
Nibbana The final stage of the path Union of the individual soul
leading to the cessation of and the universal soul
suffering (Brahma)

According to the above examples, it is clear that a person not well­

acquainted with Buddhist doctrine may tend to interpret and understand the
Buddha's teachings in quite the opposite way. Probably because of this trend
at the time of the Buddha himself, he has introduced two kinds of discourses
to be identified by the disciples in his teachings.

25
 Neyyatthasuttanta - the discourses to be interpreted with
additional meanings
. Nitatthasuttanta the discourses to be interpreted without
adding meanings2

The former consists of teachings given in a conventional form of

language, language of common people. The latter refers to the teachings
which include doctrinal or philosophical matters described in a more technical
form of language, perhaps aiming at educated people.

Another important statement in this regard is the fourfold division of

knowledge mentioned in the Sangiti-sutta of Dighanikaya.

Dhamme iial}a knowledge of the doctrine

A nvaye iial}a knowledge in its corollaries
Paricchede iial}a - k nowledge in analysis
Sammutiya iial}a - knowledge in convention3
(Dialogues III - p. 218)

Although there is a problem of interpretation with regard to the third

knowledge (paricce or pa ricchede), it can be taken as the knowledge of
analysis when the last one (knowledge of convention) is taken as its opposite.
However, the absolute teachings in the Buddhist context are obtained as a
result of analysis of the conventions. For instance, the person (puggala) is a
convention and its analysis is the five aggregates viz - form (riJpa), feelings
(vedana), perceptions (saiiiia), dispositions (safi<hara) and consciousness
(viiiiial}a).4

As a theory, it is possible to consider that if anything disappears after

analysis it is a convention. As in the above example person (puggala) when

26
analysed we get only five aggregates and there is not a thing called person.
So, it is a convention.

On the other hand, in most cases, when something is given in brief in

the context of dhamma, it naturally becomes an absolute teaching. For
example, the suffering is explained in detail in the Dhamma eakkappa vattana­
sutta as birth (jati) is suffering, decay (jara) is suffering, illness (vyadhi) is
suffering, and decease (mara(la) is suffering. After this statement it follows
that in brief(sar7l<hittena) five aggregates of grasping are suffering
(paneupadanakkhandha dukkha).5 In this context a statement when given in
detail is a convention and the same in brief becomes an absolute teaching. A
similar expression in the canon akin to these two kinds of teachings is the
teachings of pariyaya and nippariyaya.6 Pariyayakatha means synonymous
talk and nippariyayakatha means absolute talk which has no synonyms. If a
statement can be interpreted otherwise it is a mark of convention. As
mentioned earlier neyyattha discourses should be interpreted otherwise by
adding meanings in order to get the true sense of the statement. Similarly
pariyaya means which can be interpreted in various ways and it has no
established norm. Therefore pariyaya can be considered as being related to
the concept of convention and quite the opposite is nippariyaya or absolute.

Depending on or influenced by the above mentioned canonical basis,

the teachers of Abhidhamma were able to introduce a theory of reality which
has two main aspects to be discussed in detail.

Degrees of truth (sammutisaeea - paramattha saeea)

Expression of reality (pannatti - paramattha and sammuti)
Degrees of Truth:
Certainly there is no conception of degrees of truth in Thera viida
Abhidhamma. What we come across is two ways of communication as
sammuti - conventional and pa ramattha - absolute. In our day-to-day
conversations these two ways are inevitable. In such occasions we talk
about persons, places and things using particular terms like man, woman, Sri
Lanka, Singapore, beauty and serenity. Also we talk about some abstract
things like form, feelings, perceptions, volition, consciousness and dispositions
and some of these things can be seen and some cannot be seen but thought
of. Both the things include some imaginary concepts and some that can be
considered as real in the sense that they are obtainable as the essence of
what we experience. For instance we can take the term heaven which
cannot be experienced through our senses. So the term heaven seems
imaginary. But the term consciousness though cannot be fully experienced
through the senses, cannot reject as an imaginary concept because we know
we are really involved in thinking process in our day-to-day life. Therefore, it
is a fact which is real in the Abhidhammic context. We can analyse
consciousness into many divisions and sUb-divisions but its reality cannot be
rejected. The feelings, perceptions and dispositions are also possess similar
nature so that they are considered as real as that we found in the term
consciousness. The term consciousness though analysed into more than
hundred divisions still we get the nature of thinking as its essence. But the
term man when analysed into hundred pieces we get only a heap of flesh
where even a trace of man cannot be found. The heap of flesh also is not
real in the sense that it also disappears when further analysed. Finally we get
only four kinds of essence viz - solidity, cohesion, temperature and motion?
as the essence of the heap of flesh. Therefore, in the Abhidhammic context
these four kinds of essence are real or absolute. These can be experienced
in any given material item even after its final level of analysis. They are not
material things but essential nature of material items.

28
 Now it is clear that the division as two degrees of truth or two levels of
reality is mainly a matter of communication. There are many things in the
world that become objects of our senses. In the act of perception mind plays
a prominent role in conceptualization of sense-data. Then those concepts
built or created in mind are communicated among the people by using
different dialects or languages. The concepts as well as the things in the
world are constructions but not solid and unitary items. For the sake of
communication or for easy understanding we always take them as unitary
and solid things. According to Abhidhamma the concepts as well as the
things in the world are but not realities. All of them are conditioned things
which possess the nature of impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and
essencelessness. Still we have to understand their real nature in order to
minimize and finally get rid of the attachment towards them. The conditioned
things conceived as wholes deceive the people so that they cling to them or
otherwise hate them. The reason for clinging and hating which culminates in
developing greed and hatred and as a result delusion in human mind is that we
take concepts and things in the world as solid, permanent things. This is
called wrong view of the world. The wisdom or insight which should be
developed through meditation can realize the true nature of concepts and
other things by which one can eliminate attachment and hatred towards them.
This is the reason that Buddhism recommends a third eye (wisdom or insight -

pann§) for the realization of truth. Still we as ordinary beings have no other
means to see things as they really are except mental process and the words
of language. Mental process of perception and the structure of language are

essentially artificial consfructions. They are not real. Therefore,

Abhidhamma instructs the people to understand the nature of thought
process and the ways of communication and use both as mere instruments
but not as realities to understand the real nature of oneself and the world
without clinging to them. For this reason, it is stated in many Buddhist

29
traditions that without convention reality cannot be expressed and without
understanding reality nirvana cannot be attained. In Thera vada it is clearly
stated that convention is true in the sense that it has been accepted by the
majority and absolute is true in the sense that it shows the real nature of
things. So, the Buddha when uses conventions is not telling lies. He uses
convention as a useful instrument to clarify the real nature of the world.

The above mentioned broad perspective of reality and communication

has been fully explained in the Abhidhamma under the topic pannatti
( expression).

No need to engage in etymological jargon, pannatti means

communication or expression of ideas through language or any other medium
such as gestures and moods. For the sake of convenient usage we use the
term expression though it does not convey fully the meaning of the term
paiiifa llL The expression has two aspects:

Conceptualization - thinking process

Communica tion conveying the concepts through any
medium8

Before we communicate we think. After thinking an idea occurs in the

mind. Then we convey that idea to another person or group. For instance,
let us consider that we convey the idea through language. In this process of
communication two things are involved:

An idea or thought
Sounds, words and sentences

30
 The idea of that expression is the meaning of that statement, so the
meanings of all sounds, words or sentences in any given language represent
ideas created in the minds of people who use such sounds, words or
sentences. These two aspects of communication are explained in
Abhidhamma under the following two divisions of pannatti.

A tthapannatti meanings constructed

Saddapannatti sounds or words constructed9

Now it is clear that both meanings (ideas) as well as sounds (words

and sentences) in a given language are not real but artificial constructions.
This can be further clarified by showing how this act of construction comes
into being. Let us take first the act of thinking. Our senses possess very
limited capacity in perceiving things. Certainly most of the things in the world
cannot perceive through the senses. What we perceive through the senses
is conveyed to the mental process. Mental condition of various people varies
in relation to the conditions in which they are brought up. The sense data
projected to the mental process create various ideas in the minds of people.
These very limited and incomplete ideas are communicated through various
forms of language. The structure of languages differs from each other due to
their own characteristics. The rules of grammar, sound-system and
established meanings of vocabulary etc. are but very complex. Now it should
be clear that the complex and incomplete ideas are normally communicated
through complex and incomplete forms of language. In such communications
or expressions no one can expect the exact nature of the world expressed
completely. Therefore, in Abhidhamma both ideas or meanings and the
related expressions are termed as pannatti enactment. The same condition
-

prevails when we hear the words of others too. Once we hear the others '
expressions, ideas are created in our minds in relation to the sounds we hear.
Thus, the various expressions in language should be understood as they

11
really are. This understanding helps us not to be led astray by different
usages of language. The following is a brief account of the divisions and sub­
divisions of the category of pannatti explained in the Th eravad aAbhidh amma.
It will be useful to have a general knowledge of the Abhidh amma teaching of
pannatti which covers almost all the ideas related to the degrees of truth and
levels of reality.

Between the two divisions of pannatt., the examples given to the

namapannatti are very similar in almost all the compendia and sub­
commentaries. The most detailed accounts and various examples have been
given to the atth apannatti. Though pannatti has been explained divided into
two main sections, it is very clear that they are inseparable aspects of
expression, i.e. words and meanings. This will be clearer when attention is
paid to the examples given to those two divisions. Let us observe first the
examples given to the namapannatti.

1. Vijjamanapannatti - a concept 'occurring' ego rilpa - matter,

vedana - feeling, sanna - perception, sankh ara - mental
formations, vinnaQa - consciousness, dh atu - elements, ayatana
- sense-bases.

2. Avijjamanapannatti - a concept 'not occurring' ego i tthi - woman,

puri sa- person, bh ilmi - earth, pai:Jbata- rock, manea- bed.

3. Vijjamanena aVijjamanapannatti - a concept 'not occurring with

occurring'. ego tevijja- possessor of the three higher knowledges,
eh alabhinna - possessor of the six supernormal knowledges,
silava - a person having moral discipline, pannava - a person of
wisdom.

32
 4. Avvijjamanena vijjamanapannatti - a concept 'occurring with not
occurring' ego itthirupa - the form of female, purisa rupa - the form
of male, itthisadda - the sound of female, itthicitta - the mind of
female.

5. Vijjamanena vijjamanapannatti - a concept 'occurring with

occurring' ego cakkhusamphassa - eye-contact, sotasamphassa
- ear-contact, cakkhuvinnalJa - eye-consciousness.

6. Avijjamanena a Vijjamanapaiinatti - a concept 'not occurring with

not occurring' ego khattiyaputta -warrior's son, brahmalJaputta -

brahmin's son, rajaputta - king's son. 1O

Though the namapannatti has been divided into six as the above, in
brief it has only two divisions as vijjamana and a vijjamana. By mixing these
two, the other four divisions have been devised. Among the six divisions, 1, 3,
4 and 5 have connections with 'vijjamanapaiinatti: When all those examples

representing real concepts and unreal concepts are collected, the following
list can be obtained:

1) Vijjamanapannatti(real):
Matter, feeling, perception, mental formations, consiousness,
elements, sense-bases, three higher knowledges, six
supernormal knowledges, morality, wisdom, sound, eye, contact,
ear.

2) Avijjamanapannatti(unreal):
Woman, person, the earth, rock, bed, warrior, son, Brahmin, king.

33
 Now taking these examples into consideration we can come to a
conclusion regarding the two main divisions of namapannatti. The names or
words that refer to the dhammas accepted as real in the Abhidhamma as
well as in Buddha's teachings in common such as the five aggregates have
been considered as vijjamana. In other words the abstract or concise
teachings (matika) of the Buddha that are normally represented by technical
terms relating to the fundamental constituent parts of the empirical existence
and the path to perfect freedom are considered as vijjamana . It should be
emphasized here that these real concepts or rather words refer to the
empirical reality (dhammas) but not to an absolute reality underlying or
beyond our experience. Also these can be introduced as the result of the
Abhidhammic analysis of person and the related phenomena. They are real
in the sense that they come into the focus of intuition which is to be
developed through meditation. When these real dhammas are analysed
mentally their own nature does not disappear, because it is real. On the
contrary, when the a vijjamana concepts such as woman, person are
analysed, those concepts disappear because they are not real. They are
merely mental constructions done according to the various appearances of
the real dhammas. In the usage of language there are terms that refer to
both vijjamana and a vijjamana concepts. Also they are used in combination.
According to these various usages, the sub-divisions of namapannatti have
been introduced. Now it is very important to compare these examples of
namapannatti with those of the atthapannatti so as to have a clear
understanding of both the divisions. A thapannatti has many sUb-divisions and
some to the examples given to them are as follows:

bhOmi - earth pabbata - rock geha - house

purisa - person disa - direction kala - time
Tissa - a personal name

34
 It is very interesting to note that among these examples there is no
even a single word that refers to the real dhammas. Probably the reason for
this is that the atthapannatti has been described as the different
appearances or particular phases of real dhammas. The above fact
supports the idea that the words referring to the real dhammas are included
only among the namapannatti This implies that the real dhammas can be
named or expressed but their real nature does not depend on the synthetic
function of the mind. A ttha means the mental concept relating to the word.
Therefore the meanings that arise in the ordinary mind when those terms of
real dhammas are heard, cannot be real as well. Their real nature can be
realized only by intuition. It is not a matter of understanding but a matter of
seeing (dassana). This is the reason for inclusion of conventional truth in the
atthapannatti and both conventional and absolute truths in the namapannatti
Another important fact to be noted here is that most of the examples given to
the atthapannatti are similar to those of a vijjamanapannatti of the
namapannatti The above discussion reveals that the commentators
conceived pannatti and divided it into nama and attha for the sake of the
clearer definition of the two truths in relation to language and in doing so set
up a theory of language with a distinctly Thera vada standpoint.

35
End Notes

1 ADSVT, p. 105
A. I, PTS, p. 60
D. Ill, PTS, p. 226
4 S. Ill, PTS, p. 142
5 Vino I, PTS, pp. 10 - 11
6 M. I, PTS, p. 398
7 M. Ill, PTS, p. 16
8 G. D. Sumanapala, Reality and Expression, pp. 52 - 59
op. cit., pp. 72 - 73
10
ADSV T, p. 151; MMT, 11, p. 464
 CHAPTER 4

THEORY OF MOMENTS AS THE ABHIDHAMMA VIEW OF IMPERMANENCE

The central philosophy of Buddhism is the teaching of Dependent co­

origination (paliccasamuppada). According to the philosophy, everything in
the world, both material and mental, comes into being due to various causes
and conditions. The causes and conditions are manifold as:

t Kammaniyama { m ora'l) 'Karm'lc 'laws

ii. Dhammaniyama sp iritual laws of supernatural sphere
iii. Cittaniyama ps ychological - laws of mental
behaviour
iv. Utuniyama biological - laws of season and
v. Bijaniyama ph ysical - laws of seeds1

Because of this conditioned nature of phenomena nothing in the world

has a permanent status. Everything is impermanent. The universal
characteristic of impermanence has peen established on the basis of
conditionality (idappaccayata). The impermanent nature of the world is
stated in a number of discourses in a conventional form of language. The
following are some of them:

i. "anicca vata sankhara uppdda vayadhammino"

All conditioned things are impermanent and they are in the nature
of origin and destruction.

ii. 'sabbe sankhara anicca"

All conditioned things are impermanent.
 iii. "yam kinci samudayadhammaf}1 sabbaf}1 taf}1 nirodhadhammaf}1"
Whatever is in the nature of arising all of them are in the naturE
of destruction.

iv. 'sabbehi me piyehi manapehi nanabh§vo vinabhavo"

All that are dear and near, are also in the state of separation.

v. ''ha samyoga viyoganta"

All bonds end in departing2

The statements as sited above refer to the theory of impermanence.

But in the discourses this nature of impermanence has not been developed as
a philosophical theory. It is in the Abhidhammic traditions that this became or
was developed as a theory of moment. The term "moment" refers to the
canonical statements like 'sankhara kha(1abhangura" conditioned things are
momentary. '1(ha(1a means "moment" in this context.
"

Further, attention should be paid to a statement in Anguttara-nikaya

which has probably influenced the origin of the theory of moment in the
Abhidhamma traditions.

"Tifimani bhikkha ve sankhatassa sankhatalakkha(1ani Katamani ti(1i ?

Uppado pannayati, vayo pannayati fhitassa annathattaf}1 pannayati': 3

According to the statement, three characteristics can be noted in the

conditioned phenomena. They are the origin, destruction and the change of
what is existing. The three characteristics can be presented as follows:

i. arising
ii. existence and change or decay and

38
 iii. destruction

As to our day- to-day experience we can perceive things both material

and mental come into being, become otherwise and disappear. For instance
a human being comes into being as an infant, becomes otherwise or changes
as an adult and disappears as an old person. A plant comes into being out of
a seed as a sprout, changes into a big tree and perishes at last. This
conventional sta tement can be put into a philosophical theory after some
modifica tions. So we get the following:

All conditioned things undergo a duration of three moments. Viz -

i. moment of arising
ii. moment of existence (and change)
iii. moment of destruction4

The above is the theory of moment in the Thera vada Abhidhamma in

brief. Yet some others can present the theory in another way.

All conditioned things undergo a duration of four moments. Viz -

i. moment of arising
ii. moment of existence
iii. moment of change (decaying)
iv. moment of des truction5

This is the theory of moment accepted in the Sarvastivada

Abhidharma. And further there is a possibility of interpreting the canonical
references including only two moments of the conditioned things. Viz -

39
 i. moment of arising
6
H. moment of destruction

This is the theory of moment upheld by the Sautrantikas.

Now, it is important to discuss the controvertial points put forward by

the three traditions in order to confirm their theories.

The Sautriintikas who gave much emphasis to the discourses did not
like to accept the Sarvastivadin theory of four moments due to several facts.
According to them the moment of existence means something exists
permanently even for a moment. Such an existence goes against the
teaching of impermanence which is a fact that cannot be neglected even for
a moment. All conditioned things disappear immediately after their arising.
So nothing cannot possess a moment of existence. It is stated very clearly in
the discourses a s aJJ conditioned things are in the na ture of a rising and

destruction (uppada- vayadhammino). And on the other hand, a moment of

change or decaying cannot be accepted because it indicates the idea that
the thing that disappears is not the same thing that came into being. The
things that come into being changes before its destruction. This idea
supports the theory of evolution upheld by the Sankhya tradition, a branch of
Hindu philosophy at the time. As to the Sankhya tradition the universe
including beings has come into being as a result of the process of evolution.
The evolution of the universe starts with a primary cause which is a thing
unmanifested. From that primary cause there arose two aspects called
prakrti - and puru�a - the absolute and homogeneous. From these two
aspects, mahan consciousness and aharprara - ego come into being. From
aharprara the three aspects sattva - equilibrium, rajas - activity and tamas ­
inertia7 are produced which are responsible for the origin of human senses,
sense-objects and the five great elements. Accordin Q to th is theory of

40
evolution the whole universe comes into being out of a single phenomena
which is eternal. This concept goes against the theory of impermanence.
And the acceptance of a moment of change means a primordial aspect
undergoes some changes during its time of existence. Buddhist theory of
impermanence has no access to such a primordial cause out of which
everything comes into being. Because of these factors the Sautrantikas
rejected the moments of existence and change (decaying) of the
Sarvastivadins and established their theory as consisting of only two
moments viz - arising and destruction. Accordingly, they also held the theory
of indirect perception. Since there is no a moment of existence we cannot
perceive anything directly. Through our senses we only infer the things and
our knowledge of existence is merely an inference.

It should be noted here that there were two means of knowledge

accepted by the Buddhist traditions.

i. direct perception (pratyak$a)

ii. indirect perception (anumana) 8

The former emphasizes that the things (objects) can be perceived

through the senses directly in order to gain knowledge of them. The latter
emphasizes that the things (objects) are momentary and they have no
moment of existence other than the moment of arising and the moment of
destruction. Hence, in the absence of a moment of existence they cannot be
perceived directly through the senses. Therefore, the knowledge that we
obtain about the sensory data is merely an inference.

Between these two means of knowledge, the Sautrantikas. who are

mainly idealists, accept only the indirect perception. The other two traditions
namely Theravadins and the Sa rvastivadins accept both direct perception

41
and indirect perception as means of k nowledge. This is the reason for
denying the moment of existence by the Sautrantkas and accepting the
moment of existence by the Thera vadins and the Sa rvastivadins.

Here it is worthwhile to consider the standpoint of the Thera vadins

regarding the controversy of the th eory of moment upheld by the
Sarvastivadins and the Sautrantikas. It seems that the Thera vadins who

developed the Abhidhammic theories w hile living alone in Sri Lanka were
aware of the controversy between the other two traditions which prevailed in
Iha"la at tne time. Aftnougn wltnout direc t contact with the other traditions
they formulated and analysed their theo� y of moment without confrontation
with regard to the opinions of the others S o far discussed.

As stated earlier the Thera vadlns being faithful to the Buddha's

teaching of three characteristics of p henomena in the Angutlara-nikaya,
presented only three moments as arising, existence and destruction. But they
were aware that in some other discourse::.; as pointed out by the Sautrantikas,
statements occur supporting the theory of two moments. Nevertheless,
Theravadins were not idealists and had to accept direct perception being
themselves realists as the Sarvastivadlns. In this context they could not
oppose both the traditions and had to int� rpret the theory of moment without
criticizing the other two view points. The refore, the Thera vada analysis of
the three moments has given , not to acc ept and not to deny the two views
held by the others but to follow a middle Vvay in between.

As to the Thera vada interpretation the moment of existence was given

special attention because it was denied by the Sautrantikas with strong
arguments while Sarvastivadins split the moment into two and made their
theory consisting of four moments. So the Thera vacJins interpreted the
moment of existence as not a specific m ome nt but as a phase between the

42
moments of arising and destruction. The moment of existence, as to
Theravadins, may be interpreted as a phase passing the status of novelty
the (na vabhavapagama) in relation to the moment of arising which is the
status of novelty as the first arising. On the other hand the moment of
existence can be interpreted as a phase (a vattha) facing the destruction
(bhangabhimukhavattha) in relation to the moment of destruction which is
similar to the moment of change or decaying of the Sarvastivadins. Now the
Thera vadins indirectly supported the Sautrantikas by relegating the moment
of existence upto a status or phase which means there is no specific moment
called existence but merely a phase between the other two moments. On the
other hand, by splitting the moment of existence into two phases as
navabhavapagama and bhaQgabhimukha, they supported the two moments
of existence and decaying of the Sarvastivada indirectly.9

Thus it is clear that the theory of moment also came into being as a
result of interpreting the Buddha's teachings in various ways by the different
Buddhist traditions.

43
End Notes

K. N. Jayatilleke, Survival and Karma in Buddhist Perspective, p. 25; Atthasalini, Buddhajayanti

Tripitaka, pp. 240 - 242
2 These references which are given only to show the style of the conventional teachings in the
canon have been quoted from The MahSparinibbSlJasutta of DighanikSya, Dhammapada,
Dhammacakkappavattanasutta of MahSvaggapSIi, Dasadhammasutta of Pir uvSnS Polvahanse
(The Book of Protection) and TherigSthS respectively
3 AngullaranikSya, I, BJT, p. 274
4 ADSVT, p. 112
5 Y. Karunadasa, Buddhist Analysis of Matter, p. 84
6 P. S. Jaini, The Development of the Theory of ViprayuklasamskSras, BSOAS, voL xxii, 1959
7 Robert E. Avoboda, Ayurveda, Life, Health and Longevity, London, 1992, pp. 40 - 46
8 G. D. Sumanapala, An Introduction to Theravada Abhidhamma, pp. 146 - 150
9 ADSVT, p. 112

44
 CHAPTER 5

ANALYSIS OF MATTER (ROPA) INTO PRIMARY (MAHABHOTA)

AND SECONDARY (UPADA) ELEMENTS

ROpa (matter) represents the first group of five aggregates which is

analysed into twenty-eight material elements in the Thera v§da Abhidhamma.
The division is as follows:

1) Essential material qualities - 4

Element of extension (earth pa fha v�

-

Element of cohesion (water - apo) Primary elements (mahabhOfa)

Element of temperature (fire - fejo)
Element of motion (air - vayo)

2) Sensitive material qualities - 5

The eye Cakkhu

The ear Sofa
The nose Ghaf}a
The tongue Jivha
The body (skin) Kaya

3) Material qualities of sense-fields - 4

Visible form - ROpa '

Sound Sadda
Odour Gandha
 Taste Rasa
*
Touch represents the three primary elements except cohesion.

4) Material qualities of sex - 2

Masculinity - Purisatta
Femininity Itthatta

5) Material quality of base - 1

The heart-base Hadaya vatthu

6) Material quality of life - 1

Vital force (material) RiJpa-jivitindriya

7) Material quality of nutrition - 1

Edible food - Kabalinkarahara

*
From primary elements up to here, the eighteen material
elements are called really conditioned material elements
(nipphannarapa) and the following ten are called the material
elements which cannot be considered as really conditioned
elements. And while the first four elements are called primary
elements, the other twenty-four elements are termed as
secondary elements (upadariJpa).

46
 8) Material quality by limitation - 1

The element of space Akasa

9) Material qualities of communication - 2

Intimation by the body Kaya vinnatti

Intimation by speech Vacivinna Iti

9) Material qualities of plasticity - 3

Lightness of matter Lahuta

Pliancy of matter Muduta
Adaptability of matter Kammannata

10) Material qualities of salient features - 4

Integration of matter Upacaya

Continuance of matter Santati
Decay of matter Jarata
Impermanence of matter - A niccatd'

1. The Four Primary Elements:

The four primary elements are considered as the basis of all other
material elements which are twenty-four in number. These primary elements
are mentioned in the discourses in their general sense as earth, water, fire
and air. But in the Abhidhamma they are defined as fourfold essential nature
because in Abhidhamma the absolute nature is concerned when defining

47
dhammas. In that absolute sense the four primary elements represent the
following aspects respectively:

1. Solidity Pa!ha vi
2. Cohesion APO
3. Temperature Tejo
4. Motion Vayd'

It is to be noted that the idea of solidity arises because of Tri­

dimentional extension or occupation in space. Apo - cohesion according to
Thera vada is an object of mind and therefore cannot be the object of other
sense faculties. Temperature includes both heat and cold because these two
represent two levels of the same phenomena. Motion is not actually moving
from one place to the other. All elements are momentary and they have no
time to move from one place to the other. The rapid process of arising and
destruction of the elements seems like moving. It should also be noted that in
the Sarvastivada Abhidharma apo means cold and tejo means heat. And
vayo means motion.

2. Sensitive material qualities and sense-fields:

This category includes the five sense faculties viz - eye, ear, nose,
tongue and body (skin) and their respective objects viz - visible form, sound,
odour, taste. The object of skin namely touch (cold and heat) is not included
here because the primary elements of touch viz - solidity, temperature and
motion represent it. Among the sense faculties the eye and the ear are
named as asampatta-gahaka in the sense that they take their objects in the
distance without touching each other. The eye can see objects in the
distance but according to the common belief the ear takes objects when they
touch the ear. This has been clarified in the commentaries with empirical

48
examples. There had been persons competent in archery who can shoot an
animal according to its sound. The place of the animal is understood by its
sound in the distance. If the archer recognizes the sound when it touches the
ear, the arrow should come to the ear but not to the animal. And we are able
to recognize the direction of sound which is a sign that we recognize sound in
the distance. 3

4
3. Material qualities of sex:

Among the beings there is a clear physical difference as male and

female. As to the Abhidhamma these two material elements are responsible
for creating such a difference in physica.l body.

4. Material quality of base:

This is a new material element introduced in the Thera vada

Abhidhamma. In the concept of eighteen elements we noticed that the five
kinds of consciousness - eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness etc. are
based on two material elements. For instance eye-consciousness is based
on the eye and the visible which are material. As to the teaching of
dependant - origination mind and matter always come together. Mind without
material basis leads to idealism and matter without mind leads to materialism
which are not accepted in Buddhism. Therefore, the sixth sense faculty
namely, mind with thoughts as its objects cannot create mind-consciousness
without a material basis. On the other hand, mind, thoughts and mind­
consciousness should have a material basis as the other types of
consciousness possess eye, ear, nose, tongue, skin and forms, sounds, smell,
taste and touch. This is the logical basis for introducing a new material
element called heart-base. The logical basis itself was not sufficient to
introduce a new item. This logical basis which is called yutti should be

49
confirmed by citing a statement from the canon. So the commentators
quoted a statement from the Paffhana, the seventh text of Abhidhamma­
pifaka in order to prove that the heart-base was already approved by the
Buddha. The quotation means:

"On whatever material basis, mind and mind-consciousness exist that

material basis becomes the material basis for the element of mind,
element of mind-consciousness and the related thoughts (dhamma). "

Thus confirmed by the two requirements viz - yutti and agama (logical
basis and quotation from the canon), the Thera vadins introduced the heart­
base (hadaya vatthu) as the material basis for mind, mental objects (thoughts)
and the mind-consciousness. This heart-base is considered as a clear status
associated with a portion of blood in the heart.5

6
5. Material quality of Iife:

It is mentioned that the people possess a kind of force which is

responsible for their duration of life. According to Thera vada there are two
such life forces related to physical and mental aspects of the five aggregates.
In this context, the material life-force maintains the duration of physical body.
The reason for introducing two material life forces is that in the trances of
form sphere mental activities are neutralized and in those of formless sphere
material functions of the body are neutralized. In these two cases, continuity
of life should be maintained. When mind is not active body should be active
and when body is not active mind should be active in order to continue life
without break. Therefore, Thera vadins introduced two life forces as material
and mental of which material life force is meant in this context.

50
 7
6. Material quality of nutriment:

For the existence of material elements, the essence of food is required.

This material element represents the nutrition abstracted from edible food for
the sustenance of physical body.

The above mentioned eighteen material elements are distinguished

from the other ten material elements as follows:

L according to their differential characteristics

ii. according to their salient marks
iiL as determined by karma and environment
iv. as mutable
v. as object fit for contemplation8

In this context, we can consider the following ten material elements as

possessing the quite opposite features mentioned above.

7. Material quality of Iimitation:9

The space though not a real element, indicates the limitation of material
elements. It is the location where matter exists. Space is taken as one of the
five primary elements in the Indian traditions and particularly it is an
unconditioned element in the Sa rvastivada Abhidharma.

1o
8. Material quality of communication:

Human beings communicate their ideas by means of sounds and

gestures. These two ways are named respectively as intimation by speech

St
and intimation by body. It is clear that these are specific functions related to
matter but not separate kinds of material elements.

9. Material quality of plasticity:11

Material things do not exist in the same way all the time. Sometimes
they are light, sometimes soft and sometimes active. These three aspects
are termed as lightness, pliancy and adaptability respectively. These are
also not particular material elements.

10. Material qualities of salient features:12

There are the common characteristics of matter in which the first two
namely integration (upacaya) and continuance (santati) together represent
origin or birth of material elements. The third their decaying and the fourth
their destruction. Although these are mere characteristics in Theravada
Abhidhamma, they are taken as real elements or forces in the Sarvastivada
Abhidharma.

Further, it is important to note the general aspects of matter as given in

the Compendium of Philosophy. The material elements so far discussed
collectively represent what is called rapa or matter in the Theravada
Abhidhamma. Unlike mental phenomena they have no causes (hetu) moral or
immoral. They are relative and found up with defilements. They are
conditioned, mundane and belonging to the sensual sphere. They are not
subjective and not to be rejected. Here it should be noted that "they are not
to be rejected means matter itself should not be rejected. When it is said
that matter should be rejected (rapam pahatabba!J7) it means the defilements
related to matter should be rejected (tattha-tabbisayacchandaragahani
pakasita). 13

52
 And there are sUb-divisions of material elements in addition to the
above mentioned classifications. Some of them are as follows:

i. The five sense faculties are internal and the others are external
ii. The five sense faculties and the heart-base are bases and
others not
iii. The five sense faculties and the two media of communication
are doors and others not
iv. The five sense faculties, two elements of sex and the vital force
are controlling forces and others are not
v. The five sense faculties and forms, sounds, smell, taste, solidity­
temperature-motion (touch) altogether twelve elements are
gross, near and resisting whereas the others are subtle, remote
and non-resisting
vi. Rapa or coloured object is visible and others invisible
vii. Eye and ear have no immediate access to their objects and
nose, tongue and body have immediate access to their
respective objects
viii. Colour, odour, taste, nutrition and four primary elements are
called inseparable material elements and all others are
separable. 14

There are four conditions for the ariSing of matter

i. kamma
ii. mind
iii. physical change (environmental changes) and
iv. food15
 As a whole the Abhidhammic analysis of matter can be considered as
a complete description of material phenomena in relation to the person and
his experience. It is scientific in the sense that it investigates into the surface
structure as well as the deep structure of material phenomena on a
philosophical basis. And this description is based on the Buddhist theory of
dependent co-origination in which the mutual dependence of mind and matter
is clearly explained in relation to the birth, existence and death of human
beings. It also should be mentioned here that in the Thera vada as well as in
the Sarvastivada Abhidharma, the analysis of matter has been developed
into a theory of atom. The Thera vada counterpart of the atomic theory of
the Sarvastivadins can be noted in their analysis of the grouping of material
elements.

According to the Thera vadins the smallest unit of matter comprises of

eight material elements:

i. Solidity
ii. Cohesion
iii. Temperature
iv. Motion
v. Colour
vi. Smell
vii. Taste and
16
viii. Nutrition

These eight are inseparable and these are the content of the smallest
unit of matter which cannot be further analysed. It means that the smallest
unit of matter also consists of parts and it is divisible although it is considered
as inseparable. This unit of eight material elements provides the basic
structure for all other material phenomena. According to Thera vada all

54
material things are but a group of material elements. The following examples
will clarify the fact:

The "eye" means coming together of the following material elements:

i. the eye = Solidity, cohesion, temperature, motion, colour,

smell, taste, nutrition, vital force and eye. This
is called the eye-decad

Similarly

ii. ear-decad = Eight inseparables, vital force and ear

iii. nose-decad = Eight inseparables, vital force and nose
iv. tongue-de cad = Eight inseparables, vital force and tongue
v. body-de cad = Eight inseparables, vital force and body (skin f f

Finally, it should be mentioned that this kind of analysis of matter is

presented not to produce physicists but to guide the people on the path
leading to the cessation of craving by eliminating attachment towards the
material things which are of the nature of impermanence.
End Notes

It should be mentioned with gratitude that I have followd "The Compendium of Philosophy
(Abhidharnmatfhasangahaj, tr. S. Z. Aung, revised and ed. By Rhys Davids, PTS, 1910" for the
translations of the technical terms and their explanations in this chapter; ADSVT, pp. 102 - 108
Kathinatta� davatta, uQhatta, vitthambhanatta, ADSVT, p. 103
3
op. cit., p. 103, 110
op. cit., p. 104
op. cit., pp. 104 - 105
6
op. cit., p. 105
ibid.
8
ibid.
9
op. cit., p. 106
10
ibid.
11 op. cit., p. 107
2
1 op. cit., p. 108
13 op. cit., p. 30
14 op. cit., pp. 109 - 111
15 op. cit., p. 111
16
ibid.
17
op. cit., p. 115

56
 CHAPTER 6

ANAL YSIS OF MIND INTO CONSCIOUSNESS (GITTA)

AND ITS CONCOMITANTS (GETASIKA)

The basic structure of the Thera vada analysis of consciousness is

given below:

Consciousness (Gifta)
1) Consciousness 2) Consciousness 3) Consciousness 4) Consciousness
belonging to the belonging to the belonging to the transcending the
sensual sphere material sphere immaterial sphere world consists of
consists of 54 consists of 15 consists on 12 8 to 40 types1
types types types

All together: 54 + 15 + 12 + 8 = 89 or
54 + 15 + 12 + 40 = 121

These four types of consciousness have been sub-divided as follows:

[1 ] [2] [ 3] [4 ]
Unwholesome- 12 Wholesome - 5 Wholesome - 4 Path
Wholesome , - 24 Resultant - 5 Resultant - 4 consciousness - 4
Rootless - 18 Inoperative - 5 Inoperative - 4 Fruit
Total - 54 Total - 15 Total - 12 consciousness - 4
Total 82_

There are five Jhanic factors (qualities of trances) relating to five

Jhanas. The fourfold path consciousness and the fourfold fruit

consciousness become forty in combination of those five Jhanic factors.
Jhanic factors

i. Initial application
ii. Sustained application Combined with eight
iii. Zest transcendental
iv. Happiness consciousness become 803
v. One-pointedness

Mental Concomitants (Cetasika)

Mind or the mental phenomena has been analysed under two main
divisions as consciousness (citta) and mental concomitants (cetasika) in the
Thera vada Abhidhamma. This division of mind into two aspects should be
considered as an artificial classification for the purpose of easy
understanding. It is very difficult to analyse mentality and its various factors
existing on one moment without such a division. Thus it is a theory of
Thera vadins that even the things which do not possess naturally any
divisional aspects should be divided into parts by imagination for the sake of
easy understanding. Otherwise, the complicated nature of phenomena both
mental and material cannot be satisfactorily analysed through the medium of
language. As such there is no actual difference between consciousness and
mental concomitants because of the following links between the two:

i. Both arise together

ii. Both disappear together
iii. Both take the same object in one moment
iv. Both arise in relation to the same sense faculty at the same
4
time

S8
 A close analysis of these four kinds of links between cifta and
cetasika, reveals that these two items refer to one and the same
phenomena. In a way for easy understanding let us identify cifta as the basic
mind and cetasika as its various functions, phases, qualities or
characteristics. The following is the divisions of mental concomitants
according to the Abhidhammic method of classification.

(Mental concomitants - 52)

1. Universal concomitants - these are common to every act of

consciousness or accompanied with each and every act of
consciousness - 7

i. contact phassa
ii. feeling vedana
iii. perception saiiiia
iv. volition cetana
v. one-pointedness ekaggata
vi. psychic life ariPajivitindriya
vii. attention manasikara 5

2. Particular mental concomitants - these are not invariably present

in consciousness - 6

i. initial application vitakka

ii. sustained application vicara
iii. deciding adhimokkha
iv. effort viriya
v. zest piti
vi. conation, desire to do chanda 6

59
 The above thirteen (7 + 6 = 13) mental concomitants are called
aiffiasamana (being either one or the other) because they are purely
psychological but become moral or immoral according to their combination
with moral or immoral thoughts.

3. Immoral mental concomitants - 14

i. delusion moha
ii. shamelessness ahirika (regarding wrong doings)
iii. fearlessness anottappa (regarding wrong
doings)
iv. distraction uddhacca
v. greed lobha
vi wrong view diffhi
vii. conceit mana
viii. hate dosa
ix. envy issa
x. selfishness macchariya
xi. repentance kukkucca
xii. sloth thina
xiii. torpor middha
xiv. perplexing vicikiccha 7

4. Wholesome mental concomitants - 19

i. faith saddha
ii. mindfulness sati
iii. shamefulness hiri (regarding wrong doings)
iv. fearfulness ottappa (regarding wrong doings)

60
 v. non-greed a/obha
vi. non-hatred adosa
vii. balance of the tatramajjhattats
mind
viii. composure of kayapassaddhi
mental concomitants
ix. composure of mind- cittapassaddhi
x. buoyancy of kaya/ahuta
mental concomitants
xi. buoyancy of mind - citta/ahuts
xii. pliancy of mental - ksya-muduts
concomitants
xiii. pliancy of mind cittamuduta
xiv. fitness of work of kayakammaiiiiata
mental concomitants
xv. fitness of work of - cittakammaiiiiats
mind
xvi. proficiency of ksyapsguiiiiata
mental concomitants
xvii. proficiency of mind - cittapsguiiiiats
xviii. rectitude of mental - kayujjukats
concomitants
xix. rectitude of mind cittujjukata

5. Abstinences - 3

i. right speech sammsvsca

ii. right action sammSkammanta
iii. right livelihood samma-ajiva 8

61
6. lIIimitables - 2

i. kindness karu(1s
ii. sympathetic joy mudilii

7. Wisdom - panna -19

The above twenty-five (19 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 25) mental concomitants are

collectively called wholesome mental concomitants.

According to the above mentioned list of mind and mental concomitants

and their various classifications, one can notice that the mental acts
have been summarized on an ethical basis in Thera vsda Abhidhamma.

This listing and classification of mind and thoughts (here-after

consciousness and mental concomitants are termed as mind and
thoughts respectively for easy reference) was necessary for the
commentators to interpret early Buddhist discourses. In the discourses
we find matter, mind and mental processes given in various ways in
different contexts due to the requirements. They are not consistent as
a philosophy in the modern sense. As stated earlier, they are
presented in conventional form of language. For instance, mind is
introduced in three different terms viz, mana, cilia and vinns(1B. They
are used with particular meanings in different contexts but sometimes
the same term occurs in two contexts with different meanings ego

i. cakkhu the eye

sola the ear
gha(1a the nose

62
 jivha the tongue
kaya the body or skin
mana the mind 10

In the above context the term mana refers to one of the six
sense faculties

ii. manopubbangama dhamma

Things are preceded by mind

Hence all the human actions are considered to be led by mind

(mana)

iii. manasace paduffhena

bhasati va karoti va
manasa ce pasannena
bhasati va karoti va 11

If someone speaks or acts with impure mind (manasa) and pure

mind.

Here the quotation indicates that the mind (manas) may

sometimes be pure and sometimes impure. According to this
statement "mana " cannot be taken as a central or general or
indifferent mental phenomena. In the list of the sense faculties,
mind is used as a neutral sense faculty - like other sense
faculties such as the eye, the ear etc.

63
 The term vinnsQa is mostly used as a resultant consciousness
as follows:

iv. cakkhu the eye

rOpa form
12
cakkhuvinnsQa eye-consciousness

Accordingly as a result of the contact between the eye and form

there arises eye-consciousness.

v. sankhsrapaccays vinnsQam
vinnsQapaccays nsmarOpam 13

VinnsQa arises taking dispositions as the cause and name and

form arises taking vinnsQa as the cause. Here the term vinnsQa
refers to a consciousness at the time of birth of individual. It is
conditioned by karma or dispositions. It may be surviving
consciousness (gandhabba).

vi. vinnsQafJ7 anidassanafJ7

anantafJ7 sabbato pabhafJ7

This is a consciousness which is endless, shining and

incomparable or cannot be seen. This is not a general
consciousness but it is clear that it refers to a spiritually
developed level of mind.

vii. ciftena niyati loko - the world is led by cifta

This refers to general consciousness.
 Cittassa damatho sadhu
Restrainment of citta is good. In this context citta cannot be a
general one.
PabhassaramidafJ7 bhikkha ve cittafJ7
14
TafJ7 ca kho agantukehi upakkilesehi upakkiliffhafJ7

Citta is radiant but it is defiled by external defilements. It should be

noted that in one of the earlier quotations vinnalJa and in this context
citta possesses the same adjective "radiant".

According to the above quotations one can notice that the

interpretation of the mind and its functions as to the early discourses is
extremely difficult due to the various usages of the terms that refer to mind
and its functions. Therefore, the commentators, with reference to the
discourses, arranged a scheme of mind and mental functions under the two
definite terms citta and cetasika and classified the mind on a moral basis in
relation to the physical world as well as spiritual realms. Certainly this
Abhidharma interpretation includes almost all the details found in the
discourses and much more in order to systematize the analysis. Further, the
presentation of mind and thoughts indicates the gradual progress of mind in
accordance with the Buddhist path leading to the attainment of arhantship.

According to the new system of interpretation, the term 'citta " has
been selected as the most appropriate form to refer to the general
consciousness. Etemologically citta means "variegated, manifold or
beautiful".15 It also refers to the painting or picture. In this sense citta does
not refer to any particular aspect of mind but to its common nature. It has
been used as a technical term throughout the Abhidharma traditions of
Thera vada and Sarvastivada as referring to the consciousness in common.

65
 The term "cetasika " though not so familiar with the discourses has
been used in the sense that "belonging to or affiliated with consciousness".
So it indicates, as a common term, the functions, qualities, characteristics or
phases of consciousness.

The analysis of mind and thoughts are presented in accordance with

the Buddhist path which inclu des three main stages of development viz Sila -

morality, Samadhi -concentration and Panna - wisdom. 16 As to the

commentarial explanations Abhidhamma is mainly concerned of wisdom. But
in the analyses of mind and matter, it pays attention even to the former two
stages namely morality and concentration. In accordance with these three
stages, the Abhidhamma analysis of mind and thoughts can be summarized
as follows:

i. consciousness belonging to morality

the sensual sphere - 54

ii. consciousness belonging to concentration

the spheres of material and
non-material - 15 + 12 = 27

Hi. transcendental consciousness wisdom17

8 or 40

The analysis of sensual-sphere consciousness has been mainly based on

three aspects:

i. moral or wholesome
ii. immoral or unwholesome and

66
 iii. resultant

Ordinary human beings possess three mental characteristics - greed,

hatred and delusion due to which they wander throughout the existence being
subjected to birth, decay and death. The actions preceded by these three
defilements are called unwholesome actions. The final aim of a Buddhist is to
transcend the ordinary existence and attain enlightenment as a final solution
to the problem of birth, decay and death. This cannot be achieved at once
and it is necessary to follow the gradual path of morality, concentration and
wisdom for this purpose. The initial stage should be started by developing
wholesome actions based on non-greed, non-hatred and non-delusion. These
three kinds of actions and their respective results based on both good and
bad mental aspects have been explained under the analysis of
consciousness belonging to the sensual sphere consciousness. The sensual
- sphere means the six heavens, human world and the four hells. It is to be
noted that in this analysis only psychological basis of good and bad actions
and their results are taken into consideration.

The analysis of form sphere and formless sphere consciousness is

related to the achievements of concentration meditation. In the form-sphere
one can produce five spiritual aspects by developing concentration on a
selected topic out of forty subjects recommended for six types of personality
characters. The five spiritual aspects so far produced can eliminate five
kinds of defilements connected with mind which are hindrances for its
development.

i. Vifakka initial application eliminates sloth and torpr

(fhinamiddha)
ii. Vicara sustained application eliminates doubt
(vicikiccha)

6,.
 iii. PTtI zest eliminates aversion (byapada)
iv. Sukha happiness eliminates distraction and
repentance (uddhaccakukkucca)
v. Ekaggata one-pointedness eliminates sensuous desire
8
(kamacchanda) 1

Next comes the analysis of formless sphere consciousness. This has

four subjects to develop mind further in concentration. In this regard, the
following quotation is noteworthy to be considered:

i. "The first citta has as its object the infinity of space

ii. The second cifta has as its object the first cifta or vinnaQa
iii. The third cifta has as its object the first cifta regarded as
"nothing"
iv. The object of the fourth citta is consciousness of any kind -
neither perception nor non-perception,,19

By developing concentration under the above four stages one can

achieve the most stable level of one-pointedness of mind. Followed by this is
the analysis of transcendental consciousness which is the highest
development of the Buddhist path. Mainly these aspects of consciousness
are related to the four paths and their results.

i. path of stream attainment

ii. path of once-returning
iii. path of never-returning
iv. path of arhantship

The mental concomitants listed earlier arise in connection with the

above mentioned various types of consciousness. Universal thoughts are

68
common to all kinds of consciousness, wholesome with wholesome
consciousness, unwholesome with unwholesome consciousness and other
types as stated earlier come into contact with their relevant types of
consciousness.

Thus the Abhidharma analysis of consciousness and mental

concomitants is a complete description of the functions, characteristics,
phases and features of mental phenomena in relation to the threefold training
of the Buddhist path leading to the attainment of arhantship.
End Notes

I acknowledge with gratitude that I have closely followed the following text for English translations
and explanations of the Abhidhammic terms in this Chapter:
"Compendium of Philosophy (Abhidhammattasangaha), tr. S. Z. Aung, revised and ed.
Mrs Rhys Davids, PTS, 1910", ADSVT, pp. 5 26
2
-

ibid.
3
op. cit., pp. 24 - 26
4
op cit., p. 27
5 ibid.
6 op. cit., p. 28
op. cit., p. 29
8
op. cit., pp. 30 - 31
9
op. cit., p. 32
10 S. IV., PTS, pp. 2 -3
11
The Dhammapada, ed. Narada Thera, p. 1
12
S. IV., PTS, pp. 2 - 3
13 M. (, PTS, p. 262; S. «I. PTS, p. 28
14 These quotations have been taken from the sources such as DZqhanikllya and Dhammapads in
order to show various usages of the terms citts, mans and vififilll}a
15 G. D. Sumanapala, An Introduction to Theravada Abhidhamma, pp. 67 - 68
16 D. 11. PTS, p. 81; G. D. Sumanapala, Early Buddhist Philosophy and Social Concepts, pp. 17 - 18
17 This should be considered as a general opinion
18 ADSVT, p. 18
19 Compendium of Philosophy, op. cit., pp. 90 - 91

70
 CHAPTER 7

BHA V ANGA AND ABHIDHARMA THEORY OF PERCEPTION

The details available in the discourses regarding perception are mostly

concerned with the sense faculties and their respective objects. The eye,
ear, nose, tongue and skin contact with the forms, sounds, smell, taste, cold
and heat and as a result the person becomes mentally aware of these
objects. This initial awareness is termed as sixfold in relation to the sense
faculties. Thus we possess eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness etc. This
sense faculty, its object and the related consciousness together create a
kind of feeling - happy, unhappy or indifferent. These feelings are kept in
memory as perceptions. Here perception can be identified as memory in
Abhidarma. Perception (saiiiiS) means a sign kept in the mind for recalling
later the feelings already experienced. The various perceptions or memories
are always recalled and reflected over them in order to experience the
feelings again because feeling is one of the four kinds of foods that requires
for the survival of beings. As a result of constant recollection and reflection,
these feelings are transformed into strong ideas, thoughts, beliefs, views or
dispositions. The term for these strong ideas is sailkhara, which also
resembles kamma. Dispositions are mainly responsible for the origin of
consciousness in rebirth.1

The above is the conception of sensory perception available in most of

the discourses. In this context, viiiiiii1J8 conditioned by dispositions can be
regarded as the basic mind that starts with rebirth as a being. However, such
an interpretation would not be possible as the term viiiiiii1J8 occurs in
different contexts with different meanings in the discourses. And also mans -

mind is a sense-faculty and viiiiis1J8 is a resultant consciousness in some

contexts. On the other hand, the details of perception in the discourses are
not sufficient to explain all the aspects relating to the sensory perception.

So, the Abhidhamma includes a systematic theory of perception which

is introduced mainly depending on the discourses but adding more aspects in
order to meet the requirements for a full description of sensory perception.

The Abhidharma theory of perception begins with the bha vailga

consciousness, which is explained as free from thoughts (vithimuttaj. 2 This is

present when the mind is completely vacant like in the state of dreamless
sleep. The meaning of the term is the "cause of being". It is compared to a
stream because it flows like a river from birth to death and again from death
to birth until we make an end to the existence. Although it functions as a link
between existences, it is not eternal and is subjected to birth, decay and
death. The first consciousness at birth and the last consciousness at death
are but two moments of the same bha vailga. They are identical but their
functions are different from each other.

The new concept of bha vailga introduced in Abhidharma is the initial

point of the process of perception. The process of perception is given under
seventeen stages of thought-moments which is compared with an analogy of
mango fruit as follows:

Thought-moment Simile
1. stream-consciousness A man sleeping under a mango tree
which is full of ripen mango fruits
2. contact between the sense Falling down a ripen mango fruit
faculties (the eye in this simile) and
the sense-objects (the mango fruit in
this simile)

72
3. recollecting Awaking with the sound of falling fruit
4. eye-consciousness Opening eyes and looking at the fruit
5. receiving consciousness Taking the fruit
6. investigating consciousness Squeezing the fruit
7. determining consciousness Smelling the fruit
8 to 14. thought moments are called Eating the fruit
ja vanas which means experiencing
consciousness
15 to 16. thought moments -
Swallowing the fruit with saliva
registration consciousness
17. stream-consciousness exists Again the man sleeps "
again

It should be noted that all these seventeen thought moments could be

obtained only when a complete sensory perception occurs. Sometimes our
perceptions are not complete. In such occasions only some of ·the above
thought moments occur. Therefore in the Abhidhamma, different thought
processes are introduced:

In regard to the process of sensory perception one should understand

the following facts:

i. Six senses - (already mentioned earlier). These are also

called doors in the process of perception.
ii. Six objects - (already mentioned) which come into contact with
the six senses at the initial stage of perception.
iii. Six modes of perception - consciousness by way of seeing,
hearing, smelling, tasting, touching and thinking.

73
 iv. . Six processes - the processes by way of eye-door, ear-door,
nose-door, tongue-door, body-door, mind-door and by way of
seeing, hearing etc.
v. Sixfold phenomenon of presentation of objects - this should be
understood as follows:4

The intensity of object, at the five-sense-doors, is either very great,

slight or very slight and at the mind-door the impression is either clear or
obscure.

Further in this regard our attention should be focused on the seventeen

thought-moments mentioned earlier. A single unit of mental activity is termed
as one thought-moment. It also constitutes of three phases viz: origin, decay
and destruction. Seventeen of such thought-moments constitute the duration
of material phenomena. According to Thera vada Abhidhamma the process
of perception is e xplained taking the above comparison of thought-moments
and the duration of material phenomena into consideration. The process is
explained as follows:

"When, say, a visible object, after one thought-moment has passed,

enters the avenue of sight and, the bha vaiJga vibrating twice, the

stream of that bha vaiJga is interrupted, then consciousness of the kind

which apprehends sensations, apprehending that visible object, rises
and ceases. Immediately after this, there arise and cease in order -

visual consciousness seeing just that visible object

recipient consciousness receiving it
investigating consciousness investigating it
determining consciousness determining it

74
 After that, among the twenty-nine modes of kamaloka (sensual sphere)
apperception, any one apperception (ja vana), determined by the conditions
evoking it, apperceives normally, for seven thought-moments.

And, as immediate consequences of the apperception, two resultant

thought-moments of retention take place. After that comes subsidence into
the bha variga. The process of perception that covers all these seventeen
thought-moments is called "very great". Others which do not cover complete
moments of perception are termed as "great", "slight"etc.

In the case of the mind-door, when a clear object enters the avenue of
that door, then, at the termination of the vibration of the bha variga, of mind­
door apprehension and of apperception, the resultant retentive (moments)
take place. After that comes subsidence into the bha variga. But when the
object is obscure, then the subsidence occurs at the termination of
5
apperception, no retention takes p/ace.
End Notes

G. D. Sumanapala, Early Buddhist Philosophy and Social Concepts, pp. 8 - 11

2 ADSVT, p. 50
3 op. cit., pp. 60 - 61
4 op. cit., p. 56
5 Compendium of Philosophy, op. cit., pp. 124 - 134

76
 Bibliography

Primary Sources

A riguttaranikaya, I, PTS, 1885 - 1910

Ariguttaranikaya, I, PTS, 1885 - 1910
Abhidhanappadipika, ed. Subhutitthera, Colombo, 1938

Abhidhammattha Vibhavinqfka, ed. W. Pannananda, Colombo, 1898

Atthasalini, PTS, 1897
Compendium of Philosophy (Abhidhammattha-sarigaha), tr. S. Z. Aung,
revised and ed. Mrs. Rhys Davids, PTS, 1910
Dighanikaya A nhakatha, I, PTS, 1886 - 1932

D ighanik aya, Ill, PTS, 1890 - 1911

Dhammapada A nhakatha, I, PTS, 1906 - 1915

Dhammasarigal')i Anhakatha, I, PTS, 1979
Dialogues of the Buddha, Ill, PTS, 1899 - 1912
Kathavatthuppakaral')a (Points of Controversy), PTS, 1915

Mahavarpsa, ed. P. Buddhadatta, Colombo, 1959

Mahavarpsa, v, ed. Geiger, Colobo, 1950

Majjhimanikaya, I, PTS, 1888
Majjhimanikaya, I, Ill, PTS, 1888 - 1925
Majjihimanikaya A nhakatha, I, PTS, 1922 - 1938
MaQisaramanjusatika, 11, Rangoon, 1960 - 1964
Pali Text Society - Pali English Dictionary
Sarpyuttanik aya, Ill, iv, PTS, 1884 - 1904
The Dhammapada, ed. Narada Thera, Colombo, 1973
Vinaya, I, PTS, 1879 - 1883

11
Secondary Sources

Anesaki, M., Some Problems of the Textual History of the Buddhist Scriptures
and t � e Four Buddhist Agamas in Chinese, Translations of the Asian Society,
Japan, xxxx, parts 2, 3, 1908. Beal, S., Cantena of Buddhist Scriptures from
Chinese, London, 1871
Anuradhapura Period, ed. Amaradasa Liyana-gamage, Ranaweera
Gunawardana, University of Vidyalankara, Colombo 1965
Geiger, M., Geiger, W., Pali Dhamma, Munich, 1921
Jaini, P. S., The Development of the Theory of Viprayuktasarpskaras,
BSOAS, Vo!. Xxii, 1959
Karunadasa, Y., Buddhist Analysis of Matter, Colombo, 1967
Law, B. C., A History of Pali Literature, Delhi, 1933
Malalasekara, G. P., Pali Literature of Ceylon, Colombo, 1928
Robert E. A voboda, Ayurveda, Life, Health and Longevity, London, 1992
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the word ' dhamma', Calcutta, 1961
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Singapore, 1999
 Index

Agama 1, 3, 24, 50

Alayavijnana 22

Abhidhanappadipika 9, 10, 11

Aharikara 40

Anumana 41

Bhavariga 72, 74, 75

DharmasDtra 4

Ka tha vatthuppakaral)a 2, 5

Mahan 40

Nitattha 3

Neyyattha 3, 27

Nikaya 1, 3

Nippariyaya 27

Pannatti 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35

Paramattha 24, 28

Pariyaya 27

Pa ticcasamnppada 37

41

Puggala 2

40

Sarikhya 40

Sammuti 24, 28

Sarvastivada 15, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 48, 52,
54, 65
Sattva 40

79
Sautrantika 16, 17, 18, 21, 40, 41, 42, 43

Suttapitaka 1

Tamas 40

Theravada 14, 17, 18, 20, 21, 30, 35, 39, 41, 42, 43, 48, 52,
54, 58, 62, 65, 74
Yogacara 17, 18, 21, 22

Yutti 24, 50
 Other Publications by the Author:
(English Medium)

i. An i ntrod uction to Theravada Ab hidhamma. Buddhist Research Society,

Si ngapore , 1 998.

ii. Reality and Expression , B u d d h ist Research Society, Si ngapore, 1 999.

iii. A Short I ntroduction to Early B uddhist Methods Meditation, Co-authorship

with Yen . Bell anwi l a Dham maratana Thera , Paramita I nternational
Buddh ist Centre , Kandy, Sri Lanka , 2000 .

iv. Early B u d d h ist P h ilosophy a n d Social Concepts , B u d d h ist Research

Society, S i n gapore, 200 1 .

(Sinhala Medium)

v. Early B u d d h i st P h i loso p hy, An A n a lysis of the B a s i c Principles, S ri

Lanka, 1 994.

vi . Methods of M editati o n , S ri Lanka, 1 994.

vi i . Social Co ntext to B udd hist M ed itation , S ri Lanka, 1 996.

vi i i . A Translation of S u n khavativyDhasDtra, S ri Lanka, 2000.

ix. A Translation of the Ad h i m u kti Chapter of Sadd haramapu ndarikasDtra,

Sri Lanka, 2000.

x. Threvada Abh i d h a m m a , its Content a n d the P resent Usage, 1 995.

xi . A Translation into Poems - Namastasataka and Pratyasataka , Sri Lanka,

2003.