Chapter 1 Representation of geographical feature

Notes

1- Differentiate between the following

A- Pack track and cart track
Answer- CART TRACK- A narrow road with a rough surface that is usually
made of soil.
PACK TRACK-Pack track is made by constant use of a path by men and
animals to travel.
B- Representative fraction and liner scale
Answer- Representative Fraction (RF) - 1:50000 represents the map scale as
a mathematical ratio or fraction, thus the name ratio scale or fractional
scale. 1:50000 can be shown as 1/50000 as well. Here such a scale means
that one unit of measurement on the map is equal to 50000 of the same
unit on the ground. Such a unit can be anything such as centimeter, meter,
feet, inches, your finger length, half a length of a pencil, etc.
Linear Scale: also known as scale bar, linear scale or graphical scale visually shows
the relationship between distances on the map and the real world. Usually more
than one bar scale is shown on the side of the map, each using a different unit of
measurement. To measure distance on Google Maps you can use the bar scale
found on the corner of the map.

2- Give reasons why?

A- Barren land is colored in white.
Answer- Barren vegetation is an area of land where the plant growth is
sparse, and stunted, and/or comprise limited biodiversity. Environmental
conditions like infertile or toxic soil, high winds, & climatic conditions are
 major factors in "poor" "plant growth and development". Absence of
vegetation makes barren land look plain & bare and to identify these types
of land from other fertile lands the color white used to indicate it.
B- String is used to measure a river.
Answer- Since the scale is a straight and it is very hard to bend it for getting
the correct measurement of the curve line or the river. Thus we need much
more flexible measuring thing to measure the river. So, a non-stretchable
string or a thread is used to measure the length of the river.

3- Answer the following question very briefly.

A- Name the two relief features shown on the topographical sheet.
Answer- Relief of a landscape is basically the physical configuration or
appearance of such a landscape taking into account the elevations, slopes,
and shape of natural features found in it. On maps, cartographers usually
use several methods to portray the relief of the terrain. Two relief features
shown on the topographical sheet are-
Contouring- It is the most common method of showing relief on
topographic maps. This is mainly because it has the ability to show all five
aspects of relief (shape, orientation, size, elevation, and slope) on the map.
i-They connect points of equal elevations above mean sea level.
ii-They are numbered in either feet or meters, above sea level.
Hachuring- It is one of the earliest methods used by cartographers to
represent relief on the map. This method represents the relief of an area by
using hachures. Hachures are short broken lines used on a map to indicate
the direction and steepness of the slope. They do not represent exact
elevations but are mainly used to give a good impression of the shape and
slope of the ground.
B- Why are different shades of the same color used?

Answer- Cartographers use color on maps to represent certain features. Color

use is always consistent on a single map and often consistent across different
types of maps made by different cartographers and publishers. Many colors used
on maps have a relationship to an object or feature on the ground. For example,
blue is almost always the color chosen for water. Typically, maps represent each
county, state, or country with a color based on the data for that area.
When mapping certain percentages, cartographers who design maps often use
different shades of the same color, producing a nice visual effect.

C- Give another name which can be used for legend.

Answer- A map key can be used for legend. It is a visual explanation of the
symbols used on the map. It typically includes a sample of each symbol
(point, line, or area), and a short description of what the symbol means. For
example, a short segment of a blue sinuous line may be labeled 'rivers'.
 Chapter 2 Atmosphere
Notes
1- Answer the following question
A- What are the characteristics of the air found in the atmosphere?
Answer- Earth is the only planet in the solar system with an atmosphere
that can sustain life. The blanket of gases not only contains the air that we
breathe but also protects us from the blasts of heat and radiation
emanating from the sun. It warms the planet by day and cools it at night.
Earth's atmosphere is divided into five main layers: the exosphere, the
thermosphere, the mesosphere, the stratosphere and the troposphere. The
atmosphere thins out in each higher layer until the gases dissipate in space.
Composition of air
Nitrogen — 78 percent
Oxygen — 21 percent
Argon — 0.93 percent
Carbon dioxide — 0.04 percent
Trace amounts of neon, helium, methane, krypton and hydrogen.

B- What is the extent of the atmosphere surrounding the earth?

Answer- Earth atmosphere has large extent.

Troposphere-The troposphere starts at the Earth's surface and extends 8 to 14.5

kilometers high. This part of the atmosphere is the densest. Almost all weather is
in this region.

Stratosphere-The stratosphere starts just above the troposphere and extends to

50 kilometers (31 miles) high. The ozone layer, which absorbs and scatters the
solar ultraviolet radiation, is in this layer.

Mesosphere-The mesosphere starts just above the stratosphere and extends to

85 kilometers (53 miles) high. Meteors burn up in this layer
Thermosphere-The thermosphere starts just above the mesosphere and extends
to 600 kilometers (372 miles) high. Aurora and satellites occur in this layer.

Exosphere-This is the upper limit of our atmosphere. It extends from the top of
the thermosphere up to 10,000 km (6,200 mi).

C- Name any two gases that are responsible for the Greenhouse effect.

Answer- A greenhouse gas is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and

emits radiant energy within the thermal infrared range. This process is the
fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse
gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, and ozone. These all gases are responsible for the
greenhouse effect due to the interference of human activity.

D- Name two respiratory elements caused by pollution.

Answer- Pollution is the cause and aggravating factor of many respiratory
diseases like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma and
lung cancer.

E- Define the normal Lapse rate.

Answer- The lapse rate is the rate at which the air variables normally the
temperature falls within the altitude. The higher one travels into the
troposphere, or the first layer of the atmosphere, the lower the
temperature becomes. The rate at which the temperature drops is known
as the lapse rate. On average, the lapse rate of the troposphere is 3.6
degrees per 1,000 feet, or 6.5 degrees Celsius for every 1,000 meters.

F- What creates the greenhouse effect?

Answer- Greenhouse effect, a warming of Earth’s surface and troposphere (the
lowest layer of the atmosphere) caused by the presence of water vapour, carbon
dioxide, methane and certain other gases in the air. Of those gases, known
as greenhouse gases, water vapour has the largest effect. The man-made (or
anthropogenic) component of the greenhouse effect is caused by man’s activities
that emit greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. The most important of these is
the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation etc. Fossil fuels contain carbon, and
when they are burnt this carbon combines with oxygen in the atmosphere to form
carbon dioxide.