List three reasons for mass emigration from Europe up to 1930.

• Mass Emigration 1815-1930 (peak 1880-1920)

• Great Acceleration c. 1890-1914
• Immigration part of European conquest and destruction of Indigenous populations
• Industrial revolution produced rural to urban migration
• Poverty and population growth in Europe
• Fleeing persecution
• Information from relatives and friends
• Decline of rural industries

List three features of colonised societies

- colonial rule made out people unable to rule themselves
- colonial powers relied on colonies for resources and troops for war
- either settler colonies, exploitation colonies or mixed-settler colonies

List three reasons why the Russian Revolution of 1917 was successful.
 600 000 strong centralized and disciplined communist Party
 Only government willing and able to hold Russia together as a state
 Revolution allowed peasantry to take hold of land

List three features of fascist societies.

• Quest for national re-birth at centre
• Espoused traditional values, but not traditionalist but totalitarian
• Powerful and Continuing Nationalism
• Disdain for the Recognition of Human Rights
• Identification of Enemies/Scapegoats as a Unifying Cause e.g. liberals; communists; socialists, terrorists, etc.
• Supremacy of the Military
• Rampant Sexism - almost exclusively male-dominated, state is ultimate guardian of the family institution.
• Controlled Mass Media - Censorship
• Obsession with National Security - Fear is used as a motivational tool by government over the masses.
• Religion and Government are Intertwined – uses common religion in the nation as a tool to manipulate public
opinion
• Corporate Power is Protected
• Labor Power is Suppressed - labour unions either eliminated or severely suppressed.
• Disdain for Intellectuals and the Arts
• Obsession with Crime and Punishment - national police force with virtually unlimited power
• Fraudulent Elections

What were three features of the sexual revolution?

• Sex for Pleasure
• Public culture more sexualised
• technological advances in birth control e.g. Contraceptive revolution: the pill, condoms
• Changes in sexual behaviour
• eradication of sexual objectification of women
• normalisation of pornography e.g. playboy

List three features of the Cold War.

 struggle of economic, political ideologies
 existence of human race in peril
 “end of nationalism” or at least rise in multilateralism
 contest for primacy by proxy wars
 contest for primacy through science
 pervasive in all cultural activity globally
 profound irrationality depleted and polluted resources at emergency pace of wartime
Why and how did three key thinkers challenge or celebrate modernity and its effects in the twentieth century?
Throughout human history there have been events and inventions that have radically altered the destiny of the world.
Betty Friedan: in 1963 as ‘The Problem that Has No Name’ and was the start of a feminist movement that ignited
debate among the treatment of women and their role in society. The book was characterised by the yearning of a
housewife to do more with her life and to allow herself a chance to form her own personal identity. “I’m a server of
food and a putter-on of pants and a bed maker, somebody who can be called on when you want something. But who
am I?” “What seems to have happened was that women were forced back into the home by male prejudice against their
intrusion, by the psychological theories that a young child suffered greatly if deprived of the attentions of its mother,
and by the increasing shortage of domestic help.” By this stage women had become both identifiable and defined by
their marriage and relationship status rather than, like the men during the era, by their careers as a professional in their
occupation.
As well as this, Friedan had cofounded the National Organisation for Women (NOW) in 1966 and became a major
inspiration for the emerging “women’s liberation” movement. Women, in this sense, had become more visible as social
aggregators and workers as they had challenged the basis of the myth that there was nothing more for them to achieve
but a life of striving to become a wife and a mother.

Mahatma Gandhi: instilled his “doctrine of satyagraha”, also known as, soul-force which “sought social justice not
through violence but through love, non compliance to unjust laws, a willingness to suffer and conversion of the
oppressor.” Ultimately nonviolent resistance was central to his philosophy on the way in which he believed Indians
could connect with the British on a basic level. The way in which he incorporated his fundamental teaching of soul-force,
which is generally attributed to have been a return to the traditional way of thinking, into the lives of native Indians, was
to oppose the modern standards set by the British and the new world that appeared to have infiltrated the
“immoveable” India by merging his doctrine of satyagraha into popular thought.
In many ways, much of Gandhi’s writings were considered to be “counter-modern”, yet, he shifted certain parts of his
political teachings as his ideas became influenced by various writings and independence groups such as the Irish anti-
colonial struggle which “foregrounded the operation of cultural nationalism as a major strategy of anti-colonial
resistance.” The ways in which he combined the modern and traditional ideologies of the time with his political
campaigns were through his modifications on traditional Hindu values and westernised contemporary thoughts.
Primarily Gandhi used this strategy throughout his works not only to better his understanding in knowing how to deal
with issues such as morality and justice but, to some degree, to bind together the people and clashing ideals caught
between the dividing lines.
He had a strong set of beliefs regarding the way in which people had begun to make “bodily welfare the object of life”
and that the modern mindset, although viewed as advancing, was actually a step back in progress. Machinery, luxury,
even material gain had been used by the West in order to dramatically alter life in what was perceived to be a more
efficient and productive way yet man had become enslaved by the very thing thought to better life: the “temptation of
money and of the luxuries that money can buy.”
Gandhi himself had succeeded in becoming a revolutionary figure and by definition revolution is determined on the
struggling state of a class that gains new insight into the situation at hand and uses that knowledge to overthrow pre-
existing thought, replacing the old with the new. He had become the modern figure of change and passive resistance
that is so often associated with the way he had achieved “creating, sustaining and popularising a nationalist
consciousness” by preserving the traditions and reworking modern concepts to merge within them.
Benito Mussolini:
Through an ambitious program of demolition and construction, he sought to make Rome a capital that both embraced
modernity while preserving and glorifying the city's ancient past. Rome was strongly shaped by a radical vision of
modernity imposed by Mussolini's regime between the two world wars.
Italian Fascism’s appropriation of the Roman past—the idea of Rome, or romanità— encapsulated the Fascist virtues of
discipline, hierarchy, and order; the Fascist “new man” was modeled on the Roman legionary, the epitome of the virile
citizen-soldier. This vision of modernity also transcended Italy’s borders, with the Roman Empire providing a foundation
for Fascism’s own vision of Mediterranean domination and a European New Order. At the same time, romanità also
served as a vocabulary of anxiety about modernity. Fears of population decline, racial degeneration and revolution were
mapped onto the barbarian invasions and the fall of Rome.
In order for Italy to survive, it needed a radical shift in how it viewed the world. Italian Fascism provided a guideline for
how to view the blatant manifestation of Political Modernity brought about by World War I:
“The State, as conceived and realized by Fascism, is a spiritual and ethical entity for securing the political, juridical, and
economic organization of the nation, an organization which in its origin and growth is a manifestation of the spirit. The
State guarantees the internal and external safety of the country, but it also safeguards and transmits the spirit of the
people, elaborated down the ages in its language, its customs, its faith. The State is not only the present; it is also the
past and above all the future. Transcending the individual's brief spell of life, the State stands for the immanent
conscience of the nation. The forms in which it finds expression change, but the need for it remains.”
Futurism, that was a rejection of the past, and a celebration of speed, machinery, violence, youth and industry; it was
also an advocation of the modernisation and cultural rejuvenation of Italy. 1909 Futurist Manifesto (first will and
testament to all the living men on earth)
-Useless admiration of the past
-Dying. Invalids, prisoners – future is denied them
-Young strong and living futurists
-Strong healthy injustice
-Art can only be violence, cruelty, injustice
-Nourished by fire, hatred and speed:

1. We want to sing the love of danger, the habit of energy and rashness.
2. The essential elements of our poetry will be courage, audacity and revolt.
3. Literature has up to now magnified pensive immobility, ecstasy and slumber. We want to exalt movements of
aggression, feverish sleeplessness.
4. We declare a new beauty: the beauty of speed. A racing automobile, a roaring motor car is more beautiful than the
Victory of Samothrace.
5. We want to sing the man at the wheel, the ideal axis of which crosses the earth.
6. The poet must spend himself with warmth, glamour and prodigality to increase the enthusiastic fervor of the
primordial elements.
7. Beauty exists only in struggle. There is no masterpiece that has not an aggressive character. Poetry must be a violent
assault on the forces of the unknown, to force them to bow before man.
8. Time and Space died yesterday. We are already living in the absolute, since we have already created eternal,
omnipresent speed.
9. We want to glorify war — the only cure for the world — militarism, patriotism, the destructive gesture of the
anarchists, the beautiful ideas which kill, and contempt for woman.
10. We want to demolish museums and libraries, fight morality, feminism and all opportunist and utilitarian cowardice.
11. We will sing of the great crowds agitated by work, pleasure and revolt; revolutions in modern capitals, arsenals,
gluttonous railway stations, factories, steamers, locomotives, aeroplanes.