ABE402: Irrigation Design & Management Sprinkler Irrigation Systems

DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS FOR SPRINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEM

Introduction

In sprinkler irrigation system, water moves dynamically from the source, in most cases
through the pump into the pipe network. From the pipe network, water is supplied under
pressure to sprinkler systems and through a sprinkler nozzle into the air at a high velocity
where it breaks up into droplets and falls to the soil or crop surface. Therefore, for sprinkler
system, energy is required to (1) move the water (2) offset the head losses in the pipe system
and (3) provide the necessary operating pressure for sprinkling. The energy may be provided
by the source of water being elevated relative to field or it may be provided mechanically
through a pump or part and part. Head losses in the pipeline are due to friction between the
fluid (water) and the pipe. Also, as water moves past joints and bends it loses some energy.

Head losses

Head loss refers to the energy dissipated in system due to friction. Different approaches or
methods can be used to estimate head losses in pipe systems. The Darcy-Weisbach formula is
one of the methods used for circular pipes flowing full, it is given by:

𝐿 𝑉2 8𝑓 𝐿𝑄 2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 =( 2 ) 5
𝐷 2𝑔 𝜋 𝑔 𝐷

Where hf = the loss of head in equivalent height of water in a length of pipe L, m

D = inside pipe diameter, m
V = mean velocity, m/s
Q = the flow in the pipe, m3/s
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
f = the Darcy-Weisbach resistance coefficient

The resistance coefficient is a function of the relative roughness (e/D) and the Reynolds
number (Re).

1 𝑒 9.35
= 1.14 − 2log⁡( + )
√𝑓 𝐷 𝑅𝑒 √𝑓

Where e = absolute roughness of the inside of the pipe, mm

The Reynolds number is equivalent to (VD/ν), where nu (ν) is the kinematic viscosity and it
equals 1.0 x 10-6 m2/s, which represents water at a temperature of 20 °C.

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𝑅𝑒 = 1.273⁡ × ⁡ 106 𝑄/𝐷

For this equation, Q is in L/s and D in mm. Figure 1 shows the relationship between
discharge and the Reynold’s number.

The resistance coefficient is dimensionless and must be solved iteratively.

The resistance coefficient varies along the sprinkler laterals. The relative roughness depends
on the smoothness and inside diameter of the pipe, therefore relative roughness is constant for
a given pipe, however due to flow decreasing along the pipeline in the lateral, the resistance
coefficient also decreases.

Figure 1: Reynolds number for pipes typical of centre pivots and lateral move systems
(Hoffman et al., 2007)

Other head loss equations

There are other formulae, some empirical developed and accepted by the irrigation industry
to determine friction losses. The commonly used ones include the Scobey method and the
Hazen-Williams equation. The Hazen-Williams and Scobey equations are given by:

𝑄 𝑑1
ℎ𝑓 = 𝐾𝐿 𝑑
𝐷 2
Where hf = the friction loss in a pipe that conveys the flow throughout the length, m
L = the length of pipe, m
Q = the flow in L/s

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D = the inside diameter of the pipe, mm

The value of K varies for the two equations. For the Hazen-Williams equation, K = 1.21 x
1010 C-1.852 where C is the pipe roughness coefficient. The ‘C’ varies from 150 for very
smooth pipes, such as PVC to 60 for a pipe with a very rough interior, such as an old steel
pipe (Table 1). The exponents are given by d1 = 1.852 and d2 = 4.85 for Hazen-Williams
equations. For the Scobey method K = 4.10 x 106 Ks where Ks is Scobey’s coefficient of
retardation and the exponent values are d1 = 1.9 and d2 = 4.9.

Table 1: Values of roughness e (equivalent of grain size) for pipe materials for determining
the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor and roughness coefficient C for the Hazen-Williams
(Hoffman et al., 2007)

Normally, as pipe size increases, resistance decreases (i.e. C should increase for the Hazen-
Williams equation). As the number of couplers decrease, C should increase. Pipe materials
with smoother inside walls will have less resistance and higher C for the Hazen-Williams
equation. The resistance coefficient for the Darcy-Weisbach equation depends on the pipe
roughness, pipe diameter, flow rate and temperature of the water. Thus, the Darcy-Weisbach
equation has broader applications than the Hazen-Williams or Scobey equations.

The energy loss for pipe with couplers can be determined by increasing the friction factor by
11 % for aluminium irrigation pipe with couplers spaced 9 m apart. Decreasing the spacing to
6 m could increase the energy loss by 17 %, while increasing the coupler spacing to 12 m
should decrease the energy loss by 8 %.

Systems are usually designed for nearly constant sprinkler discharge along the lateral at a
specified average nozzle pressure. The pipe therefore needs to be specified, taking into
account maximum lateral length, multiple sizes to maintain the pressure variation along the
lateral with specified limits. Laterals are designed first, and then mainline, then the inlet
pressure is set high enough to maintain the minimum desired sprinkler pressure. For portable
laterals, one or two sizes of pipe are used per lateral. For permanent laterals, several sizes

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could be used along the lateral, which has an economical advantage. In sizing the main or
lateral, the designer considers uniformity of application, pumping costs, elevation differences
between source and field.

Head loss adjustment

When water is removed at intervals along the lateral, friction loss will be less than if flow was
constant for the entire length, owing to the fact that the discharge influences the magnitude of
the head loss. Christiansen (1942) developed an adjustment factor (F) which is the ratio of the
friction loss in a lateral with multiple outlets having equal spacing and discharges to that
calculated assuming all the water is carried to the distal end of the pipeline. The F factor is
used when the first sprinkler is located one full sprinkler spacing from the main line e.g. if the
sprinkler spacing is 12 m, then F is used when the distance between the main and the first
sprinkler is also 12 m. A modified factor (F') is used when the first sprinkler is located one-
half the sprinkler spacing from the supply line. Equations have been developed to predict the
values of F and F'.

1 1 √𝑚 − 1
𝐹= + +
𝑚 + 1 2𝑁 6𝑁 2

2𝑁 1 √𝑚 − 1
𝐹′ = ( + )
2𝑁 − 1 𝑚 + 1 6𝑁 2

Therefore:

ℎ𝑓_𝑎𝑑𝑗 = 𝐹ℎ𝑓

Where hf_adj is the actual friction loss for a pipe with multiple outlets, and F' can replace F
depending on the position of the 1st sprinkler in relation to the main line.

Sprinkler design parameters

Sprinkler irrigation systems should be designed to satisfy crop water requirements while
applying water at a rate that minimizes runoff and excess leaching. Also, pressure distribution
must be appropriate in the mainline and sprinkler lateral.

Application efficiency – it is the fraction of the applied water that remains in the crop root
zone following irrigation. The water that infiltrates and remains in the root zone is the net
irrigation. Application efficiency (Ea) can also be defined as the ratio of the net irrigation (dn)
to the gross depth of water applied (dg).

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Application efficiency is affected by type of system, design and operation, soil and
climatological conditions at the time of irrigation. Different methods of sprinkler system have
different application efficiencies (Table 2).

Table 2: Typical performance characteristics for sprinkler irrigation systems

Application Efficiency (%) Coefficient of uniformity

Solid set 70 – 85 75 – 85
Centre pivot 80 – 92 85 – 95
Hand move 65 – 75 70 – 85
Lateral move 85 – 92 85 – 95

System discharge – this is the inflow rate into the sprinkler system (QS), which is the amount
of water that must be supplied to avoid water stress, given by:

𝑑𝑔 𝐴𝑖
𝑄𝑆 = 0.116 ( )
𝑇𝑜

Where QS = inflow to the sprinkler irrigation system, L s-1

To = time of operation per irrigation, days
dg = gross depth of irrigation water applied, mm
Ai = area irrigated, ha

Irrigation interval – it is the time from start of the irrigation until the beginning of the
subsequent irrigation. Usually the design irrigation interval is based on peak water
requirement period of the season.

Related to the irrigation interval is the downtime, which is the difference between irrigation
interval and the time of operation. It is important that the irrigation interval and downtime be
coordinated with the operator, not just arbitrarily by the designer.

Sprinkler discharge – this is the discharge from a single sprinkler (qs). This is determined by
density of sprinklers, which is determined by spacing between sprinklers along a lateral and
distance between lateral positions along the main. The representative area for a single
sprinkler is the product of the sprinkler spacing along the lateral (SL) and the distance
between lateral positions (Sm). The qs depends on the depth of water that must be applied per
irrigation, the representative area for a single sprinkler and the time the water is applied for
an individual set.
𝑑𝑔 𝑆𝐿 𝑆𝑚
𝑞𝑠 =
3600𝑇𝑠

Where qs = discharge from a sprinkler, L s-1

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Ts = operational time per set for a single lateral, hours

Diameter of coverage – sometimes termed wetted diameter (Wd), it is the size of the circular
pattern that is wetted by an individual sprinkler. The wetted diameter has a large influence on
sprinkler and lateral spacing, and therefore the cost of a system. Sprinkler manufacturers
provide performance data that includes the discharge and diameter of coverage as a function
of operating pressure and nozzle sizes.

Time of operation per set – it is also called the set-time, and is selected to satisfy crop water
requirements throughout the irrigation interval, while avoiding deep percolation. Similar to
the irrigation interval and the downtime, the time of operation must be acceptable to the
operator. The appropriate set-time (Ts) depends on the rate of water application (Ra) which
depends on discharge and the representative area for an individual sprinkler.

3600𝑞𝑠
𝑅𝑎 =
𝑆𝐿 𝑆𝑚

Where Ra is the application rate, mm hour-1

It is important to set the application rate not to exceed the soil’s infiltration rate to prevent
runoff. The depth of water applied per irrigation can be related to the other parameters as
follows:

3600𝑞𝑠 𝑇𝑠
𝑑𝑔 =
𝑆𝐿 𝑆𝑚

The depth of water applied (dg) includes losses, hence dg = dn/Ea, where dn is the net depth of
application, and it should not exceed the soil water depleted at the time of irrigation (Θfc –
Θi). Yet it must be large enough to satisfy the crop water use during the irrigation interval.

For design purposes, the allowable depletion (Ad) is determined as follows:

𝐴𝑑 = 𝑀𝐴𝐷⁡𝑥⁡𝑅𝐷 ⁡𝑥⁡𝑇𝐴𝑊

Where MAD is the management allowable depletion and TAW is the total available water
which is the difference between soil moisture content at field capacity and soil moisture
content at permanent wilting point (Θfc – Θpwp).

Sprinkler placement

Sprinklers must be properly placed and aligned, high enough to provide unobstructed path for
the sprinkler jet. When the canopy interferes with the water jet, the wetted diameter is
reduced, leading to poor distribution. For row crops, sprinklers should be at least 0.5 m above
the tallest mature crop that will be irrigated. Vertical alignment of the sprinkler riser is also

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important, as the application uniformity decreases when the riser is tilted. Sprinklers that are
firmly supported produce higher uniformities than unsupported risers.

Sprinkler characteristics

A sprinkler is a device that has a nozzle to control the discharge. The rate of flow is
controlled by the nozzle diameter, shape of nozzle and water pressure at the nozzle. The
nozzle converts pressure within the pipe system to velocity upon discharge from the
sprinkler. Flow rates for agricultural sprinklers range from 4 – 45 litres per minute (Lpm).
The pressure ranges from 135 to 700 kPa, and the gun sprinkler can even go beyond 750 kPa.
Sprinklers are usually made of plastic, brass or steel. An irrigation system designer does not
design sprinklers but selects an appropriate sprinkler from the hundreds of sprinkler design
and variations from several manufacturers. The objective is to irrigate uniformly, with
acceptable pumping costs, and acceptable hardware costs.

The relationship between pressure and discharge of a sprinkler is explained by the equation:

𝑞 = 𝑘𝑑 √𝑃

It is derived from the Bernoulli equation

𝑃 𝑣2
=
𝛾 2𝑔

Therefore

𝑞 = 𝐾𝑜 𝐴√𝑃

Where

𝐾𝑑 = 𝐾𝑜 𝐴

And

𝐾𝑜 = √2/𝜌

Therefore the nozzle diameter (bore) is determined as:

4𝑞
𝑑=√
𝜋𝐾𝑜 √𝑃

The values of Ko are given in Table 3, with the appropriate value depending on the units used
for discharge and pressure.

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Table 3: Ko values used to determine nozzle bore

Flow rate, q Head or Pressure Nozzle bore Ko

Lps m mm 0.00443
Lps kPa mm 0.00137
Lpm m mm 0.258
Lpm kPa mm 0.0824
gpm ft. inch 24.2
gpm psi inch 36.8

The sprinkler operating pressure is equal to the pump operating pressure minus losses in the
distribution system to friction plus or minus the elevation differences.

For a given sprinkler discharge and nozzle size, the range of operating pressures produces the
following effects:

• At the lower side of the specified pressure range for any nozzle, the water is broken
up into larger drops. When pressure falls too low, the water from the nozzle falls in a
ring a distance away from the sprinkler, thus giving a poor moisture distribution
pattern
• On the high side of the pressure range, the water from the nozzle breaks up into finer
drops and settles around the sprinkler. Under such conditions, the pattern is easily
distorted by wind movement.
• Within the desirable range, the sprinkler should produce reasonably uniform
distribution of water.

Figure 2: Pressure and precipitation pattern

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For a given pressure, larger drops are obtained from a large nozzle size and fine sprays from a
small nozzle.

Wind effects

On a windy day, the pattern is transported downwind. The diameter of coverage

perpendicular to the wind is reduced. The narrowing of the pattern perpendicular to the wind
has an impact on the layout of the laterals. Narrowing of the wetted diameter can lead to poor
uniformity if laterals are not placed closer together. The general recommendation is to orient
laterals perpendicular to the prevailing wind and to space sprinklers closer together along the
lateral (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Effect of wind on sprinkler distribution and resulting water application uniformity
(Hoffman et al., 2007)

Specific Sprinkler Systems

Solid set systems

This is when laterals are installed at the beginning of the season and are not removed until the
end of the irrigation season (prior to the harvest). When the supply lines and laterals are
buried and left in place for seasons, the system is considered to be permanent. Solid set
system is one way to automate sprinkler irrigation and minimise labour. This system is
adaptable to a wide range of soils, crops, topography and field shapes. It is relatively
expensive, therefore to be used for high value crops. For temporary systems, the laterals are

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placed above ground, and removed prior to harvest, and for permanent systems, they are
buried.

Advantages

• Systems apply water uniformly across the field

• Can provide push-button control
• Solid set system can provide or satisfy auxiliary needs such as frost control

Disadvantages

• High cost to install and maintain

• Inflexibility due to installation of system at specific locations
• Inconvenience to farm around, unless for buried main and laterals

Sprinkler selection, performance and spacing

Low flow, medium pressure sprinklers are generally used. Sprinkler spacing varies from 9 m
to 73 m, and pressure ranges from 172 kPa to 620 kPa.

Design Procedure for solid set

The general design procedure for solid set systems where the sprinkler nozzle and pipe sizes
are uniform is described as follows:

1. Assuming the desired sprinkler spacing has been selected, the first step is to lay out a
system of laterals and main line on a topographic map of the field, or measure the
elevation of each proposed sprinkler location, as well as the location and elevation of
the system inlet. The elevation of each sprinkler outlet position is determined.
2. Calculate the flow in each pipe section as the total of all sprinklers downstream of that
section. Flows need to be calculated whenever the sprinkler flow or the number of
operating sprinklers changes.
3. Pipe sizes are selected for main line and lateral sections. Initially, a large, uniform
pipe size can be selected for main line and laterals, and then pipe sizes can be reduced
in certain areas as the design is optimized.
4. Establish an assumed pressure head at an initial point in the system, the inlet being a
convenient point. The initial pressure may be set low or equal to the minimum
adequate sprinkler pressure.
5. Calculate the pressures at all points by working upstream or downstream one pipe
section at a time or by using the pressure distribution relationship previously
presented.
6. Evaluate the pressure distribution. If some sprinkler pressures are inadequate, increase
the input pressure and go back to Step 5 until the minimum sprinkler pressures are
obtained. If all sprinkler pressures are within desired limits, the design may be
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acceptable, but some pipes may be oversized. If the range of pressures exceeds the
desired limit, some pipes may be undersized, or elevation differences may be too
large.
7. Reduce pipe sizes in selected areas, usually near the ends of laterals, or low elevation
areas, and go back to Step 5. Repeat as necessary until the pipe sizes and pressure
distribution are optimised.

When the pressure distribution has been calculated, the required nozzle size for each sprinkler
can be calculated using the specified flow and calculated pressure. If the range of pressures is
sufficiently narrow, one nozzle size can be used. Alternatively, pressure regulated sprinklers
or flow-control nozzles can be used. In case of uphill flows, large unavoidable pressure
differences may be encountered; in that case pressure regulating valves can be located at
lateral inlets to reduce and limit the pressure to a specific value.

Periodically moved laterals

These are moved between irrigation settings, remaining stationery while irrigating. The
equipment cost is largely dependent on the number of sets irrigated by each lateral. These are
well suited for soil with high water holding capacity, deep rooted crops, supplemental
irrigation, and deficit irrigation management. The hand-move is one example. In a hand
move, the lateral is made of pipe sections, with a coupler installed on one end of the pipe
section. The other end of the pipe section is inserted into the upstream coupler and fastened
with either a hook that latches into the coupler or a ring assembly. Gaskets are installed on
the coupler to prevent leaks when the system is pressurised. Risers then convey water from
lateral to sprinkler. In general, the system has a single centre mainline with one or more
laterals on either side. Valve-tees are usually placed in the main line at desired interval for
spacing between lateral settings.

Advantages

• Minimum investment costs

• Systems offer some flexibility
• Relatively easy to understand and operate
• Sprinklers and nozzles generally same size

Disadvantages

• High labour requirement

• Relatively large application of water at each irrigation
• Reduced uniformity when a uniform size of nozzle is used on long laterals or rough
terrain

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Design procedure for hand-move sprinkler system

1. Determine soil characteristics and limitations. These include available water,

maximum application rates (which depend on infiltration rates), rooting depth, soil
acidity and salinity. If a field contains more than one soil, the most restrictive soil
must be determined.
2. Determine the water requirements for crops to be grown. Whether to use peak or
average daily crop water use for the design depends on acceptable risks.
3. Determine the irrigation frequency, net and gross application based on estimated
efficiency and minimum system capacity requirements.
4. Determine sprinkler spacing, nozzle sizes, discharge, operating pressure, wetted
diameter, and application rate.
5. Determine the number of sprinklers in an irrigation set required to meet system
capacity requirements; number of laterals needed for a set, set spacing, moves per
day.
6. Determine the maximum and minimum Total Dynamic Head (TDH) required for
critical lateral location conditions. Determine total accumulated friction loss in
mainline, elevation rise from pump to extreme point in the fields, water surface to
pump impeller (lift), miscellaneous losses (fittings, valves, elbows).
7. Select pump; a pump needs to match the required capacity and TDH for efficient and
economic performance.

Guidelines for installation

1. The laterals, if possible should be laid across the prevailing slope or as nearly level as
possible.
2. Where laterals must be laid uphill, elevations that produce variations of pressure
greater than 10% of operating pressure should be avoided.
3. Laterals laid downhill have certain advantages, there could be pipe size reduction or
control valves used to equalize pressure.
4. If possible, sprinkler laterals should be laid perpendicular to the direction of
prevailing winds
5. Laterals of equal lengths are desirable.
6. If a choice exists, locating the water source and pump in the centre of the area to be
irrigated is usually most desirable.

Procedure for moving lateral from one setting to another during operation

- Start by moving the valve opening elbow and section of pipe connected to it
- As soon as these are in place in new location, valve is opened to allow a very small
stream of water to run out of first pipe section
- As each subsequent section of pipe is put in place, the small stream of water runs
through it, flushing out any soil or debris.

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- When the last section is connected and plug inserted, the irrigator walks back along
the lateral, to check leaky gaskets, tilted risers.
- After returning to mainline, valve is opened further until the desired pressure is
obtained
- A quick check with a pitot gauge on first sprinkler confirms the valve adjustment
- Typically, individual sprinklers have discharges between 0.06 to 0.63 L s-1 and
operating pressures ranging from 240 to 415 kPa.

Centre Pivots

It is a span of pipe supported by a tower and a truss system. It is propelled electrically or

hydraulically powered motors mounted on each tower. The depth of water is controlled by
selecting the speed of the last or end tower. Controllers are available to change the speed
and/or direction of rotation of the pivot lateral. Change of speed is useful if different crops
are planted under a pivot.

Advantages

• Automated operation
• Ability to apply small irrigation depths
• Very high uniformity due to great deal of overlap, and the lateral’s ability to move
slowly
• Chemical applications can be made (chemigation)
• Little annual set up required
• Pivots can operate as part circle systems because they are capable of operating either
forward or in reverse

Disadvantages

• Relatively high costs, higher than solid set and micro-irrigation

• High application rate at outer end of the lateral, which can cause runoff
• Circular pattern – centre pivot irrigates about 80 % of a square field, unless special
corner arms are used
• Drive wheels may cause ruts in some soils
• Undulating topography may produce more runoff and cause drive problems

Sprinkler discharge – the discharge from each sprinkler must be determined to apply water
uniformly

Representative area – this is the area midway between the adjacent upstream and
downstream sprinklers.

𝐴𝑅 = 2𝜋R𝑆𝐿

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Where AR is the representative area and SL is the local spacing between sprinklers on the
pivot lateral in metres.

Figure 4: Diagram of representative area for centre pivot (Hoffman et al., 2007)

Discharge required for the sprinkler located at radial distance R from the pivot point:

2𝑄𝑆 𝑅𝑆𝐿
𝑞𝑅 =
𝑅𝑆2

To design the sprinkler package, the nozzle sizes for each sprinkler must be determined. This
requires information on the distribution pressure along the lateral. For level land, the
relationship as given by Chu and Moe (1972) is explained as:

15 𝑅 2 𝑅 3 1 𝑅 5
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑃𝑆 + 𝑃𝐿 [1 − { − ( ) + ( ) }]
8 𝑅𝑠 3 𝑅𝑠 5 𝑅𝑠

Where PR = the pressure in the lateral at point R

PS = pressure at the distal end of the pivot lateral
PL = pressure loss from the inlet into the distal end of the pivotal lateral

The pressure loss along the pivot laterals is traditionally computed using the Hazen-Williams
equation. The F value for pivots without end guns is 0.54 and 0.56 when the end gun is
operating. Half of the total loss along the lateral occurs within the first third of the lateral, and
80 % of the pressure loss occurs in the first half of the pipeline.

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