HKAL Applied Mathematics Syllabus 1994

3.
SYLLABUS
UNIT 1: Vectors
Specific Objectives:
2 3
1. To learn the nature of vectors and their basic properties in R and R .
2 3
2. To be familiar with the basic operations of vectors in R and R .
3. To learn the differentiation and integration of vectors with respect to a scalar variable.
2 3
4. To apply the vector method to solve problems on the resolution and reduction of a system of forces in R and R .
2
5. To apply the vector method to solve some kinematic problems in R .
Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching
1.1 Basic Knowledge 1 The fundamental concept of vector may have been dealt with in Secondary 5
14
Definition and notation of Physics. Students are able to identify intuitively vectors as physical quantities that
vectors, magnitude and possess both magnitude and direction. Teachers should lay emphasis on the difference
direction of vectors, equal between scalar and vector quantities. Examples should be given to clarify the concepts.
vectors, parallel vectors and Students are expected to classify physical quantities into vectors (such as displacement,
unit vectors. velocity, acceleration, force, impulse etc) and scalars (such as temperature, energy,
volume, mass etc). At this stage, it should be emphasized that a vector quantity will
change when either its magnitude or direction is changed. (An object travelling in uniform
circular motion is a good practical example to illustrate the latter.)
It is also essential that students should be acquainted themselves with the
representation of a vector geometrically by a directed line segment.
G
The current notations of vectors (such as AB , AB, a , a) and their magnitudes
G
(such as | AB |, |AB|, | a |, |a|) should be introduced.
Students are also expected to get the concepts of free vectors (e.g. wind velocity
vector) and line-localized vectors (e.g. force vector).
With the help of vector diagrams, teachers can guide students to grasp the essential
features of equal vectors, parallel vectors and unit vectors. At the same time, teachers
should remind students of the difference between equal vectors and parallel vectors. In
the former, the vectors must have the same direction and equal magnitude, but in the
latter, the vectors may have opposite directions and their magnitudes may not be equal.
In case of unit vector, teachers should indicate that since its magnitude is 1, it is usually
G G
used to specify direction. Therefore, a =| a | aˆ where â is the unit vector in the
G
direction of a .
15
1.2 Vector Addition 3 Triangle law

(a) Triangle law and
parallelogram law
G
Teachers should remind students that the end-point of the vector a must be
G
coincident with the initial point of vector b . Moreover, it should be noted that, in general,
| AB | + | BC | ≠ | AC | . Teachers should also indicate that if the points A, B and C above
are collinear, the triangle law is still valid although the triangle ABC has vanished. (Refer
to the figure below.)
In this case, | AB | + | BC | = | AC |
Parallelogram law
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With the help of the above figure, teachers should again remind students that the
G G
initial points of the two vectors a and b must be coincident. The equivalence of the
triangle law and the parallelogram law is worth discussing.
G
In either of the above cases, students should know that c is called the resultant of
G G
a and b .
It is worthwhile for students to note that the triangle law is convenient for adding free
vectors. However, we may apply the parallelogram law to add up line-localized vectors,
when the lines of action are taken into account. Actually, in the above figure, the line AD
is the line of action of the resultant of AB and AC .
Example 1
Addition of free vectors
AB + BC + CD + DE + EF = AF
Example 2
Addition of line-localized vectors
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G G G
a + b + c = PR
G G G
This example shows the addition of 3 coplanar vectors a , b and c . In the
G G G G
figure, AD = a , AB = b , AC = a + b , and AC is the line of action of the resultant of
G G G G G G G G
a and b . Also, PS = a + b , PQ = c , PR = a + b + c , and PR is the line of action
G G G
of the resultant of a , b and c.
(b) Properties of vector Teachers may make use of simple vector diagrams to illustrate these properties.
addition
(i) Commutative law: Commutative law
G G G G
a+b =b+a
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(ii) Associative law: Associative law of addition

G G G
(Ga + bG ) +Gc
= a + (b + c )
1.3 Zero Vector, Negative 2 Students should note that any vector of magnitude equals zero is a zero vector,
G G
Vector and Vector which is denoted by 0 . Teachers should emphasize that 0 is different from 0. The
Subtraction
former is a vector while the latter is a scalar. Also, students are expected to recognize
that a zero vector may assume any direction. At this stage, students should have no
G G G G
problem to deduce the relations AB + BC + CA = AA = 0 and a + 0 = a for any vector
G
a.

Intuitively, students can see that negative vectors are vectors having equal
G G
magnitude but opposite directions. With this concept, the vector subtraction a − b can
G
be introduced by considering it as the vector sum of the vector a and the negative of
G G G
the vector b , i.e. a + ( −b ) . The relative velocity is a practical application of the vector
subtraction. .
Example
G G
An observer in a train moving at v1 kmh− due north sights a car moving at v 2 kmh−
1 1
G −1
due east. Then, the velocity of the car relative to the train, v 21 kmh , is given by
(velocity of car − velocity of train) as shown in the figure.
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At this stage, detailed discussion of relative motion is not necessary. It may be left to
Section 3.4.
1.4 Scalar Multiple and its Again, teachers may employ simple vector diagrams to illustrate the meaning of
Properties scalar multiple and the related laws. The following are two examples.
(a) Associative law 1. Scalar multiple
G G
(αβ)a = α(β a )
(b) Distributive laws 2. Distributive law of scalar multiple
G G G G
α(a + b ) = αa + αb
G G G
(α + β)a = αa + βa
After understanding the concept of scalar multiple, students should have no difficulty
to deduce the following result.
G G G G G G
If a = αb , then a is parallel to b for α ≠ 0 . For α = 0, a = 0 .
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2
1.5 Components of Vectors 2 The resolution of vectors in R can be introduced with the following example.
(a) Resolution of vectors
G G G
In the example, r is resolved into two components 3a and 4b in the directions
G G G G G G G
of a and b respectively. This can be generalized to r = αa + β b where a and b
G G G G G G G
are non-collinear vectors in R and r = αa + β b + γc where a , b and c are
2
non-coplanar vectors in R , for scalars α, β and γ.

3

G G G
(b) The unit vectors i , j and The unit vectors in the directions of the positive x-, y- and z-axis are denoted by i ,
G G G 2 3
k (also denoted as iˆ , j and k respectively. Any vector in R or R can be expressed in the form
G G G G
ĵ and k̂ ) and the r = a i + b j + ck .
resolution of vectors in Students are required to be familiar with the following properties of vectors in terms of
G G G
the rectangular i , j and k :
coordinate system. G G G
| ai + bj + ck | = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ;
G  G  n G  G
n n n
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
G G     
( x r i + y r j + zr k ) =  x r i +  yr  j +  zr  k ;
     
r =1  r =1   r =1   r =1 
G G G G G G
λ(ai + bj + ck ) = (λa )i + (λb ) j + (λc )k
G G G G
(c) Direction ratios and Students should be reminded that the two vectors r1 = a1i + b1 j + c1k and
direction cosines G G G G G G
r2 = a2i + b2 j + c2k are parallel if r1 = αr2 or a1 : b1 : c1 = a2 : b2 : c2. A numerical
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example can help the teachers easily achieve the purpose. From this, students can be
guided to discover that the direction (relative to the axes) of the vector
G G G G
r = ai + bj + ck is completely defined by the ratio a : b : c which is called the direction
G G
ratios of r . In the figure below, the angles α, β, γ determine the direction of r relative
G
to the axes. cos α, cos β and cos γ are called the direction cosines of r .
The concept of direction cosines can be clearly illustrated by using a model of

rectangular cuboid as shown below.
Students are also expected to deduce the following relations.

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cos2 α + cos 2 β + cos2 γ = 1

G G G G
r
G = cos α i + cos β j + cos γ k
|r |
1.6 Position Vectors and 2

Students are required to represent a point P in space by its position vector OP
Vector Equation of a
Straight Line where O is the origin of a Cartesian coordinate system. They should note that if P is a
point on the line segment AB where AP : PB = λ : µ, then
λOB + µOA
OP =
λ+µ

Teachers should lead students to recognize that a straight line can be fully specified
when the position of a point on the line and the direction of the line are known. Basing on
G G G
this idea, students should be able to deduce the vector equation of a line ( r = a + λb for
a scalar λ) from the following figure.
At this stage, teachers are advised to emphasize to students the meanings of the
G G
vectors a and b . (The former represents the position of the given point P on the line
while the latter the direction of the line.) Once the concepts are clarified, students should
G G G G G G
have no problem to see that the two lines r1 = a1 + λb1 and r2 = a2 + λb2 are
G G
1. parallel if b1 is parallel to b2 ;
G G
2. perpendicular if b1 is perpendicular to b2 ,
G G G G
and the lines intersect each other if there exist λ’ and µ’ such that a1 + λ' b1 = a2 + µ' b2 .
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G G
Also, the fact that the angle between the lines is equal to the angle between b1 and b2
is obvious.
1.7 Scalar Product 2

(a) Definition In introducing the definition, teachers should point out to students that the name
‘scalar’ is used because the product defined in this way gives a scalar quantity. Students
are also expected to know the other name for scalar product, i.e. dot product. Hence,
G G G G
a ⋅ b is read as ‘ a dot b ’.
(b) Properties of scalar
product Students are expected to be familiar with the following commutative law and
distributive law of scalar product.
G G G G
a⋅b = b⋅a
G G G G G G G
a ⋅ (b + c ) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c
The former can be easily proved from the definition while the latter can be illustrated by
using the following figure.
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(c) Scalar product in

Cartesian components Students are expected to verify themselves:
G G G G JG JG
i ⋅i = j ⋅ j = k ⋅k =1
G G G JG JG G
i ⋅ j = j ⋅k = k ⋅i = 0
Afterwards they can be asked to prove themselves that the scalar product of two vectors
is given by the sum of the products of their corresponding components, i.e.
G G
a ⋅ b = x1x2 + y1y 2 + z1z2
G G G JG G G G JG
where a = x1i + y1 j + z1k and b = x2 i + y 2 j + z2 k
(d) Orthogonality
At this stage, teachers can ask students what happens to the scalar product of two
vectors if they are orthogonal. The following answers are expected.
G G
a⋅b = 0
x1x2 + y1y 2 + z1z2 = 0
Teachers should provide students with examples involving application of scalar

product. For example, in plane geometry, the theorems ‘The perpendiculars from the
vertices of a triangle to the opposite sides are concurrent.’ and ‘The perpendicular
bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent.’ can be proved by using scalar
product.
1.8 Vector Product 2
(a) Definition In introducing the definition, teachers should
G G G G
a × b =| a || b | sin θnˆ emphasize the 'vector' feature of the product which is
different from the scalar product introduced in Section
1.7. The other name for vector product, cross product, is
G G
also introduced and a × b is read as ‘a cross b’. The
right-handed system used for the determination of the
product direction (i.e. in the direction of the unit vector n̂
in the definition) should be clearly explained. The figure
shown will be helpful.
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Simple applications of vector product can be introduced to arouse students’ interest.

The following are two examples.
1 . Area of triangle
2. Area of Parallelogram
(b) Properties of vector Students are expected to know the following properties.
G G G G
product a × b = −b × a
G G G G G G G
a × (b + c ) = a × b + a × c (distributive property)
Formal proofs of these may be omitted.
(c) Vector product in Students should be able to see that

G G G G JG
Cartesian components a × b = ( y1z2 − y 2 z1)i + ( x2 z1 − x1z2 ) j + ( x1y 2 − x2 y1)k
26
G G G JG
where a = x1i + y1 j + z1k
G G G JG
and b = x2 i + y 2 j + z2 k
The determinant expression of vector product, i.e.
G G JG
i j k
y z1 G x1 z1 G x1 y1 JG
x1 y1 z1 = 1 i− j+ k
y2 z2 x2 z2 x2 y2
x2 y 2 z2
a b
Where = ad − bc
c d
only serves for simplicity and its introduction is optional.
(d) Perpendicular vectors Teachers should guide students to deduce the following results.
G G G G G G
and parallel vectors 1. a , b are perpendicular if | a × b | = | a | × | b |
G G G G
2. a , b are parallel if | a × b | = 0

1.9 Triple Product 2 By considering the volume of a parallelepiped (i.e. bc sin θ h ), teachers can
G G G G G G
introduce the scalar triple product a ⋅ ( a × b ) (or simply a ⋅ b × c ). However, students
(a) Scalar triple product
G G G
should note that the volume of a parallelepiped is actually given by | a ⋅ b × c | .
G G G
The same approach can be used to show that each of the products b ⋅ c × a and
G G G G G G
c ⋅ a × b has the same value as a ⋅ b × c . Also, by using the commutative property,
G G G G G G
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students should have no problem to see that a ⋅ b × c = a × b ⋅ c .

Students should also know that the condition for 3 vectors to be coplanar is
G G G
a ⋅ b × c = 0 . For students who have learnt determinant, the following formula may also
be introduced.
a1 b1 c1
G G G
a ⋅ b × c = a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3
(b) Vector triple product Teachers should emphasize that the brackets in the vector triple product like
G G G
a × ( b × c ) are essential to determine which product is taken first. In order to show that
G G G G G G G G G
a × ( b × c ) = (a ⋅ c ) b − (a ⋅ b ) c
G G G G G G G G G
and (a × b ) × c = (a ⋅ c ) b − ( b ⋅ c ) a ,
teachers are advised to choose appropriate Cartesian axes (by rotation if necessary) so
G G G
that a , b and c can be expressed in the forms:
G G
a = a1i ,
G G G
b = b1i + b2 j ,
G G G JG
c = c1i + c2 j + c3 k
From the above results, students should be able to find that
G G G G G G
a × ( b × c ) ≠ (a × b ) × c .
1.10 Vector Function, 2
Differentiation and
Integration
G G G
(a) Vector as a function of a Students are expected to be familiar with notations like r (t ) , v (θ) etc, where r
scalar variable G
and v are vector functions of the scalar variables t and θ respectively.
(b) Differentiation of a vector Students should be able to differentiate vector functions in component form, i.e. when
G G G JG
function with respect to a r (t ) = f (t )i + g (t ) j + h(t )k
scalar variable
d G  G G JG
r (t ) = f ′(t )i + g ′(t ) j + h′(t )k
dt
They are also expected to be familiar with the differentiation of scalar multiples, scalar
products and vector products:
G
d [ G ] dλ G da
λa = a+λ
dt dt dt
G G
d [ G G ] da G G db
a⋅b = b+a
dt dt dt
G G
d [ G G ] da G G d b
a×b = ×b +a×
dt dt dt
(c) Integration of a vector Teachers should emphasize to students that integration of a vector function is the
function with respect to a reverse process of differentiation. In this way, students should have no problem to carry
scalar variable out integration like
G G G JG G
G
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
r (t ) dt = f (t ) dt i + g (t ) dt j + h(t ) dt k + c
G G JG
where r (t ) = f (t )i + g (t ) j + h(t )k
G
and c is a constant vector.

1.11 Vectors in Polar 2 Knowledge of the radial and transverse components of a vector in polar coordinates
Coordinates is introduced. The radial and transverse unit vectors, eˆr and êθ are defined and
expressed in Cartesian form as shown below.
When eˆr and êθ are vector functions of the time t, the above expressions can then be
differentiated with respect to t to arrive at the following results.
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deˆr dθ ˆ
= eθ
dt dt
deˆθ dθ
= eˆr
dt dt
Detailed discussion of the position, velocity and acceleration vectors presented in polar
coordinates may be left to Section 3.5. However, it is worthwhile, at this stage, for
teachers to discuss with students the distinction of employing polar coordinates and
Cartesian coordinates in solving problems such as the one shown below.
Example
The position of a particle moving in a plane is given by polar coordinates (r, θ). At time t,
θ = ωt where ω is a constant. The locus of the particle is determined by the polar
equation r = ae θ where a is a constant.
1.12 Application of Vectors 6 Students are expected to develop their skills in tackling problems related to vectors
and their applications.
(a) Force as a vector Students are going to deal with forces in vector form. They should know how to find
the resultant force of a system of forces. Knowledge of vector addition mentioned in
Section 1.2 is recalled. The moment of a force in vector form about a point and about a
3
line in R are introduced.
JG JG
30
Moment of F about 0 Moment of F about line AB

G JG G JG
= r ×F = ( r × F ⋅ aˆ ) aˆ
By considering the total moment of a system of Coplanar forces about a point or

3
about a line in R , students are able to identify the line of action of the resultant force of
3
the system of forces in R . The following are two examples.
Example 1
(a, b, 0). (0, b, c) and (a, 0, c) are the Cartesian coordinates of the vertices A, B and C
JJJG JJJG
respectively of a triangle. Forces of magnitude and direction equal to BC , AC and
JJJG
3 BA are set along the sides of the triangle. .
In this example, students may first be led to express the forces in vector form. After that
they should be able to find the resultant of the forces by simple vector addition. Finally,
by comparing the total moments of the forces about the origin and the moment of the
resultant force about the origin, students may be asked to work out the line of action of
the resultant force.
Example 2
JJG G G JG JJG G G
Two forces, F1 = −i + j − k and F2 = 2i + 3 j act through points with position vectors
JG G G JG JJG G G JG JJG
r1 = i + j + k and r2 = −i − 2 j + k respectively. Find the force F3 needed to bring the
system to equilibrium and the vector equation of its line of action.
Nevertheless, complex problems involving forces and moments may be left to

Unit 2.
2
(b) Kinematics in R Problems should be introduced to investigate the relative motion of two bodies
through vector approach. Teachers should ensure that students have acquired adequate
knowledge of physical situations based on which students are capable of presenting
displacement velocity and acceleration in vector form. Angular displacement, angular
velocity and angular acceleration may also be involved in the kinematic problems.
Students are also expected to employ the knowledge learnt in Section 1.10, i.e. the
31
differentiation and integration of a vector function with respect to a scalar variable to

tackle the problems. However, in-depth study of the topics may be left to Unit 3.
27
UNIT 2: Statics and Friction
1. To understand the nature of forces, moments and couples.
2. To learn the resultant and resolution of a system of coplanar forces.
3. To understand the nature of frictional forces and the laws of friction.
4. To learn the conditions of equilibrium of particles and rigid bodies under a system of coplanar forces and to solve practical prob|ems
involved.
2.1 Forces, Resultant and 3 Fundamental knowledge of the vector nature of forces should have been come
Resolution of Forces across in studying Secondary Physics At this stage, teachers should emphasize to
students the following basic factors which determine the effect on a body to which a
force is applied:
32
(1) The magnitude of the applied force.

(2) The line of action of the applied force, i.e. the direction and the point of application
in which the force is applied.
The idea of concurrent forces should be introduced. Two or more forces acting on a
particle 0 and the forces acting on a sphere which is supported by a string on a smooth
vertical wall and rests in contact with the wall are examples of concurrent forces.
A system of forces can be reduced to a single resultant force. Students should be

able to find the resultant of any two forces by the triangle law or parallelogram law. By
successive application of either of the two laws, the resultant of a system of coplanar
forces can be obtained. Knowledge of vector addition mentioned in Section 1.2 may be
referred.
Students are expected to know how to resolve a force into two components in any
two directions, especially two mutually perpendicular components. Knowledge of
resolution of vectors mentioned in section 1.5 may be referred. Examples like resolving
the weight of an object on an inclined plane into two components along the directions
parallel and perpendicular to the plane respectively are worth discussing.
33
The method of finding the resultant of a system of coplanar forces by resolving all
forces into two mutually perpendicular components should also be emphasized and
illustrated with examples.
2.2 Resultant of Parallel 3 Students are expected to know how to find the resultant of two or more like/unlike
Forces, Moments and parallel forces acting on a rigid body. The moments of forces about a point and the
Couples turning effect of a couple formed by two equal unlike parallel forces should be discussed
Students should be aware that the moment of a couple about an axis is independent of
the position of the axis so long as the axis is perpendicular to the plane in which the
couple acts.
34
The fact that the algebraic sum of the moments of two forces about any point in their
plane is equal to the moment of their resultant force about the same point should be
introduced. The underlying concept is then extended to the Principle of Moments (the
algebraic sum of moments of any number of coplanar forces acting on a rigid body about
any point in their plane is equal to the moment of their resultant about the same
point).Students are also expected to make use of the above principle to reduce a system
of coplanar forces to a single force or a couple. Determination of the centres of gravity of
figures of regular shapes and uniform bodies is one of the applications of the Principle of
Moments. Details may be referred to Unit 11.
Example
ABCDEF is a regular hexagon of side 2A. Forces of magnitude 5N, 1N, 3N, 4N, 2N and
JJJG JJJG JJJG JJJG JJJG JJJG
2N act respectively along the sides AB , BC , CD , DE , EF and FA .
In this example, students can be led to resolve the forces along and perpendicular to the
direction AB and take moments about an axis through the centre of the hexagon, G.
Students should be able to find that the system reduces to a couple.
35
2.3 Equilibrium of a System of Knowledge of equilibrium of a system of coplanar forces should be made clear to
Coplanar Forces students Teachers may first discuss with students the situation in which three concurrent
forces are in equilibrium. The Lami’s Theorem can then be introduced:
Sufficient exercises on applying the Lami’s Theorem to solve three-force problems

should be given.
At this stage, students should be aware that a system of coplanar forces may either be
(a)reduced to a single resultant force,
(b) reduced to a couple, or
(c) in equilibrium.
2
Teachers should remind students that for a system of forces in R to be in equilibrium,
the following simultaneous conditions are satisfied and are helpful in solving the
problem:
(1) ∑ Fx = 0 , ∑ Fy = 0 and
(2) ∑ Mp = 0
36
2
where Fx , Fy are component forces in R and Mp am their respective moments about any
point P.
Nature of Friction 2 Students are expected to know that when a body moves or tends to move on a
(a) Laws of friction surface, friction always exists and it tends to prevent the body from moving.
Two different types of friction should be distinguished, namely, the static friction and
the kinetic friction. The former refers to the frictional force acting on a body which
remains static (but it tends to move), while the latter refers to the frictional force acting on
a moving body. The law of static friction and the law of kinetic friction should be stated
and students are expected to know that the coefficient of static friction, µs is greater than
the coefficient of kinetic friction, µk.
Teachers should emphasize that the relationship between friction f and normal
reaction R is f ≤ µsR, and f = µsR only when a limiting equilibrium is reached. The
following figures may be helpful to illustrate this concept. (ln the figure, P is the resultant
of frictional force and normal reaction.)
(a) (b) No motion (c) Limiting (d) Motion exists

fs < µsR equilibrium, fk = µkR < µsR
motion
impends
fs = µsR
37
It is worthwhile at this stage to remind students the following points

(1) The value of static friction is Independent of the areas and the shapes of the
surfaces in contact provided the normal reaction is unaltered.
(2) The value of kinetic friction is independent of the velocity of the object and is equal
to µkR.
(3) The value of kinetic friction is slightly less than the limiting (static) friction.
(b) Angle of friction Teachers should Introduce to students the term ‘angle of friction (λ)’ and its
relation with the static coefficient of friction: tan λ = µs .
Examples such as finding the least force required to move a particle of weight W up
a plane with angle of inclination smaller than the angle of friction may be introduced.
2.5 Equilibrium of Rigid 12 At this stage, students should be familiar with the following simultaneous conditions
Bodies of an equilibrium system:
(1) The resultant force of the system is zero.

(2) The resultant moment of the system about any point is zero.
Students are expected to be able to make use of the above two conditions and the laws
of friction to set up independent equations and inequalities from a given physical
situation. Students are also expected to know that condition (1) alone is sufficient for
showing a system of concurrent forces to be in equilibrium.
In tackling problems, care should be taken to determine the directions and positions
of the reactions on bodies. Although the position of a reaction is usually at the point of
contact, teachers should remind students that this is not always true. This concept can
be clearly illustrated by the following example.
Example
A cube of side a and weight W is placed on a rough ground. The coefficient of friction
between the block and the ground is µ. A gradually increasing horizontal force F is
applied at right angle to the upper edge of the block in a vertical plane through its centre
of gravity as shown.
In this example, students should be led to find the magnitude of F if
38
(a) the block slides without toppling;

(b) the block topples over.
Moreover, the location of the normal reaction in each of the two cases described above
should be investigated.
On the other hand, teachers should ensure that students can determine the correct
direction of a reaction on a body. For instance, as shown in the diagram, students should
know that S (instead of R) is the normal reaction on the rod at A.
39
Students are expected to be familiar with the limiting positions of equilibrium of rigid
bodies. Teachers should encourage students to draw free-body diagrams in solving
problems.
Example 1
Two uniform rods AB, AC of equal length are freely hinged at A as shown in the diagram.
AB is twice as heavy as AC. The system rests on a rough horizontal ground in a vertical
plane and is in limiting equilibrium.
In this example, students should be able to determine which of the two points (B and
C) will first reach the limiting equilibrium and then work out the value of the coefficient of
friction between the ground and the rods.
Example 2
Two blocks A and B of mass M and m (M > m) respectively are placed in contact with
each other as shown in the figure. Block A rests against a rough vertical wall and block B
rests on a rough horizontal ground. The coefficient of friction between block A and the
wall, block A and block B, and block B and the ground are µ1, µ2 and µ3 respectively.
40
In this example, students may be asked to find the minimum value of µ3 required to
maintain the equilibrium of the system.
21
UNIT 3: Kinematics
1. To understand the meaning of displacement, velocity and acceleration, and their corresponding angular quantities.
2. To understand resultant velocity and relative motion.
3. To recognize the radial and transverse component of velocity and acceleration.
4. To solve relevant practical problems.

3.1 Displacement, Velocity 2 Teachers should revise with students the meaning of displacement, velocity and
and Acceleration acceleration. Nevertheless, teachers may try the approach which makes use of the
knowledge of vector and calculus. For simplicity, teachers may restrict the motion along
the x-axis and take the positive direction to be that of increasing x. In this way, students
should have no difficulty to obtain the formulae
dx dv d2 x dv dv
v= =x , a= = v = 2 = x or a = =v .
dt dt dt dt dx
41
Teachers should remind students of the physical meanings when x, v and a are
negative.
For constant acceleration, students should have no problem to derive the following
formulae: v = u + at
1 2
x = ut + at
2
v 2 = u 2 + 2ax
The motion of a particle in two dimensions should then be introduced. Teachers
should remind students that by taking the components of the displacement, velocity and
acceleration of the particle parallel to the x-axis and y-axis, the methods for motion in a
straight line in each of these directions can be used. Denoting the displacement of the
G G G
particle at a point by r = x (t )i + y (t ) j , students could be led to discover.
G
G dr G G
v= + y j
= xi
dt
dv d2r G G
and a= = 2 = xi + y j
dt dt
from which the magnitude and direction could be easily derived.
At this stage, the use of parametric equations for the motion of a particle whose
path is described by an equation in the rectangular coordinates should be emphasized.
Students are expected to use the techniques and knowledge of Section 1.10 in the
solution of problems. Some of which are as follows.
Example 1
G -1
The velocity vector v (in ms ) of a particle P starting from a point 0 is given
G G G
by v = 80i + (50 + 10t ) j . The position vector relative to 0 and the acceleration vector of
2
G
P at time t can be easily obtained by integrating and differentiating v respectively.
Example 2
The distance between 2 stations is d. A train starts from one station and stops at the next
within a time t. If the maximum acceleration or deceleration is a and its highest speed
cannot exceed v, show that the least possible value of t is
d v v2
42
(a) t= + if d ≥
v a a
d v2
(b) t =2 if d <
a a
In this example, teachers may guide students to tackle the problem geometrically.
3.2 Angular Displacement. 1 Teachers should briefly introduce the concepts of angular displacement, angular
Angular Velocity and velocity and angular acceleration. Students are also expected to know the following three
Angular Acceleration relations between the linear and angular quantities.
s = rθ
s = r θ (or v = r ω )
and s = r
θ (or a = r α )
The vectorial representation of angular motion

may be illustrated with diagrams like that shown in
the right. Students are expected to know that the
right-hand rule is used to establish the positive
sense, and as long as rotation is confined to a
G G G
single plane, the rotation vectors θ , ω and α
will be parallel to each other and can be considered
43
as scalar quantities as the algebraic sign is

sufficient to account for either sense of the vectors.
Example
A disc rotates about its axle with an acceleration given by θ = 2t . Find its angular
velocity and angular displacement at t = 3s if the initial conditions are θ = 0 rad and θ ' =
0 rad/s.
In this example, students are expected to obtain the results by integration.
3.3 Resultant Velocity 3 The emphasis here is on finding the resultant velocity of a particle. Students should
be reminded that a triangle (or polygon) of velocities or component method could be
used to get the result. Examples like a boat rowing straight across a flowing river,
raindrops falling through a current of air etc. should be provided. In all these cases,
students are expected to draw vector diagrams for finding the resultant velocities. Cases
in which velocities are not perpendicular are also expected. The following shows an
example.
Example
A cargo ship leaves a port and heads N50°E at a speed of 25 kmh with respect to still
-1
-1
water, while a westward sea current drifts at 4.5 kmh . What is the resultant velocity of
the cargo ship?
In this example, apart from resolving the velocities in the north and west direction,
students could also find the resultant velocity by using the sine rule and cosine rule.
3.4 Relative Motion 8 Teachers should revise with students the concept of position vector. The idea of
relative motion can be introduced by vector approach. Referring to the figure, the
position vector of A relative to B is
G G G
rAB = rA − rB
so that
G G G
44
rAB = rA − rB
i.e. the velocity of A relative to B is
G G G
v AB = v A − v B
It is often convenient to introduce the idea of relative velocity of A to B by ‘bringing B

G
to rest’ by adding the velocity −v B to both A and B, so that the velocity of A relative to B
G G
is v A − v B . Relative velocity problems can be solved by using knowledge of
trigonometry and vector. Problems involving the interception and the shortest distance
between 2 objects are typical examples.
Example 1
-1
A ship is moving due south at 50 kmh and from it a second ship B appears to be moving
-1
SW at 75 kmh . Calculate the velocity of B.
In this example teachers can guide students to draw the vector triangle of velocities
and use cosine rules and sine rule to find the velocity of B.
Example 2
G
At noon, a ship S, at the origin is streaming with a velocity vector 10 j . Meanwhile, a
G G G
second ship S2 which has a position vector r = −10i − 10 j is streaming with a velocity
G G
vector 20i + 25 j .
In this example, students are guided to write the vector equations in time t of the paths of
one ship relative to the other. After that, the position vectors of the two ships at closest
approach and the distance of closest approach were investigated.
Example 3
-1
A satellite is falling with constant speed u kmh on an east-west path inclined at a fixed
angle θ to the horizontal. A ship travelling due west with constant speed V kmh sights,
-1
45
from a point 0, the satellite at a height of h km and a horizontal distance d km on a

bearing NE from 0.
(a) Write the expressions for
(i) the position vector of the satellite;
(ii) the velocity of satellite relative to 0.
(b) Find the shortest distance between the ship and the satellite.
This problem may help students integrate what they have learnt in vectors and the
concept of relative velocity.
Finally, teachers should also mention to students that relative acceleration of A to B

JJJJG JJG JJG
can be defined in a way similar to that of relative velocity, i.e. aAB = aA − aB .
3.5 Resolution of Velocity and 4 Teachers can introduce the radial and transverse components of velocity and
Acceleration Along and acceleration by considering the motion of a particle in a plane using polar coordinates.
Perpendicular to Radius
Vector
Suppose P is the position of a particle at time t, APB is the path of the particle and the
polar coordinates of P are (r, θ).
JJJG G
Then OP = r = reˆ where eˆr and êθ are the unit vectors in the directions parallel
46
G
and perpendicular to r respectively.

In Section 1.11, students have learnt that eˆr = θ eˆθ and eˆθ = −θ êr . By direct
differentiation, students should have no problem to get the following results
G G
ˆr + r θ eˆθ and r = (r − r θ 2 )eˆr + 1 d (r 2θ )eˆθ
r = re
r dt
Tabulating the results will facilitate students in recognizing the expression
Radial Component Transverse component
Velocity r r θ
Acceleration r − r θ 2 r
θ + 2rθ or
1 d 2
( r θ)
r dt
Example 1
A particle of unit mass moves in a plane such that its polar coordinates at any point are
given by
π
r (t ) = 1 + t and θ(t ) =
1+ t
where t ≥ 0. Find the velocity, the radial and transverse component of the acceleration at
time t = 1.
Example 2
A point P describes a circle of centre O and radius a as shown. Its position vector r> =
OP at time t is given by
G
12 r = aeˆr
47
G G
where eˆr = cos θi + sin θ j
G G
If eˆθ = − sin θi + cos θ j
G
Show that r = aθ eˆθ and
G
r = a
θeˆθ − aθ 2eˆr
Although polar coordinates are often appropriate for the solution of dynamical
problems associated with central orbits, detailed knowledge of orbit problems is not
necessary.
18
UNIT 4: Newton’s Laws of Motion
1. To understand Newton's Laws of Motion.
2. To apply Newton's Laws of motion to solve problems in dynamics.

4.1 Newton's Laws of Motion 6 The Newton's Laws of Motion should be clearly stated and explained to students.
Problems involving variable mass need not be taught.
Students should be able to distinguish external forces and internal forces acting on
a particle or a system of particles.
Students are expected to apply Newton's Laws to solve problems in statics and
dynamics.
48
In dynamics, students may first study the motion of a particle. The treatment should
also apply to a body whose rotational effects are negligible and its motion can be
approximated by the centre of mass of the body. Students may then be guided to study
the motion of a system of particles or bodies moving in a plane.
The basis of analysis is Newton's Second Law which may take the form:
G G
F = ma
where m is the mass of the particle,
G
F is the resultant force acting on the particle,
G
a is the resultant acceleration of the particle.
The procedure of analysis may be arranged as follows:
(1) Analyse the forces on the particle:

The first step in analysing a problem in dynamics is to construct a force diagram.
The force diagram for a particle should include all physically identifiable forces
acting on the particle. Students should know that a force is physically identifiable if
they can identify its origin, e.g. the force of gravity, the reaction of a body, a frictional
force, a spring force etc. Teachers should remind students that a force should not
be postulated on the basis of its supposed effect.
(2) Analyse the kinematics of the particle:

G
Students should be advised to write down the acceleration a in some coordinate
system (rectangular or polar) but it should be emphasized that Newton's Laws of
Motion should apply to motions relative to an inertial frame of reference. i.e. the
coordinate system chosen should not be accelerating or rotating. For a simple
problem the acceleration may be indicated on the force diagram, but usually it is
desirable to draw another diagram for the acceleration(s).
G
49
G
(3) The equation of motion is then given by relating (1) and (2) in F = ma :
Students should try to minimize the variables in the force equation by choosing
proper direction(s) for resolving the forces and accelerations and should try to set
up minimum number of equations in solving the problems.
Problems involving system of pulleys and motion on the surface of a wedge are worth
discussing and knowledge of relative acceleration for two accelerating bodies should be
revised.
Example 1
Two masses m, 2m, are connected by a light inextensible string which passes over a
smooth pulley, mass m. The axle of the pulley is fastened to one end of a second string
which passes over a smooth fixed pulley and has a mass 4m attached at the other end.
The system is free to move in a vertical plane.
50
In this example, students are expected to:

(1) draw force diagrams for separated mass and the movable pulley,
(2) obtain the accelerations of the masses m and 2m relative to the fixed pulley by
assigning their accelerations relative to the movable pulley first,
(3) set up force equations for individual mass and movable pulley, and (4) find the
accelerations of the masses by solving the force equations.
Example 2
A particle of mass m is in contact with a smooth sloping face of a wedge which is itself
standing on a smooth horizontal surface. The mass of the wedge is M and the sloping
face of the wedge is inclined at an angle of 30° to the horizontal.
In this example, students are expected to:

(1) draw force diagrams for individual mass,
(2) choose suitable directions to set up force equations for the masses,
(3) find the accelerations of the masses.
51
4.2 Rectilinear Motion of a 6 At this stage, students are expected to develop their skill in handling the motion in a
G G
Particle under Variable straight line under a variable force. The Newton's second law ( F = ma ) is then reduced
Forces
to
dv
F =m
dt
where m, the mass of the particle, is constant throughout the motion.

Problems involving
(1) force as a function of time,
(2) force as a function of .velocity, and
(3) force as a function of displacement
are worth discussing, and the method of solving the problems by simple integration
should be taught. Moreover, students are expected to identify the physical motion of the
particle after the force equation has been solved.
The following are some examples:
Example 1
A stone of mass m, falls vertically from rest, the air resistance being kv where k is a
constant and v is the velocity of the stone at time t.
In this problem, teachers may guide students to find the velocity of the stone in time t by
integration. Also, students should be able to know that the velocity will be terminated as
time tends to infinity. Moreover, the terminal velocity can be determined.
Example 2
A body of mass 5 kg is moving in a straight line under the action of a force 4 newtons
5
towards a fixed point O in that straight line, where s metres is the distance of the body
from O. The body is initially at rest and is 1 m from 0.
In this problem, students are expected to find the velocity of the body for a particular
52
distance s from 0 by simple integration. Moreover, teachers may guide students to find
the time elapsed for a particular s by integrating the first result.
12
UNIT 5: Momentum, Work, Energy, Power and Conservation Laws
1. To recognize momentum, work, energy and power.
2. To understand and use the Conservation Laws of Momentum and Energy.

5.1 Momentum and 2 Newton's second law may take the form
G
Conservation of G d(mvG ) dP
Momentum F= =
dt dt
G G
where P = mv is the momentum of the particle. In the absence of external force, the
G G
momentum P = mv of the particle should remain constant. The conservation of
momentum may be extended to a system of particles. Examples such as recoil of gun,
collision of trucks (assuming that they couple together after impact) etc. should be
provided to illustrate how the law of conservation of momentum can be used. However,
53
detailed discussion of impact problems is not necessary here and can be left to Unit 6.
5.2 Work, Energy, Power and 3 Teachers should remind students of the fundamental concepts of work, energy and
Conservation of Energy power. Students are expected to know that:
1. the work done by F on moving a particle from a to b along the positive direction of
b
the x-axis is
∫ a
F dx ,
1
2. the kinetic energy of a particle of mass m moving with velocity v is mv 2 .
2
3. the gravitational potential energy of a particle of mass m at a height h above an
arbitrary origin is mgh, and
4. the power of F is the rate of work done by F.
After that, teachers may introduce the relation between work and energy for some
mechanical systems. The following show two of them.
1. A particle moves along' a horizontal straight line under the action of a force F. The
increase in K.E. of the particle is equal to the work done to the particle by F.
2. When an elastic string is being extended, the work done to the string is equal to the
potential energy stored in the string. Students are expected to know that the P. E.
stored in an extended string is λx where λ is modulus, A is the natural length
2
2A
and x is the extension.
Finally, teachers should emphasize how to use the conservation of energy to solve
mechanical problems, i.e.
 Work done   change   change   Work done 
 to the  =  in  +  in  +  against 
 system   K.E.   P.E.   friction 
       
At this stage, students should have no problem to see that if there is no friction and no
work done to the system, then the above expression can be reduced to
 increase  =  decrease  or  decrease  =  increase 
 in K.E.   in P.E.   in P.E.   in K.E. 
       
54
Example 1
-1
A car of mass 1000 kg climbs a hill at a constant speed of 10 ms . The inclination of the
hill is 1 in 10.
(a) find the work done by the car against gravitation in one minute.
(b) If the total work done by the car in this time is 9 × 10 J, find the resistance to motion.
In this example, students should be able to see that the work done by the car against
gravitation in one minute is equal to the P.E. gained by the car in the same time interval.
Then, by seeing that there is no K.E. change of the car, students should be able to use
the conservation law of energy to find the work done against friction and hence the
resistance to motion.
Example 2
The figure shows a smooth wire XYZ in a vertical plane. The straight portion YX and YZ
of the wire are at right angles and YX is horizontal. Smooth rings A and B each of mass
m are threaded onto YX and YZ respectively and connected by a tight inextensible string
of length 5A . The system is released from rest with A at a distance 4A from Y. Calculate
the speed B when A is at a distance 3A from Y.
In this example, students may be guided to find the relation of the velocities of A and B at
55
time t after the release, and then solve the problem by using the conservation law of
energy.
Example 3
In the figure, the two pulleys are smooth and the system
is released from rest so that M falls to a position in
which the strings are inclined to the vertical at an angle
φ.
Show that there is a loss of potential energy of amount
Mgc(cot φ − cot θ) − 2mgc (cosec φ − cosec θ)
In this example, students are expected to realize that

the potential energy alone is not conserved in general.
From the above result, students may be asked to
deduce that if there is an equilibrium when the strings
are each inclined to the vertical at an angle α, and the
system is released from a position in which the strings are each inclined to the vertical at
an angle θ, it will next come to instantaneous rest when the inclination is φ where
1 1 1
tan2 α = tan θ tan φ .
2 2 2
Example 4
A light rod HK of length a connects a smooth ring H of mass m1 to a particle K of mass
m2. The ring is threaded onto a thin smooth horizontal wire. The rod HK is held in a
horizontal position and released from rest. Find the velocities of the particles at the
instant when the rod HK becomes vertical.
Students should realize that at the instant when the rod becomes vertical, K is moving
horizontally. The result follows immediately from the law of conservation of momentum
56
and the law of conservation of energy.
5
UNIT 6: Impact
1. To distinguish between elastic and inelastic impacts.
2. To understand Newton's Law of Restitution.
3. To apply Newton's Law of Restitution to solve problems of direct and oblique impacts.
6.1 Impulse 1 The impulse of a force may be defined as the product of the force and the time t for
which it acts. With this definition and starting from Newton's Second Law of Motion, it is
not hard to arrive at the relationship Ft = mv − mu. Thus, students should have no
problem to see that the impulse of a force is equal to the change in momentum which it
produces.
Students are also expected to realize the meaning of impulsive force. Examples
57
include the blow of a hammer, the impact of water on a surface, the impact of a bullet on
a target, the collision of balls etc.
Teachers should revise with students the Principle of Conservation of Linear

Momentum and remind them this principle is usually used in dealing with problems in
which impacts or impulsive forces occur. The above-mentioned examples can be used
for illustration, but problems involving impulsive tensions are not necessary.
6.2 Impact of Elastic Bodies 1 Teachers should explain clearly the meaning of direct impact and oblique impact,
but the manipulation of relevant problems is not necessary here and should be left to
Section 6.3, 6.4 and 6.5.
Before impact After impact
v1 − v 2
Newton's experimental law (i.e. = −e ) should be introduced at this stage.
u1 − u2
The positive constant e is known as coefficient of restitution or coefficient of elasticity.
Teachers should remind students of the negative sign adhering to e in the law. (If the law
v −v
is introduced as 2 1 = e , then teachers should remind students of the sequences of
u1 − u2
subtraction in the numerator and the denominator.)
The different values of e for different bodies should be discussed. In particular,

bodies with e = 0 are said to be perfectly inelastic while those with e = 1 are said to be
perfectly elastic. For other elastic bodies, 0 < e < 1.
Students are expected to know in perfectly elastic impact, kinetic energies are
conserved while in perfectly inelastic impact, the two bodies after impact will adhere and
move with a common velocity. The imperfectly elastic impact is in between the two
58
extreme cases.
6.3 Direct Impact 4 Teachers should emphasize that unless the impact is perfectly elastic, kinetic
energy is not conserved. This fact can further be verified by guiding students to develop
the expression:
 Loss in kinetic energy  = 1 ⋅ m1m2 u − u 2 1 − e2
 due to direct impact 
  2 m1 + m2
( 1 2) ( )
Clearly, the loss is zero if e = 1. Teachers should not encourage students to memorize
the expression. Instead, they should encourage students to derive it when necessary. As
a matter of fact, in most numerical cases, it is not hard to find directly the velocities of the
bodies after impact. The loss can then be obtained easily by subtracting the kinetic
energy after impact from that before.
Various types of examples should be provided to acquaint students with the

technique. Typical examples including finding the velocities after impact, the kinetic
energy loss due to impact, the momentum transferred from one sphere to the other after
impact etc.
6.4 Impact of a Smooth 3 Teachers should remind students that Newton’s experimental law is still valid. In this
Sphere on a Smooth v
Surface case, students should have no difficulty to get the formula = −e where u and v are
u
the velocity of the sphere just before and after impact respectively (see figure).
If the impact is not normal to the plane as shown in the figure below,
59
the horizontal and vertical component of the motion of the sphere should be considered
v cos β
separately. Newton’s experimental law is then reduced to = e . Teachers should
u cos α
emphasize that if the sphere and the plane are both smooth, then the horizontal
component of the velocity of the sphere remains unchanged after impact, i.e.
u sin α = v sin β
Examples such as finding the time that elapses between the release of a ball and
the instant when it finally ceases to bounce can be provided.
60
Teachers should also discuss with students the case when the plane is not fixed.
Basically, this type of prob1em can be manipulated with a method similar to that used in
direct impact of two spheres.
Examples such as investigating the motion of a small bead in a smooth and closed
straight tube which is moving with a velocity u on a smooth table can be provided.
6.5 Oblique Impact 6 For oblique impact, teachers should indicate to students how the problems can be
solved by resolving the velocities into components and applying Newton’s experimental
law along the line of centres of the two spheres.
Teachers should remind students the components

of the velocities of the two spheres perpendicular to
the line joining the two centres are unaltered by the
impact provided that the two spheres are smooth.
v 2 − v1
= −e
u2 cos β − u1 cos α Before Impact
m1u1 cos α + m2u2 cos β = m1v1 + m2v 2
After Impact
The following different situations should be discussed.

(1) m1 = m2
(2) m1 = m2 and e = 1
(3) u2 = 0
At this stage, students should be able to get the following result.
Loss in kinetic energy =

1 m1m2
⋅
2 m1 + m2
2
(
(u1 − u2 ) 1 − e2 )
Special cases such as m1 = m2, e1 = e2, u1 = u2 and α = β should be discussed.
Examples should be provided.
Example 1
Referring to the figure, B is brought to rest by impact. Find e if the kinetic energy of A is
unchanged.
Another possible question in this problem is to find the ratio of the increase in kinetic
2
energy of A to the original kinetic energy of B if e = say.
3
62
Example 2
In the figure, all the spheres are identical. A, B and C
are at rest, and P hits A and C symmetrically with
1
velocity u. Find the speed of B after impact if e =
2
for all impacts.
For students with lower ability, teachers may ask them to find firstly the speeds of A
and C assuming that B is absent before calculating the speed of B.
15
UNIT 7: Motion of Projectile under Gravity
1. To understand the motion of projectile as a simple case of two-dimensional problems.
2. To recognize the path of a projectile as a parabola.
3. To solve related problems.

7.1 Motion of Projectile 3 Students should be guided to obtain the equation of motion of a projectile under
gravity in a vertical plane. The following results are expected.
x = 0 and y = −g
x = u cos α and y = u sin α − gt
1 2
x = u cos α t and y = u sin α t − gt
63
From these, students should be led to obtain the equation of trajectory, maximum height,
time of flight, range and maximum range. Simple problems such as expressing the angle
of projection a in terms of a given initial speed u and a given range R, expressing the
initial speed u in terms of the maximum height H and the horizontal range R etc. should
be given to students to ensure adequate practice.
7.2 Trajectory of Projectile 6 1 2

The relations x = u cos α t and y = u sin α t − gt can be combined to form a
2
quadratic function such as
gx 2 which graph represents the path of a projectile, and
y = x tan α −
2u cos2 α
2
gx 2  gx 2 
2
tan2 α − x tan α +  y + 2  = 0 .
2u  2u 
Teachers should guide students to make use of the technique of solving quadratic
equations to solve related problems. .
Example 1
A shuttlecock is struck by a badminton racket to the other side of the net which has a
height h. It is projected with an initial velocity u at an angle of elevation α. Let the initial
separation between the shuttlecock and the net be a. Show that the shuttlecock will
cross the net if
u 2 sin2 α
h<
2g
In this example, students are expected to
distinguish the 3 cases:
u 2 sin2 α
64
h<
2g
u 2 sin2 α
h=
2g
and u 2 sin2 α
h>
2g
Example 2
(a) A particle is projected at a point 0 with a
speed of projection u as shown in the
figure. If it passes through the point
P(h, k), show that
(
u 2 ≥ g k + h2 + k 2 . )
3 If α1 and α2 are the two possible angles of projection, show that

h
tan ( α1 + α 2 ) = −
k
(b) If Q(h’, k’) is another point in the path such that the distance between P and Q is d,
show that the minimum velocity with which the particle is projected so as to pass
through both points P and Q is g ( d + k + k′ ) .
In (b), students should be able to make use of the results in (a) and the principle of
conservation of energy to arrive at the result.
Range on an Inclined 2 The emphasis here is on the choice of axes. The following two figures show the two
Plane possible ways.
65
In either case, students should be guided to obtain the range and the maximum
range. They should also see that the range is maximum when the direction of projection
bisects the angle between the vertical and the inclined plane.
Further Application of 6 At this stage, teachers should discuss with students projectile problems which also
Projectile involve knowledge of other topics such as relative velocity and impact.
Example
Two particles P and Q are projected simultaneously with the same initial speed u from the
same point in the same vertical plane.
Their angles of projection are α and β respectively and β > α.

1
(a) Show the relative speed of Q to P is 2u sin (β − α ) .
2
(b) If the trajectories intersect again at a point X, show that the time elapsed between
2u sin ( β − α )
P and Q passing through X is
g ( cos α + cos β )
Other examples like the following should also be provided.
1. Impact with a horizontal plane
66
2. Impact with an inclined plane

3. Impact with vertical walls
Two-dimensional problems involving resistive media should be avoided.
17
67
UNIT 8: Circular Motion
1. To study the dynamics of a particle in circular motion.
2. To solve problems involving circular motion.

8.1 Circular Motion 4 Teachers may advise students to analyze the kinematics of a particle moving in a
G
circle of radius r. Teachers may start with r = reˆr and guide students to obtain the
G G v2 ˆ dv
acceleration r = −r θ 2eˆr + r
θêθ or r = − er + êθ . Here, students are expected to
r dt
know that if the particle is moving with constant speed around the circle, then θ = 0 and
G v2 ˆ
r = −r θ 2eˆr = − er which is called the centripetal acceleration and is always pointing
r
towards the centre of the circle (as indicated by its negative sign). The corresponding
68
mv 2
centripetal force (of magnitude mr θ 2 or ) should be provided by some
r
identifiable forces acting on it. For example, the tension of a string, a reaction force or a
frictional force.
Examples such as a car moving without skidding at a constant speed in a horizontal

circle (with or without banking) and conical pendulum should be provided.
8.2 Motion in a Vertical Circle 8 Teachers should remind students that the speed of the particle moving in a vertical
circle and hence its angular speed is not constant. Most problems involving vertical circle
could be solved by equations of motion or conservation of energy. The following cases
should be discussed.
1. A ring or bead threaded in a smooth vertical circular wire.
Students are expected to know the condition for the particle
to reach the highest point of the circle, the condition for
getting zero R and that R can be positive (i.e. pointing toward
centre) or negative (i.e. pointing outward centre).
2. A particle suspended from a fixed point by a light inextensible string.

Students are expected to know the condition for the particle
to describe a complete circle, the condition for getting zero T
and that the subsequent motion after the string gets loose is
a projectile under gravity until the string is taut again.
3. A particle moving on the inner rail of a vertical circular wire. This case is similar to
case 1 except that the reaction R cannot be negative.
4. A particle moving on the outer surface of a smooth circular cylinder. Again, students
69
should know that the particle will leave the surface (and hence moves as a
projectile) when the reaction R is zero.
Teachers are advised to guide students to apply the knowledge and skill obtained in
the above cases to solve related problems. The following show three typical examples.
Example 1
Two particles connected by a string move on the outer surface of
a smooth cylinder.
Example 2
Two beads are free to move on a circular smooth wire. Bead A is
projected with speed u. The subsequent motion of A and B
depends on the coefficient of restitution. Students have to apply
the principle of momentum to solve the problem.
70
Example 3
A bead threaded to a circular wire is projected with a horizontal velocity u at the lowest
point. The coefficient of friction is µ.
In this example, students should note that the law of conservation of energy fails to apply
and they have to solve the equation of motion as a differential equation.
12
UNIT 9: Simple Harmonic Motion
1. To recognize simple harmonic motion.
2. To recognize damped and forced oscillation.

9.1 Simple Harmonic Motion 12 Teachers may illustrate the concept of simple harmonic motion (S.H.M.) by using
examples like simple pendulum and simple mass-spring system.
71
g λ λ
θ=− θ x = − x x = − x
A mA mA
Students should know that any motion satisfying the equation of motion
x = −ω2 x is simple harmonic and they should be aware of the negative sign in the
equation. Teachers may relate this unit with Topic Area II (Differential Equations).
After acquiring the relevant concept, teachers should guide students to obtain the
fundamental formulae of S.H.M. which are. listed collectively below:
Acceleration x = −ω2 x
Velocity x = Aω cos(ωt + α ) = ω A2 − x 2
Displacement x = A sin(ωt + α )
2π
Period T =
ω
Teachers should remind students to compare the direction of acceleration with

those of displacement and velocity.
Other daily-life examples that may lead to S.H.M. should also be discussed. The
following show some of them.
(1) A floating cylindrical cork oscillating vertically in water.
(2) Column of liquid oscillating in U-tube.
(3) More complicated mass-spring or mass-string systems such as those shown below.
(a) (b)
smooth surface smooth surface

72
(c) (Small oscillation) (d) (Small oscillation)
Adequate practice is very essential. The following shows some typical problems.
Example 1
A particle A of mass m hangs in equilibrium from a fixed point at the end of a light spring
of modulus k. If another particle B of mass M is added to A and is then released, find the
equation of motion and the amplitude of the resulting oscillation.
Example 2
A heavy particle suspended at the end of a light elastic string is performing a vertical
S.H.M. of amplitude a. The maximum speed in the motion is nga , where n > 1. The
string is cut when the particle is at a height x above the centre 0 of the motion and is
moving upwards with the string taut. Investigate the subsequent motion of the particle
and find the greatest possible height reached by the particle.
9.2 Damped Oscillation 3 Teachers can introduce the concept of

damped oscillations by adding to the mass-spring
system a resistive force which is proportional to the
speed of the body. (See figure)
73
The equation of motion is in the form

mx + cx + kx = 0
where m is the mass of the body, c is the damping
coefficient of the liquid and k is the spring constant.
The above equation is a second order differential equation and students should
have no problem to solve it if they have learnt Unit 13. Otherwise, teachers may provide
students with the solution directly and leave the proof to Unit 13.
Teachers should lead students to discuss the nature of the roots of the above
differential equation. This would give rise to the 3 cases: overdamping, underdamping
and critical damping. The following figures show some forms for some typical initial
conditions.
Positive initial displacement Negative initial displacement

Overdamped cases with negative initial velocity
74
Underdamping Critical damping
Example
A particle of mass m is suspended from a fixed point by a string of natural length A and
Modulus of elasticity 5mn 2A . When in motion, the particle is resisted by a force of

magnitude 2mn times its sped. Initially, the particle is hanging in equilibrium and is then
projected vertically downwards with speed V.
In this example, students are expected to show that the equation of motion is
x + 2nx + 5n 2 x = 0 where x is the downward displacement at time t. Teachers can then
guide students to solve the equation and find the time when the particle is
instantaneously at rest.
The driving force F(t) should be in one of the forms t , cos ωt, sin ωt, eµ or a linear
n t
9.3 Forced Oscillation 5
combination of these functions. The following two cases should be discussed:
(a) Undamped forced oscillation .

The equation of motion is mx + kx = F (t ) . Teachers can discuss with students how
to get the general solution and the particular solution. The physical meanings of the
solutions should be emphasized. For example, when F(t) = F0 sin ωt, the following
are the two cases of the particular solutions.
75
Beats
Resonance
(b) Damped forced oscillation

Students should have no difficulty to get the equation of motion
mx + cx + kx = F (t ) . The solution of the equation for a given F(t) can be found
directly. Moreover, in some cases, students are expected to derive the driving force
under a given situation. The following shows an example.
Example
Two particles of masses m and 2m respectively, and
attached by an inextensible string is hanging over a smooth
fixed pulley as shown. A third particle of mass m is then
attached to the heavier particle by a spring of modulus k. All
particles are released from rest with the spring just
unstretched. Investigate the subsequent motions of the
particles.
In this example, the driving force acting on the third particle

76
is not directly known. Students are expected to find the force

themselves with the information given.
20
UNIT 10: Motion of a Particle in a Plane
To solve problems involving motion of a particle in a plane by various techniques.

10.1 Motion of a Particle in a 8 In order to solve the general motion of particle in a plane. two coordinate systems,
Plane i.e. the Cartesian coordinate and polar coordinate systems, should be introduced to the
students. It is also worthwhile for teachers to discuss with students the distinction of
employing polar coordinates and Cartesian coordinates in solving such problems.
Simple integration is worthwhile as the major solving technique for this kind of problems.
However, students should be told that the skill learnt from the differential equations may
also be employed where necessary.
Some examples using Cartesian coordinates may be introduced to students. Below is

one:
77
Example
A particle moving in a plane is subject to a force acting towards the x-axis and
proportional to its distance from that axis. Initially, it is projected from the origin with a
velocity v in a direction making an angle θ with the x-axis.
In this problem, students are asked to set up force equations along the x- and y-direction,
and to find the velocity and position of the particle at time t by direct integration or by
using the technique of differential equation.
Moreover, students should be reminded that projectile motion is a kind of motion that
employs Cartesian coordinates.
Before teaching students to handle the problems using polar coordinates, the
knowledge of resolution of velocity and acceleration along and perpendicular to the
radius vector learnt should be recalled. Sufficient practical examples in which the
position, velocity and acceleration vectors (as well as their radial and transverse
components) of an object which could be represented in polar coordinates should be
given. However, teachers should note that velocity and acceleration components in
tangential-normal form are not required.
At this stage, problems involving the motion of particle(s) under a radial force and
simple orbital motion are worthwhile to be discussed. However, it should be reminded
that detailed knowledge of orbit problems need not be taught. It should be emphasized
that setting up of force equations or velocity relations in radial and transverse directions
is essential. Moreover, the law of conservation of angular momentum may also be
employed where there are only radial forces in the system, but the elementary concepts
of angular momentum and the corresponding conservation law should be taught when
necessary. (The details may be left to Unit 11.) Students may also be told that such result
may also be obtained by equating the acceleration in transverse direction to zero, i.e.
r
θ + 2rθ = 0
After solving the equation, students are also expected to interpret the results. The
following show two examples:
Example 1
A particle P moves in a plane. Its position at time t is represented by (r, θ) and its velocity
78
always makes an angle θ with PO.
polar axis
dr r
Show that =−
dθ tan θ
Example 2
P and Q are two particles, each of mass m, connected by a light inextensible string of
length 2a, which passes through a small smooth hole O in a smooth horizontal table. P is
free to slide on the table and Q hangs freely. Initially OQ is of length a, and P is projected
from rest, at right angles to OP with velocity v0.
The following figure shows the particles’ positions at time t :
79
In this problem, students are led to draw the above diagram and set up the force
equations in radial direction of particle P and vertical direction of particle O. They should
be told that the transverse component of the velocity of P may be found by employing the
law of conservation of angular momentum and the velocity of P and 0 can be found by
solving the above equations.
12
UNIT 11: Motion of a Rigid Body
1. To find the centre of mass and the moment of inertia of a given rigid body.
2. To understand and use the law of conservation of angular momentum.
3. To solve dynamic problems involving rigid bodies.
11.1 Centre of Mass 6 As students may not be too familiar with the term ‘rigid bodies’, teachers may
(a) Introduction introduce the definition of centre of mass by first considering a finite number of particles.
Simple examples such as the one given below may help students to understand the
formula.
JG
80
JJG ∑ m r
rc = i i
∑ mi
JJG
where rc is the position vector of the centre of mass.
Example
Masses m1, m2, m3 and m4 are placed on the corners A. B, C and D respectively of a
square of side a. Find the position of the centre of mass.
In this example, students should be able to calculate the position vector of the centre of
mass of the system of particles with A as the origin. By using C as the origin, teachers
can remind students that the centre of mass of a system of particles is independent of
the reference points for the position vector.
(b) Centre of mass by When a body cannot be divided into a finite number of particles, it may be divided
integration into a large number of very small parts called elements. The position of the centre of
mass can be found by integration using the formulae
∫ x dm ∫ y dm
x= and y =
∫ dm ∫ dm
Examples such as uniform rods, triangular lamina, solid and hollow hemisphere, circular
arc etc should be discussed.
Various examples can be given to students to demonstrate the skills in finding the
centre of mass of less familiar objects. For example, teachers may ask students to find
the centre of mass of the uniform solid obtained by rotating about the x-axis, the area
81
2
bounded by the x-axis, the line x = 2 and the parabola y = 4x.
Students are expected to know that for rigid bodies involving solid of revolution (e.g.
solid cone), the useful element is a disc, and that for solid involving surface of revolution
(e.g. a hollow hemisphere), the useful element is a ring.
(c) Centre of mass of a In finding the centre of mass of composite bodies, the relative mass of the different
composite body parts can be used.
Example 1
Find the centre of mass of a solid frustum.
The centre of mass of the frustum can be calculated by
considering the relative masses of the fictitious cones
ABC and ADE and the frustum BCDE. The results is
 2h   h
8  = 7 y + (1)  h + 
 4   4
Example 2
To find the centre of mass of a solid consisting of a right circular cone and a hemisphere.
In this example, students can be guided to find the
possible ratio of h/r so that the body can rest in
equilibrium with any part of the curved surface of
the hemisphere in contact with a horizontal smooth
plane.
11.2 Moment of Inertia 6

As an introduction, teachers may explain to students that the motion of a rigid body
(a) Introduction
is quite different from that of a particle. The general motion may involve translation and
82
rotation.
By considering the rotational motion of a rigid body about a fixed axis, most
students should not have any difficulties in getting an expression for the kinetic energy of
the body.
ω ( ∑ mr 2 )
1 2
K.E. =
2
Teachers may then introduce the term ‘moment of inertia, I = ∑ mr 2 ’ and remind
students that I is of great importance and occurs in all the problems involving the rotation
of a rigid body.
(b) Moment of inertia by
Teachers should guide students to find the moment of inertia of a finite number of
integration
particles and to extend the idea to find the moment of inertia of a rigid body about an
axis. In the latter case, the technique of integration should be used.
Students should realize that the moment of inertia of a body depends on

(a) position of axis of rotation;
(b) distribution of mass about the axis.
Examples such as uniform rods, rectangular lamina, ring, disc, sphere etc. should
be discussed.
(c) Parallel and At this stage, students should be familiar with the techniques of finding the moment
perpendicular axes of inertia of a rigid body from first principles. Teachers can then introduce parallel axis
theorem theorem and perpendicular axis theorem. These two theorems will help students in
finding the moments of inertia of a body about other axes when the moments of inertia
about certain standard axes are known. In this way a large amount of integration is
avoided. Teachers should show students how to apply the two useful theorems in the
calculation of the moment of inertia.
83
Examples such as finding the moment of inertia of a disc about a tangent and that of
a solid cone about an axis through the vertex, perpendicular to the axis of symmetry may
be discussed.
Teachers can remind students that
(a) perpendicular axis theorem can only be applied to rigid body in the form of a
lamina;
(b) from parallel axis theorem, the moment of inertia about an axis through the centre of
2
mass of a uniform body is less than that about any parallel axis by Md where M is
the mass of the body and d is the distance between the parallel axes.
(d) Moment of inertia of a Students are expected to know that the moment of inertia of a composite body can
composite body be obtained easily by adding the moments of inertia of individual parts together.
Examples such as finding the moment of inertia of the following figure about the axis
through A and perpendicular to the plane ABC can be discussed.
11.3 Moment of a Rigid Body As the topic ‘general motion of a rigid body’ is a bit difficult for average students, it is
about a Fixed Axis desirable that teachers start to discuss first the motion of a rigid body about a fixed axis.
(a) Conservation of energy
Students are expected to apply the law of conservation of energy in solving problems
relating to rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis.
Example
A uniform rod AB of mass m and length 2a is free to turn about a smooth horizontal axis
about A. A particle of mass m is attached to the rod at B. The rod is released from rest
84
with AB horizontal.
Teachers should remind students that they cannot treat

the rod as a point mass.
Teachers can guide students to obtain the angular velocity θ and angular acceleration

θ from the law of conservation of energy.
(b) Law of angular The definition of angular momentum about a fixed axis can then be discussed with
momentum students. Students are expected to know the law of angular momentum.
dω
I = I θ = L where L is the moment of the external forces acting on the body about the
dt
fixed axis.
dv
The above equation can be compared with Newton's second law m =F .
dt
The following show some examples which can be discussed with students.
Example 1
2
The moment of inertia of a flywheel about its axis is 10 kg m . When it is rotating with an
angular speed ω0 a constant torque of 20 Nm is applied to the flywheel for 3 seconds.
From I
θ = L , students should have no problems to obtain θ = 2 . Teachers can then
1
guide students to obtain the equations θ = ω0 + 2t , θ = ω0t + (2)t 2 which can be
2
compared with the equations obtained from constant linear acceleration:
1 2
v = u + at , s = ut + at
2
85
Example 2
A cylinder of radius a and mass M is free to rotate about its axis which is horizontal. A
light string hangs over the pulley and carries a particle P of mass m at one end and a
particle Q of mass 2m at the other end. The string is rough enough not to slip on the
pulley. The system starts from rest and the particle Q moves down a distance x at time t.
In this example, teachers can discuss with students why x = aθ and

x = a
θ and remind students that the tensions in the strings are not
the same on the two sides of the pulley.
Students may be guided to set up the equations of motion for P, Q and the cylinder. Also,
teachers can discuss with students the possibility of using energy conservation in this
case.
The Law of conservation of angular momentum should be introduced and can be

illustrated by considering simple examples such as the one given below:
Example
A uniform disc of mass m and radius a is rotating with constant angular velocity (j) in a
horizontal plane about a vertical axis through its centre A. A particle P of mass 2m is
placed gently without slipping on the disc at a point distant a/2 from A.
Teachers can explain to students that since there is no

external torque acting on the system, angular
86
momentum must be conserved.
Students can be guided to find the new angular velocity

of the disc (which is the same as the particle).
(c) Applications Other examples such as the work done by a couple ∫ L dθ , the impulse of the
torque ∫ L dt , compound pendulum etc should also be discussed through worked
examples.
11.4 General Motion of a Rigid 16 The general motion of a rigid body can be illustrated by diagrams.
Body
(a) Introduction
Students should know that the general motion

consists of two parts:
(1) translation of the centre of mass
(2) rotation about the centre of mass
Teachers may derive the necessary equations required but emphasis should be placed
on the application rather than derivation.
87
It is important for students to realize that the general motion of a rigid body can be
analysed by considering independently
(a) the linear motion of the centre of mass
(b) the rotation about an axis through the centre of mass.
(b) Equation of Motion Teachers can discuss with students the law of angular momentum which can be
generalized as follows:
The rate of change of angular momentum of the body about the axis through the centre
of mass is equal to the sum of moments of the external forces about the axis.
Examples should be introduced to demonstrate the techniques in solving problems

relating to general motion.
Example 1
A uniform rod AB of length 2a and mass m is
held vertically with one end resting on a
horizontal plane which is rough enough to
prevent slipping and is then released.
It is important for students to realize the fact

that the motion of the centre of mass of a
rigid body acted on by any forces, is the
88
same as if the whole mass were collected at

the centre of mass and all the forces were
applied at that point.
Since the centre of mass is performing circular motion, students can be guided to
obtain the equation of motion of centre of mass. By taking moment about A and
considering the energy, θ 2 and
θ can be obtained, thus F and R can be calculated.
Students may also be asked to write down the equation of motion by considering
the forces along AB and perpendicular to AB.
Example 2
A uniform rod of length 2a slides down a
vertical plane, its ends being in contact with
two smooth planes, one horizontal and one
vertical. The co-ordinates of the centre of
mass is (x, y).
By considering the translational motion of the centre of mass and the rotational motion
about the centre of mass, S and R can be obtained.
89
(c) Rolling and sliding Among the topics of the general motion of rigid bodies, ‘pure rolling’ and ‘rolling with
slipping’ are two important ones. Below are some examples which can be discussed with
students.
Example 1
A cylinder of radius a rolls down a rough inclined plane. Students should have no
difficulties in getting the equations
I
θ = Fa &
mx = mg sin α − F
The velocity of the contact point A is x − aθ which may not be zero in the case of
slipping.
In the case of rolling without slipping, students should know that x = aθ .
Example 2
A cylinder with a backward angular velocity ω and a

velocity u is placed on a rough horizontal plane.
Assume it rotates an angle θ and moves a distance x at
time t.
The velocity of the contact point A is x − aθ

90
Teachers can investigate the motion of the cylinder eventually if

(1) u > aω (2) u = aω (3) u < aω
Teachers should emphasize to students that friction should not be assumed to be
limiting until slipping has been established.
Other examples such as the motion of a solid, sphere rolling on a fixed sphere, the
motion of a solid cylinder moving inside a hollow cylinder can also be discussed.
(d) General expression of The general law of kinetic energy should be discussed. The kinetic energy of the
the kinetic energy of a body is made up of linear kinetic energy of a particle of mass M at the centre of mass
rigid body and the rotational kinetic energy of the body about the axis through the centre of mass.
Examples such as the one given below can be discussed.
Example
A cylinder is rolling without slipping along a

horizontal plane with speed u. Students should be
able to write down the expression of the K. E. of
the cylinder, i.e.
2
1 u 1
K.E. = I   + mu 2
2 a 2
34
91
UNIT 12: First Order Differential Equations and Its Applications
1. To acquire skills in solving some specific first order differential equations.
2. To apply relevant skills of forming and solving first order differential equations in some given physical situations.
3. To be able to interpret the solutions of first order differential equations.

dy d2 y
12.1 Basic Concepts and Ideas 3 Teachers may make use of simple examples like = x 2 and = x 3 to
dx dx 2
introduce the general concept of differential equations (equations containing differential
coefficients) and ask students to find the solutions of examples so given. Students
should have no problem as those examples can be solved by simple integration. (The
2
solution of the first is given by integrating x once while that of the second by integrating
92
d2 y dy
+ +y =0?
3
x twice.) But, how about the equation
dx 2 dx
For students’ interest, teachers may introduce the term ‘ordinary differential equation’.
But since only one independent variable is considered in this topic area, this can be
simply called differential equation if no ambiguity arises.
Students are also expected to recognise the terms ‘order’, ‘degree’, ‘linear’ and
‘non-linear’ in differential equations. Examples should be given to clarify the various
concepts.
The meaning of a solution of a differential equation should be clearly explained. This can
be done through examples. For example, f ( x ) = e2 x is a solution of the differential
dy
equation − 2y = 0 because f ′( x ) − 2f ( x ) = 0 .
dx
‘Arbitrary constants’, ‘general solution’ and ‘particular solution’ are essential ideas
in this topic area. In particular, students are expected to know that any solution of an nth
order equation NOT containing n arbitrary constants cannot be a general solution and
the solution that has satisfied certain specific conditions, known as initial or boundary
conditions, is called a particular solution. These concepts can be further clarified by
means of graphs. For example, the general solution y = ce2x of the equation
dy
− 2y = 0 represents a family of curves as shown in the figure below while the
dx
particular solution y = e2x (or y = 2e2 x etc.) represents only one curve in the family.
93
Students are also expected to identify the number of arbitrary constants in a function.
For example, the function given by c1ec2 + x appears to contain two arbitrary constants,
but in fact it contains only one as we can write c1ec2 + x = (c1ec2 )e x = ce x where c1ec2 is
replaced by the single arbitrary constant c.
For the abler students, teachers can also discuss singular solution with them. For
2
1 dy  dy 
example, y = cx + = x  + 1 while y = 4x is a
2
is the general solution of y
c dx  dx 
singular solution.
12.2 Formation of Differential 2 The emphasis here is on the formation of differential equations from physical
Equations situations. The solving of the resulting equations is left to the later sections. Teachers
may provide some illustrative examples to indicate to students how this can be done. A
typical example is the problem of growth in which the rate of change of population of a
dP
certain species, at any time t is proportional to the value of P at that instant.
dt
dP dP
Students should be able to write down the relation ∝ P or = kP where k,
dt dt
known as the growth constant, is a positive constant.
12.3 Solution of Equations with 4 Students should be able to identify differential equations with variables separable
Variables Separable and reduce them to the form g ( y ) dy = f ( x ) dx . Accordingly, students should have no
problem to solve the equations by simple integration. Since in many real life applications,
people are not so interested in the general solution of a given differential equation but
only in the particular solution satisfying a given initial condition, teachers are advised to
provide more initial value problems to their students.
94
There are many physical problems which can lead to first order differential
equations of variables separable type. The following are some of them.
1. Population growth
The population of a given species is decreased at a constant rate of n people per
annum by emigration. And the population due to birth and death is increased at a
constant rate of λ% of the existing population per annum. If the initial population is N
dx λ
people, then the population x people after t years is given by = x −n .
dt 100
2. Exponential decay
The rate of decay of a radioactive substance at time t is proportional to the mass x(t)
dx
of the substance left at that time. Thus, = −µx where µ is a positive constant.
dt
3. Law of cooling
The rate of change of temperature of a body is proportional to the difference
between the temperature of the body and the temperature θ of the surrounding
dT
medium. Suppose T is the temperature of the body at time t, then = k (T − θ)
dt
where k < 0.
4. Diffusion
-3
A porous pot containing a solution of a substance of concentration of x mgcm is
placed in a large vessel containing the same solution but of higher concentration
-3
c mgcm . The concentration of the solution in the pot will increase due to diffusion.
Assuming that c is constant, the rate of increase of concentration of the solution in
the pot is proportional to the difference in concentration.
dx
= k (c − x ) where k is a positive
95
Thus x satisfies the differential equation

dt
constant.
5. Evaporation
A wet and porous substance loses its moisture at a rate proportional to the moisture
dx
content, x(t). Thus, the equation is = −kx where k is a positive constant.
dt
6. Chemical reaction
If the temperature is kept constant, the velocity of a chemical reaction is proportional
to the product of the concentration of the substances which are reacting. If x
represents the amount of the substance formed in the reaction, then x must satisfy
dx
the equation = k (a − x )(b − x ) where k is a positive constant, while a and b are
dt
the original amounts of the two reacting substances respectively.
7. Logistic law of population growth

An improved population model makes use of the differential equation
dN
= aN − bN 2 in which aN is the birth rate, −bN is the death rate and N is the
2
dt
population at that instant. Here a and b are positive constants.
8. Spread of disease
dN
Here the equation considered is = kN (P − N ) where N is the population that is
dt
infected at time t, P is the total population which is susceptible to infection, and the
rate of change of N is assumed to be proportional to the product of N and P − N.
In the above examples, teachers, apart from guiding students to set up and solve the
differential equations, should emphasize on the interpretation of the solutions.
12.4 Solution of Linear 4 dy

For equations which can be reduced to the linear form + p( x )y = q( x ) , the
96
Differential Equations dx
dy solutions can be obtained by the use of integrating factor. Teachers should emphasize
+ p( x ) y = q ( x )
dx that as the equation is of the first order the solution contains only one arbitrary constant.
Therefore, the integrating factor e ∫ p( x ) dx should contain no constant of integration as
any primitive of p(x) will serve the purpose. By experience, students may easily forget
the form of the integrating factor and some even take e ∫ p( x ) dx + c as the solution of
the given equation. Therefore, more practice should be given to ensure that students
master the technique.
Physical examples which give rise to first order linear differential equations are
recommended. The following are two examples.
1. Mixture .
A tank contains 100 L of solution in which 10 kg of chemical is dissolved. Solution
-1
containing 2 kg of the chemical per litre flows into the tank at 5 Lmin . The mixture
-1
is well-stirred and drawn off at 4 Lmin . If x kg is the mass of the chemical in the
dx 4x
tank, then x satisfies the differential equation + = 10 with initial
dt 100 + t
condition x = 10 at t = 0.
2. Chain reaction
Radioactive element X decays into radioactive element Y which in turns decays into
element Z. The sum of the masses of X, Y and Z at time t (denoted by x, y and z
respectively) is constant. Suppose the respective rate of decay is proportional to the
corresponding mass at time t and x = M, y = z = 0 at t = 0. Then the relevant
dx dy
differential equations are = −k1x and = k1x − k2 y . The first equation gives
dt dt
dy
x = Me − k1t , while the second one becomes + k2 y = k1Me − k t by substitution.
1
dt
12.5 Solution of Equations 4 Students are expected to be able to reduce a differential equation to one of the
Reducible to Variables above types by using a given substitution. For example, the non-linear differential
Separable Type or Linear dy
Type equation + P ( x )y = Q( x )y n , n ≠ 0, n ≠ 1, known as Bernoulli's equation, can be
dx
97
reduced to a linear equation by substituting u = y 1−n . Also, the differential equation of

dy
the form + P ( x )y + Q( x )y 2 = R( x ) , known as Riccati equation, can be reduced to a
dx
1
first order linear differential equation by using the substitution y = Y + if Y is a known
u
solution (i.e. a particular solution Y is known).
17
UNIT 13: Second Order Differential Equations and Its Applications
1. To acquire skills in solving some specific second order differential equations.
2. To apply relevant skills of forming and solving second order differential equations in some given physical situations.
3. To be able to interpret the solutions of first order differential equations.

13.1 Classification of Types 2 This is an extension of the first order differential equations. Here the emphasis is on
the linear equations of the second order, i.e. equations of the type
d2 y dy
+ p( x ) + q ( x )y = f ( x )
dx 2 dx
The main feature of this equation (i.e. it is linear in y and its derivatives while p, q and f
are any given functions of x) should be clearly stated. Teachers should provide adequate
examples to help students identify the various types of second order differential
98
equations, namely, homogeneous linear equations (f(x) = 0), non-homogeneous linear

equations (f(x) ≠ 0) and non-linear equations (equations which cannot be written in the
above form).
At this stage, teachers may introduce examples like oscillation of a body hung on
the bottom of a suspended spring, free falling of a body under the influence of a constant
gravitational force and a resistance proportional to the speed, and pricing policy for
optimum inventory level etc to indicate to students how second order differential
equations arise in the real-life world.
13.2 Principle of Superposition 2 The principle can be introduced by using a concrete example. For example,
2
students may be asked to verify that y = x and y = x are solutions of the equation
d2 y dy
x2 − 2x + 2y = 0 . Then, they are encouraged to go a step further to verify that
dx 2 dx
y = 3 x + 4 x 2 is also a solution. After trying a few examples in this way, teachers may
guide students to prove the principle. However, for less able students, the formal proof
can be omitted.
Teachers are reminded that a formal knowledge of linear independence of solutions

is not expected.
The invalidity of the principle of superposition for non-homogeneous linear

equations or non-linear equations can be introduced by the use of examples such as
d2 y
+ y = 1 in which y = 1 + sin x and y = 1 + cos x are solutions but y = 3(1 + sin x )
dx 2
and y = (1 + sin x ) + 2(1 + cos x ) are not. Students should then be clear that the principle
only holds for homogeneous linear differential equations.
13.3 Solution of Homogeneous 4 Here students are only expected to use the method of auxiliary equation (or
Equations with Constant characteristic equation). Other methods are unnecessary.
Coefficients
Teachers should discuss with students separately the 3 cases arisen, i.e. when the
d2 y dy auxiliary equation has 2 real and distinct roots, 2 real and equal roots, and 2 complex
a +b + cy = 0
dx 2 dx conjugate roots. For the last case, if the roots are u ± vi , the standard solutions
y = (c1 cos vx + c2 sin vx )eux can be obtained by the use of substitution y = ze . Then
ux
d2 z
the equation becomes + v 2 z = 0 . Clearly, z = cosvx and z = sin vx are two
99
dx 2
distinct solutions. Hence, by the principle of superposition, the general solution is
z = c1 cos vx + c2 sin vx . After putting back z (= ye ). the result follows. For abler
-ux
students, teachers may apply the identity e i θ = cos θ + i sin θ in the proof.
This section is of great use for later work. Thus, more practice should be given to
ensure that students master the technique. Real-life applications may be left to section
13.7.
13.4 Solution of 6
Non-homogeneous
Equations with Constant
Coefficients
The following theorem should be introduced and clearly explained.
d2 y dy
a +b + cy = f ( x )
dx 2 dx The general solution of a non-homogeneous linear differential equation is the sum of
(a) Complementary a general solution of the reduced homogeneous equation (i.e. with f(x) setting zero) and
function and particular an arbitrary particular solution of the non-homogeneous equation.
integral
Teachers should also emphasize that to avoid confusion, it is usual to call the
general solution of the reduced equation the ‘complementary function’ and the particular
solution of the non-homogeneous equation a ‘particular integral’. Therefore, for
non-homogeneous equations, we have,
general solution = complementary function + particular integral
The proof of the above theorem can be left to students as an exercise.
(b) Method of 2 Only the method of undetermined coefficients is expected here. The method of
undetermined inverse operator should be avoided.
coefficients
To help students memorize the possible trial forms of the particular integral y (x)
(which is dependent on the form of the function f(x), teachers may introduce the following
table.
Form of f(x) Trial form of yp(x)
xn a0 + a1x + a2 x 2 + " + an x n (0)
100
px px
e Ae (p)
c cos px
c sin px A cos px + B sin px (ip)
c1 cos px + c2 sin px
However, teachers should remind students that if the number listed in the brackets is
a root of multiplicity k (k = 1 or 2) of the auxiliary equation of the reduced homogeneous
k
equation, then the trial form of yp(x) is x times the above form.
Examples such as the following can be used to illustrate the rationale.
Example 1
d2 y
For the equation + 9 y = cos 2 x , the roots of the auxiliary equation are ±3i and
dx 2
hence the complementary function is y c = c1 cos 3 x + c2 sin3 x . Since 2i is not a root of
the auxiliary equation, the particular integral to be tried is y p = A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x .

2
d y
However, if the equation is + 9 y = cos3 x , the complementary function remains the
dx 2
same but since 3i is a root of the auxiliary equation, the particular integral to be tried
should be y p = x(a cos3 x + B sin3 x ) .
In either case, students should be clear that they have to substitute y p ( x ) into the
equation to calculate the values of A and B.
Example 2
d2 y dy
For the equation +2 = x 2 , since 0 is one of the roots of the auxiliary equation
dx 2 dx
(whose roots are 0 and −2), the particular integral to be tried is y p = x (a + Bx + Cx 2 ) .
Again, the values of A, B and C can be calculated by putting back y p ( x ) into the
equation.
Students may have difficulty when dealing with equations where f(x) is a linear
combination of functions in the first column of the above table. Therefore, teachers
should provide examples such as that shown below to illustrate that the trial form of
101
y p ( x ) is the linear combination of the functions of the corresponding lines.

Example
d2 y
dy
For the equation −3 + 2y = 4 x + e3 x , roots of the auxiliary equation are 1 and 2.
dx 2 dx
Since 0 and 3 are not roots of the auxiliary equation, the trial form of y p ( x ) is
y p = A0 + A1x + Be3x .
Teachers should indicate that A0 + A1x is the particular solution for 4x while Be3 x is
that for e3 x .
dy d2 y
However, if the equation is −3 + 2y = 4 x + e x , then since 1 (coefficient of x in the
dx 2 dx
x
index of e ) is a root of the auxiliary equation, the trial form of y p ( x ) is
y p = A0 + A1x + Bxe x
x
for 4x for e
Adequate practice of initial or boundary value problems should be provided in order

to ensure that students are familiar with practical procedures required in solving real-life
problems.
13.5 Reduction of Equations to 3 Students are expected to be able to make use of a given substitution to reduce a
Second Order Differential differential equation to one of the familiar types. For example,
Equations with Constant
Coefficients d2 y dy d2 y
1. x2 +x + y = 0 can be reduced to + y = 0 by substituting x = e z . In
dx 2 dx dz 2
d2 y d2 y d2 x
this example, teachers should remind students that 2
≠ ⋅ .
dz dx 2 dz 2
d2 y dy d2 y dy
2. x2 2
+ 2( x + 1)2 y = e − x can be reduced to
+ 2 x( x + 2) +2 + 2z = e − x
dx d x dx 2 dx
z
by making use of the substitution y = 2 .
x
102
In all these types of examples, teachers should emphasize to or revise (if necessary)
dy dy dz d2 y dy d2 z dz d  dy 
with students the formulae = ⋅ and = ⋅ +
dx dz dx dx 2 dz dx 2 dx dx  dz 
dy d2 z dz d2 y dz
= ⋅ + ⋅ ⋅ .
dz dx 2 dx dz 2 dx
13.6 Systems of two First Order 3 Only simple systems which may be reduced by elimination to a second order linear
Differential Equations dy
differential equation is expected. For example, the two equations − x = t and
dt
dx d2 y dx
+ y = t 2 can be reduced to + y = 1 + t 2 while the two equations = x − 3y
dt dx 2 dt
dy d2 x dx
and = y − 3 x to −2 − 8x = 0 .
dt dt 2 dt
13.7 Applications in Practical 8 There are many real-life problems which can lead to second order differential
Problems equations. Physical interpretation of the solution to these problems should also be
discussed. The following are some examples.
1. Oscillation
Teachers may discuss with students the phenomena of simple harmonic motion,
damped harmonic motion and forced oscillation. Teachers should guide students to
set up the relevant equations and interpret the solutions. In fact. teachers may relate
this topic with Unit 9 (Simple Harmonic Motion).
2. Mechanical problem
Many examples in mechanics may lead to a second order differential equation. For
example, a body falls freely under a constant gravitational force and a resistance
proportional to its speed. Its equation of motion is
d2 x dx
m = mg − k
dt 2 dt
Again, students are expected to derive the equation and interpret the solution.
103
3. Pricing policy for the production of goods

The following shows one of the various models of a company’s pricing policy on the
goods produced.
dP
= −k ( L(t ) − L0 )
dt
dL
= Q( t ) − S ( t )
dt
dP
S(t ) = 500 − 40P − 10
dt
Q(t ) = 250 − 5P
where P(t) = price of goods
S(t) = forecasting sales
Q(t) = production level
L(t) = inventory level
L0 = optimum level
k = positive constant
By differentiation, students should have no difficulty to get

d2P dL
= −k = − k ( Q( t ) − S ( t ) )
dt 2 dt
dP
= −k ( −250 + 35P + 10 )
dt
d2P dP
or 2
+ 10k + 35kP = 250k
dt dt
4. Population growths of 2 countries

Two countries A and B have the same natural growth rate of λ% per annum. The
emigration rate of A to B is a% per annum while that of B to A is b% per annum.
Suppose the initial populations of A and B are N1 and N2 respectively. Then their
populations after t years (denoted by x(t) and y(t) respectively) are given by
dx λx ax by dy λy by ax
= − + and = − + which can be easily reduced
dt 100 100 100 dt 100 100 100
to a second order differential equation.
104
5. Electric circuit
If students have learnt the concepts of inductance and capacitance (say in the
A-level Physics), examples of electric circuits may be introduced for their interest.
d2A dA 1
One of the possible equations is L +R + A = E0 ω cos ωt when R, C and L
dt 2 dt C
are connected in series.
17
UNIT 14: Interpolation and Lagrange Interpolating Polynomials
1. To learn the concept of interpolation.
2. To learn Lagrange Interpolating Polynomial.
3. To apply Lagrange Interpolating Polynomial to approximate functions, and estimate the errors.
14.1 Interpolation and 1 Students are expected to know the meaning of interpolation:
Interpolating Polynomials Interpolation involves estimating the values of a function f(x) for arguments between x0,
x1, ..., xn at which the values f(x0), f(x1), ..., f(xn) are known.
They are also expected to know that approximation by polynomial is one of the
most heavily used in numerical methods. A polynomial p(x) is used as a substitute for
the function f(x) because polynomials are easy to compute, only simple integral powers
105
being involved; their derivatives and integrals are found without much difficulty and are
themselves polynomials; roots of polynomial equations are also easy to locate.
14.2 Construction of Lagrange 3 As an introduction, teachers may demonstrate Lagrange Interpolating Polynomial
Interpolating Polynomials (L.I.P.), pn(x) for n = 1. A graph as shown below may be used to give students a physical
meaning.
Students should have no problem to see that they are just asked to approximate the
curve y = f ( x ) inbetween x0 and x1 by the polynomial p1( x ) = a1x + a0 .
Clearly, p1( x0 ) = f ( x0 ) , p1( x1) = f ( x1) and p1( x ) = a1x + a0 .
We have p1( x ) − a1x − a0 = 0

f ( x0 ) − a1x0 − a0 = 0
f ( x1) − a1x1 − a0 = 0 .
Eliminating a0 and a1, we get

x − x1 x − x0
p1( x ) = f ( x0 ) + f ( x1)
x0 − x1 x1 − x0
Similarly, teachers may proceed with the aid of a graph like that above to derive the
second-degree L.I.P. and obtain
p2 ( x ) = f ( x0 )
( x − x1 )( x − x2 ) + f ( x ) ( x − x0 ) ( x − x2 ) + f ( x ) ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 )
106
( 0 − x1 )( x0 − x2 )
x
0
( x1 − x0 ) ( x1 − x2 ) 2
( x2 − x0 ) ( x2 − x1 )
In a similar manner the third-degree polynomial can also be deduced. For students’
interest, the term ‘Lagrange Multiplier Function’ may be introduced.
Finally, teachers could help students to draw the conclusion that pn ( x ) , n = 1, 2, 3, is of

degree n and that pn ( xi ) = f ( xi ) at the n + 1 tabulated points xi The extension of this
fact to the general case is not a necessity.
14.3 Use of Lagrange 2 The use of L.I.P. should be demonstrated with examples.
Interpolating Polynomial
Example 1
Given the four values of an unknown function at 0, 1, 2, 4 as shown in the table.
xk 0 1 2 4
yk 1 1 2 5
1 ( 3
The L.I.P. of degree 3 is p3 ( x ) = − x + 9 x 2 − 8 x + 12 ) . Students may also be
12
required to evaluate some functional values for arguments lying between x = 0 and x = 4.
Example 2
Using the data in the table
v 10 15 22.5 33.75 50.625 75.937

y 0.300 0.675 1.519 3.417 7.689 17.300
students may be required to apply L.I.P. to find the value of p corresponding to v = 21

using various degrees of the L.I.P. chosen (p = 1.350 for n = 1 and p = 1.323 for n = 2).
From this example, students should be able to realize that using the same number of
different neighbouring points would yield different results.
107
For further illustration in class, common functions like sine and cosine functions are
worth demonstrating. Intermediate functional values estimated using L.I.P. could be
compared to actual values from a calculator. More interesting problems could be
obtained by selecting a given table of data relating to an economic trend or the
population of a country in a period and students are asked to estimate some missing
data.
14.4 Error Estimation of 3 At this stage, teachers should remind students that L.I.P. is only a method of polynomial
Interpolating Polynomial interpolation and that many other methods exist. For the abler students teachers may
discuss with them the uniqueness of the interpolating polynomial.
To begin error estimation, teachers may introduce the function

π( x ) = ( x − x0 ) ( x − x1 )( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 ) , which may be used to express the coefficients of
π ( xi )
f ( xi ) , i.e. in a given L.I.P., in a more compact form, as
( x − xi ) π′ ( xi )
n
pn ( x ) =
∑
i =0
f ( xi )
π( xi )
( x − xi )π′( xi )
, n = 1, 2, 3.
By defining the error e( x ) = f ( x ) − pn ( x ) = C π( x ) , where C is a constant, and

constructing the function F ( x ) = f ( x ) − pn ( x ) − C π( x ) and choosing x = x (where
x0 ≤ x ≤ xn and x ≠ xi , i = 0, 1, 2, 3), students could be led to apply Rolle’s theorem
repeatedly to arrive at
f ( n +1) (ξ)
e( x ) = π( x ) where ξ lies in the tabulated interval.
(n + 1)!
Students should then realize that if f ( n +1) (ξ) has an upperbound for ξ in the interval
containing the tabulated points, say M = max f ( n +1) (ξ) , then the absolute error is given
108
π( x )
by e( x ) ≤ M .
(n + 1)!
Examples should be provided for illustration. The following is one such example.
Example
πx
Given the function f ( x ) = sin takes the following values in the table
2
xk 0 1 2
yk 0 1 0
π3
students may be required to show that e( x ) ≤ x ( x − 1)( x − 2) and then to compute
8
this estimate at x = 0.5 and compare it with the actual error.
9
UNIT 15: Approximation
1. To learn the idea of approximation and the treatment of error.
2. To learn Taylor's series expansion.
3. To apply Taylor’s series expansion to approximate functions and estimate the resulting errors.
15.1 Treatment of Errors: their 6 Analysis of the error in a numerical result is basic to any computation, whether done
Estimation and Algebraic manually, with a calculator or a computer. Input values are seldom exact since they are
Manipulation often based on experiments or estimates, and the numerical processes themselves
introduce errors of various types. In order to know how well the numerical results are,
students are expected to be able to carry out simple error analysis in a calculation.
109
(a) Three basic types of Students are expected to know that there are three basic types of errors in a
errors numerical computation: inherent error, truncation error and round-off error.
(i) Inherent error Inherent errors are errors in the values of data caused by uncertainty in
measurement or by the necessarily approximating nature of representing in some finite
number of digits a number that cannot be represented exactly in the number of digits
available.
(ii) Truncation error Truncation errors and round-off errors both refer to errors that are introduced by
numerical procedures when the data are operated upon. The error introduced by
truncating an infinite mathematical process is called truncation error. In numerical
methods in this course, many of the procedures studied are infinite (in the sense that to
obtain an exact solution would require an infinite number of iterations), so the subject of
truncation error assumes major importance.
(iii) Round-off error When a calculator or computer is used to perform real number calculations,
round-off error occurs. This arises because the arithmetic performed in a machine
involves numbers with only a finite number of digits, with the result that many
calculations are performed with approximate representation of the actual numbers.
To illustrate the idea of rounding, teachers can use decimal machine numbers,
represented in the normalized form
±0.d1d 2d3 … dk × 10n , 1 ≤ d1 ≤ 9 , 0 ≤ d i ≤ 9
for i = 2, 3, 4, ……, k. The idea of rounding up and rounding down should also be
clearly explained.
(b) Absolute and relative It is preferable at this stage to revise with students the concept of absolute and
error relative error, which they have learned in S.3. Teachers should point out that each of the
three types of errors in (a) can be expressed in absolute or relative form.
(c) Estimation of errors A physical measurement may be given to a number of digits with the limits on
inherent errors given such as in 2.3 ± 0.1 cm or 2.3 cm (2 sig. fig.) or without any
qualification on the significance of the digits such as in 2.3 cm. In the latter case, it is
often assumed that it is accurate to within half a unit in the last place i.e. 0.05 cm.
As regards truncation errors, teachers should introduce them in the context of the
110
procedures studied in the relevant sections of this unit.

It is useful for teachers to guide students to derive a bound for the relative error
using k-digit rounding arithmetic which is 0.5 × 10− k +1 .
(d) Combining errors The major concern here is the question of how an error at one point propagates,
that is, whether its effect becomes greater or smaller as subsequent operations are
carried out. Students are expected to be familiar with the following facts.
1. Addition and subtraction
If S = a + b then max ∆S = ∆a + ∆b .
If K = a − b then max ∆K = ∆a + ∆b .
2. Multiplication and division

∆P ∆a ∆b
If P = ab then max = + .
P a a
a ∆Q ∆a ∆b
If Q = then max = + .
b Q a a
3. Exponentiation
∆F ∆a
=k
k
If F = a then max . The following examples are relevant.
F a
Example 1
Two masses are measured to be (100.0 ± 0.4) g and (94.0 ± 0.3) g. Calculate the
maximum absolute error in the sum and difference in the masses.
Example 2
The time period T of a simple pendulum is given by T = 2π , where is the length of

g
the pendulum and g is the acceleration of free fall due to gravity. A pendulum of length
0.600 m is used to determine the value of g. The value of T was found to be 1.55 s.
Calculate the maximum percentage error in g.
111
15.2 Approximation of 6
Functional Values using
Taylor’s Expansion
(a) Taylor’s series Students may be motivated to find a polynomial p(x) which has, for a single
expansion of a function argument x0, the values of the polynomial and its derivatives matching those of a function
f(x)
i.e. p( i ) ( x0 ) = f ( i ) ( x0 ) , i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n.
By writing p( x ) = a0 + a1( x − x0 ) + a2 ( x − x0 )2 + …… + an ( x − x0 )n teachers may

guide students to arrive at the Taylor’s series expansion of f(x),
n
p( x ) =
∑i =0
f ( i ) ( x0 )
i!
( x − x0 )i . This idea may then be extended to the representation of a
function by an infinite Taylor’s series

( x − x0 ) (2) ( x − x0 )2 ( x − x0 )n
f ( x ) = f ( x0 ) + f (1) ( x0 ) + f ( x0 ) + …… + f ( n ) ( x0 ) + ……
1! 2! n!
The following may then be taken as examples for illustration.

x3 x5 x7 x9
sin x = x − + − + − ……
3! 5! 7! 9!
x2 x 4 x6 x8
cos x = 1 − + − + − ……
2! 4! 6! 8!
x x2 x3 x 4
ex = 1+ + + + + ……
1! 2! 3! 4!
At this stage it is worthwhile to mention Macclaurin series as a special case of

Taylor’s series. For the abler students, teachers may discuss with them the region of
convergence for a Taylor's series as follows.
Taking x0 = 1 in the expansion of In x, students should get
112
( x − 1)2 ( x − 1)3 ( x − 1)4

ln x = ( x − 1) − + − + ……
2 3 4
Putting x = 1 and 2, they would get easily that

1 1 1 1
In 1 = 0 and ln 2 = 1 − + − + − ……
2 3 4 5
Then teachers may ask them to substitute x = 0 and 3 into the expansion and then lead
them to discover that they are not convergent.
Afterwards, students may be asked to evaluate some functions at some arguments
within the region of convergence. It is preferable to ask students to expand a function in
Taylor’s series up to the fourth derivative only and do the evaluation correspondingly.
Functions such as y = (1 + x )2 ln(1 + x ) are typical examples.
(b) Error estimation Students are expected to recall the term truncation error as occurs in approximating
a function using Lagrange Interpolating Polynomial. The remainder, Rn in Lagrangian
form, could be shown or derived (for abler students only) to be
( x − x0 )n
Rn = f ( n ) (ε ) where ε lies between x0 and x.
n!
Students should have no difficulty in seeing that the maximum error by truncating a
series is given by
( x − x0 )n
Rn ≤ M
n!
where M = max f ( n ) (ε) for every ε between x0 and x.
Given this error term, students may be asked to do examples like estimating the
maximum error committed if 3 terms in the series expansion of
x2 x4 x6
cos x = 1 − + − + ……
2! 4! 6!
π
are used to evaluate cos , and finding the number of terms of the Taylor’s series
3
expansion of
x x2 x3 x 4
ex = 1+ + + + + ……
113
1! 2! 3! 4!
to evaluate e so that the maximum error is less than 0.0001.
12
UNIT 16: Numerical Integration
1. To learn Trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule.
2. To apply Trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule in numerical integration and estimate their errors.
16.1 Numerical Integration 1 The importance of numerical integration may be appreciated by noting how
frequently the formulation of problems in applied mathematics involves derivatives. It is
then natural to anticipate that the solutions of such problems will involve integrals.
Students are expected to know that for most integrals no representation in terms of
elementary functions is possible, and approximate integration becomes necessary. For
∫ ∫
sin x
e − x dx are difficult to find analytically.
2
example, the integrals dx and
x
Students should be taught that polynomial approximation like the Lagrange

114
Interpolating Polynomial method serves as the basis for the two integration formulae,
namely Trapezoidal rule and Simpson's rule, studied in this course, the main idea being
that if p( x ) is an approximation to f ( x ) , then
b b
∫ a
p( x ) dx ≈
∫
a
f ( x ) dx
16.2 Trapezoidal Rule 6 One way of motivating students to the learning of Trapezoidal rule is by appealing to
(a) Derivation of the the geometry of the rule, which uses a series of trapezoids to approximate the area in
trapezoidal rule question. A known definite integral such as
2
∫1
x 2 dx
can be used to demonstrate that the rule works well providing good accuracy if the
number of trapezoids is sufficient. It is easy for students to derive the Trapezoidal rule for
b
the integral
∫ a
f ( x ) dx with n trapezoids to be

b
∫
w
f ( x ) dx ≈
f ( x0 ) + 2f ( x1) + 2f ( x2 ) + …… + 2f ( xn −1) + f ( xn )
a 2
 n −1 
w
=  f ( x0 ) + 2
2
 k =1
∑
f ( xk ) + f ( x n )


b−a
where x0 = a , xn = b and w = .
n
Alternatively, the derivation may be done by linear interpolation in each interval. For
example, in the subinterval [x0, x1].
x1 x1
∫x0
f ( x ) dx ≈
∫ x0
p( x ) dx
x1
 
∫
 x − x1   x − x0
=  f ( x0 )   + f ( x1)    dx
x0   x0 − x1   x1 − x0  
w
= f ( x0 ) + f ( x1) where w = x1 − x0
115
2
By summing the area in all the subintervals, students could obtain the same formula
for Trapezoidal rule as before.
(b) Estimation of the error It is interesting to note what kind of accuracy may be expected for a given function.
Teachers may guide students to derive the maximum error as follows.
Consider the ith trapezoid of a trapezoidal integration, which lies between xi −1 and
b−a
xi , two points at a distance w = apart. Assume F ( x ) is the primitive function of
n
f ( x ) . Then, teachers may ask students to give the exact value of the integral
xi
∫
 w 
f ( x ) dx ( = F ( xi ) − F ( xi −1) ) and the calculated value  = f ( xi −1) + f ( xi )  .
xi −1  2 
Defining the error on this trapezoid as
w
Ei = f ( xi −1) + f ( xi ) − F ( xi ) − F ( xi −1)
2
and using Taylor's series expansion of f ( xi −1) and F ( xi −1) about xi students could
be guided to discover
w3
Ei ≈ f ′′(εi )
2
By summing the errors in all the subintervals, students should be able to obtain the total
error as
w2
Maximum total error = ET = (b − a ) M where M = max f ′′(ε) for ε in the range
12
of integration.
(c) Application of Applications should be stressed. Common examples including computation of area,
trapezoidal rule work done by variable force and distance covered by a particle with given velocity, can be
given to students for illustration. The following are some of them.
Example 1
116
A curve is given by the points tabulated in the table. (t is the time travelled and v is the
speed.) Students may be required to calculate the distance covered between t = 0 and
t = 4.0.
t (hours) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
-1
v (kmh ) 23 20 15 11 12.5 15 18 20 22
Example 2
Use the trapezoidal rule with four equally spaced ordinates to estimate the value of
1
∫ 0
e x
dx to 3 significant figures.
Example 3
How small an interval w would be required to obtain In 2 correct to 4 decimal places?
Example 4
2
∫
1
Evaluate the integral dx using Trapezoidal rule with an accuracy of 0.001
1 1 + x2
and check the answer against the true value.
16.3 Simpson's Rule 6 The derivation can be done using the second-degree L.I.P., but the geometrical
(a) Derivation of Simpson’s meaning must be emphasized. Students should be able to realize that approximation by
rule a series of parabolic segments would, in general, more closely match a given curve
y = f (x) than would the straight lines in the Trapezoidal method.
Students may be guided to derive Simpson’s rule with 2n strips as

117
 n n −1 
∑ ∑
b
∫
w
f ( x ) dx ≈  f ( x 0 ) + 4 f ( x2k −1) + 2 f ( x 2k ) + f ( x2 n ) 
3 
a
 k =1 k =1 
b−a
where x0 = a , xn = b and w = .
n
Teachers should also remind students that the number of subintervals (or strips)
used in Simpson’s rule must be even, but there is no such restriction in Trapezoidal rule.
(b) Estimation of the error In a similar way to Trapezoidal rule, the truncation error of Simpson’s rule may also
be derived using Taylor’s series expansion of f ( x ) and the usual assumptions being
made as before. It is not too difficult though a bit more tedious for students themselves,
with some guidance from teachers, to arrive at the maximum total error term
w4 b−a
ET = (b − a ) M where w = and M = max f (4) (ε ) for ε in the range of
180 2n
integration.
(c) Application of Basically, the kinds of problems resemble those of Trapezoidal rule. Here the emphasis,
Simpson’s rule apart from the application of the technique itself, should be placed on the comparison of
the degree of accuracy between the two formulae. Two examples follow.
Example 1
π
∫
6
Evaluate the integral ln(cos x ) dx by Simpson’s rule. Find the least number of strips
0
required so that the error is less than 10− in magnitude.
6
Example 2
2
∫
1
Find the value of the integral dx using both Trapezoidal and Simpson’s rule
1+ x2
1
with 6 strips. Compare their accuracy with the standard result.
13
118
UNIT 17: Numerical Solution of Equations
1. To learn fixed point iteration method, Newton’s method, Secant method and method of false position.
2. To acquire the skill in using the relevant methods to find approximate roots of equations, and compute the errors of the roots.
In scientific and engineering work, a frequently occurring problem is to find the roots
of equations of the form f ( x ) = 0 . For quadratic, cubic or quartic equations, exact
solutions are readily obtained using algebraic methods. However, when f ( x ) is a
polynomial of higher degree than four or a transcendental function such as
e x − 4 cos x , algebraic methods are not easily available. It is natural to find the solution
by approximate methods.
17.1 Method of Fixed-point 7 Students should be taught that the method consists of several steps.
119
Iteration 1. Rearranging the equation f ( x ) = 0 in the form x = g ( x ) , where g ( x ) is called

(a) Algorithm of the method the iteration function.
2. Making an initial guess x0 by basing on a sketch of the appropriate graph(s)
where necessary.
3. Obtaining a sequence of x0 , x1, x2 , ……, xn ,……, α by substituting in the
equation as follows.
x1 = g ( x0 )
x2 = g ( x1)
x3 = g ( x 2 )
xi = g ( xi −1)
xi +1 = g ( xi )
It is hoped that a fixed point a is obtained such that α = g (α ) .

4. An approximate root of f ( x ) = 0 is the fixed point α.
Teachers may demonstrate the method using some examples of equations with
suitable initial guesses and iteration functions that converge.
The geometry of the method should be discussed.
(b) The condition of x2 + 4

Using an example like x 2 − 5 x + 4 = 0 and an iteration function g ( x ) =
,
120
convergence 5
teachers may ask students to find the roots using initial guesses x0 = 2 and 5
respectively. Students would find that for x0 = 2 , they get the root near 1 but for
x0 = 5 , the procedure diverges. The discussion of convergence then becomes natural.
It is worthwhile to geometrically discuss monotonic and oscillating convergence and
divergence. Mathematical treatment of monotonic and oscillating convergence as well
as divergence should be briefly mentioned.
To discuss convergence mathematically, the use of mean value theorem is essential. It
is advantageous for students to know that for the fixed-point iteration algorithm to be
useful the following are usually needed.
1. There is an interval I = [a, b] such that for all x in I, g ( x ) is defined and g ( x ) in I.
2. The iteration function g ( x ) is continuous on I.
3. The iteration function is differentiable on I and for all x in I, there exists a real number
K such that g ′( x ) ≤ K < 1 .
Exercises on proofs like the following can be given.
Example
It is given that x = g ( x ) has exactly one root α in [a, b], and that g ′( x ) ≤ K for any x
in [a, b]. Suppose further that xn +1 = g ( xn ) where a ≤ xn ≤ b , n = 1, 2, 3, ....
Students may be required to show that xn +1 − α ≤ K n +1 x0 − α and deduce that, if K <
1, then the sequence { xn } converges to α.

(c) Estimation of error Kn
The error of the n approximation xn , εn , where εn = xn − α ≤ x1 − x0
th
1− K
can be derived and discussed. It may be seen that the smaller the value of K, the faster
the rate of convergence. For abler students, teachers may discuss the order of
convergence using Taylor's series expansion of the error about the fixed point α
εn 2 ε 3
εn +1 = g ′(α )εn + g ′′(α )
+ g ′′′(α ) n +
2! 3!
121
Rigorous treatment, nonetheless, should not be attempted.
17.2 Newton’s Method 5

The algorithm may be derived geometrically.
(a) Algorithm of the method
Alternatively, it may also be derived using Taylor’s series expansion of f ( xn +1) about
x0 as
( xn +1 − xn )2
f ( xn +1) = f ( xn ) + f ′( xn )( xn +1 − xn ) + f ′′( xn ) +
2!
When xn +1 → α and xn +1 − xn → 0 , students should be able to arrive at

f ( xn )
xn +1 = xn −
f ′( xn )
It is necessary that students know that Newton’s method is a special case of the
fixed-point iteration.
(b) The condition of As such, the condition of convergence is the same as the general fixed-point
convergence and error iteration method. It is interesting to discuss the rate of convergence of Newton’s method
estimation as compared with that of the general method. Students could easily find that
f ( x )f ′′( x ) εn 2
g ′( x ) = and g′(α ) = 0 if α is a simple root, and that εn +1 ≈ g ′′(α ) .
[f ′( x )]2 2!
Examples in which Newton’s method excels others should be given. An example follows.
Example
122
The root in [0, 0.8] of the equation x 3 + 2 x − 1 = 0 is to be determined by an iteration

1
formula xn +1 = 1 − xn 3 .
2
( )
Students may be asked to find α with x0 = 0 and then required to do the same
using Newton’s method. Finally they may be required to account for the faster rate of
convergence of the latter over the former,
It is profitable for students to know that when α is a double root Newton’s method is
not that fast and it is preferable to discuss the pitfalls for the method as well in order to
make the study of Newton's method more complete.
(c) Application of Newton’s Problems on polynomial equations of degree higher than two and transcendental
method equations are relevant. For example, finding the root between x = 0 and x = 1 of the
equation 2 x 3 + x 2 − 20 x + 20 = 0 with an accuracy of 10− , and deriving Newton’s
6
xk − a
formula xn +1 = xn − for finding the kth root of a are common questions.
kxnk −1
17.3 Secant Method
The secant method is another method for finding the roots of f ( x ) = 0 . It often
converges almost as fast as Newton’s method, but avoids the need for calculating the
derivative f ′( x ) . Instead of using a tangent line, a secant line is used.
(a) Derivation of the secant The derivation of the algorithm can be easily done by appealing to the geometry of
method the method in a similar way to that of Newton’s method.
123
xn − xn −1
The analogous formula is xn +1 = xn − f ( xn ) with the slope of the
f ( xn ) − f ( xn −1)
f ( xn ) − f ( xn −1)
secant replacing the slope of the tangent, f ′( x ) .
xn − xn −1
Students should be able to see that the secant method requires two initial guesses
at which the functional values need not be of different signs.
In-depth treatment of rate of convergence and error estimation is not needed, When
such is required for calculation, the relevant formulae will be given in the questions.
(b) Application of the secant

method Exercises are similar to those for Newton’s method.
17.4 Method of False Position 2 This is still another method for finding a root of the equation f ( x ) = 0 lying in the
interval [a, b]. The method is similar to the Bisection method (which students have
learned in S.5) in that intervals [an, bn] are generated to bracket the root, and the method
is also similar to the Secant method in the manner of obtaining new approximate
iterates. The method is also named Regula Falsi.
(a) Derivation of the method Assuming that the interval [an, bn] contains a root of f(x) = 0 and with the help of a
of false position diagram like the following
124
teachers can guide students to compute the value of the x-intercept of the line joining the
points ( an , f (an ) ) and ( bn , f ( bn ) ) . This point labelled xn +1 will be found to be
f (an )(bn − an ) f (bn )(bn − an )
xn +1 = an − or xn +1 = bn − . Students should find it easy to
f (bn ) − f (an ) f (bn ) − f (an )
complete the algorithm by defining an +1 = an and bn +1 = xn +1 if f ( xn +1)f (an ) < 0 and
defining an +1 = xn +1 and bn +1 = bn if f ( xn +1)f (an ) > 0 .
(b) Application of the Students should be reminded that two initial guesses are required by the method
method of false position and that the functional values at these initial guesses must be of different signs for the
method to be applicable. Exercises similar to those for Newton’s method and Secant
method are appropriate. Following are some examples.
Example 1
Show that the equation x 3 + 3 x − 12 = 0 has exactly one root in the interval [1, 2] and
find this root by the method of false position correct to 3 decimal places.
Example 2
The method of false position is used to find the root of x 3 = 2 x + 5 in the interval [2, 3].
Show that the sequence of iterates { xi } is given by
16 xi − 48
xi +1 = 3 − i = 1, 2, 3, ……
x i 3 − 2 x i − 21
125
Hence find the root correct to 4 significant figures.
As in the case of Secant method, detailed treatment of convergence and error

estimation is not recommended.
16
UNIT 18: Introductory Probability Theory
1. To know the use and the importance .of probability in daily life.
2. To learn the basic laws of probability and their applications in real-life problems.
Students may have learnt some of the concepts in this sub-topic. However, since
these concepts are essential for the study of this topic area, a brief discussion is
worthwhile to recall and consolidate what they have learnt.
18.1 Basic Definitions 3 Students should be familiar with the meaning of sample space and event. Sample
Sample points, sample points may be new to some students. Examples such as throwing of coins should be
discussed and teachers are advised to emphasize to students that sample space in an
space, equiprobable space,
experiment is not unique. For example, the two possible sample spaces in a throw of 3
probability of events
126
coins are {(H, H, H), (H, H, T), (H, T, H), (H, T, T), (T, H, H). (T, H, T), (T, T, H), (T, T, T)}
and {no head, 1 head, 2 heads, 3 heads}
Teachers should remind students of the meaning of equiprobable space. In the

previous example, the former sample space is equiprobable while the latter is not. The
following example may also be used for illustration.
Example
A man who goes to work every day mayor may not be killed in a traffic accident.
However, the probability that he will be killed in a traffic accident when he is going to
1
work one day is not equal to because the two outcomes ('killed' and 'not killed') are
2
not equally likely to happen.
Once the concept is clarified, students can be led to recall the definition of
probability:
n( E )
P (E ) = where E is the event, S is the equiprobable sample space
n(S )
Teachers should emphasize that 0 ≤ P (E ) ≤ 1 . The cases of certainty ( P (E ) = 1 )
and impossibility ( P (E ) = 0 ) should also be discussed.
18.2 Ways of Counting 5 To facilitate the finding of the number of outcomes, different ways of counting
should be introduced. One of the ways of counting is the Multiplication Principle as
shown below.
n1 elements a1, a2 , ……, an1

n2 elements b1, b2 , ……, bn2
nr elements x1, x2 , ……, xnr
It is possible to form n1, n2 , ……, nr ordered r tuples ( a j1 , ……, x jr ) containing one

element of each kind.
Example
127
Suppose that the students of a certain school are classified according to sex, age and
the house to which they belong. If there are 4 houses, 5 age groups, then there are 2 × 4
× 5 = 40 groups in all.
Other ways of counting include Permutation and Combination and their related formulae
such as
n! n!
Prn = , Crn =
( n − r )! (n − r )! r !
Crn = Cnn−r and Crn + Crn+1 = Crn++11
should be clearly taught. Emphasis should be laid on the difference between
Permutation and Combination. Examples such as finding the probability that each of n
cells will be occupied when n balls are randomly placed in them, and the probabilities of
winning different prizes in Mark Six will help students to consolidate the idea of the ways
of counting.
Students are only required to master the basic techniques of using permutations
and combinations to solve simple problems. It is not worthwhile for the teachers to put
too much effort on this topic.
For the abler students, teachers may discuss with them the following general
formula.
Among n elements, of which p1 elements (type 1) are similar, p2 elements (type 2)
are similar, …… pk elements are similar (type k), they can be arranged (orderly) in
n!
ways.
p1 ! p2 !… pk !
Other applications, such as ‘simple hypergeometric probabilities’ may also be

discussed, but knowledge of the term is not necessary. Daily life examples such as
Quality Inspection problem and Estimation of number of fish in a pond could be
discussed. The following are two examples.
Example 1
In a shipment of n video tape recorders containing r defective items, a sample of p items
are chosen at random without replacement for inspection (r < n and p < n). Students are
required to calculate the probability that there are exactly q defective recorders if q < r
128
and q < p.
Students may be asked to calculate the probability that at least 2 defective video tape
recorders are found if n = 80, r = 10, p = 15.
Example 2
From an estimated population of N fish in a pond, a sample of r is caught, marked and
put back to the pond. After the population is thoroughly mixed, a second sample of r is
taken again.
It is not difficult to find the probability that there will be n marked fish in the second
sample. Also teachers can discuss with students how to find the most probable number
of fish in the pond.
18.3 Probability Laws 5 Students should have no difficultly to learn the definitions of mutually exclusive
Sum and product rules events and independent events. The corresponding sum and product rules i.e.
Mutually exclusive events P (E ∪ F ) = P (E ) + P (F ) and P (E ∩ F ) = P (E ) ⋅ P (F ) should be discussed. Typical
Independent events examples such as tossing coins, drawing balls and throwing dice can help students to
Conditional probability recall the above concepts.
Teachers should teach the meaning and notation of conditional probability through
examples.
Now, teachers should introduce to students the cases of dependent events and
events that are not mutually exclusive. The sum and product rules then respectively
become P ( A ∪ B ) = P ( A) + P (B ) − P ( A ∩ B ) and P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A) ⋅ P (B | A) .
The general formula for P (E1 ∩ E2 ∩ …… ∩ En ) may be discussed. Also it is

worthwhile to mention that two events A, B are independent if and only if
P ( A | B ) = P ( A) or P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A) ⋅ P (B ) .
In handling problems of which the outcomes can occur in a finite number of ways,
tree diagram is an efficient way to enumerate all the possible outcomes. Appropriate
examples should be chosen to demonstrate the use of the rules. The following are some
possible examples:
Example 1
A bag A contains 4 red and 6 black balls, and a bag B contains 6 red and 4 black balls. A
ball (first ball) is drawn at random from A and placed In B. After mixing, a ball (second
129
ball) is drawn at random from B and placed in A. Finally, a ball (third ball) is drawn from
A.
In this example, teachers may ask students to find the probability that ith ball is red (i =
1,2,3). Students may be reminded that all the possible outcomes can be represented
graphically using a tree diagram.
Example 2
John is available to meet his friend at home during the weekend (Friday to Sunday).
1
Given that the probability Mary goes to visit John on Friday is . On each of the other
q
1
two days, the probability that she goes, given that she has gone the previous day, is
m
1
and the probability that she goes, given that she has not gone the previous day, is .
n
The possible questions in this example include finding the probability that Mary goes on
Sunday, and finding P (B | A) and P (B | A ) where A denotes the event that Mary goes
on Friday while B the event that she goes on Sunday. Teachers can lead students to
draw the tree diagram which will definitely help students to exhaust all the possible
cases and to solve the problem.
18.4 Bayes’ Theorem 4 After the students are acquainted with the conditional probability, teachers can go
further to Bayes’ Theorem which is stated as follows:
Let the sample space Ω be partitioned by mutually exclusive events A1, A2 , ……, An
Let B be another event so that P (B ) ≠ 0 .
P( Aj ∩ B) P (B | A j )P ( A j )
P( Aj B) = = n
∑
P (B )
P (B | Ai )P ( Ai )
i =1
As students are not expected to derive the theorem, teachers may use numerical
examples to explain the meaning of each term in this theorem. In most of the problems
involving Bayes’ theorem, tree diagram is a commonly used technique to help students
to solve the problems. The following is one of the possible examples.
Example
130
Three urns contain respectively 6 black and 9 white balls, 12 black and 3 white balls, 8
black and 7 white balls. One urn is chosen at random and a ball is drawn from it.
Teachers may ask students to draw the tree diagram and discuss with them how
P(black) can be obtained. Then, students should have no difficulty to get the value of
P(ball came from second urn | black).
18.5 Recurrence Relation Teachers should help students to identify the sort of situation where the probability
of the nth event depends on the result of the previous event(s). Students are expected to
form an equation relating them. The following examples may be useful in explaining the
concept of recurrent situations.
Example 1
There are two new brands of soft drink to be introduced on the market. In consideration
of the different ways of packing, there is a probability of 0.55 that a girl will choose Brand
X and a probability of 0.45 that she will choose Brand Y. It is assumed that she drinks
one and only one of the two brands of soft drink each day. If the last brand she chose
was X, there is a probability of 0.6 of choosing Brand X on the subsequent day and a
probability of 0.4 of choosing Brand Y. On the other hand, if she last drank Y, she will
choose X with a probability of 0.3 and Y with a probability of 0.7.
In this example, a tree diagram can be used to show the relationship between
Pn −1 , 1 − Pn −1 , Pn and 1 − Pn where Pn denotes the probability that she buys X on
the nth occasion. From the tree diagram, it is easy to express Pn in terms of Pn −1 .
Most of the students should be able to express Pn in terms of P1 and n. Students may
be interested to know that the ultimate share of market of brand X is actually lim Pn .
n →∞
Example 2
From a bag containing 4 white balls and 9 black balls, one ball is drawn and replaced,
this operation being performed n times. On is the probability that no two consecutive
draws produce two black balls. Teachers can show to the students the way to obtain a
relation between Qn , Qn −1 and Qn −2 ( n ≥ 3 ). They may also ask students to write
131
down Q1 , Q2 and Q3 and hence calculate Q4 , Q5 .......

Markov Chain and difference equations are not expected.
19
UNIT 19: Basic Statistical Measures
1. To revise the basic concepts of mean, median, mode, standard deviation and variance .

19.1 Basic Knowledge 3 Teachers should revise with students the concepts of grouped and ungrouped data,
organisation of data, presentation of data, measures of central tendency (mean, median
and mode) and measures of dispersion (range, interquartile range, standard deviation,
variance etc). In particular, calculation of mean and standard deviation (or variance)
requires a more detailed elaboration.
19.2 Calculation of Mean 1 At this stage, students are expected to use the formulae
∑x
x= (for ungrouped data) .
n
132
∑ fx
and x = (for grouped data)
n
to deal with some harder problems.

Example 1
A set of m numbers has a mean of µ1. Another set of n numbers has a mean of µ2.
Students are expected to find the mean for the combined set of m + n numbers.
Example 2
Let x be the mean of a set of n numbers. If each number xi (i = 1, 2, 3, … , n) is
transformed to y i = axi + b . Students are expected to find the mean y of the
transformed values.
2
19.3 Calculation of Standard 4 From the basic relation that variance = (standard deviation) , students could focus
Deviation and Variance their attention to the techniques in manipulating the variance. The formulae
∑( x − x )2 ∑ x 2
s2 = = − x2 (for ungrouped data)
n n
∑ f ( x − x )2 ∑ fx 2
and s 2 = = − x2 (for grouped data)
n n
should be explained clearly and students are also expected to make use of them in
solving problems.
Example 1
The heights of 22 boys in a class have a mean of 170 cm and a standard deviation of 10
cm. The heights of 18 girls in the same class have a mean of 160 cm and a standard
deviation of 8 cm. Students are expected to calculate the mean height and the standard
deviation of the whole class.
Example 2
The scores x of 100 students in an examination have a mean of 4.6 and a standard
deviation of 0.5. The scores are to be scaled by the formula y = 10 x + 4 . Evaluate the
mean and the standard deviation of y.
8
133
UNIT 20: Random Variables. Discrete and Continuous Probability Distributions
1. To be able to find the expectations and variances of discrete and continuous probability distributions.
2. To learn Binomial and Normal distribution and their daily life applications.
3. To recognize the property of linear combination of independent normal variables.
20.1 Random Variables 6 A formal treatment of random variable is not expected. Instead, teachers can
(a) Discrete probability introduce its preliminary idea by using simple examples such as throwing of coins (for
functions discrete random variable) and life time of electric bulbs (for continuous random variable).
Discrete probability function f ( x ) can be introduced as f ( x ) = P ( X = x ) where X is a
discrete random variable and x is a fixed value of a random variable through familiar
examples such as throwing of 2 coins:
134
0.25 for x = 0

0.5 for x = 1
f (x) = 
0.25 for x = 2
0 otherwise
X (the number of heads obtained) is a discrete random variable which can take the
values 0, 1 or 2.
Emphasis should be laid on the conditions f ( x ) ≥ 0 and ∑ f ( x ) = 1
Teachers should remind students that capital letter X is usually reserved for random
variable and the lower case x for values the random variable can assume.
The following is another example of discrete random variable.
Example
X is the number of attempts required to get a ‘six’ in a throw of a die.
x −1
 1  5 
The discrete probability function f ( x ) is f ( x ) = P ( X = x ) =     . Clearly,
 6  6 
∞ 1
∑ f (x) =
∑ x =1
P( X = x ) =
1−
6
5
=1
Representing the discrete probability function graphically (in the form of bar chart or
histogram as shown below) certainly helps students to visualize the concept.
135
(b) Probability density At this stage, students should have a clear picture of the discrete probability
functions function. We can extend this idea to continuous random variable and introduce the
continuous probability density function (p.d.f.) f ( x ) . Students should note that
∞
f ( x ) ≥ 0 and
∫ −∞
f ( x ) dx = 1
Students are expected to know that a continuous random variable X can take any value
within a specified range and it is related to p.d.f. f ( x ) by
b
P (a ≤ x < b ) =
∫ a
f ( x ) dx
In fact, graphs of p.d.f. can be interpreted as frequency curves of continuous data in

statistics.
Also students should note that

P ( X = a ) = 0 and P (a ≤ X < b ) = P (a < X < b ) = P (a < X ≤ b ) = P (a ≤ X ≤ b )
The following are some examples.
Example 1 (rectangular distribution) The p.d.f. of X is defined as

k for 0 < x ≤ 4 k is a constant
f (x) = 
0 otherwise
∞
k can be determined from
∫ −∞
f ( x ) dx = 1 .
136
1 3 4
Also P ( −2 < X ≤ 1) =
∫ 0
f ( x ) dx and P ( X ≥ 3) = 1 −
∫ 0
f ( x ) dx =
∫
3
f ( x ) dx
Students may be asked to find M in terms of b if P(X ≤ M) = b. They should note that
when b = 0.5, M is the median.
Example 2 '
The scheduled time of arrival of a flight to a certain city is 8:00 a.m. However, the actual
time of arrival is (8 + X) am, where X is a random variable having the following p.d.f.:
 3(4 − x 2 )
 for − 2 < x < 2
f ( x ) =  32
0
 elsewhere
Possible questions include finding the probability that a flight will be between 7:00 a.m.
and 8:00 a.m. and between 9:00 a.m. and 10:00 a.m.
It is worthwhile to spare some time to discuss with students the meaning of the term
cumulative distribution function φ(t ) .
φ(t ) =
∑ x ≤t
f (x) in discrete case
t
and φ(t ) =
∫ −∞
f ( x ) dx in continuous case
Examples such as the two shown below may be used to illustrate these two cases.
1. Discrete
In a throw of 2 dice, the probability of getting a sum greater than 10 is 1 − φ(10) .
( φ(10) is the probability that the sum is equal to or smaller than 10.)
2. Continuous
If φ(a ) denotes the probability that the life time of an electric bulb is smaller than a,
then P ( X < a ) = φ(a ) , P (a < X < b ) = φ(b ) − φ(a ) and P ( X > a ) = 1 − φ(a ) .
20.2 Expectations and 5 A brief revision on the meaning and physical significance of mean and standard
Variances deviation will facilitate students’ learning the concepts of expectation. The meaning of
expectation can be introduced through simple example such as that shown below.
137
Example
A man has a probability p = 0.01 of winning a prize x = $200. We say that his chance is
worth px = ($200)⋅(0.01) = $2. Then the teacher can extend this idea to n discrete values
of X.
Teachers should define the expectation of a discrete random variable ( E ( X ) = ∑ px )

∞
and that of a continuous random variable ( E ( X ) =
∫ −∞
xf ( x ) dx ).
Teachers may also discuss with students the definition of expectation of a function of X.
The following shows the two definitions.
E [ g ( x )] = ∑ pg ( x ) discrete random variable
∞
E [ g ( x )] =
∫
−∞
f ( x )g ( x ) dx continuous random variable .
In the case of discrete random variables, students are expected to know the
meanings of E ( X ) (= µ) and E ( X − µ )2  (= Var(X) = σ ). In particular, teachers
2
should indicate that µ is a measure of central tendency while σ is a measure of

2
dispersion of X about µ.
Interesting examples can be discussed.
Example
The probability of a candidate passing an examination at anyone attempt is 0.4. If he
fails, he carries on entering until he passes and each entry costs him $120. Teachers
may discuss with students the expected cost of his passing the examination.
Calculations involving fair games, expected gain/loss are best illustrated by real-life
examples. The following are two of them.
Example 1
In an investment, a man can make a profit of $5 000 with a probability of 0.62 or a loss of
$8 000 with a probability of 0.38.
E(X) = µ and Var(X) = σ can be calculated from
2
µ = $(5 000) (0.62) + $(−8000) (0.38) = $60

σ = (5000 − 60) (0.62) + (−8000 - 60) (0.38)
2 2 2
µ is called the expected gain.

138
Example 2
A gambling machine has four windows and each of them displays one of the four
different colours: red, orange, yellow and blue. Each of the colours is equally likely to be
displayed and the colour displayed by the machine on one window is independent of the
colour displayed on the other windows. A man pays $a for a game. He receives $5 if all
the colours displayed in the four windows are different. He receives $30 if all the colours
displayed are the same. In all other cases, he loses. $X is the net amount he received in
playing a game.
In this example, teachers can discuss the following with students.

1. When E ( X ) = 0 , the game is a fair game. What is the fair price (i.e. $a)?
2. Suppose a = 1, what are E ( X ) and Var(X)?
Most of the students should realize that E ( X ) < 0 in most of the gambling games.
Teachers may also ask students to work out the new µ and σ when all the money is
2
doubled and to find the relations between the new and old parameters. For abler
students, teachers may ask them to guess the value of E (Y ) where $Y is the net
amount the man receives if he plays the games twice.
In the case of continuous random variables, examples showing the steps in

calculating E ( X ) and Var(X) should be provided.
Example
Orange juice is delivered to a fast food shop every morning. The daily demand for
orange juice is a continuous random variable X distributed with a probability density
function f ( x ) of the form
ax (b − x ) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
f (x) = 
0 elsewhere
The mean daily demand is 0.625 units.

a and b can be calculated from the equation
∞ ∞
∫ −∞
f ( x ) dx = 1 and
∫
−∞
xf ( x ) dx = 0.625
The orange juice container at this fast food shop is filled to their total capacity of 0.8 units
139
every morning.
The probability P that in a given day, the fast food shop cannot meet the demand for
1
orange juice is given by P = 1 − φ(0.8) =
∫ 0.8
f ( x ) dx
For abler students, teachers may guide them to prove the two formulae
E [ag ( X ) + b ] = aE [ g ( X )] + b and Var(aX + b ) = a2 Var( X ) where a, b are constants.
Also, it is not difficult for an average student to show that
E [ g ( X ) + h( X )] = E [ g ( X )] + E [ h( X )]
and Var( X ) = E ( X 2 ) − [E ( X )] = E ( X 2 ) − µ2
2
The following example shows the use of the above formulae.
Example
Given Z = 2 X 2 − 3 X + 5 where X is a random variable with mean µ and variance σ .
2
E (Z ) = E (2 X − 3 X + 5) = E (2 X ) − E (3 X ) + E (5)
2 2
E(Z) can be obtained from
( )
= 2 µ2 + σ2 − 3µ + 5
20.3 Binomial Distribution 7 Teachers can introduce Bernoulli trials by using the familiar example of tossing a
(a) Bernoulli trials, Binomial fair coin. Teachers should emphasize that in a Bernoulli trial, there are only two possible
probability outcomes.
Repeated Bernoulli trials play an important role in probability and statistics especially
when the probabilities of the two possible outcomes are the same for each trial. Students
should know that the probability associated with r successes in the n trials is given by the
expression
P (r successes) = Crn pr q n −r
Teachers can easily quote numerous examples in our daily life to illustrate the Binomial
probability.
Example 1
A die is thrown n times. In order that the probability of getting at least one ‘six’ is greater
than 0.99, n should satisfy the following inequality:
n
5
1 −   > 0.99
140
6
Example 2
r balls are randomly distributed in n cells. Students may be asked to find the probability
Pk that a specified cell contains exactly k balls (k ≤ r). In this case, students are expected
1
to know that Pk = P(k successes in r Bernoulli trials) with p = .
n
(b) Binomial distribution At this stage, teachers may introduce that Binomial distribution can be considered
as a repeated Bernoulli trial with the same probability of success. Teachers may also
introduce the notation B (n, p) for the distribution.
Students are expected to know the formulae E(X) = np and Var (X) = npq for
Binomial distribution.
The probability graph of a Binomial distribution with different values of n and p can
be shown. Students should be able to see that when p = q = 0.5, the graph is symmetric.
For abler students, the mode of Binomial distribution can also be discussed.
Binomial probability distribution is useful in describing many real-life events. The

(c) Applications
following are three possible applications.
Example 1
A student sits for a test which contains only 4 multiple choice questions. With his
knowledge of the subject, he has a probability of 0.7 of knowing the correct answer of
each question. There are 5 options in each question, thus the student has the probability
0.2 of getting the correct answer in each question through guessing. He has attempted
all the questions.
The probability that the student knows the correct answers of 3 questions is
C34 (0.7)3 (0.3) .
Since the student can get the correct answer of a question simply by guessing, P(correct
answer for a question) = p can be calculated from the two cases (a) he knows the
question and (b) he guesses it correctly.
141
Suppose X is the number of correct answer(s) obtained, students may be asked to

calculate E(X) (= 4p), Var(X) (= 4p (1 − p)) and P (X = 1). ( = C14 p1(1 − p )3 ) The following
questions can also be raised.
1. 2 marks will be awarded for a correct answer and 1 mark will be deducted for a
wrong answer. Suppose Y is the total score obtained by the student, calculate E(Y)
and Var(Y).
2. Given that the student only knows the correct answers of 3 questions, what is the
probability that the student obtains full marks?
3. Given that the student only gets one correct answer, what is the probability that he
gets it through guessing?
Example 2
5% of light bulbs are defective. A large batch of light bulbs is tested according to the
following rules.
(a) A sample of 10 light bulbs is tested.
(i) If two or more light bulbs are defective, then the whole batch is rejected.
(ii) If there is no defective light bulb, the whole batch is accepted.
(iii) If there is only one defective light bulb, try rule (b).
(b) Another sample of 10 bulbs is tested. If there is no defective bulb, the whole batch is
accepted; otherwise it is rejected.
If X is the number of light bulbs examined, then it is not difficult to find P(X = 20) = 10
(0.95) (0.05) and P(X = 10) = 1 − 10 (0.95) (0.05). Students may be asked to find E(X)
9 9
and Var(X).
Example 3
10% of the items produced by a machine are defective. The items are packed in large
batches, and a batch is accepted if a sample of n items from it contains no defectives;
otherwise it is rejected.
142
The least value of n to ensure the probability that the batch will be rejected is at least
0.95 satisfies (0.9) < 1 − 0.95. If n = 10, then P (the batch being accepted) = (0.9) = P.
n 10
The chance that of 8 batches being inspected, 5 will be rejected = C38 p3 (1 − p )5 .
20.4 Normal Distribution 10 Normal distribution is a very important example of continuous probability
(a) Basic definitions distribution. The p.d.f. f ( x ) , i.e.
1  1  x − µ 2 
f (x) = exp  −   
σ 2π  2  σ  
should be introduced, but detailed explanation is unnecessary.
Students are expected to recognize that E ( X ) = µ and Var( X ) = σ2 , but the proof is
not necessary.
It is worthwhile for teachers to discuss with students why normal distribution is commonly
used in many subjects.
1. Easy to use.
2. Can be used as an approximation to other distributions.
Graphs with different µ and σ can be introduced. Students should realize that all the
graphs shown are bell-shaped and are symmetric about x = µ. The notation N(µ, σ )
2
which means a normal distribution with mean = µ and variance = σ may be introduced.
2
(b) Standard normal curve The normal distribution depends on µ and σ. Students should find that it is difficult to
and the use of normal tabulate the probability function of each normal distribution with a different set of
table parameters. Therefore, it is necessary to express the random variable in standard unit,
X −µ
using the transformation Z = . Students should have no difficulty in seeing that
σ
E(Z) = 0, Var(Z) = 1 and
 a−µ x −µ b−µ 
P (a < X < b ) = P  < < 
143
 σ σ σ 
= P ( z1 < Z < z2 )
The following figures can be used for illustration.
The two shaded parts have equal area.

In the following figure, the area of the shaded part is P (0 < Z < z1) .
This area, for different values of z1, is put into a table called normal distribution table (The
table only gives values up to z1 = 3.59). Adequate practice is necessary for ensuring that
students can use the table properly.
Example
144
X is N(8, 4)
 6−8 X −8 9−8 
P (6 < X < 9) = P  < < 
 2 2 2 
= P ( −1 < X < 0.5)
= P (0 < Z < 1) + P (0 < Z < 0.5)
P ( X > 9) = P (Z > 0.5) = 0.5 − P (0 < Z < 0.5)
In P(X < k) = 0.87, k can be obtained with greater accuracy if method of linear
interpolation is used.
Teachers can remind students that in solving many of the problems, they have to
make use of symmetry and laws of complementary probability. Moreover, for z1 involving
more than 3 significant figures, the method of linear interpolation should be used.
(c) Applications Standard normal distribution is essential in daily applications. Teachers should
provide adequate demonstration. Examples like the following may be used.
Example 1
A manufacturer uses a machine to produce resistors. He found that 10% of the resistors
are less than 95Ω and 20% of the resistors are above 110Ω. The distribution of the
resistances X is normal.
µ and σ can be calculated from the two equations
 95 − µ 
P ( X < 95) = P  Z <  = 0.1
 σ 
 110 − µ 
P ( X > 110) = P  Z >  = 0.2
 σ 
Example 2
Suppose X, the length of a rod, is a normally distributed random variable with mean µ
and variance 1. If X does not meet certain specifications, then the manufacturer will
suffer a loss. Specifically, the profit M (per rod) is the following function of X.
145
 3 if 8 ≤ X ≤ 10

M =  −1 if X < 8
−5 if X > 10

The expected profit, E(M), is given by E (M ) = 8φ(10 − µ ) − 4φ(8 − µ ) − 5 where
z
∫
1 − 21 t 2
φ( z ) = e dt is the cumulative probability function.
−∞ 2π
Suppose that the manufacturing process can be adjusted so that different values of µ
may be achieved. The value of µ corresponding to maximum profit can be determined by
differentiating E(M) with respect to µ.
Example 3
A factory produces soft drinks contained in bottles. The normal volume contained in a
bottle is 1.25 litres. However, due to random fluctations in the automatic bottling
machine, the actual volume per bottle varies according to a normal distribution. It is
observed that 15% of the bottles contain less than 1.25 litres whereas 10% contain more
than 1.30 litres.
Students should have no difficulty in finding the mean µ and standard deviation σ of the
volume distribution.
The cost in cents of producing a bottle containing x litres of soft drinks is

C = 36 + 62 x + 5 x 2 where x is the random variable having the above distribution.
The expected cost of a bottle = E(C) where E (C ) = 36 + 62µ + 5 µ2 + σ2 . ( )

The expected cost of 20 000 bottles is 20 000E(C).
(d) Binomial approximated to Students should be made clear that the binomial probability can be calculated by
normal distribution using normal approximation only when n is large. In this case, the mean and variance
can be taken as np and npq respectively. Students should also be reminded that ‘end
continuity corrections’ is required in this approximation.
Example
A coin is tossed 400 times.
146
If X represents the number of heads obtained, then X is B(400, 0.5). When it

approximates to N(200, 100),
 194.5 − 200 210.5 − 200 
P (195 ≤ X ≤ 210) = P  <Z< 
 10 10 
Students may be interested to know that P (195 ≤ X ≤ 210) ≠ P (195 < X < 210) .
20.5 Linear Combination of 6 Students should recognize that the sum of scalar multiples of independent normal
Independent Normal variables is also normal. From this, it is not hard to see that:
Variables
If X and Y are two independent normal variables such that X ~ N µ1, σ12 ( ) and
(
Y ~ N µ 2 , σ2 2
), then (
aX + bY ~ N aµ1 + bµ2 , a 2
σ12 + b σ2
2 2
) for any real
values a and b.
The above result can be extended easily to n independent normal variables. Teachers
should also quote examples to illustrate the usefulness of the above fact in daily-life
application.
Example 1
Cakes are sold in packets of 6. The mass of each cake is a normal variable with mean
25 g and standard deviation 2 g. The mass of the packing material is a normal variable
with mean 30 g and standard deviation 4 g. Find the distribution of the total mass of each
packet of cakes and hence find the probability that the total mass of a packet is less than
142 g.
Example 2
The thickness, A cm, of a paperback is normally distributed with mean 2 cm and
2
variance 0.63 cm . The thickness, B cm, of a hardback is normally distributed with mean
5 cm and variance 1.42 cm . The distribution of X = 2 A − B can be determined and
2
hence the probability that a randomly chosen paperback is less than half the thickness of
a randomly chosen hardback can be evaluated by using the standard normal distribution
table.
147
27
UNIT 21: Statistical Inference
1. To estimate a population mean from a random sample.
2. To recognize the confidence interval for the mean of a normal population with known variance.
3. To recognize hypothesis testing and Type I and Type II errors.
21.1 Basic Concept 4 Teachers should introduce the terms ‘population’, ‘sample’, ‘random sample’,
‘population parameter’ and ‘sample statistic’.
Example 1
The height of a particular species of plants follows a normal distribution with mean 20 cm
and standard deviation 8 cm. Students are expected to see that the sample mean of a
148
random sample of 10 plants is normally distributed with mean 20 cm and

8
standard deviation cm
10
Example 2
It is known that 3% of electric bulbs will be broken on delivery. If 1 000 electric bulbs
were sent out, find the probability that 5% or more will be broken.
In this example, teachers may guide students to consider the number of broken bulbs X
which is a binomial random variable, i.e.
X ~ B (1 000, 0.03)
It can be approximated by the normal distribution, i.e.
x ~ N ((0.03)(1 000), (1 000)(0.03)(0.97))
Students can easily see that the required probability is
P(X > 49.5)
X
Alternatively, teachers may make use of the concept of sample proportion Ps =
n
which can be approximated by
 pq 
Ps ~ N  P,  where q = 1 − p
 n 
In this case, the required probability is P ( Ps ≥ 0.0495 )
21.2 Estimate of a Population 5 It is worthwhile, at this stage, for teachers to introduce the concept of estimation of
Mean from a Random an unknown population parameter from a sample statistic. Examples like estimating a
Sample population mean µ by using a sample mean x can be used for illustration.
Teachers should indicate to students that there may be several sample statistics which
can be used as estimators. For examples, sample mean, median and mode could also
be used to estimate the population mean µ. In view of this, students are expected to
149
know that the best estimator b among the various sample statistics used to estimate the
population parameter β should
(1) be unbiased, i.e. E (b ) = β and
(2) has the smallest variance.
Example 1
Let X1, X2, X3 be random samples taken from a population with mean µ and variance σ .
2
X1 + X 2 + X 3
T1 =
3
X1 + 2 X 2
T2 =
3
X1 + 2 X 2 + 3 X 3
T3 =
3
are estimators of µ.
Students can easily reach the results that T1 and T2 are unbiased estimates of µ,
and T1 is the best estimator among T1, T2 and T3,
Example 2
Two random sample of sizes n and 3n are taken from normal populations with mean µ
and 3µ and variances σ and 3σ respectively. If X1 and X 2 are the sample means,
2 2
show that the estimator aX1 + bX 2 is an unbiased estimator for µ if a + 3b = 1 .
Students are expected to know that the sample mean x is the most efficient estimator
for the population mean, but a proof is not necessary.
Example 3
The following shows a random sample of size 7.
9.30, 9.61, 8.27, 8.90, 9.14, 9.90, 9.10
150
The most efficient estimate of the population mean is then given by
∑ x 9.30 + 9.61 + … + 9.10

= = 9.17 approximately
n 7
Example 4
Let p be the probability of obtaining a ‘6’ when a loaded die is rolled. John carried out an
experiment to find p by rolling the die 100 times and recorded 20 ‘6’s. Mary repeated the
same experiment 200 times independently and recorded 50 ‘6’s. Students are expected
to evaluate John’s and Mary’s estimate for p respectively by using the formula
E ( Ps ) = p
For abler students, teacher may guide them to improve the estimation by pooling the two
n1Ps1 + n2Ps2
estimates. (The pooled estimator for p is given by the formula pˆ = )
n1 + n2
21.3 Confidence Interval for the 6 In general, teachers should point out that an interval estimate of an unknown
Mean of a Normal population parameter (e.g. the mean µ) is a random interval constructed so that it has a
Population with Known given probability of including the parameter. Students should also be told that the most
Variance commonly used confidence intervals are the 95% confidence interval and the 99%
confidence interval.
Teachers should indicate to students how the confidence interval can be used to
estimate the mean of a normal population whose variance σ is known. Students should
2
realize that if the sample size is n, the sample mean X is normally distributed with
σ2 X −µ
mean µ and variance . Standardizing, Z = where Z ~ N(0, 1).
n σ
n
Students should know that the central 95% of N(0, 1) lies between ±1.96. Thus,
151
X −µ
P ( −1.96 ≤ ≤ 1.96) = 0.95
σ
n
σ σ
or P ( X − 1.96 ≤ µ ≤ X + 1.96 ) = 0.95
n n
 σ σ 
Thus, if x is a value of X , then  X − 1.96 , X + 1.96  is a 95% confidence
 n n
interval of µ.
Example 1
The masses of a random sample of 12 articles in grams are 200, 204, 196, 198, 210,
189, 197, 221, 205, 203, 196, 199. If this sample came from a normal population with
standard deviation 10 g, students should have no difficulty to obtain a 95% confidence
interval for the mean mass of the population.
Example 2
A machine produces 10 000 items, 300 of which are defective. To find a 95% confidence
interval for the probability p that an item is defective, teachers should guide students to
 300   9 700 
  
as an estimate of P and 
300 10 000   10 000  pq
take as an estimate of .
10 000 10 000 n
 pq 
By taking the approximated distribution Ps ~ N  P,  , students can solve the
 n 
problem in a similar way.
21.4 Hypothesis Testing 6 Teachers may introduce the concept of hypothesis testing by using real-life
examples such as deciding on the basis of sample data whether the true average lifetime
of a certain kind of electric light bulb is at least 2 000 hours etc. The terms ‘null
hypothesis’, ‘alternative hypothesis’ and ‘level of significance’ together with their
152
corresponding notations (i.e. H0, H1 and α) should be clearly explained with examples
provided for illustration. Students are also expected to recognize the terms ‘critical point’,
‘critical region’, ‘region of acceptance’ and ‘region of rejection’.
The following show some typical examples.
Example 1
The lengths of nails produced by a particular machine are normally distributed with
2
variance 0.26 mm . The machine had been set to produce nails with a mean length of 30
mm, but now there is some doubt about the nail length produced recently. A random
sample of 50 nails was found to have a mean length of 30.2 mm.
(a) Test at the 5% level of significance whether the mean length of 30 mm is accepted
or not.
(b) Test at the 5% level of significance whether the mean length of nails produced by
the machine is greater than 30 mm.
Teachers can discuss with students how to set the alternative hypothesis in (a) and
(b). This leads to the concept of two-tailed and one-tailed test:
(a) Two-tailed test

153
(b) One-tailed test

Example 2
The producer of a certain brand of canned dog food claims that 75% of puppies prefer
his brand. A random sample of 200 dogs was tested. 135 chose his brand. Test the
producer's claim at the 5% level.
In this example, it is important for teachers to point out that the percentage of puppies
can be regarded as the proportion of success, Ps, which has a distribution
 pq 
Ps ~ N  P,  approximately.
 n 
21.5 Type I and Type II Errors 6 When students are familiar with the concept of and procedures of hypothesis
testing, teachers may guide them to summarize the four possible conclusions of a test.
They are tabulated as follows:
Real Situations Test Results Remarks

154
1. H0 is true Accept H0 Correct decision
2. H0 is true Reject H0 A Type I error has been committed.
3. H0 is false Accept H0 A Type II error has been committed.

4. H0 is false Reject H0 Correct decision
It is obvious for students to notice that

P(Type I error) =. P(rejecting H0 | H0 is true)
and P(Type II error) = P(accepting H0 I H0 is false)
The following are some typical examples.
Example 1
A box is known to contain either (H0) 10 white balls and 90 black balls or (H1) 50 white
balls and 50 black balls. In order to test hypothesis H0 against hypothesis H1, four
counters are drawn at random from the box without replacement. If all four counters are
black, H0 is accepted. Otherwise, it will be rejected.
In this example, students should be able to find the probability of the Type I and Type 11
errors for this test by using the above relations.
Example 2
The ingredients for concrete are mixed together to obtain a mean breaking strength of 2
000 newtons. If the mean breaking strength drops below 1 800 newtons, then the
composition must be changed. The distribution of the breaking strength is normal with
standard deviation 200 newtons. Samples are taken in order to investigate the
hypothesis:
H0: µ = 2000 newtons

H1: µ = 1 800 newtons
How many samples must be tested so that
P(Type I error) = 0.05
155
and P(Type II error) = 0.1?
Example 3
The calibration of a scale is to be checked by weighing a 10 kg test specimen 25 times.
Suppose the results 6f different weightings are independent of one another and that the
weight on each trial is normally distributed with σ = 0.200 kg. Let µ denote the true weight
reading on the scale.
(a) What hypothesis should be tested?
(b) Suppose the scale is to be recalibrated if either x ≥ 10.1032 or x ≤ 9.8968 . What
is the probability that recalibration is carried out when it is actually unnecessary?
Which type of error would that be?
(c) What is the probability that recalibration is judged unnecessary when in fact µ =
10.1? When µ = 9.8? Which type of error are these?
27

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3.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

1.2 Vector Addition 3 Triangle law

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

(ii) Associative law: Associative law of addition

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

non-coplanar vectors in R , for scalars α, β and γ.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

The concept of direction cosines can be clearly illustrated by using a model of

Students are also expected to deduce the following relations.

cos2 α + cos 2 β + cos2 γ = 1

1.6 Position Vectors and 2

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

1.7 Scalar Product 2

(c) Scalar product in

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

Teachers should provide students with examples involving application of scalar

Simple applications of vector product can be introduced to arouse students’ interest.

(c) Vector product in Students should be able to see that

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

students should have no problem to see that a ⋅ b × c = a × b ⋅ c .

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

Moment of F about 0 Moment of F about line AB

By considering the total moment of a system of Coplanar forces about a point or

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

Nevertheless, complex problems involving forces and moments may be left to

differentiation and integration of a vector function with respect to a scalar variable to

1. To understand the nature of forces, moments and couples.

2. To learn the resultant and resolution of a system of coplanar forces.

3. To understand the nature of frictional forces and the laws of friction.

(1) The magnitude of the applied force.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

A system of forces can be reduced to a single resultant force. Students should be

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

Sufficient exercises on applying the Lami’s Theorem to solve three-force problems

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

(a) (b) No motion (c) Limiting (d) Motion exists

It is worthwhile at this stage to remind students the following points

(1) The resultant force of the system is zero.

(a) the block slides without toppling;

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

2. To understand resultant velocity and relative motion.

3. To recognize the radial and transverse component of velocity and acceleration.

4. To solve relevant practical problems.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

The vectorial representation of angular motion

as scalar quantities as the algebraic sign is

In this example, students are expected to obtain the results by integration.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

It is often convenient to introduce the idea of relative velocity of A to B by ‘bringing B

from a point 0, the satellite at a height of h km and a horizontal distance d km on a

Finally, teachers should also mention to students that relative acceleration of A to B

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

1. To understand Newton's Laws of Motion.

2. To apply Newton's Laws of motion to solve problems in dynamics.

where m is the mass of the particle,

The procedure of analysis may be arranged as follows:

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

(1) Analyse the forces on the particle:

(2) Analyse the kinematics of the particle:

In this example, students are expected to: