234 F. Mezghani et al.

40 200
10 Hz 1 mm
12 Hz 1.5 mm
15 Hz 2 mm
100 2.5 mm
20

0
Force [N]

Force [N]
0

-100

-20
-200

-40 -300
-2.5 -1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5 2.5 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Displacement [m] 10-4 Displacement [m] 10-3

(a) (b)

150
10 Hz
12 Hz
15 Hz

50
Force [N]

-50

-150
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Displacement [m] 10-3

(c)

Fig. 3. Hysteresis curves for: (a) fixed applied force (25 N) and at different frequencies,
(b) fixed frequency (12 Hz) and at different amplitudes, (c) fixed displacement (1 mm)
and at different frequencies

fv (t): the viscous damping force.

FH (t): denotes the nonlinear hysteretic force and can be described by the
normalized Bouc-Wen model;

FH (t) = kw w (t)
   (2)
where ω̇ (t) = ρẋ (t) 1 + |w (t)| σ 1 − sgn (ẋ (t) w (t)) − σ1
where kw , ρ, and σ are the unknown parameters controlling the shape of the
hysteresis loop. The internal state ω(t), which has not a physical meaning, is not
supposed to be available.
From measurement, only the displacement and the applied force are recorded,
while the most internal signals (fK (t), fv (t), FH (t) and ω(t)) are not accessible
to be measured.
Our purpose is to design an identification process that provides an accurate
estimation of the unknown parameters. The identification methodology aims to
 Experimental Characterization of Metal-Mesh Isolators Damping Capacity 235

determine the unknown parameters and estimate the unmeasured signals. The
method sketched below operates in three main steps.
First Step: Identification of Stiffness Parameters: To identify the stiff-
ness force of vibration isolator, the harmonic excitations for three different load-
ing amplitudes 1 mm, 1.5 mm and 2 mm are applied and with a fixed excitation
frequency equal to 12 Hz. A pseudo-major axis for the large amplitude can be
used to represent the stiffness for this dynamic state. The polynomial fitting for
the stiffness force is written as:

fK (x(t)) = K3 x3 + K2 x2 + K1 x (3)

Second Step: Identification of Viscous Damping Coefficient: The total

dissipated energy per cycle can be indicated as:

E = Ev + E H (4)

Ev = c ẋ dx: the viscous energy component which depends on both the
amplitude and the frequency.
 Xmax  Xmax
EH = Xmin FHl dx− Xmin FHu dx: the energy dissipation due to hysteresis
which depends only on the amplitude (l and u refer to the loading and unloading
loop, respectively).
That means the total energy is the sum of two quantities, one depends on
the frequency (Ev ) and the other is independent of the frequency (Ecte ):

E = Ecte + Ev (ω) (5)

The viscous damping coefficient is measured by applying the energetic method

based on the force-displacement hysteresis loop measured for fixed amplitude
and at several frequencies. The imposed loading amplitudes equal to 1 mm. The
imposed excitation frequencies are 10, 12 and 15 Hz. The corresponding energy
loss values are reported in Table 1.

Table 1. Measured energy loss

Frequency (Hz) 10 12 15
Energy loss 10−2 (J) 4.67 4.57 4.30

The estimation of the viscous damping coefficient is based on the assumption

of the linearized Energy loss-frequency relation:

E =a ω+b (6)

where a and b present the coefficients of the fitting polynomial function and
can be determined through the MATLAB Fitting toolbox. When the sinusoidal
236 F. Mezghani et al.

excitation is applied to the system and the viscous damping force fν = cẋ is
assumed, the dissipative energy can be expressed as

Eν = π c ωX 2 (7)
(Xmax −Xmin)
where X is the amplitude of the response (X = 2 ) and c represents
the viscous damping coefficient and is given by
a
c= (8)
πX 2
Third Step: Identification of the Hysteresis Parameters: The analytical
solution of the normalized Bouc-Wen model for T-periodic input is [15,16]:

FH (t) = kw w(t) (9)

For t ∈ [0, T + ] (ẋ > 0)

 +
+
w (t) = ψσ,n Φσ,n {−ψσ,n (ρ (Xmax − Xmin ))} + ρ (x (t) − Xmin )
For t ∈ [T + , T ] (ẋ < 0)
 +
w (t) = −ψσ,n
+
Φσ,n {−ψσ,n (ρ (Xmax − Xmin ))} − ρ (x (t) − Xmax )
+
where the instrumental functions (ψσ,n , ψσ,n , Φ+
σ,n ) are well presented in [17].
The proposed identification method assumes the knowledge of the relation
FH . However, the restoring force of the hysteresis is not accessible to be mea-
sured. It could be computed after identifying the stiffness and viscous damping
parameters.
For the loading part of the cycle (ẋ > 0), we obtain from Eq. (2):

dw (t)
For w (t) ≥ 0; = ρ (1 − w (t) ) (10)
dx
Then,

dFH (t)
For FH (t) ≥ 0; = a − b FH (t) , where a = ρKw and b = ρ (11)
dx
The identification of the Bouc-Wen model parameters is summarized in the fol-
lowing procedure:

1. After determination of the stiffness and viscous damping forces, the hysteresis
force will be accessible to measurement and then the relation (x(t), FH (t)) is
known.
2. Determine the zero of the quantity x∗1 such as FH (x∗1 ) = 0.
3. Compute the parameter a using Eq. (12).


dFH (t)
a= where x∗1 is such that FH (x∗1 ) = 0 (12)
dx x=x∗1
 Experimental Characterization of Metal-Mesh Isolators Damping Capacity 237

4. Choose design constants x∗2 such that x∗2 > x∗1 . Then, compute the param-
eters b using Eq. (13).

a − dFHdx(t)
x=x∗2
b= (13)
FH (x∗2 )
5. The parameters ρ and Kw can be computer with a = ρKw and b = ρ.
6. The function w(t) can be determined from Eq. (9).
7. Choose a design constant x∗3 such that x∗3 < x∗1 and w(x∗3 )< 0. Then, the
remaining parameter σ using Eq. (14).
⎛ dw(t) ⎞
dx
1⎜ ρ
x∗3
−1 ⎟
σ= ⎝ + 1⎠ ; where x*3 < x*1 (w (x∗3 ) < 0) (14)
2 −w (x∗3 )

The identified results of the mechanical model’s parameters are reported in

Table 2.

Table 2. The identified parameters

Parameters K3 K2 K1 c Kw ρ σ
5 7 4
Values −2.33 10 −1.12 10 9.702 10 39.69 133.25 631.42 0.169

3.2 The Equivalent Loss Factor

According to the above analysis, the measured hysteresis loop of metallic-
wires specimen, excited by sinusoidal oscillation, is decomposed into three con-
stituents; the asymmetric stiffness force, viscous damping force and hysteresis
damping force. The energy dissipation and storage characteristics of metallic-
wires specimen in a cycle are analyzed based on the three decomposed force
components. The total dissipated energy of the specimen per cycle can be cal-
culated by the following equation:
 ym
ΔW = Wc + WH = cẏdy + FH dy (15)
−ym

And the maximum elastic potential energy W that represents the energy storage
during the cycle is the sum of the stored energy of the asymmetric nonlinear
stiffness and the linear term of the hysteretic damping model. In view of the
inequality of the two maximum elastic potential energy values of the asymmetric
nonlinear spring in the positive and negative displacement phases, W is fixed by
the average value
ym
1
W = fK (sgn(y), y) dy (16)
2
−ym
238 F. Mezghani et al.

The equivalent loss factor is given by:

ΔW
η= (17)
2πW
According to the above analysis and formula derivation, it is clear that the
measurement of the loss factor of this material requires calculation of W and
ΔW based on Eqs. (15) and (16). The calculation of the potential energy W and
the dissipated energy require the identification of the parameters of the stiffness
force (K3 , K2 , K1 ) and the damping force parameters (c, Kw , ρ, σ) using the
aforementioned identification method. And lastly, the equivalent loss factor of
the specimen under a given vibration condition can be calculated by Eq. (17).

(a) Loss factor at different amplitudes (b) Loss factor at different frequencies

Fig. 4. The equivalent loss factor at: (a) different amplitudes and (b) different frequencies

The calculated loss factors at different amplitudes and frequencies are shown
in Fig. 4(a) and (b), respectively. It is found that the influence of the amplitude
and frequency on the loss factor is obvious. The increase of the frequency and
amplitude provide a decrease of the loss factor from 0.45 to 0.15.

4 Conclusion
To investigate the performance of the metal isolator, a set of dynamic tests
was conducted for a range of frequencies and amplitudes of loading. Experi-
mental results demonstrated that the output of the isolator is revealed to the
loading amplitude, however, slightly dependent to the loading frequency. As the
loading amplitude increases, the dynamic mechanical property exhibits asym-
metrical characteristic. A constitutive mechanical model was adopted to char-
acterize the dynamic behavior of the metal mesh isolator that involves a hys-
teresis features. The model parameters were determined using an experimental
 Experimental Characterization of Metal-Mesh Isolators Damping Capacity 239

methodology based on the decomposition of the restoring force into asymmet-

ric stiffness, viscous damping and hysteretic damping, which was identified by
Bouc-Wen model. Both the viscous damping and the hysteresis damping are con-
sidered comprehensively in the determination of the equivalent loss factor which
is taken as the general damping performance-evaluating index of this material.
The damping capacity of the metallic-wires material at different loading fre-
quencies and amplitudes was measured. The results show that this material has
excellent damping performance with loss factor about 0.4–0.5 for lower frequency
and amplitude.

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 Dynamic Modelling of Planetary
Gearboxes with Cracked Tooth Using
Vibrational Analysis

Imthiyas Manarikkal1(B) , Faris Elasha1 , Dina Shona Laila1 , and David Mba2
1
Faculty of EEC, Coventry University, Coventry, UK
manariki@uni.coventry.ac.uk
2
Faculty of Technology, De Montford University, Leicester, UK

Abstract. Planetary gearboxes failure has been a major problem in

systems reliability, hence condition monitoring of this component is
essential. In order to identify faults, a dynamic model of the gearbox
is presented taking into account backlash and tooth cracks. Newtonian
equations of motion developed for a planetary gear is solved and modal
analysis for solving the lumped parametric differential equations of mod-
elled single stage planetary gearbox is adopted to observe the vibrational
responses and to compare with existing literature. This work focuses pri-
marily on the effects of stiffness and damping. The eigenvalue problem
has been solved to measure the natural frequencies and amplitude of the
system. Parametric studies using stiffness and damping results indicate
significant changes in vibrational signals when there is a crack present
on tooth. Simulation results also show the relation between increment in
backlash and high frequency responses in the resultant vibration.

Keywords: Gearbox · Vibration · Dynamic modelling · Crack ·

Stiffness · Damping

1 Introduction
Gearboxes are essential component in various machineries. Reliability, availabil-
ity and maintainability of gearboxes has been a major area of research over past
decade. In fact it is the most critical component in many machines and applica-
tions. Planetary gearboxes are replacement for conventional gearbox in modern
engineering system. Planetary gearboxes also known as Epicyclic gearboxes are
widely used in aerospace, automotive and energy sectors due to their unique
characteristics such as high load bearing capacity, high transmission ratio, high
torque to weigh ratio, compactness and its resistance to shock. Planetary gear-
boxes comprise of four main elements that produces a wide range of speed ratios
i.e. Sun gear, Ring gear, Planet gear and Carrier gear. Planetary gearboxes are
commonly used in helicopter rotors, wind turbines, automatic transmission unit,

c Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

A. Fernandez Del Rincon et al. (Eds.): CMMNO 2018, ACM 15, pp. 240–249, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11220-2_25
 Dynamic Modelling of Planetary Gearboxes 241

high load cranes etc. Failure of planetary gearboxes may lead to total destruc-
tion and major loss. It is necessary to perform condition monitoring of the plan-
etary gearboxes periodically to avoid the early breakdown [1]. The condition
monitoring using vibrational characteristics of gearbox has always been an area
of research to predict the failure and diagnose the faults. Planetary gearboxes
vibration results in dynamic loads, reduces the life span and causes the noise in
the system [5]. According to Jia and Howard [4], one of more popular dynamic
modelling approaches for gears is to use torsional vibration with time varying
mesh stiffness and damping. Lumped mass dynamic modelling is widely used for
studying the vibrational characteristics of gearboxes.
For example, He and Jia [6] studied the dynamic modelling of planetary
gearbox with backlash to show the dynamic response with magnitude and phase
angle. Liang established vibration properties of planetary gears by considering
lumped mass model [7]. Liang also evaluated the crack in tooth case. By consid-
ering the effect of transmission path, the vibration simulations of each individual
component are simulated by using dynamic simulations. By including the gear
elastic deformations through Ishikawa formulae. Dynamic simulations of bear-
ings as a rolling element using Hertzian contact pressure method have been
studied by [9]. The power flow and gear mesh model was proposed by Inalpolat
and Kahraman [8]. The modes are simulated by solving the Eigen values and
Eigen vectors. The research used torsional case to detect the natural frequencies
and vibrations. The forced vibration excitation stage was computed by corre-
sponding Eigenvalues. Bartelmus [3] demonstrated dynamic modelling through
torsion and lateral vibration technique for a two stage conventional gearbox.
The research well presented the dynamic modelling with Newtonian equations
of motion and error function. However, the backlash and time varying mesh
stiffness is absent. The above literature from various authors show the dynamic
modelling of the planetary gearbox using different approaches. Most researchers
have used Newtonian or Lagrangian equations to solve the dynamic models.
In this paper, dynamic modelling of planetary gearbox using lumped mass
Newtonian equations is established. The dynamic modelling of planetary gearbox
is performed and lumped Newtonian equations of motion are solved with pro-
posed Modal analysis method through eigen value and eigen vectors. The error
function is not included in this research because of the difficulties for performing
Modal analysis. The backlash effect on gear vibration and frequency response
function to study the resonance properties are investigated in this paper.
This paper is structured as follows. The first section discusses the normal non-
stationary condition of planetary gearbox with backlash and transformation of
damping, stiffness and force matrices. Second part of this paper analyses the
Modal analysis to solve the equations. Finally, the last part discusses two case
studies of healthy and unhealthy planetary gearboxes to observe the dynamic
behaviour using frequency response function.
242 I. Manarikkal et al.

2 Dynamic Modelling and Planetary Analysis

Dynamic model represents the dynamic behaviour of components over time.
Models are required to predict the dynamic behaviour of systems and these have
been widely used in both linear and nonlinear, as well as in the time, frequency
and space domains. Planetary gearbox consists of a sun gear, planet gears, ring
gear and a carrier. Generally speaking, the sun and planets mesh each other,
and the planet gear mesh with ring gear. Sun gear has only one kinematic mode,
which is rotation. Planet gears have two types of motion, first motion is when it
revolves around the sun and the second is rotation about its own axis. Here we
assume the rotating speed of sun gear will be same as the shaft speed (Figs. 1
and 2).
Before establishing the equations of motion it is important to consider the
following assumptions:

1. All gears (sun, planets and ring are spur gears with the same module);
2. Friction is negligible;

Fig. 1. Planetary gear set dynamic Fig. 2. Single stage planetary gearbox.
model

Applying Newton’s second law of rotation (NSLR) for Sun, Planets and Ring
gears the equations of motion can be written as


3
Js θ̈s t) = TD − rs (Dsp,i + Psp,i ) (1)
i=1

Jp θ̈p,i = rp (−Drp,i + Dsp,i − Prp,i + Psp,i ) (2)

  
3
θ̈c Jc + 3rc2 mp = cos(α)rc (Drp,i + Dsp,i + Prp,i + Psp,i ) − TL (3)
i=1
 Dynamic Modelling of Planetary Gearboxes 243

where Js , Jp and Jc is the Inertia of Sun and Planet, rs , rp and rc are the base
radius of sun gear, planets gear and ring gear respectively. TI and TD are the
input torque and load torque. P and D are the stiffness and viscous damping,
where the subscripts rp and sp represent the meshing between ring and planets
and the sun and the planets, θ̈ represents the angular accelerations with sub-
scripts s, p, c of sun, planet and carrier respectively. We consider planet gear box
with three planets. So index i = 1, 2, 3. The equations and calculations can be
reformulated for any other number of planets.
The elastic and damping forces are calculated from the equations below.

Psp,i = Ksp fsp,i ,

Dsp,i = csp δ̇sp,i , (4)
Prp,i = Krp frp,i ,
Drp,i = crp δ̇rp,i ,

where Krp and Ksp are stiffnesses, crp and csp are damping coefficients, frp,i
and fsp,i are nonlinear backlash functions. Variables δrp,i and δsp,i are relative
displacements. Expressions for δ and δ̇ are

δsp,i = rs θs − rp θp,i − rc θc cos(α),

δrp,i = rp θp,i − rc θc cos(α), (5)
δ̇sp,i = rs θ̇s − rp θ̇p,i − rc θ̇c cos(α),
δ̇rp,i = rp θp,i − rc θ̇c cos(α).

We take linear approximation when stiffnesses are equal for contacts sun
planets and ring planets and backlash function is equal to displacement:

frp,i = δrp,i , fsp,i = δsp,i , Ksp = Krp = ks (6)

where ks > 0. The same is true for damping coefficients. They are equal to cd
for all contacts.
The linear approximation of Eqs. (1)–(3) take form


3
− TD − ks rs (3 cos(α)rc θc − 3rs θs + rp θp,i ) −
i=1

3
3 cos(α)cd rc rs θ̇c + 3cd rs2 θ̇s − cd rp rs θ̇p,i + Js θ̈s = 0 (7)
i=1

ks rp (−rs θs + 2rp θp,i ) + cd rp (−rs θ̇s + 2rp θ̇p,i ) + Jp θ̈p,i = 0 (8)


3
cos(α)ks rc (3 cos(α)rc θc − rp θp,i ) + 6 cos(α)2 cd rc2 θ̇c −
i=1

3 cos(α)cd rc rs θ̇s + Jc θ̈c + 3mp rc2 θ̈c = 0 (9)