NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS AND COMPOSITION OF

DISADVANTAGED GROUPS IN INDIA:

THE ROLE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

S K Pulist
Indira Gandhi National Open University

INTRODUCTION

The Constitution of India provides for equality of its countrymen in all spheres of
life. It provides to strive for balanced growth of all sections of the society and direct
efforts towards promotion of equality, secularism and national integration. But in spite
of five decades of planned development, India is still afflicted by poverty, illiteracy and
inequality. The spread of education in the society is fairly unequal. Though government
policies are discrimination protective, but they have not been able to achieve satisfactory
level of equality. This inequality of educational opportunities is not confined to the
deprived groups of the society but also is lurking in the privileged classed based on sex,
race, caste and geographical dimensions. This gulf between the haves and have nots is
widening day by day. There is a need to give more thrust on the educational equality of
different sections of the society as it will neutralize the effects of disparity in all spheres.
In order to bridge this gap special efforts have to be made to reach education to the
doorsteps of those who are not able to reach the former. It should be the endeavour of
formal education system to reach all sections of the society at large. The role of Distance
Education is to supplement and augment these efforts in this direction. It is ideally
suited for this pursuit. The major challenge in reaching these socially, economically,
geographically and physically disadvantaged sections may include development of
infrastructure, identification of programmes and mode of their delivery best suited to
the specific population.

The groups that are less privileged educationally and deprived of educational
opportunities may include Women, Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribes, Rural Masses
and Physically Challenged. The studies have shown that there is no dearth of
enthusiasm and interest in these groups but lack of access to education has made them
what they are today on the educational front. There is a need to concentrate the
educational resources particularly the distance education system to educate these groups
in order to achieve desired overall national growth. The modes, methods and means for
the same will vary according to the nature, characteristics and composition of these
groups individually. It is, therefore, a prerequisite to be aware of the nature,
characteristics and composition of these educationally disadvantaged groups such as
Women, Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribes, Rural Masses and Physically
Challenged. The following will give an understanding of the present status of these


A paper presented at the VII Annual Conference of Indian Distance Education Association on
‘Reaching the Unreached through Open and Distance Learning’, organized by IGNOU at New Delhi w.e.f.
27-29 April, 2000.
groups and the role which can be played by distance education system for their
sustainable development.

WOMEN

Women constitute the major part among the disadvantaged groups. In spite of
various women education programmes, India is having the largest number of illiterate
women in the world (Chawla, 1998). This group constitutes two main segments – urban
women and the rural women. The urban women has tried to keep pace with the overall
average rate of literacy at national level. However, the rural women which are
particularly agriculture labourers, marginal farmers, bounded labourers and house wives
are most disadvantaged. Women form 50% of the world’s population and constitute
60% of the work force (Basavaraj, 1998). As per the survey report of National Sample
Survey Organisation, 50th Round, 79% illiterate rural women formed part of labour force
in 1993-94. Women in India regardless of population, lag behind because the problems
of backwardness have distinct gender dimensions.

The following table shows literacy trend in India during the past few decades:

Table:1: Literacy percentage from 1961 to 1997

Year Females Males
1961 12.95 34.44
1971 18.69 39.45
1981 29.85 56.50
1991 39.29 64.13
1997 50.00 73.00
SOURCE: Census of India, paper 1 of 1981. Prov. Population Totals, Page/ 43 Census of India, paper 2
of 1992, Final Population Totals excluding J&K. 53rd Round NSSO, December, 1997.

The figures show that the percentage of female literacy in 1961 was 12.95 as
compared to 34.44 that of male. It reached 39.29 and 64.13 respectively in 1991 which
further increased to 50 and 73 respectively in 1997. Though females have registered a
progressive trend than males, the gap between the two segments is considerable even
now.

The following table analyses the status of women literacy from the urban-rural
point of view:
Table2: Sex-wise Rural-Urban Literacy Percentage
Year Female Male
1961
Rural 8.55 29.10
Urban 34.51 57.49
1971
Rural 13.17 33.76
Urban 42.14 61.27
1981
Rural 21.77 49.69
Urban 56.37 76.83
1991
Rural 30.62 57.87
Urban 64.05 81.09
1997

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 Rural 43.00 68.00
Urban 72.00 88.00
SOURCE: Census of India 1961, Part II-c (I) Social and Cultural Tables
Census of India 1971, Part II-c (ii) Social and Cultural Tables
Census of India 1991 Paper 2 of 1991 Vol.II excluding J&K
NSSO 53rd Round December, 1997.

The figures show that while literacy rate in rural and urban women was 8.55
and 34.51 respectively in 1961, it went up to 30.62 and 64.05 respectively in 1991 and
again 43 and 72 in 1997. Thus, it can be seen that the rural women are more
disadvantaged educationally than that of their counterparts in urban areas. In terms of
female literacy, Districts of Barmer and Jalor of Rajasthan are having female literacy of
7.68% and 7.76% respectively which is the lowest at the national level. As many as 261
districts have female literacy percentage lower than the national average of 39.29%
(Census of India, 1991).

The problem of illiteracy among women has been aggravated due to low
enrolment and high dropout rate among girls of the school going age (Report of Task
Force on Disadvantaged Groups, IGNOU, 1988). The enrolment of Indian women in
higher education is also not encouraging. While in 1982-83, it was 27%, it just
increased by 8.8% in next 10 years (Indiresan, 1995). Their peculiar unfavourable
domestic conditions add fuel to the fire of illiteracy. They have to work round the clock
except a few hours rest. As discussed earlier, the women in rural areas are often
engaged in the activities requiring more physical labour. The educational status of
Indian women is very poor. Socio-economic status of women is even worse. Nearly
30% of our people are below the euphemistically defined poverty line, the most
vulnerable being the women and children (Coyaji, 1994). In some groups there are many
restrictions on their mobility. Their domestic and social situation do not allow them to
leave home for example in Muslims, Rajputs etc. The early child marriages, house
confinement for girls, family restrictions etc. are the social evils which grab many a girls
in their claws and prove deterrent for their all round personality development.

PHYSICALLY CHALLENGED

The physically challenged people are scattered through all sections of the society
in India. Their dispersal through out the geographic lengths and breadths of the country
pose a major challenge in successful implementation and execution of literacy and
rehabilitation programmes for them, than their disabilities, since their disabilities can be
overcome by providing them special gadgets as per their requirements.

The ILO defines a disabled person as an individual whose perspective of

securing, retaining and advancing in suitable employment are substantially reduced as a
result of a duly recognised physical or mental impairment. The definitions used by
NSSO are:

Visually disabled:

A person who had no light perception, and also who had light perception but
could not count the fingers of a hand correctly (using glasses if ordinarily used) from a
distance of three meters in good daylight with both eyes open.

3
Hearing disability:

A person was treated as having hearing disability if he/she could not hear at all
or could hear only loud sounds or could hear only shouted words or could hear only
when the speaker was sitting in the front, or would usually ask to repeat the words
spoken or would like to see the face of the speaker.

Speech disability:

Speech of a person was judged to be disordered if the person’s speech was not
understood by the listener, drew attention to the manner in which he/she spoke than to
the meaning, and was aesthetically unpleasant.

Locomotor disability:

Locomotor disability was defined as the loss of lack of normal ability of an

individual to move both himself/herself and /or objects from one place to another. It
may occur due to paralysis of the limb or body, deformity in the limb(s), loss of limb(s)
dysfunction of joints of the limb(s), and or in the neck or dwarfing or stunting).

The estimates of the population of disabled vary a great deal depending upon the
degree of disability. According to an estimate, over 10% of the Indian population is
disabled (Ramanujam, 1998). The population in India with disability is over 90 million,
of these 12 million are blind, 28.5 million are with low vision, 12 million are with speech
and hearing defects, 6 million orthopaedically handicapped, 24 million mentally
retarded, 7.5 million mentally ill and 1.1 million leprosy cured. According to NSSO 36th
round in 1981, it was found that 1.8% of the total population of the country has physical
and sensory disability. About 2-2.5% of the total population of the country has mental
retardation. Whereas, as per survey conducted by NSSO in 1991, over 1.9% of the total
population was suffering from physical or sensory disability – with visual, speech,
hearing and locomotion disabilities. The following states have distribution of physical
disability more than national average (19/1000):

(per 1000)

Andhra Pradesh 24.98

Himachal Pradesh 28.70
Karnataka 21.31
Mahadhya Pradesh 27 00
Orissa 23.06
Panjab 29.36
Tamil Nadu 23.72

The rate of prevalence of physical disability in urban population was 16.75/1000

as compared to 19.75/1000 in rural areas.
Table 3: Estimated number (percentage) of disabled Persons in India – 1991
Type of Rural Urban
Disability
Male Female Persons Male Female Persons
Visual 46.15 53.85 83.27 45.97 54.03 16.73

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 Hearing 54.76 45.24 79.36 50.67 49.33 20.64
Speech 62.84 37.16 76.25 63.81 36.19 23.75
Hearing & 57.42 42.58 78.07 56.66 43.34 21.93
Speech
Locomotor 64.58 35.42 76.15 64.26 35.74 23.85
Physical 58.82 41.18 78.32 59.34 40.66 21.68
Source: Report No. 393 NSSO. A Report on Disabled Persons 47th Round 1991 & Report on Manpower Development.
Rehabilitation Council of India, New Delhi, January 1996.

The prevalence of disability has marginally grown up in 1991 as compared to

1981. The prevalence in rural areas in 1991 was 1.99% as compared to 1.84% in 1981.
This prevalence in urban areas was 1.58% in 1991 as against 1.42% in 1981. However,
incidence of visual, hearing and speed disabilities has shown marginal decline during
1981-91. A study conducted by Indian Council for Medical Research (ICMR) estimated
that 6.8% people in urban areas and 10. 8% in rural areas had significant hearing losses.
These people have their individual characteristics and require special efforts in planning
and preparing any type of programmes for their over all development. Despite the
efforts made by special educators in India, only 5% of the disabled are educated
(Ramanujam, 1998). Their peculiarity makes them vulnerable. Special trainers are
needed for their training and education. The total number of trained manpower in all
spheres of disability is 13,365 (Report of Rehabilitation Council of India, 1996) which is
not at all sufficient for the task of rehabilitation of the physically challenged. According
to an estimate, 3,62,300 people are required to be trained during the 9 th Plan which will
reach up to 7,24,600 during the 10th Plan. Though many non-governmental organisations
have come to their rescue and are working for them, still lack of infrastructure and
trained manpower pose major constraints in their rehabilitation. Thus, a special
mechanism is required to be evolved and tested for delivery of programmes fabricated
for these people.

SCHEDULED CASTES AND SCHEDULED TRIBES

The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes constitute two of the major
disadvantaged groups in Indian society. Scheduled Castes are the people who live in the
society but are deprived of their social, economic, religious and political rights and are
suppressed by other high classes of the society. They have always fought for equal
status and opportunities in their lives. On the other hand, Scheduled Castes are the
people who live in forests or in hilly areas away from society at large. They keep
themselves aloof from the national main stream. They may also be wandering from place
to place and do not stay at one place for long. This movement continues for generations
together e.g. people of Nomadic Tribes. The literacy rate in these groups are much more
lower than any other group. According to 1991 Census, 84% of Scheduled Caste female
workers were engaged in agriculture and related activities. The maximum percentage of
Scheduled Caste female agriculture workers was in Bihar (93.84%) followed by Andhra
Pradesh (92.43%) and Himachal Pradesh (91.45%) (Basavaraj, 1998).

The Scheduled Castes constitute 16.48% of the total Indian population and
Scheduled Tribes 8.08% (Census, 1991). The population of Scheduled Castes has
increased from 6.45 crores in 1961 to 13.82 crores in 1991. The population of Scheduled
Tribes increased from 2.99 crores in 1961 to 6.78 crores in 1991. Rural population of
Scheduled Castes increased by 95% while urban population increased by 275.07%

5
during 1961-91. Total number of Scheduled Caste population increased by 114.26%
during this period. In rural areas Scheduled Caste population of male and female
increased by 99.12% and 279.91%, whereas in urban areas it increased by 270.81% and
279.91% respectively.

In case of Scheduled Tribes, the population increased by 126.74% during 1961-

1991. The total male and female S T population increased by 128.47% and 124.99%
respectively. Rural S T population increased by 115.57% whereas in urban areas it
increased by 547.32%

The State of Punjab has the highest population of Scheduled Castes (28.3%)
whereas the District with highest population of Scheduled Castes is Koch Bihar (51.8%)
in West Bengal. In case of Scheduled Tribes, the State of Mizoram (94.8%) constitutes
the highest proportion. West Khasi Hills (98.1%) in Meghalaya constitutes the highest
proportion District of Scheduled Tribes.

Table 4: Comparative Literacy Rates of S C/S T in Urban and Rural areas (%age)
Scheduled Castes Scheduled Tribes
Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban
Persons
1961 10.27 8.89 21.81 8.53 8.16 22.41
1971 14.67 12.77 28.65 11.30 10.68 28.84
1981 21.38 18.48 36.60 16.35 14.92 37.93
1991 37.41 33.25 55.11 29.60 27.38 56.60
Males
1961 16.96 15.06 32.21 13.83 13.37 30.43
1971 22.36 20.04 38.93 17.63 16.92 37.09
1981 31.12 27.91 47.54 24.52 22.94 47.60
1991 49.91 45.95 66.60 40.65 38.45 66.56
Females
1961 3.29 2.52 10.04 3.16 2.90 13.45
1971 6.44 5.06 16.99 4.85 4.36 19.64
1981 10.93 8.45 24.34 8.04 6.81 27.32
1991 23.76 19.45 42.29 18.19 16.02 45.66
Source: Census of India 1961: Part VA (I) Special Tables for S C/ST
Census of India 1971, S Cs/STs Part VA (I)
Census of India 1981: PCA S Cs/STs series 1, Part 1 B(ii) & B (iii)
Census of India 1991, Final Population Totals (Paper 2 of 1992)

The literacy percentage of Scheduled Castes increased from 10.27% in 1961 to

37.41% in 1991. The literacy among male was 16.96% in 1961 which increased up to
49.41% in 1991. The female Scheduled Caste literacy percentage was 3.29% in 1961
and registered an increase of 20.47% up to 1991. In case of Scheduled Tribes, literacy
rate in 1961 was 8.53% which increased up to 29.60% during 1991. The male
percentage reached from 13.83% in 1961 to 40.65% in 1991 where as the female
percentage reached from 3.16% in 1961 to 18.19% in 1991. The educational
development in S C/ ST population is much more lower as compared to non-S C/ ST
population. As many as 70% of these groups live in rural areas in their own peculiar
traditional life style. Majority of them are poor and survive on day-to-day earning. The
children in the family help their parents in earning their livelihood. But in spite of their
day-long hard work and efforts, they are not able to meet their daily requirements.

RURAL AND REMOTE AREAS

6
 The population in rural areas has a typical composition. On the one hand more
than 74% Indian population lives in rural areas on the other hand composition of rural
population is very complex. The majority of people who live below the poverty line are
from rural and remote areas.

Table 5: Distribution of Population ( in crores)

Year Rural Urban Total
1961 36.02 7.89 43.92
1971 43.90 10.91 54.81
1981 52.38 15.94 68.33
1991 62.86 21.76 84.63
Source: Census of India, 1991 Paper 2 of 1992 Final Population Totals.

The rural population reached 62.86 crores in 1991 from 36.02 in 1961. On the
other hand urban population reached 21.76 crores from 7.89 crores during this period.
The rural population included 30.43 crores of women population. Out of this, only
30.62% were literate. In case of males 57.87% males, were literate in rural areas in
1991.

Table 2 reflects the sex-wise rural-urban literacy rate. It is clear that in 1997,
43% female and 68% male in rural areas were literate as compared to 72% and 88%
respectively from urban areas.

Table 3 shows that in 1991, 83.28% of total number of visually disabled

population lived in rural areas. Likewise, 79.36% of hearing impaired, 76.25% of
speech disorder disabled, 78.07% of total hearing & speech disorder disabled, 76.15% of
locomotor disabled and 78.32% of physically disabled were found in rural areas. Out of
13.82 crores of total Scheduled Castes population, 11.23 crores lived in rural areas. The
same way, out of 6.77 crores of total population of Scheduled Tribes, 6.27 crores lived in
rural areas. The rural population is largely engaged in agriculture and its allied activities
among others like contract labour, bounded labour etc. The educational composition of
Labour Force in rural India is given below:

Table 6: Educational Composition of Labour Force (percentage)

Educational 1983 1987-88 1993-94
Level
Male Female Male Female Male Female
Illiterate 52.1 86.2 48.3 82.3 43.7 79.0
Primary 29.2 10.2 29.6 12.0 29.0 13.7
Middle 10.8 2.1 11.6 3.2 13.6 3.9
Secondary 6.4 1.2 8.4 2.0 10.9 2.7
Graduate & 1.5 0.3 2.1 0.4 2.8 0.7
above
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Source: National Sample Survey Organisation, 38th, 43rd and 50th rounds.

The above discussion shows that rural population is most heterogeneous in

character and ranges from lower middle class to upper middle class. Majority of them
live below the poverty line. The rural areas are not easily accessible geographically.
They are still waiting for their tern for the advent of new technology. There is a dearth

7
of communication facilities and infrastructural development. These areas are not well
connected with nearby cities. The transport facilities are minimal. The health and
educational facilities are also lagging behind on an average. All these things contribute
to the misery of common man in rural and remote areas.

ROLE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

The human resource is an asset for any country and India is not the exception.
But as discussed earlier, a sizable part of human resource in India is underdeveloped in
the form of disadvantaged groups. It is, therefore, necessary to develop such human
resource in order to extract optimum efficiency for overall national development. The
system of education is the only means for development of this part of human resource.
Though, there has been a quantitative expansion of educational institutions in the
country, but no remarkable change in the educational status of these disadvantaged
groups has been observed in India (Negi, 1999). The essence of reaching education to
these groups would be to provide them opportunities for awareness generation, skill
development and employment to ensure their participation and contribution to the
mainstream which will further give way to sustainable national development. In this
context, open and distance education system acquires special significance. Its potential
and elasticity are unquestioned and unparalleled. This mode of education is most suited
for the development of disadvantaged groups viewing their nature, characteristics and
internal composition. The DE system can play a crucial role in meeting the needs of the
different disadvantaged groups by:

 Increasing the accessibility of the existing programmes;

 Framing new programmes of both vocational and academic nature including

general awareness programmes; and

 Special training programmes for the people already working for these groups
(e.g. in case of disabled, there is a dearth of trained manpower for want of which
rehabilitation programmes for these people cannot be geared up).

However, distance education system has not been able to attain its full in
expending educational opportunities for these groups. In order to enable it penetrate
into the lives of the disadvantaged, a certain amount of educational resources has to be
diverted to develop the infrastructure required for these groups exclusively. Funds
should be earmarked for different activities related to this at the national level. Though
some of the distance education institutions have included education of the disadvantaged
groups as one of their objectives (e.g. IGNOU and YCMOU) but a firm policy
framework for this is not visible anywhere and is yet to see the light of the day, for
want of which it becomes difficult for the institution to take drastic steps in this
direction. Such a policy for education of the disadvantaged groups should be framed and
adopted in letter and spirit.

As we have discussed earlier, the disadvantaged groups have a heterogeneous

composition. The range of variety of people’s profile in these groups is very high.
These groups have restrictions on mobility from their workplaces due to various social,
economic, geographical and physical reasons, hence the development programmes and

8
mechanism of delivering these programmes to such people should be chosen carefully
keeping their characteristics and requirements in view.

While preparing programmes for women, care has to be taken that they should
have direct relevance for them and assimilate with their working conditions. The
programmes prepared for the disabled should provide them alternative media of
instruction keeping in view the form their disability. The programmes meant for the
Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribes and for those living in rural and remote areas,
should help in making them self-reliant. A collaborative effort in this direction with the
agencies already working for different disadvantaged groups can go a long way in totally
revamping the scenario. IGNOU has already taken a lead in this direction and has been
able to establish some Study Centres in collaboration with some of NGOs in India.

CONCLUSION

Thus, to bring the common masses to the main stream of national development
has ever been a matter of challenge for the planners as well as the policy makers. Though
the government has been making policies from time to time declaring economic
assistance to bring common man to the main-stream, but due to lack of proper dedication
of the machinery, even rich and excellent plans tend to dash to the ground at the
implementation stage. In stead of this, the government should try to make these people
educationally sound by providing necessary educational infrastructure and facilities, as
the former is the practice of recurring nature and will never make them self-reliant.
Instead, education is the only one-time measure which will help people join the
mainstream of all round national development. The so-called disadvantaged groups
which include Women, Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribes, Rural Masses and
Physically Challenged people, pose a threat to the system of education as well. As
discussed above these groups have their own peculiar nature, characteristics and internal
composition which make them deprived not only educationally but also economically,
socially and politically. A concerted effort is required to be made to reach them and
enable them to contribute their bit to the cause of regional development. It is inevitable
in order to restore an acceptable balanced national growth. Viewing the gravity of the
problem of mass education, the system of Distance Education can be harnessed to spread
to all the hitherto unreached niches and corners of the country as it has a potential to
reach even at the doorsteps of those who are not able to reach education system in turn.

The above analysis will help the planners and policy makers to devise specific
programmes based on their nature, characteristics and social composition which could
be most suitable to the specific requirements of the disadvantaged groups. It is the high
time that we concentrate our efforts and national resources for the upliftment of these
deprived people.

-o-o-o-

REFERENCES:

Basavaraj, Indira (1998). Disadvantaged Women: Initiatives Towards Empowerment,

a paper presented to Task Force for Disadvantaged Groups, IGNOU.

9
Chawla, Prabha (1998). Disadvantaged Groups – How to Extend Distant Education
to Them, a paper presented to Task Force for Disadvantaged Groups,
IGNOU.

Chawla, Prabha (1998). Women: The Largest Disadvantaged Group, a paper

presented to Task Force for Disadvantaged Groups, IGNOU.

Coyaji, Banoo J (1994). Women’s Status In India, Convocation Address of SNDT

University, University News January 31.

Government of India, Department of Education, Educational Statistics

http://www.education.nic.in/htmlweb/edusta.htm.

Government of India, Ministry of Welfare, Rehabilitation Council of India Report on

Manpower Development, 1996 I

ICDL Data Base http://www-icdl.open.ac.uk/icdl/database/asia/india

Indiresan J (1995) Women’s Education in India, in K B Powar & S K Panda (eds.) in

Search of Quality in Higher Education, New Delhi: AIU.

Negi, D B (1999). Impact of IGNOU on Disadvantaged Groups – A Critical

Assessment, a paper presented at 12th AAOU Conference in October.

Pal, Rajendra and Khandoi, Hemant (1994). Status of Women’s Education – Some
Expected changes, University News, 5th Sept..

Ramanujam, P R (1998). The Role of Distance Education in meeting the Needs of the
Disabled, a paper presented to Task Force for Disadvantaged Groups,
IGNOU.

Reddy and Vayunandan (1986). Student Services Strategies to Reach Rural Remote
Areas, a paper presented at IDEA Conference at Hyderabad in November.

Report of Task Force for Disadvantaged Groups on making Distance Education

Accessible to Disadvantaged Groups, IGNOU, 1998.

10
 NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS AND STRUCTURE OF
DISADVANTAGED GROUPS IN INDIA

S K Pulist
Indira Gandhi National Open University

Abstract

The Constitution of India provides for equality of its countrymen in all spheres of
life. But in spite of five decades of planned development, India is still afflicted by
poverty, illiteracy and inequality. This gulf between the haves and have nots is
widening day by day. In order to bridge this gap special efforts have to be made to
reach education to the doorsteps of those who are not able to reach the former.

There is a need to concentrate the educational resources particularly the

distance education system to educate people in order to achieve desired overall national
growth. It is, therefore, a prerequisite to be aware of the nature, characteristics and
composition of these educationally disadvantaged groups such as Women, Scheduled
Castes & Scheduled Tribes, Rural Masses and Physically Challenged. In this context,
open and distance education system acquires special significance. The DE system can
play a crucial role in meeting the needs of these groups

The present paper tends to analyse the nature, characteristics and internal
composition of different disadvantaged groups and the role the distance education
system can play for enabling them to join the main stream of sustainable national
development.

-o-o-o-

11