254 T. Mirosław et al.

Fig. 4. The model of ground cell (2D).

4 Computer Model of Ground Compaction

The computer model built in Matlab/Simulink software is presented in Fig. 5. It

consists of 16 cells of ground 2 which affect each other, the terminals 3 which represent
some border medium modeled as elastic body, compactor 1 and sensor.
It consist of compactor 1 ground cells 2 terminals 3 which models the high stiffens
body like curbstone. The adjacent cell react each other and passing though forces are
deformed and compacted.
The model of cell is presented in Fig. 6. The block 1 and 2 represent models of
elastic cell deformation in axes X and Y. The blocs 3 and 4 the modeling the com-
paction process in these axes and the block 5 is the block which calculates the mutual
influence of deformation in X and Y axes. Block 6 is calculator of the ground
parameters which depend on ground density. The density is calculated basing on cell
deformation and volume changes.
The model of plastic deformation of cell is presented in Fig. 7. It is almost classical
model of a resilient element wit damping with velocity as the input and resistance force
as the output. The deformation is the result of integration speed difference between
The Model of Soil Compaction Process and Concept of Smart Compactor 255

Fig. 5. The example of cellular net model made in Matlab/simulink

Fig. 6. The internal structure of cell model.

256 T. Mirosław et al.

walls upper Vinx and lower VxOUt1. The deformation cause the internal force which
push the lower wall, but the resistance force coming from outside FXin and resistance
coming from friction between two adjacent cells moving with VxU and VxD, influence
on wall acceleration.
The deformation of cell in other axes effects on internal forces. This influence is
presented by addition speed DVXD (representing mass flow) and reference dimension
changes DDX from plastic deformation and from compaction CDX. The confidences of
elasticity and friction are depending on the compaction level.

Fig. 7. The internal structure of one dimension deformation block.

5 The Example of Simulation Results

Simulation scenarios were prepared focusing on influence of force and frequency of

compactor hitting on compaction process research. Various scenarios of constant fre-
quency were investigated. In Fig. 8 we have one of simplest test.
The compactor is acting only on one central cell in upper row. The middle row and
firs column in the presented model in Fig. 5.

Fig. 8. Relative compactor force in reference value and ground deformation in the upper layer in
horizontal axe.
 The Model of Soil Compaction Process and Concept of Smart Compactor 257

Fig. 9. Ground relative deformation in depth (a) axle X (horizontal) (b) axle Y (vertical)

This test presents the ground flow under pressure. The pressured cell is deformed
and they are pushing on neighboring cells in horizontal axle (Fig. 9).
Because the compaction process is modeled as the inertial, so it needs some time of
force presence to compact ground. So the frequency has influence on it. So the other
tests were provided. And it can be conclude that higher frequency of hitting can cause
lower compaction then lower one.
Another problem was the border of two media. The result of deformation for case
one is presented in Fig. 10. It presents that the compaction is lower than in other parts.
So we need other algorithm for compacting. This problem is important not only in
sharp boundary area, but also in smoothly changeable properties of ground.
Another result of simulation is the changes of acoustic wave running on the surface
with compaction level. And the process of changes is characteristic for ground kind.
So having the tools for ground identification and process control we can optimize it.

Fig. 10. Volume of relative deformation in border column (a) low (b) higher frequency of
vibration

6 Concept of Smart Compactor

According to authors concept the smart compactor consist of compactor plate or roller
wheel with vibration, sensor of acoustic waves, signal processor for spectrum analyses.
Computer with set of model identifies the ground and control unit which determinate
the vibration frequency.
258 T. Mirosław et al.

Fig. 11. The concept of smart compactor (a) with control algorithm (b)

The frequency of compactor is oscillating around the changeable reference value

calculate from model and ground identification. If we recognize the better effects with
different frequency the control system will follow tat and take it as the right reference
frequency. The functional model and algorithm is presented in Fig. 11. Model was
tested with model of ground compaction. The results are quite promising.

7 Conclusions

The presented modelling concept reflects quite good ground behaviour during com-
paction process. It shows the deformation, replace and compaction of ground. Thanks
to dynamically changeable parameters its compatible with real tests and it seems to
quite flexible for various media analyses. This is modular model, so it can be adjust to
various types of materials.
This model can be easily readjusted to the dimensions what would allow modelling
the cooperation with plate and roller compactors.
Simulations show that for better efficiency of ground compaction we should change
the compactor parameter following the ground parameter changing.
For ground features evaluation we can base on seismic wave being the response for
compactor vibration.
For searching the best frequency of hitting we can change the frequency around
“expected” value and follow in direction of better results.
The model of ground and compactor should be verified in real tests for various
ground configuration and weather condition.
 The Model of Soil Compaction Process and Concept of Smart Compactor 259

References
Xu Q, Chang GK (2013) Evaluation of intelligent compaction for asphalt materials. Autom
Constr 30:104–112
Briaud J (2013) Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering: Unsaturated and Saturated Soils,
Geotechnical Engineering
Anderegg R, Kaufmann K (2004) Intelligent compaction with vibratory rollers. Transp Res
1868:124–134
Scherocman J, Rakowski S, Uchiyama K (2007) Intelligent compaction, does it exist? In:
Proceedings of the annual conference—Canadian technical asphalt association, no 52,
pp 373–398
FHWA (2011) Accelerated implementation of intelligent compaction technology for embank-
ment subgrade soils, aggregate base, and asphalt pavement materials—final report.
No. FHWA-IF-12–002
 Experimental Study of the Loosening
Phenomenon of an Assembly with Multi
Fixations Under Vibration in the Transversal
Direction

Ksentini Olfa1(&), Combes Bertrand2, Abbes Mohamed Slim1,

Daidie Alain2, and Haddar Mohamed1
1
LA2MP Laboratory, National School of Engineers of Sfax,
University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
Olfa.ing@gmail.com, ms.abbes@gmail.com,
mohamed_haddar@yahoo.fr
2
Institute Clement Ader, University of Toulouse,
National Institute of Applied Sciences of Toulouse, 31077 Toulouse, France
{bertrand.combes,alain.daidie}@insa-toulouse.fr

Abstract. The majority of structures are subject to dynamic loads resulting

from vibrations and shocks. Studies conducted by the researchers show that
transversal loads are the main causes of the loosening phenomenon. The purpose
of this paper is to expose an experimental study of the loosening phenomenon of
an assembly subjected to dynamic transversal load resulting from vibration. The
assembly will be the subject to vibrations resulting from a shaker. It consists of
an inertial mass, bolted on a bracket attached to the shaker, which is animated
with a vertical sinusoidal movement at a fixed frequency. The inertia of the mass
will be exploited to generate its sliding. In fact, under the influence of the
imposed acceleration, the inertial mass is subject to a shear load that overcomes
the friction one. Sliding of the mass will cause the loosening phenomenon. The
Assembly will be instrumented by a high-speed camera to track the rotation of
parts during the vibration; an accelerometer for measuring the imposed accel-
eration and a load washer for measuring the screw preload. Results obtained
from this study showed the loosening phenomenon for an assembly with one
and two fixations. A parametric study will be elaborated in order to identify the
critical case for the loosening phenomenon.

Keywords: Loosening phenomenon
Dynamic load
Transversal direction

Multi fixations
Vibration
Experimental study
Shaker

1 Introduction

The loosening phenomenon may result from various types of dynamic loads, such as
shocks or vibrations. Various studies have shown that this phenomenon occurs more
frequently when the bolt is subjected to a transverse load, which causes a sliding
between the surfaces of the fastener. Junker (1969) developed a test machine, which was
often taken up by other experimenters, sometimes with some variants. His experience
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
A. Fernandez Del Rincon et al. (Eds.): CMMNO 2018, ACM 15, pp. 260–268, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11220-2_27
 Experimental Study of the Loosening Phenomenon of an Assembly 261

consists on the excitation of an eccentric mechanism, which causes the movement of a

plate connected to a fixed base by a bolt. The screw tension is measured by the mean of a
load sensor. The loosening phenomenon is proved after the measurement of the screw
rotation. For a continuation to these studies, Kasei et al. (1998, 2007) has conducted
tests for the study of the loosening phenomenon under the influence of an imposed
transversal displacement. He was interested in the screw bending and torsion, under the
influence of friction loads. Dong (2000) tested bolts with manufacturing defects
according to the standard MIL-STD-1312-7A (1984). He showed that some defects,
such as a pitch or diameter error of the screw or nut, had a strong influence on the test
time before loosening. Based on the same principle, the aerospace standard NASM
1312-7 (2012) describes a very similar test. Still others have carried out loosening tests
under vibrations, or at least under rapidly varying transverse loads. Delcher (2014)
conducted tests on an assembly loaded by a dynamic mechanism with variation in load
and speed. The obtained results showed the loosening phenomenon after evaluation of
the bolt load and the screw rotation. Delcher (2015) carried out tests on flexibly
deformed assembly subjected to a transversal load imposed by a dynamic hydraulic
cylinder. By a frequency sweep around the first natural frequency, the tested piece
bending is used to generate a shear load that overcomes the friction load. The influence
of the friction, the geometry of the nut and the clearance in the thread has been studied.
Bhattacharya tested the efficacy of various devices designed to prevent the loosening
phenomenon (Bhattacharya et al. 2010). Its experiment consists in causing by means of
a cam the oscillations of a moving plate, tightened against a fixed plate by a bolt. A load
sensor measures the screw preload. Bhattacharya performed tests on the Nylock® nut,
chemical locking, flat washer, nylon washer, and serrated washer for bolts of different
materials, sizes and types, and for different preloads. The loss of clamping gives an
indication on the loosening progress. An original optical fiber system for monitoring the
loosening of bolted joints, which can be applied to multiple screw assemblies for
aeronautics, was studied by Shin (2014). He determined the bolt loosening, and mea-
sured the relative rotation of the nut/screw with an angular resolution which reaches
1.45°, even in the case of a change in temperature. Last studies are developed by
Ksentini et al. (2014, 2015, 2016), her studies consist on the development of a numerical
and analytical models for the study of the loosening phenomenon of an assembly
subjected to transversal dynamic load.
The following table shows the experiences developed in the literature with their
majority drawbacks (Table 1).

Table 1. Literature review of the studied experience of the loosening phenomenon.

Experience Details Disadvantage
Junker Transversal displacement No dry contact between the assembled
resulting from an eccentricity plates, quasi static study
Dong Shock tests of a bolt inserted Solicitation conditions far from of current
into an oblong hole operating conditions
Delcher Dynamic tests at the resonance Study of a single fixation, resonance
frequency frequency causes the surface degradation
262 K. Olfa et al.

So the developed studies in the literature uses resonance frequency or minimize

friction load to facilitate the loosening phenomenon. The aim from this study is to
exploit the vibration in order to see its influence on the loosening of bolts. In fact, in the
aeronautical field, vibration can cause significant damage and the loosening phe-
nomenon can be the result. To have this phenomenon a displacement between the
assembled elements should be generated. This can be caused either at the resonance
frequency or by minimizing the friction coefficient. To be far from the natural fre-
quency of the assembly an inertial mass with a big weight will be the subject to
vibration. Under the influence of its weight, it can slide under a bracket and the
loosening phenomenon can be caused. The originality of the experience consist of the
study of the loosening of an assembly with multi fixation with dry friction, which is not
studied in the literature. The developed experience will be presented in this paper and
all results will be highlighted.

2 Experience Set-Up

The installation illustrated by Fig. 1 consists of an inertial mass, assembled on a bracket

which is attached to a shaker. The shaker is animated with a vertical sinusoidal
movement at a fixed frequency and with an adjustable amplitude. Under the influence of
the imposed acceleration, inertial mass is subject to a tangential load on the contact
surface between mass and bracket, and it can slide. The bolts are then subjected to
transversal load, which causes their loosening. The developed assembly is designed for
the study of the loosening of the assembly that can contain up to four fasteners. Only one
and two bolts will be tested due to limitation of the shaker load. Figure 1 shows the case
of the assembly with two bolts. The inertial mass steel is joined to a bracket by an M6
bolt of class 8.8. To exploit the mass inertia to generate the loosening phenomenon by its
sliding on the bracket under its weight, the bracket is lighten but a sufficient rigidity is
maintained. This is the reason for which the bracket is made in aluminum and equipped
with large circular cut-outs. When the inertial mass slides, friction on the bracket (direct
steel-aluminum contact) would generate a matting and a rapid deterioration of the
surface. To prevent this phenomenon, steel parts are fretted respectively in the bracket
and the inertial mass; they provide friction between inertial mass and bracket. These
pieces of interface presented a heat treatment in order to obtain a hardness status of
surfaces. Two threaded steams are used to avoid the fall of the inertial mass, if there is
breaking of the screw or a complete loosening with loss of the nut.
To achieve the loosening of a bolted joint Assembly, a shear load should be
generated to defeat friction load under head and into the nut. Sizing and design of test
bench are based on this principle. When the acceleration generated by the shaker is
large enough, the inertial mass, due to its inertia, slips on the bracket. The frequency of
excitation is chosen after a modal analysis to determine the Eigen frequencies. For this
preliminary calculation, all the fixing points of the lower surface of the bracket are
fixed. This modal calculation leads to the first Eigen mode at a frequency in the range
of 85 Hz. For experimentation, resonance phenomenon will be avoided. So, for this
movement a frequency of 53 Hz will be chosen, well below of the first frequency.
 Experimental Study of the Loosening Phenomenon of an Assembly 263

Fig. 1. Parts of the experimental assembly

3 Instrumentation

After having designed the experimental set-up and before moving to the realization, the
measuring instruments are chosen. The system acquisition is illustrated in Fig. 2b and it
will be detailed in this section. First, a shaker is used to generate high acceleration. The
model is a type of LDS V830-335. The shaker is directed by the LMS Test Lab
software. It offers a complete control of the vibration, as well as measures and dynamic
analysis tests. Acceleration is measured through two accelerometers. One is used for
the shaker controlling by the software Test Lab, the other for the measurement of
acceleration by an acquisition system. During the test, the acceleration is increased by
levels, while the frequency is keeping constant at a value equal to 53 Hz. As the
frequency of excitation is important and due to vibration, it would be difficult to
visualize the process of loosening, without a specific way. A high-speed camera allows
to record the test sequence, then to examine it after test to identify the different phases
of loosening and the behavior of each element of the assembly: inertial mass, nut and
screw. A camera Photron FASTCAM SA3 120 K-M2 is used and is positioned in front
of the Assembly. The frequency of acquisition is 125 or 250 frames per second, which
is slightly more than 2 or 4 images per period of the movement. Although this camera
allows much larger acquisition rates, a low frequency has been chosen to save the test
for a large period and to minimize the size of the resulting file. Each raw image consists
of 256  256 pixels. In order to facilitate the measurement of the rotation of the
different elements, a radial marking is plotted on the inertial mass, and indicator needles
are tied on the screw and on the nut. The knowledge of the evolution of the screw
preload, is another way for the capture of the loosening process. The diameter of the
screw is quite low (M6), it would be difficult to place some strain gauge on the screw
shank. For this reason, a load washer is used for the measurement of the screws
preload. A load sensor HBM KMR20 washer, is placed between the nut and the bracket
to track the axial load variation of the bolt. It allows to measure the compression loads
varying between 0 and 20 kN, both static and dynamic one.