Advanced Institute for Research on Religion and Culture (ARRC)

Assignment-2

Subject : A Detailed Study of Hinduism -MREL032

Topic: “Major Hindu Philosophical System and their Main teachings: Hindus and
people of other faiths”.

Submitted to: Rev Dr T. Swami Raju Submitted by: N J Babu Chinthapalli

M.Th. -1st year (Hinduism) Date: 11th Feb 2019

Introduction

The word veda means "knowledge." In the modern world, we use the term "science" to
identify the kind of authoritative knowledge upon which human progress is based. To the
ancient people of Bharatavarsha (Greater India), the word veda had an even more profound
import that the word science has for us today. Vedic knowledge is called apauruseya, which
means it is not knowledge of human invention. Vedic knowledge appeared at the dawn of the
cosmos within the heart of Brahma, the lotus born demigod of creation from whom all the
species of life within the universe descend. They are more in the nature of an elaboration of
different aspects of the same thought. The six well-known systems of Indian philosophy are
an amplification of the monistic, the dualistic, and the pluralistic trends of the traditional
Hindu thought. This paper deals with major Hindu philosophical system, their main
teachings, Hindus and other faiths.

1. Major Hindu Philosophical system

The Six classical schools (shatdarshan) are Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva
Mimamsa and Uttar Mimamsa (Vedanta). Almost all Indian schools of thought accepted the
theory of karma and rebirth, and the ideal of moksha is conceived as liberation from the cycle
of births and deaths. Moksha/liberation is considered as the highest goal of human struggle.1

1.1 Sankhya Philosophy

Sankhya is the oldest philosphy. It was put forward by Kapila. Sankhya philosophy provided
the materialistic ontology for Nyaya and Vaisheshik, but there is very little original literature
in Sankhya. It is generally believed that Sankhya Philosophy is dualistic and not monistic
because it has two entities, purush (spirit) and prakriti (nature) in it. Samkhya emphasizes the
attainment of knowledge of self by means of concentration and meditation. Sankhya holds
that it is the self-knowledge that leads to liberation and not any exterior influence or agent.
Sankhya forms the philosophical basis for Yoga.2

1
Swami Bhaskarananda, The Essentials of Hinduism: A Comprehensive Over view of the World’s Oldest
Religion, (Chennai: Published by Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1994), p17.
2
Vijay Singal, Hinduism: From Maya to Moksha, (New Delhi: Vision india Publications, 2013), p43.

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1.2 Yoga Philosophy

Yoga presents a method of physical and mental discipline. The Yoga presents a practical path
for the realization of the self-whereas the Samkhya emphasizes the attainment of knowledge
of self by means of concentration and meditation. Releasing Purush from Prakriti by means
of physical and mental discipline is the concept of Yoga. Founder of Yoga is Pathanjai. Yoga
does not require belief in God, although such a belief is accepted as help in the initial stage of
mental concentration and control of the mind.3

1.3 Nyaya Philosophy

Nyaya Philosophy states that nothing is acceptable unless it is in accordance with reason and
experience (scientific approach). Founder of this philosophy is Gautam and the principles are
mentioned in Nyaya Sutras. Nyaya says that the world is real and the philosophy does not
follow a monist view. Nyaya philosophy relies on several pramanas i.e. means of obtaining
true knowledge as its epistemology. According to it, the pradhan pramana or principal means
of obtaining knowledge is pratyaksha pramana i.e. the knowledge obtained through the 5
senses. There are also other pramanas like anumana (inference, through which we can obtain
true knowledge) and shabda pramana (a statement of an expert).4

1.4 Vaisheshik Philosophy

The classical Indian philosophy Vaisheshika was the physics of ancient times. It propounded
the atomic theory of its founder Kannada. At one time Vaisheshika was regarded as part of
the Nyaya philosophy since physics is part of science. But since physics is the most
fundamental of all sciences, Vaisheshika was later separated from Nyaya and put forth as a
separate philosophy. To make it short, Vaisheshika is a realistic and objective philosophy of
the universe.5

1.5 Purva mimamsa

The word Mimamsa means to analyze and understand thoroughly. Purva Mimamsa examines
the teachings of the Veda in the light of karma-kanda rituals, ie karma-mimamsa system is
called purva-mimamsa. Purva mimansa (or briefly mimansa) lays emphasis on the
performance of the yagya for attaining various spiritual and worldly benefits. Hence this
philosophy relies on the Brahmana (and samhita) part of the Vedas.6

1.6 Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanda)

Vedanta says that the world is unreal, Maya. Vedanta is monistic, in other words, it says that
there is only one reality, Brahman. Vedanta lays emphasis on brahmagyan, hence relies on
the Upanishad part of the Vedas. Vedanda has its roots in Sankya Philosophy. There are three

3
Singal, Hinduism: From Maya to Moksha…, p44.
4
Satishchandra Chatterji Dhirendramohan Datta, An Introduction To Indian Philosophy, (New Delhi: Published
by Rupa Publications, 2007), P32.
5
Dhirendramohan Datta, An Introduction To Indian Philosophy…, p35.
6
Singal, Hinduism: From Maya to Moksha…, p45.

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sub-branhces for Vedanda: 1. Absolute Monism of Shankara 2. Vishishtha Advaita or
qualified monism of Ramanuja 3. Dvaita of Madhva.

2. Main Teachings of Hindu Philosophical System

The profound and varied system of Indian Philosophy and their continuing influence on the
thought, action, and culture of Hindus is significant. The six systems of Indian thought have
been Shad-darsana. The term ‘darsana’ comes from the word ‘drs’ to see. This seeing may
be observation or conceptual knowledge.7

2.1 Nyaya-Vaisesika

Nyaya-Vaisesika epistemology is as realistic as its metaphysics. It lays down four Pramanas

as the valid means of knowledge. They are: perception, inference, analogy, and authority.
Perception reveals objects directly and inference, indirectly. Knowledge is true if it works in
practical life; the pragmatic criterion, however, constitutes only a test and not the essence of
truth which lies in correspondence. Even error has an objective basis. A rope exists; it only
appears as something different in erroneous perception (Anyatha-khyati). Side by side with
this realistic epistemology, a transcendental (Alaukika) form of perception which enables the
Yogin to perceive atoms and moral merit (Dharma) is also recognized. Moksa, or the ultimate
end, is conceived as the transcendence of pleasure and pain on the part of the Self. This is
achieved only after death. Liberation consists in realizing that the Self is neither: the body nor
the Manas. Right knowledge, detached living, and meditation upon the ultimate truth (Yoga)
are prescribed as means to liberation.8

2.2 Sankhya-Yoga

The two systems of the Sankhya and the Yoga, founded many centuries before Christ by
Kapila and Patanjali respectively, are dualistic in thought and recognize two independent,
ultimate, and eternal principles, namely, the Purusa and the Prakriti, as the transcendental
essences of the conscious and the unconscious in our everyday life. The Purusa, linked only
temporarily with Prakriti, is ever free. Knowledge involves the Jiva, the object, and the
activity of the internal organ (Antah-karana) which links the illumining Purusa with the
object. Thus objects are only mediately known. Highest knowledge, called Viveka-jnana, is
intuitive and consists in a clear discrimination of the Purusa from the Prakriti.9

Yoga here means the discipline required for the restoration of I' the original and free status of
the individual Self, and Viyoga, or separation of the Jiva from the true Self, is regarded as the
prime cause of suffering.

To the Sankhya aim of discrimination (Viveka) between Purusa and Prakriti, the Yoga adds
an eight-fold psycho-physical discipline for the reattainment of the Purusa's originally pure

7
Emmanuel E. James, A Study of Religions, (Banglore: Theological Book Trust, 2006), p218.
8
M.K. Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1987), p9.
9
Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism…, p10-11.

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nature (experienced in the state of Asamprajntita Samtidhi). This means complete
transcendence of life's suffering whether psychological (Adhytitmika), environmental
(Adhibhautika), or supernatural (Adhidaivika). God is rejected on grounds of logic and life's
sufferings, though f\ Yoga admits Him as an aid to spiritual realization. In short, Sankhya-
Yoga is an exalted idealism without theistic implications wherein the wonderful harmony of
the Purusa and the Prakriti are supposed to discharge the functions of God.10

2.3 The Mimamsa

Mimamsa has some notable contributions to make in the field of epistemology. The Self is
supposed to be known in all knowledge I although only as an object. For instance, in "I see a
table" both the "I-notion" and the "table-notion" are apprehended. Knowledge is a changing
activity of the Self, which, in knowing, manifests itself as well as the object. Objects are
known directly and the Self, indirectly. According to Mimamsa epistemology, all knowledge
is intrinsically valid; all error is either due to outside interference in the apparatus of knowing
or due to conflict with another bit of knowledge. Prabhakara attributes error to some omission
(Akhyati) and Kumarila to commission (Khyati).11

According to Mimamsa, mere knowledge (Jyana) does not lead to Mok-$a without detached
performance of duty (Karma). The Vedas, it is maintained, determine Dharma (religious
duties). Sanyasa, or retirement from life, is not prescribed; performance of Vedic rites is
deemed capable of achieving the cherished goal. In short, the Mimamsa discipline consists in
doing the obligatory deeds and avoiding the prohibited ones which are the direct cause of
birth and suffering.

2.4 The Vedanta

The Uttar Mimamsa, more popularly known as the Vedanta, is the Upani-sads systematized
and represents the cream of Indian thought. The Upani-sads, the Bhagavad-Gita, and the
Sutras of Badarayana form the base of the Vedanta. It may be classified as absolutistic,
representing the Ultimate Reality as an impersonal principle, and theistic, representing the
Ultimate Reality as a personal God.12 The absolutistic Advaita is represented by Sankara
while the theistic type is represented by Ramanuja and Madhva. Sankara (A. D. 788-820)
maintained that the Upani-sads really teach unity, their inclusion of diversity being only
expository. The real, he held, is one, eternal, and of the essence of pure Cit, called the
Brahman. The Absolute is changeless. The change attributed to the Brahman and the world is
only apparent. Nothing else is. Yet the Brahman is not always realized as such. Thus,
something other than the Brahman also is; the world also appears, but it is illusory as it is
neither real nor unreal. It is of the nature of the "serpent in the rope," which is neither existent
nor non-existent. The Absolute appears as the world just as the rope appears as a serpent.
Thus the world has another kind of reality though not the Absolute Reality. The Absolute
appears not only as the world but also as the individual self. This is due to the delimiting
adjuncts of the Self like the internal organ (Antah-karana). The true Self is to be seen shorn
10
Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism…, p12.
11
James, A Study of Religions…, p221.
12
James, A Study of Religions…, p222.

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of its conditionings. Just as one light appears to be different through different shades, even so
the individual Self, when seen sub specie aeternitatis, is Brahman itself. Thus Brahman alone
appears both as the objective universe and as the individual self.13

3. Hindus and People of Other Faiths

3.1 Hindus and its Faith

Faith is what you believe in with conviction. Trust, confidence, belief, assumptions,
expectations and inferences are aspects of faith only. The word faith is derived from the Latin
“fides,” which means faith. Faith has a great significance in Hindu devotional theism. In
Sanskrit faith is known as sraddha or viswas. The theistic schools of Hinduism are faith
based, in which devotion and faith (bhakti and shraddah) are central to spiritual practice.
Faith in God, faith in the scriptures, faith in the teacher, faith in the path, faith in dharma,
faith in the possibilities of liberation, faith in the inviolable laws of God, these are a few
explicit forms of faith, which are emphasized in the scriptures of Hinduism as the highest
virtues. Since God is invisible and unknowable to the senses, and since he cannot be verified
by rational means, tradition suggests that the Vedas should be used to sustain faith, holding
them as the reliable sources of verbal testimony to establish metaphysical truths about him
and his eternal laws. Since they cannot rationally or empirically be established we have to
rely upon faith and the knowledge of the scriptures to practice dharma and strive for
liberation. While reason belongs to the mind, faith belongs to the heart. Hence, intuition is
regarded as a corollary of faith. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (3.29.1) declares that the
resting ground of faith is the heart.14

In Hinduism, faith (shraddah) is used in a very broad sense. It not only means belief but also
interest, dedication and application. They are interrelated. For example, you cannot be
interested in any goal unless you believe in its possibility. You cannot dedicate yourself to a
cause or to a path, unless you know in your heart, or believe, that it is good for you or lead
you in the right direction. None of it would be possible, unless you have faith in yourself.
You should have faith (shraddah) not only to practice your religion or achieve liberation but
also to gain mastery in any endeavor. A student should study with faith, a teacher should
teach with faith, and a devotee should worship God with faith. If you are faithful to the gods
and nourish them with faith, they will serve you with faith and strengthen your faith in them.
In all these, faith is propelled by both conviction and dedication.15

Faith according to Hinduism is the sum of your worldview, your values and convictions. It
encompasses the whole spectrum of your thought since much of what you know is what you
believe to be worth remembering and paying attention to. From faith arises trust, devotion,
loyalty, commitment, dedication and assurance. Faith may arise from simple observation,
facts, inference, intuition, assurance, experience, common sense or a simple belief. Faith is

13
Gavin Fiood, An Introduction To Hinduism, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p236.
14
Swami Bhaskarananda, The Essentials of Hinduism: A Comprehensive Over view of the World’s Oldest
Religion, (Chennai: Published by Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1994), p1.
15
Klaus K. Klostermaier, A Short History Hinduism, (England: One World Oxford Press, 2006), p1-3.

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difficult to sustain because the world is an appearance, and we are subject to delusion and
ignorance.16

3.2 Buddhism and its Faith

Faith in early Buddhism focused on the Triple Gem, that is, the Buddha; his teaching (the
dharma); and finally, the community of spiritually developed followers or the monastic
community seeking enlightenment (the saṅgha). A faithful devotee was called an upāsaka or
upāsika, a status for which no formal initiation was required. Buddhists do not worship any
gods or God. People outside of Buddhism often think that Buddhists worship the Buddha.
However, the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) never claimed to be divine, but rather he is
viewed by Buddhists as having attained what they are also striving to attain, which is spiritual
enlightenment and, with it, freedom from the continuous cycle of life and death.17

Most Buddhists believe a person has countless rebirths, which inevitably include suffering. A
Buddhist seeks to end these rebirths. Buddhists believe it is a person's cravings, aversion and
delusion that cause these rebirths. Therefore, the goal of a Buddhist is to purify one's heart
and to let go of all yearnings toward sensual desires and the attachment to oneself.

Buddhists follow a list of religious principles and adhere to personal restraint, fasting and
very dedicated meditation. When a Buddhist meditates it is not the same as praying or
focusing on a god, it is more of self-discipline. Through practiced meditation a person may
reach Nirvana -- "the blowing out" of the flame of desire.18

3.3 Islam and its Faith

In the seventh century, Muhammad claimed the angel Gabriel visited him. During these
angelic visitations, which continued for about 23 years until Muhammad's death, the angel
purportedly revealed to Muhammad the words of Allah (the Arabic word for “God” used by
Muslims). These dictated revelations compose the Qur'an, Islam's holy book. Islam means
“submission,” deriving from a root word that means “peace.” The word Muslim means “one
who submits to Allah.” Muslims believe there is the one almighty God, named Allah, who is
infinitely superior to and transcendent from humankind. Allah is viewed as the creator of the
universe and the source of all good and all evil. Everything that happens is Allah's will. He is
a powerful and strict judge, who will be merciful toward followers depending on the
sufficiency of their life's good works and religious devotion. A follower's relationship with
Allah is as a servant to Allah.19

Though a Muslim honors several prophets, Muhammad is considered the last prophet and his
words and lifestyle are that person's authority. To be a Muslim, one must follow five religious
duties: 1. Repeat a creed about Allah and Muhammad; 2. Recite certain prayers in Arabic five
times a day; 3. Give to the needy; 4. One month each year, fast from food, drink, sex and
16
James, A Study of Religions…, p222.
17
James, A Study of Religions…, p307.
18
Satishchandra Chatterji Dhirendramohan Datta, An Introduction To Indian Philosophy, (New Delhi: Published
by Rupa Publications, 2007), P108.
19
James, A Study of Religions…, p177.

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smoking from sunrise to sunset; 5. Pilgrimage once in one's lifetime to worship at a shrine in
Mecca. At death -- based on one's faithfulness to these duties -- a Muslim hopes to enter
Paradise. If not, they will be eternally punished in hell.20

For many people, Islam matches their expectations about religion and deity. Islam teaches
that there is one supreme deity, who is worshiped through good deeds and disciplined
religious rituals. After death a person is rewarded or punished according to their religious
devotion. Muslims believe that giving up one’s life for Allah is a sure way of entering
Paradise.21

3.4 Christianity and its Faith

The Christian faith is the experience of living in a dynamic and new personal relationship
with God through the transforming and indwelling power of Jesus in your body and life. The
key to this new experience of living, and its essential factor, is trusting God to make you into
a new person by allowing him to place the Spirit on behalf of Jesus, his Son, into your mind
and body where Jesus (really Jesus, the Spirit, and God, the Father) can do their work to give
you a new life.22

Christians believe in one eternal God who is creator of all that is. He is viewed as a loving
God who offers everyone a personal relationship with himself now in this life. In his life on
Earth, Jesus Christ did not identify himself as a prophet pointing to God or as a teacher of
enlightenment. Rather, Jesus claimed to be God in human form. He performed miracles,
forgave people of their sin and said that anyone who believed in him would have eternal
life.23

Followers of Jesus regard the Bible as God's written message to humankind. In addition to
being an historical record of Jesus' life and miracles, the Bible reveals his personality, his
love and truth, and how one can know and relate to God, as you could a friend. Christians
believe that all people sin, including themselves. They see Jesus as their Saviour, as the
Messiah who was prophesied by all the prophets of the Old Testament, in the Bible. They
believe that Jesus Christ, out of love for us, paid for the sin for all of humanity by dying on a
cross. Three days later, he rose from the dead as he promised, proving his deity.24

Conclusion

A survey of India's philosophy, however cursory, will show that in spite of occasional lapses
into inconsequential dialectic subtleties, the constant aim has been to interpret life in the
concrete and to find basic means for the deliverance of man from the ills of life. This
deliverance lies in the realization of the spiritual nature of man and the unity of all life. "No
other path is known to the sages." This Indian emphasis on Moksa as the ultimate goal of life
has often been misunderstood in the West, and Indian philosophy has l consequently been
20
V. S, Lalrinawma, Major Faith Traditions of India, (Delhi: Published by ISPCK, 2007), p272.
21
Lalrinawma, Major Faith Traditions of India…, p272.
22
James, A Study of Religions…, p132.
23
James, A Study of Religions…, p133.
24
Erwin W. Lutzer, Christ among Other Gods (Chicago: Moody Press, 1994), p 63.

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accused of being other-worldly and its ethics as world-negating. Nothing could be farther
from the truth, for there is no other world. There is only one world-the world of the Spirit and
there is just one way, or Marga-the way of Dharma. Hindu philosophy, therefore, seeks to
attain here and now the highest perfection. It emphasizes that human aspirations should be
based upon the fundamental principles of Dharma, wherein one's good does not clash with
the good of another.

Bibliography

Bhaskarananda, Swami. The Essentials of Hinduism: A Comprehensive Over view of the

World’s Oldest Religion. Chennai: Published by Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1994.

Dhirendramohan Datta, Satishchandra Chatterji An Introduction To Indian Philosophy. New

Delhi: Published by Rupa Publications, 2007.

Erwin W. Lutzer, Christ among Other Gods. Chicago: Moody Press, 1994.

Fiood, Gavin An Introduction To Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Gandhi, M.K. The Essence of Hinduism. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1987.

James, Emmanuel E. A Study of Religions. Banglore: Theological Book Trust, 2006.

Klostermaier, Klaus K. A Short History Hinduism. England: One World Oxford Press, 2006.

Lalrinawma, V. S. Major Faith Traditions of India. Delhi: Published by ISPCK, 2007.

Singal, Vijay Hinduism: From Maya to Moksha. New Delhi: Vision India Publications, 2013.