Circuits

In this article, the fundamentals of electric charge, current, potential difference,

resistance and conservation of charge are discussed.

Electric Charge

Matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms. An atom consists of protons,

neutrons and electrons. Normally, the number of protons and electrons are
equal and the overall charge of an atom is zero. But, for certain atoms,
electrons in the outer shell of the atom can be easily removed. An atom with
such unbalanced positive charges becomes positively charged and is called a
positive ion. Electric charge is measured in coulombs (C) and an electron
consists of -1.6×10^19 C.

Electric Current

Figure 1 shows an electric circuit that consists of a battery, wire, switch and
bulb. The wire and filament of the bulb are made of metal. Atoms of a metal
have one or more electrons that are free to move. These electrons are called
free electrons.

Figure 1: Simple Electric

Circuit

When the switch is closed, the electrons move from the negative terminal to
the positive terminal, due to the energy from the battery, and the bulb glows.
This flow of electrons is called a current. Benjamin Franklin thought electricity
flows from a positively charged substance to a negatively charged substance.
His idea is still used today and is known as the conventional current
direction. Figure 2 shows the direction of electron flow and conventional
current direction.

Figure 2:
Conventional Current Flow

The rate at which the electrons flow in a circuit is measured in amperes (A).
One ampere of current is approximately equivalent to 6.24×10^18 electrons
moving past a boundary in one second.

The amount of charge (Q) is determined by a steady current (I) flowing in the
circuit for a time (t).

Q=I×t

Potential Difference

In Figure 1, to flow through the circuit, the electrons obtain energy from the
battery. A potential difference is set up across the positive and negative
terminal of the battery which causes the charges’ flow.

The potential difference between any two points in a circuit is the measure of
work done by an electron to move from one point to another. Potential energy
is measured in volts (V) and energy is measured in joules (J).
One volt is the potential difference between two points when one joule of
energy is transferred from electrical to other forms by one coulomb of electric
charge passing from one point to another.

Resistance

Resistance is the measure of the difficulty of an electron to flow through the

conductor. If the resistance is increased, electron flow decreases and hence
the current decreases. When the resistance is lowered, the current increases
as the electron flow increases. Resistance of a conductor is defined as the
ratio of potential difference (V) across it to the current (I) flowing through it.
The unit for resistance is the ohm (Ω).

Combining Resistors

Two or more resistors can be replaced by a single resistor that has an

equivalent effect on the circuit. According to the connection between resistors,
the equivalent resistance is calculated.

When the resistors are connected in series, the equivalent resistance is

obtained by adding the resistors. The current flowing through the resistors R1
and R2 is the same and the potential difference from the battery is divided
across the resistors according to the value of resistances (this will discussed
in potential divider).

Figure 3: Resistance in Series

When the resistors are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance is less
than the value of either of the two resistors. The potential difference across
the resistors R1 and R2 is the same. The current is divided between the paths
of the resistors and thus more paths are available for the charge to pass
through. Hence, the current is higher.

Figure 4: Resistance in Parallel

Cells in Series Connection

In a battery, if the positive terminal of a cell is connected to a negative terminal

of another cell, as illustrated in Figure 5, the cells are said to be connected in
series. The overall potential difference across the battery is the algebraic sum
of the potential difference of the individual cells.

Figure 5: Cells in Series

Cells in Parallel Connection

In a battery, if the positive terminals of the cells are connected together and
the negative terminal are connected together, as shown in Figure 6, the cells
are said to be connected in parallel. The total current delivered by this battery
is the algebraic sum of the current discharged by individual cell.

Figure 6: Cells in Parallel

Conservation of Charge

The law of conservation of charge states that the total charge in an isolated
system never changes. In other words, charges can neither be created nor
destroyed. Charges can only be transferred. If a positive charge appears in a
system, it is accompanied by the appearance of a negative charge
somewhere else in the system. For example: When a plastic rod is rubbed
with woollen cloth, the plastic rod is negatively charged and the woollen cloth
is positively charged. Thus, the net charge in the system remains the same.

Summary

 Electric current is the rate of flow of a charge.

 Conventional current is a flow carried by electrons, which travel from
negative to positive.
 The potential difference across a resistor measures the electrical
energy converted per unit of charge passing through the resistor.
 The equivalent resistance of resistors in series is given by the algebraic
sum of the resistances of all the resistors.
 The equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel is given by

 Cells can be arranged in series to increase the total potential difference

of the battery.
 Cells can be arranged in parallel to increase the total current of the
battery.
 The total charge in an isolated system never changes.
 Summary

 Electric current is the rate of flow of a charge: I=Q/t.

 Conventional current is a flow of charges from positive to negative
terminals.
 The coulomb is the unit of charge and is equivalent to an ampere-
second.
 Charges can be calculated using the equation Q=It.
 For a current-carrying conductor, I=nAvq.
 The potential difference between any two points in a circuit is the
measure of work done by an electron to move from one point to
another, V=W/q.
 Current is measured using an ammeter and is placed in series to the
component.
 Potential difference is measured using a voltmeter and is placed across
the component.

Energy & Power In Circuits

A. Electrical Power

Consider the circuit shown below: The battery gives the charges potential
energy. In the bulb, electrical energy is transferred to thermal energy and then
radiated. The battery supplies 5 J of energy every second, so its power is 5
watts. The bulb is taking energy at the same rate, so its power is also 5 watts.
 Figure 1: Electrical Power

Power is the rate at which energy is transformed from one form to another.
The SI unit of power is watt (W).

Appliances such as refrigerators, televisions and ovens have a power rating

marked on them, either in watts or in kilowatts.

B. Electrical Power Equation

In circuits, the power required for a component can be calculated by the

potential difference across it and the current through it. The power is given by
the following equation:
C. Power Dissipated in a Resistor

When a current flows through a resistor, it has a heating effect. Electrons lose
potential energy, which is changed into thermal energy. Hence, energy is
dissipated in the resistor.

D. Calculating Energy

Energy and power are linked by an equation. If the power of an appliance is

known, the energy transformed at any given time can be calculated by the
following equation.

For example, if a 500 W heating element is switched on for 10 seconds. The

energy transformed = 500 W × 10 s = 5000 J. So the heating element radiated
5000 J of thermal energy.

E. Electrical Energy Calculation

We know that P=VI, hence the equation of energy can be written as:

F. Conservation of Energy (Kirchhoff’s Second Law)

A charge flowing through a circuit gains energy when it passes through a
battery and loses energy when it passes through the rest of the circuit.
According to the law of conservation of energy, the total energy must remain
the same. The consequence of this conservation of energy is called
Kirchhoff’s second law. It states that the sum of electromotive forces in a
closed circuit is equal to the sum of the potential differences.

Let us consider the circuit shown in Figure 2. A battery is connected to a

resistor and bulb in series.

Figure 2: An Electric Circuit

The electromotive force of a battery is E, the potential difference across

resistor R1 is V1 and the potential difference across R2 is V2. Applying the
law of conservation of energy, the electromotive force of battery is equal to the
sum of the potential difference between the two resistances.

G. Summary
 Electrical power 
 Energy = Power × time = VIt
 The unit for power is watt and the unit for energy is joules.
 In a closed loop of a circuit, the sum of electromotive forces is equal to
the sum of the potential differences. This is Kirchhoff’s second law, and
is a consequence of the law of conservation of energy.