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A Comparative Study of Recent Advancements in the Field of Variable

Compression Ratio Engine Technology

Article  in  SAE Technical Papers · April 2016

DOI: 10.4271/2016-01-0669

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A Comparative Study of Recent Advancements in the Field 2016-01-0669

of Variable Compression Ratio Engine Technology Published 04/05/2016

Shikhar Asthana, Shubham Bansal, Shubham Jaggi, and Naveen Kumar

Delhi Technological University

CITATION: Asthana, S., Bansal, S., Jaggi, S., and Kumar, N., "A Comparative Study of Recent Advancements in the Field of Variable
Compression Ratio Engine Technology.," SAE Technical Paper 2016-01-0669, 2016, doi:10.4271/2016-01-0669.

Copyright © 2016 SAE International

Abstract Engines which are designed to run without variability can only be
optimized for a single load. Previous work has been done in making
The Automobile industry is under great stress due to greenhouse gas
variable valve timing, variable length intake manifold and variable
emissions and health impacts of pollutants. The rapid decrease of
spark timing to optimize the engine output at varying loads.
fossil fuels has promoted the development of engine designs having
Experiments show that the use of variable valve timing leads to a
higher fuel economy. At the same time, these designs keep the
greater power and torque with reduced fuel consumption and lower
stringent emission standards in check without sacrificing brake
emissions [2,3]. Variable length intake manifolds improve full load
power. Variable Compression Ratio (VCR) is one such measure. This
performance and lower fuel consumption in the part load range.
work reviews the technological advancements in the design of a VCR
Efficiency at selected RPMs also show an increasing trend. A decrease
engine. VCR engines can minimize possible risks of irregular
in CO2 consumption at part loads is also seen [4,5,6]. Using Variable
combustion while optimizing Brake specific fuel consumption
spark timing results in the decrement of total hydrocarbon content
towards higher power and torque. An increase in fuel economy is
while O2, CO2 and CO emissions remains almost constant [7].
seen for VCR naturally aspirated engines when coupled with
downsizing. In addition to this, emissions of carbon dioxide decreases
Figure 1 shows the relationship between BMEP, CR and ignition
due to effective utilization of fuel at high loads. Since the first VCR
timing, It is seen that the effects of higher CRs(above 11∼12:1) are
design, there have been various modifications and improvements in
counterproductive due to spark advance.[8,9].
VCR engine design. This paper describes the various techniques by
which VCR is being implemented and provides a comparative study
Internal combustion engines are conventionally operated at a fixed
of original and modified technology on the basis of efficiency, engine
compression ratio (CR). Mathematically CR can be represented by
friction, specific fuel consumption, engine rigidity and piston
kinematics. The paper then reviews various historical designs which
use the above mentioned techniques patented by Ford, Mercedes
Benz, Nissan, Peugeot and Gomecsys and discusses their advantages.
Lastly the paper explains the design, working and advantage of three
where
VCR designs that are closer to production.

b = Cylinder bore
1. Introduction
s = Piston stroke length
Worldwide outcry to reduce automotive fuel consumption and toxic
emission such as CO2 and NOx, is leading to the development of new
Vc= Clearance Volume
technologies for gasoline engines, as it fiercely competes with the
diesel engine for market shares. The automobiles of tomorrow must
Most automotive spark ignition (SI) IC engine utilize a CR of 8,9:1
satisfy the two-pronged objectives of high performance along with
while compression ignition (CI) internal combustion usually keep a
maintaining affordability. These desired characteristics can be
higher CR of 18,19:1due to the need for auto-igniting diesel fuel [10].
achieved by varying engine design to obtain the most advantageous
working conditions. The addition of variable control to an engine
system results in the improvement of fuel efficiency and a reduction
of parasitic losses [1].
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with the increase of the CR value, while at medium load conditions,

the intensity of the increase is somewhat smaller. At high load
conditions, the NOx emission firstly decreases and then increases
with the increase of the CR. Also when the engine is cold, VCR
reduces the engine efficiency in order to increase the temperature of
the exhaust gas. This facilitates the acceleration of three-way catalytic
convertor in a way that optimal temperature for reduction of NOx is
achieved [15].

VCR is capable of increasing the external cooled EGR rate. The

combustion stability limits the use of an ECR and due to higher
combustion stability in VCR engines, it is possible to increase the
accessible level of ECR and hence substantially decrease fuel
consumption at high powers [12].

A wide variety of usable fuels is an added advantage of VCR engines

Figure 1. Relationship between Ignition timing, Compression ratio and W.O.T over conventional engines. Keeping the above points in mind VCR is
BMEP[9] a key step in the automobile industry towards reducing worldwide
CO2 emissions. [13,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26].
For high fuel economy an improvement in thermal efficiency is
essential, which is in turn strongly related to the CR. CR is governed This paper reviews the design methodology by which VCR has been
by the quality of fuel and knocking tendency at full load operations. implemented in the past decades. This will include the designs
Hence for day-to-day vehicles a compromise between part throttle developed using the following concepts:
and wide open throttle is seen. Detonation thresholds at wide open
throttle leads to a decrease in maximum applicable value of a CR. • Moving cylinder head
The detonation limits at W.O.T are not applicable at part load • Changing the crankshaft axis
conditions due to lower in-cylinder pressure and temperatures. This
• Changing the geometry of the connecting rod
leads to a noticeable drop in efficiency for majority of engines
• Moving the piston crown relative to the piston-pin axis
running in the real world as they run on part load conditions for
maximum duration of operation and at part loads, frictional losses are • Dual piston mechanism
higher. Here is where a VCR Engine comes into play which offers a • Gear Based Mechanism
solution to this problem.
Following this the paper reviews the development of VCR engine
VCR is a technology that has captured the imagination of researchers design by various companies.
from the 1890s.The first US patent on the concept of VCR was issued
in 1900 [11]. VCR provides a low CR at high loads, which results in
lower structural stresses, and high CR at low loads which results in
2. Design Methodology
high thermal efficiency of the engine. At part load operation a
2.1. Moving the Cylinder Head
decrease in fuel consumption is seen on increasing the CR. VCR is
VCR can be implemented by moving the cylinder head [2]. One such
capable of expanding the BSFC sweetspot towards higher power and
design, implemented by IAV is more stable mechanically and is
torque all the while minimizing potential risks of irregular
suitable for high ignition pressure while keeping the friction
combustion. The potential for CR variation drops in naturally
conditions constant. In this design, fuel consumption was cut by
aspirated engine due to the increased compression facilitated by
about four percent in the part-load range when the compression ratio
gasoline direct injection. On the other hand VCR when coupled with
was changed from 16.2 to 20. At full load and compression ratio
downsizing and engine charging can further increase the fuel
reduced to 11 it was found that the NOx and engine soot emissions
economy by 5-10% due to the reduction of CR at high boost ratios.
were reduced while the output was boosted by 15-20% when the
engine was coupled with a supercharger [27]. Another design made
VCR engines have a high combustion stability combined with a small
by SAAB showed that the boost pressure increased drastically on
coefficient of variation. This leads to reduction of idle speed of the
application of a movable cylinder head design by employing a three
engine. Furthermore during the catalyst light off phases- techniques
point plan:- By reducing the engine displacement, supercharging the
to quickly increase catalyst temperature- it is possible to obtain more
intake air and the variation of CR. It led to a decrease in frictional
exhaust enthalpy at the same level of stability. This higher exhaust
losses however the engine had to become more robust due to high
gas temperature is obtained while producing less CO and HC and
peak cylinder pressure. On implementing this design with a reduced
hence it is possible to reduce the quantity of pollutants emitted in the
engine displacement and high supercharging pressure, the fuel
certification driving cycle [12-13]. Furthermore HC and CO
consumption was decreased by 30% and HC emissions decreased
emissions, if combustion phase is kept constant, increases if the
significantly. The cost of this engine was later found out to be
speed, load or compression ratio of the engine is increased. A VCR
economically unfeasible [28,29]. For tilting or translatory motion of
engine when working with low compression ratio than conventional
the cylinder head, the base engine design had to be comprehensively
engines but at the same speed and load will produce less HC and CO
modified. The installation expenditure for the actuation mechanism,
emissions [14]. At low loads, the NOx emission intensively increases
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the coupling for the moving exhaust and intake systems as well as the
sealing of the crankcase were considerable and led to an increase in
vehicle packaging and production costs.
2.2. Variation in Geometry of Connecting Rod
The connecting rod is used to change the CR via two methods: using
eccentric or linkages. Any modification in the connecting rod has to
overcome disadvantages which include excessive reciprocating mass,
larger stress on the structure and low response time. To minimize
these errors a design was made which used a four-bar linkage
extending between the large and small ends of the connecting rod.
This design utilizes inertial forces to obtain the required changes in
CR and is light weight, capable of providing better controllability and
good response time [30]. A design with an eccentric ring minimized
the resistance of the control frame with an added advantage that it
could be controlled by conventional methods (Hydraulic, servomotor)
thus allowing a fast response. It was also claimed that since most of
the load was taken by the crankpin of the crankshaft, the parts
associated with the design could be made compact, light, robust and
also be associated with less friction [31]. FEV developed a two-stage
VCR engine with a variable length conrod where an eccentric bearing
was fitted in the small end of the connecting rod. Superimposed gas
and inertia forces changed the conrod length and hence the CR. This
design claimed to have the capability to avoid engine knock, decrease
frictional losses, due to lower oscillating masses, and make
immediate use of improved efficiency [25,32]. Another design
proposed by FEV promised lower mechanical stresses, decreased
NOx and particulate emissions, enhanced engine response, improved
fuel consumption and lower CO2 emissions, at the same time keeping
it economical [33].
2.3. Moving the Crankshaft axis
VCR can also be implemented by changing the rotational axis of the
crankshaft. The main problems embodied in the designs, using this
principle, is the inability to provide a compact structural member for
shifting of eccentric rings, large structural stresses due to pulsating
loads and the change in configuration of the engine [34,35,36]. To
overcome these problems a design was implemented which had an
output shaft with fixed centerline. The size of the engine was not
found to increase significantly and the design claimed economic
feasibility. The current engine design technologies can easily
incorporate this design with minor changes [37]. A design with
movable crankpin and movable counterweights claimed that the
engine had the ability to provide automatic and manual control of
CR. The design claimed that it could also provide multi-fuel
operation without stopping the engine and decrease engine pollution
while improving engine efficiency [38]. In a different design, by FEV,
a parallel crank transmission is seen, which used a Schmidt coupling
to allow shaft misalignment even while offering undisturbed power
transmission at constant angular velocity. A favorable solution was
observed with respect to robustness while reducing frictional losses
[39]. A compact, light weight and low friction VCR engine was
designed which reduced vibration and increased life of the bearings
by providing supports to the bearings contrary to current eccentric
crankshaft designs. Its advantages included low cost, durability and
reliability [40].
2.4. Changing Piston Deck Height
The hydraulically operated piston was employed to vary piston deck
height. In this design CR was changed due to the variation of relative
position of an outer and inner piston. This was made possible by
supplying oil to the upper and lower chambers made in the inner
piston. Early experimentation on petrol engines (70 octane petrol)
showed a CR varying from 6.5 to 16 along with considerable
efficiency improvements. In diesel engines, the power output of a
V12 direct injection tank engine was improved from 550 hp (30 hp
per liter) to 1475 hp (80 hp per liter) by Teledyne Continental [41].
This engine improvement took place over a period of 50 years in
which all parts, except the crankcase and the original structure, have
been improved and changed. Further tests indicated that the power
output of a research engine with supercharger capability was
incremented to 40 bar BMEP with a peak in cylinder pressure of 165
bar [41]. Another model of a VCR engine using these pistons showed
a 50% increase in power output without a considerable increase in
specific fuel consumption and combustion pressure over conventional
engines. Fatigue strength was also improved by changing piston
material from aluminum to malleable iron [42]. The initial designs
and subsequent improvements of these variable compression pistons
can be found for further understanding [43,44,45,46].
2.5. Dual Piston Mechanism
Dual piston VCR engine is a fairly new conceptual design capable of
having a compact engine structure with an added advantage of
compatibility with mass production. However it suffers from two
drawbacks namely the durability of engine and knocking tendency
when the CR is changed [47]. To minimize these drawbacks a design
was implemented in which an ignition control system independently
controlled each cylinder and also provided knock control. This led to
an improvement in fuel economy by 7.4% and a highly accurate
ignition timing relative to the same engine fixed at a compression
ratio of 9.6:1. The variable compression ratio engine had the ability to
change its value from 9.6:1 to 14.2:1 [48]. Honda described a double
piston mechanism which led to an increase in fuel economy by 6%
and a lower power consumption due to the usage of inertia forces of
the piston and installation of a machine part to support explosion
load. The chances of malfunction also decreased because of the
presence of a relief valve provided in this design [49].
2.6. Gear Based Mechanism
Another concept used to vary the CR of the engine is by the usage of
gears. Lugo developments Inc designed an engine in which the CR of
the engine was being changed using the above principle. This led to
the improvement of output because all combustion phenomenon 15°
before TDC were converted to positive torque. This also led to
reducing pre-ignition and knocking tendencies. The engine ran
smoothly from idle to 3,500 rpm (maximum speed of the prototype).
There was minimal ‘noise, vibration and harshness’ (NVH), and no
detectable vibration. This is because the Lugo engine crown cams are
at different places during two revolutions of the crank causing a
cancellation effect and hence no vibration take place [50].
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3. Comparative Study between Original and
VCR Designs
3.1. Comparative Study
In previous section the principles to vary the CR has been shown. To
achieve the said principles designs have been made and tested and
each of these design have their own advantages and disadvantages.
The designs were compared to their original designs (fixed CR) on
the basis of 8 parameters namely:- Combustion Chamber Integrity,
Crankshaft -piston assembly kinematics, Mechanical Losses, Engine
overall rigidity, effect of varying CR on engine displacement, CR
control accuracy, Capability to control CR cylinder by cylinder and
Suitability for converting a stock engine into a VCR engine. Each of
these factor play an important role in determining the cost of a future
VCR engine by providing an idea on the changes in the design of the
plant layout, the strength of the materials to be used and so on.
One of the main challenges is to design low frictions losses VCR
engine. Generally, VCR engines are complex machines, where
frictional looses are higher than that of conventional engines. Mostly
the engine is run at low loads at which friction losses are especially
penalizing. Therefore, an increase in friction losses due to the VCR
design would impair or even wipe out the advantages of VCR. When
designing a VCR engine, it is thus necessary to reduce some
conventional engine friction sources, in order to compensate for new
friction sources due to the variable compression components [51].
Furthermore, a mass scale production of VCR engine is only feasible
if it can easily be integrated into the existing automobiles, ease of
connection to its transmission, pipes and peripherals can be ensured
and also be made robust, reliable, silent and economically viable [52].
As seen from table 2, each concept has its own limits: reduced
structural rigidity, unconventional piston kinematics, control
accuracy, difficulty in vehicle integration, heightened frictional looses
or modified chamber shape. Keeping the real world in mind, VCR
engines design should be made that apply the most conservative
approach compared to conventional engines. Hence VCR engine
should have combustion chamber shape and piston kinematics
identical to that of a conventional engine. Furthermore incorporating
technological advancements in the field of internal aerodynamics,
combustion processes, pollutants and emissions generation to VCR
engines will help in designing high power and torque engines.
Percentage rise in power and reduction in losses is not just dependent
on the VCR system utilized but is also dependent on the size of the
engine, type of the engine and the conditions at which the engine is
run at [53].
4. Historical Development of VCR by Prominent
Manufactures
Several companies have developed VCR engines over the last few
decades by the application of techniques discussed above. Numerous
designs have been made by the manufactures and the designs were
chosen specifically to demonstrate the usage of the above concepts.
The following section extensively describes these designs. The
companies under consideration are Mercedes Benz, Ford, Nissan,
Gomecsys and Peugeot.
4.1. Mercedes Benz
Mercedes Benz has extensively worked on the development of VCR
engines [54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61]. The following section discusses
two designs: one following the principal of a movable cylinder head
and the second follows a dual piston mechanism.
4.1.1. VCR Engine with Displaceable Cylinder Head and
Cylinder Housing
In 2013, Benz showcased a design which accomplished VCR (figure
2) by using the concept of movable cylinder housing 16 supporting
the cylinder head 20 [62]. In this design as the cylinder housing is
vertically moved, combustion chamber volume is changed, leading to
a dynamic change in CR. The IC engine model consists of a
crankshaft 14 accommodated in a crank case 12. The cylinder head
20 and the housing 16 are connected to the crankshaft 14 via
eccentric bearings 32. These bearings are pivotable leading to a
change in relative position between the cylinder head 20 and the
crankshaft 14. Journals 28 are coaxial to the axis of rotation of the
crankshaft as opposed to the crankpin 22. Elements 32 are eccentric
to the journals and encompass the same via through openings 34 (not
shown in figure).
Figure 2. Cross Sectional Area of an IC engine at the level of Crank Pin and
Journal for a low compression ratio respectively[62].
These eccentric elements 32 are present in the wall opening 36 of the
cylinder housing 16 and are directly connected to the cylinder head
20 and the cylinder housing 16. Moving the eccentric element 32
changes the relative position of cylinder head with respect to the
crankcase. The eccentric element 32 is connected to an actuator 50.
According to the signal received by the actuator 50 the eccentric
element will rotate causing relative movement between crankcase and
cylinder head, hence changing the CR. (The distance ‘d’ is changed
as shown).
This engine is an improved version of its predecessors due to the fact
that the crankshaft absorbs the forces developed because of relative
movement between crankcase and cylinder housing. Since engine
crankshafts are designed to withstand large forces, no modification in
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Table 1. A comparison between original engine and VCR engine [51,52,53]
the crankshaft is required. Adequate lubrication to the crankshaft is
also provided in standard internal combustion engines hence there is
no need for additional lubrication for the eccentric adjustment [62].
This design is also advantageous as compared to previous work done
on account of the fact that it is capable of changing the CR without
displacing the position of the output shaft and it does not require high
strength. Since no additional components are added the mass of the
reciprocating parts does not increase as described previously
[63,64,65].
4.1.2. VCR Engine with an Adjustable Arrangement
This design, developed in 2013, uses the concept of varying piston
position inside the engine cylinder to vary the CR. It houses an
adjustment arrangement which includes an adjusting part 38
supported by a guide element 41. The movement of the guide element
is directly related to a signal from the detection mechanism
comprising of a transducer, held at the adjusting part, and a detecting
part, in the form of a control unit, arranged on the housing of the
engine [66]. Referring to figure 3 it is shown that the design consists
of a piston 30 held to the connecting rod 26 by means of a small end
bearing 32. The crank drive 10 consist of a crankshaft 12 which holds
the crank web 14 and a crank pin 16 which rotates about an axis 25.
The crank drive also holds a transverse lever 18 with two lever arms,
a first lever arm 20 and a second lever arm 22, both of which are held
together. The connecting rod is held at a bearing point 24, provided
on the transverse lever 18. The rotation axis of the connecting rod is
therefore point 28 which is h1 distance away from the axis of rotation
of crank pin. The lever arm 22 consists of a bearing point 34 to which
a control piston 36 is attached. This piston pivots about the axis 40
which is spaced h2 distance from the rotation of the crankpin. The
control piston consists of an adjusting means 38 comprising a
housing 41 to form a cylinder. The control piston 36 can be moved in
a translatory manner as shown by the arrow 43.
To change the CR of the engine, the control piston 36 is moved
axially relative to the housing 41. This leads to the rotation of the
transverse lever 18 relative to crank pin 16 as shown by arrow 48.
This movement of the transverse lever leads to a change in position
of TDC of the piston 30, hence changing the CR of the engine.
The control unit is the main part of this system. There are several
methods by which the control unit can be set up [67,68,69]. In this
design, the control unit is advantageously used to obtain high
accuracy and quick response time. This leads to precise changes in
CR of the engine when compared with other designs .The CR can
also be varied in each cylinder independently which improves the
accuracy of the system.
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chamber. This process continues till the pressure in the auxiliary

chamber is the same as the maximum combustion chamber pressure.
The increasing pressure in the auxiliary chamber gradually closes the
valve. The movement of the cam is not capable of overcoming the
upward forces on the valve during combustion and compression
strokes. Hence the position of the cam is only changed during exhaust
and intake strokes.

To decrease the CR the cam is rotated clockwise lifting the valve

from its seat causing it to be fully retracted. Therefore the effective
residual volume in the combustion chamber increases suiting the low
compression ratio operation. In some designs the valve stem and head
were exposed to high temperatures and also the valve was ineffective
in sealing the combustion chamber during part load. [78,79] These
difficulties are overcome by providing a two spring mechanism to
increase the effectiveness of the seal while reducing the forces
required to change the CR [77].

Figure 3. Sectional Side view of the engine.[66]

4.2. Ford
Ford has extensively worked on the development of VCR engines
[70,71,72,73,74,75,76].The following section discusses two of their
designs out of which one of them uses an additional combustion
chamber while the second design uses an elastomeric mass for
changing piston deck height.

4.2.1. VCR Engine with an Auxiliary Chamber Design

Referring to figure 4 this VCR Engine, developed in 1992, has an
auxiliary chamber 18 for each main combustion chamber 10 [77]. A
poppet valve 24 is shown with a valve seat 22 . The poppet valve has
two sealing surfaces. The O rings 30 placed around the valve stem 26
within the valve guide 28 serve to isolate the auxiliary chamber from
the atmosphere. The valve when resting on its seat, isolates the
auxiliary chamber from the main combustion chamber. The end of the
stem carries an abutment plate 32 bolted onto the stem. The plate is Figure 4. Cross Sectional view of the design[77]
acted upon by a long weak spring 34 from below and by a shorter
spring 36 from above. This spring is sandwiched between the end This design has an inherent disadvantage of only providing two
plate 32 and a cam follower 38. The cam 40 is turned by a suitable values of CR. The significant time lag between the signal and the
actuator (vacuum motor) 44 which is connected to the cam by a cable valve position brings down the maximum performance and the
46. This mechanism restricts full rotation of the cam 40. misalignment between valve stem and valve leads to an incomplete
sealing of the chamber.
During low compression ratio operation, the auxiliary chamber is
constantly connected to the combustion chamber and during high 4.2.2. VCR Engine with Varying Length of Piston and
compression ratio operation, the auxiliary chamber is isolated from Connecting Rod
the combustion chamber. A one way valve is arranged between the
The design, developed in 2003, consists of a piston and a
two chambers. To initialize high compression ratio a signal is sent
connecting rod for achieving the objective of VCR in an internal
from the vacuum motor 44 causing the rotation of the cam in the
combustion engine [80]. This design uses a variable length
counter clockwise direction. This pushes the spring 36 and hence
mechanism 25 in the piston.
moves the valve onto the seat 22. Due to high pressure in the
combustion chamber the valve is forced to move slightly upwards,
which causes the combustion products to move in the auxiliary
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4.3. Nissan
Nissan has achieved considerable success in the development of VCR
engines over time [81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88]. The following sections
discusses a single design with two different actuation processes both
developed by Nissan, However, the second actuation process
achieves significant advantages in resistance towards bending due to
several structural modifications.

4.3.1. VCR Engine with Multi Link Mechanism

The VCR model under examination was developed in 2009 [89]. In
figure 6 the piston 1, in the cylinder 2a of cylinder block 2, is
connected to the upper link 3 by piston pin 1a. The upper link 3 is
connected to the lower link 4 by pin 8, which is then connected to the
control link 5 by pin 9. The upper link 3, control link 5 and crankshaft
6 are connected at three vertices of the lower link 4 by pins 8, 9 and
6a respectively. The control link 5 is connected to the control shaft 7
by an offset pin 10. This control shaft 7 is parallel to the crankshaft 6
while the pin 10 is offset from the centre of control shaft 7.At the
centre of the control shaft 7, a pin 7a connects the fixing lever 11,
which is then connected to the connecting link 12. The actuator 13, in
the housing 16, is connected to connecting link 12 by connecting pin
15 and at the other end to a ball screw reduction gear 17, which is
screw fed by motor 18. The controller 19 is programmed by the input
FIG. 1. FIG. 2. which is a combination of engine characteristics such as engine
speed, load, cylinder temperature, pressure and other parameters. The
Figure 5. Cross sectional front and side view of the engine cylinder reduction gear 17 is used to transmit reduced motion of motor to
respectively[80] screw feeding mechanism in housing 16.
The piston 22 as shown in figure 5, has two parts 32 and 34 .Each
part has a head and a skirt shown as 32H, 32S and 34H,34S (not
shown in figure 5) respectively. The part 32 and the connecting rod
small end are connected together by the wrist pin 30. Therefore, the
travel of part 32 is exactly equal to the stroke of the connecting rod
24. Head 34H contains piston rings grooves 35 on the outside. Part 34
telescopically fits over part 32 in a manner that provides for limited
variation in the extent of telescopic engagement as the engine
operates. A mechanism which varies the effective length of the
connecting rod joins the parts 32 and 34. This mechanism consists of
an annular elastomeric mass 38 and a frustoconical spring washer 36
which interact with the two parts 32, 34 such that partially restricted
telescopic motion of 34 over 32 is allowed. The washer 36 is
concentric with the cylinder axis and is held between the confronting
faces 40 and 42 of parts 32 and 34 respectively. Washer 36 is held
concavely towards surface 40.The elastomeric mass 38 is placed
between the surface 40 and concave face of washer 36.

The nominal overall free length is present when both washer and
Figure 6. Schematic Diagram of Nissan VCR,2009 [89].
elastomeric mass are relaxed. The pressure in the combustion
chamber at times, during the engine operating cycle, rises sufficiently
The controller prompts the motor to drive an actuator rod in such a
to move part 34 towards part 32. The rise in pressure results in a force
way to vary the movement of 11 and 12, which in turn varies the
which is used to overcome the resilience of the mass. The movement
position of control link 5 relative to control shaft 7. The angle
of part 34 (top part of the piston) stops when the external force on the
between upper link 3 and lower link 4 is an important parameter for
force is balanced by the elastomeric mass. This motion reduces the
changing CR.
overall effective length of the piston and connecting rod combination
leading to a reduction of engine CR. At lower pressures in the
In figure 6, the solid line mechanism indicates the position of the
combustion chamber the nominal overall effective length is restored
actuator rod for maximum CR. This is because when the actuator rod
by inherent resiliency of washer and elastomeric mass, returning the
moves towards the motor a counter clockwise rotation of the control
CR to its original value. The abutment of stop surfaces 44 and 46
shaft occurs, which leads to the lowering of position of offset pin 10.
limits the extent to which the CR can be reduced.
This causes counter clockwise movement of the lower link 4 due to
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the movement of control link 5. The connecting pin 8 moves up
causing upward movement of the piston thus increasing the CR. In a
similar manner, the dotted position of the linking rod and actuator
mechanism leads to clockwise turning of control shaft 7 and lower
link 4, thus the connecting pin 8 moves down and CR decreases.
The patent showed that on increasing CR bending loads on the
actuator 13 increased. It can be noticed from the figure, that at lower
CR the length of actuator rod outside the housing 16 is more than that
at higher CR. Thus at a lower CR, when most of the rod is without
support outside the housing, bending loads and consequent bending
stresses are lower. At high CR, when the bending loads are high the
rod is well supported inside the housing hence the bending stresses
developed are lower. Thus bending deformation plays little role in
divergence of ideal and actual CR due to which the dimensions of the
control rod and the housing structure can also be kept within low
limits. Firstly, the design claimed that CR could be changed quickly
from high to low hence improving knocking characteristics and the
acceleration performance. It is also made sure that CR would not
change too quickly because the maximum rate of change of CR is
determined by the rate of displacement of piston TDC per unit
rotation of control shaft, which falls with the CR. Secondly, at a
lower CR, the friction between actuator rod and housing increases,
thereby restricting sudden movement.
supported in bearings. The lever 24 is coupled to arms 25 and 27 by
using linking pins 26 and 28 respectively, which can rotate relative to
both lever and arms. Radial clearance is provided between the pins
and the pin holes, which are on the arm to fit the pins. The linking
pins are held in place by thrust surfaces, one of which is the control
shaft and the other one is the bearings. These linking pins’ axial end
movement is restricted due to the contact between these thrust
surfaces and the pins. A major advantage of this design is the
reduction in transfer of vibrations from control shaft 14 to control
shaft 23 because of the lever 24, thus keeping the gears of decelerator
21 and inductor coils of the motor 19 safe from damage. The axial
clearance between the side surfaces of first control shaft 14 and lever
24 is determined as D1 and that between control shaft 23 and lever 24
is D2, such that D2 is either zero or very close to zero. Thus clearance
D1 advantageously absorbs any wearing or buckling that control shaft
14 suffers, due to combustion loading or the inertial force of parts.
Consequently no bending stress is transferred to the lever or the
control shaft 23. Another major advantage due to this is the reduction
of axial dimensions of the control shaft 23 along with that of the
actuator without any loss in the load bearing capacity. Clearance can
also be provided in the inclined direction to account for the tilting of
the control shafts.

Structural Modifications and Improvements Achieved

Another design, made in 2014, has a cylinder block having two
cylinders [90]. Cylinder block 1 consists of the central engine
structure in which an upper oil pan 6 is present in the base of the
cylinder block 7.

Referring to figure 7, there is a side wall 7 on the side of the intake of

oil pan which also has the rear side housing 22 on it, with an electric
motor attached in it. The VCR mechanism is shown by 10 in figure
8a. The piston is connected to an upper link 12, lower link 11 and
control link 13. The control link 13 is then connected to an eccentric
shaft part 15, which in turn is eccentrically connected to the first
control shaft 14. The electric motor 19 links to this control shaft,
which is inside the engine body, using linking mechanism 20. This
linking mechanism has a decelerator mechanism 21 in it to permit
controlled rotation of the control shaft. The linking mechanism is
constituted of another control shaft 23, outside the engine body, Figure 7. Perspective view of a part of an IC engine showing the linking
which is selectively rotated by the actuator and transmits the output mechanism. [90]
of the decelerator 21 to the control shaft 14. The control shafts are
linked together by a lever 24 which helps in their mutual rotation.

This design changes the CR by changing the rotational position of

first control shaft 14 when driven by the actuator. This in turn
changes the movement of control link 13, lower link 11 and upper
link 12 in a way similar to Nissan’s 2009 design described above
[89].

As seen from figure 8b the control shaft 14 has an arm 25 that,

instead of protruding in the axial direction, extends in the radial
direction. The second control shaft 23 also has one such arm 27. Figure 8a. Diagrammatic diagram showing a simple depiction of VCR
Mechanism[90]
These arms have journal sections on the axial sides rotatably
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Figure 8b. Cross Sectional View of Control Shafts[90]
This design also puts forward the advantage of overcoming friction
and ensuring smoother performance by immersing the linking pin 28,
on the second control shaft arm, in oil. This advantage could also be
extended to overcome the resistance on the side of first control shaft
14 by downing the linking pin 26 in oil to ensure smooth movement
of control link 13 and subsequent wear reduction.
4.4. Gomecsys
VCR Engine with Movable Crankshaft axis
This design from 2002, achieved VCR due to the transverse motion
of the crankshaft away from BDC which led to a decrease in the CR
because of increasing volume between the piston and the head of the
cylinder. A similar method takes place to increase the CR[91]. The
crux of the design is that the engine block is kept stationary while the
gear box is moving so as to keep the input shaft of the gear box and
the crankshaft aligned.
According to figure 9, the engine block 1 has a crankshaft 5 rotatably
mounted on it. This design of the crankshaft consists of four cranks 6,
each of which supports the connecting rod 7 and the conrod is then
connected to the piston via the small end bearing. The distance
between the cranks 6 and the axis of rotation of the crankshaft 5 is the
radius of rotation of crankpin. The stroke of each piston 4 occurs in a
cylinder 3, the length of which is determined by doubling the radius
of the rotation of crankpin. The TDC and BDC of the piston depend
on the position of axis of rotation of the crankshaft 5. Hence the
repositioning of axis 8 can lead to VCR
Figure 9. Sectional View of the Engine [91]
The axis is affected by the crank shaft 5 journalled in bearings 9
which are accommodated in eccentrics 10. Referring to figure 10, the
crankshaft 5 has five main bearings 9 made by upper bearing cups 9a
and lower bearing cups 9b. The eccentrics 10 are constructed as
bushes divided into 2 parts, lower bush halves 10b integrated in the
eccentric assembly 11 and the upper bush halves 10a, fixed to the
lower bush halves 10b by a fastener. The lower bush halves 10b are
interconnected by shells so that the crank webs rotate inside them.
Figure 10. Perspective exploded view of the crankshaft and eccentric bearings
[91]
As seen in figure 10, the lower bearing cups 9b are of smaller width
than the upper bearing cups 9a in order to create room for the shells.
The eccentrics or bushes 10 have an eccentricity of a few
millimeters. By rotation of these eccentrics 10 in their bearings in
the engine block 1, the horizontal and vertical position of the
bearings 9 within the eccentrics 10 changes, and therefore the
crankshaft centerline 8 is changed.
Referring to figure 9 the crankshaft 5 has on one end a crankshaft
flange 12 which fixes the crankshaft to the gears of the gearbox,
through a flywheel 13 and a coupling 14. Thus the crankshaft 5 is
connected to the input shaft 15 of the gearbox. The change in
crankshaft centerline 8 makes it necessary for the gear box 2 to
change its position so that the input shaft 15 of the gear box is kept
aligned with the crankshaft 5. To achieve this the gearbox 2 is
movably connected to the engine block via a rim 18 which has the
same eccentricity as eccentrics 10. This rim 18 is mounted on a
gearbox flange 17 which is in turn connected to the eccentric
assembly 11 via a flange 16. This rim 18 also supports the gearbox 2
via a large roller bearing 19. To prevent rotation of gearbox 2 with
that of the crankshaft, a reaction rod 21 is provided whose other end
is attached to a fixed part of the engine block 1. The CR is changed
according to the engine conditions such as load and rotational speed.
To achieve this the eccentric is connected to a control system which
can either be hydraulic or electronic in nature.
This design is advantageous as compared to the previous designs
because it keeps the engine block stationary and moves the axis of the
input shaft of the gearbox. Moving the engine blocks led to a
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multitude of moving parts such as water houses, exhaust, electrical magnetorheological fluid is again subjected to the magnetic field and
wiring etc. This caused excess stress on these moving parts as they the fluid freezes ,which secures the movable wall and the inner piston
need to absorb and adopt the engine block movements [92]. to the hollow cylindrical casing.

4.5. Peugeot
4.5.1. VCR Engine with a Magnetorheological Fluid
This design for the VCR engine developed by Peugeot in 2007 has a
piston which in itself is an assembly [93]. It consists of a hollow
cylindrical casing 31 open from below, an inner piston 5 that slides
within the hollow casing, a mobile partition 4 present between the
inner piston and the hollow casing and a grid 32 secured to the
hollow cylindrical casing as shown in figure 11. The axial distance
between the inner piston and the movable partition remains constant
throughout the operation i.e. they move together. The volume
between the inner piston and mobile partition is divided by the grid
into two volumes A and B. A magnetorheological fluid is present
between the volumes A and B, whose viscosity can be varied by Figure 11a. A schematic diagram depicting high CR positions [93]
subjecting the fluid to a variable magnetic field 7. This magnetic field
is obtained by a winding 7 embedded in the cylinder liner 2. The
movement of the movable wall and of the inner piston is limited
within the hollow cylindrical casing by stops 33.

By varying the relative position of piston with respect to the

connecting rod CR can be varied. The magneto-rheological fluid can
become highly viscous, or even solid when the intensity of magnetic
field is high and hence cannot pass through the grid 32. When no
magnetic field is applied, the fluid becomes sufficiently non-viscous
or liquid to move from one volume to another i.e. from A to B or
from B to A. With the variable viscosity of magnetorheological fluid,
it is possible, after having varied the ratio of the partial volumes A
and B, to freeze the volumes A and B by imposing a magnetic field to
the fluid and thus make the hollow shell fixed to the inner piston.
When this is implemented on an internal combustion engine the coil
is given the power supply by an electronic control system. Parameters
that can be identified here to change the power supply are but not
limited to, the engine speed, engine load, throttle position and the
operating phase.
Figure 11a shows the configuration when high CR is to be employed.
During the compression stroke i.e. when the point P of the connecting
rod ascends, the link 6 exerts an upward force on the inner piston. At
the same time pressure in the cylinder exerts a force in opposite
direction on the cylindrical hollow shell 31. The fluid moves freely
from B to A. When the desired value of distance d 22 is obtained the
desired CR is achieved and the magneto-rheological fluid is again
subjected to the effect of the magnetic field generated by the coil.
This has the effect of freezing the magneto-rheological fluid and thus
fastening the moving partition and the inner piston with the hollow
cylindrical casing.
Figure 11b shows the configuration when it is desired to decrease the
CR. During the expansion stroke, the link 6 exerts a downward force
on the inner piston. At the same time the spring 34 also exerts a
downward force on the moving partition. Therefore, the fluid passes
from A to B through grid. Hence the piston has moved relative to
connecting rod in order to decrease the CR. Then the
Figure 11b. A schematic Diagram depicting low CR positions [93]. Diagrams
not to scale
Another design which was patented earlier by Ford used
magnetorheological fluid controlled by mechanical and
electromagnetic means to change the effective length of connecting
rod hence changing CR. The design by Peugeot claimed to offer a
mechanically simpler solution that could be combined with existing
engines easily [94].
4.5.2. VCR Engine with Multiple Pistons and an
Incompressible Fluid
This VCR engine developed in 2009 by Peugeot employed a number
of pistons and an incompressible fluid mechanism to change the CR
[95]. This was accomplished by varying the volume between the
pistons using the incompressible fluid and hence the combustion
chamber volume. In this design the engine consists of the cylinder
block denoted by 2, in which the cylinder combustion chamber is
depicted by 21 as shown in figure 12. The cylinder consists of a first
piston 3 which can slide in the axial direction, guided by the cylinder.
The connecting rod 6, which is fixed to the piston 3 by the connecting
shaft 31, drives a crankshaft. The second piston 4 has been placed
between the cylinder head 7 and the aforementioned piston 3. This
piston is also guided by the cylinder in a direction axial to the first
piston. The volume between the two pistons has been denoted as
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control chamber 22 which has a variable volume. The movement of
piston 4 is free and only governed by the gas in the combustion
chamber 21 and the fluid in control chamber 22.
When the first piston 3 is at BDC and the secondary piston 4 is at an
intermediate position in the cylinder an inlet duct 81 opens,
permitting the entry of an incompressible fluid (usually an oil) into
the control chamber 22. The oil is supplied by a supply pump 8
which is operated by the control device 9. When oil is fed into the
control chamber 22 using the inlet 81, the relative position of the
two pistons is changed and hence combustion chamber volume
changes. The oil enters the control chamber 22 through the control
valve 82 and exits through the conduit 84 via the outlet valve 83.
The yoke 7 consists of the intake valve 71, exhaust valve 72 and the
spark plug 73. The components 32, 33, 34 and 41 are used to
prevent the mixing of engine oil, incompressible fluid and the
combustion flame accordingly.
At the ending of intake stroke, piston 3 is at BDC while inlet valve 71
is still not closed as shown in figure 12. The control chamber 22 is in
connection with the conduits 81 and 83. CR is increased by closing
the valve 84 and opening the valve 82 to fill the control chamber 22
with incompressible fluid and thus incrementing its volume. During
the ignition stage when the piston 3 is at TDC the secondary piston 4
is segregated from it by the control chamber volume 22 in a way to
reduce the combustion chamber volume 21. The valves 71, 72, 82
and 83 are closed at the moment. The spark plug 73 then ignites to
combust the mixture.
Figure 12. Cross Sectional View of t he Engine Cylinder [95]
This volume of control chamber 22 is kept fairly constant throughout
the motion of piston because the oil is incompressible. This results in
piston 4 following closely the motion of piston 3. At the completion
of the expansion stage, the piston 3 is at BDC and control chamber 22
is in line with the conduits 81 and 83. To achieve a lower CR, valve
82 is closed to prevent the entry of oil and valve 84 is instead opened
to remove the oil from the control chamber. This decreases the
volume of the control chamber ensuring a lower compression, which
is mostly required at higher loads.
The filling or removal of the fluid from the control chamber happens
preferably when the piston 3 is at BDC at the end of intake and
exhaust stroke respectively. This is because a pressure difference is
created between the control chamber and the combustion chamber.
Thus there is a significant decrease in the energy required to change
the volume of the control chamber 22.
Another design modification was proposed which included a spring
member placed in the control chamber between the two pistons to
create a negative pressure. This negative pressure prefers the filling of
incompressible fluid into the chamber. Another proposed design
modification was the use of a third piston between the previous two
pistons in the control chamber.
5. Present Trends of Development in VCR
technology
5.1. Gomecsys Auxiliary Gear Method
This design, developed in 2013, has a reciprocating piston
mechanism 1 consisting of a crankshaft 2, a crankpin 4 and supported
by crankcase 15 [96]. Referring to figure 13 a crank member 6 is
mounted on the crankpin 4. The crank member 6 has a bearing
portion 7 to which the big end 8 of the connecting rod 9 is connected.
Hence the piston 11 is connected to the crankshaft indirectly via a
crank member 6. The crank member 6 has an external gear 12, which
meshes with two intermediate gear 13a and 13b and finally with an
auxiliary gear 14. Crank member gear 12, intermediate gears 13 and
auxiliary gears 14 are mounted on the same side of the crankweb 17.
The shafts passing through the intermediate gears 13 are identified by
13a and 13b (not shown in figure). Both these shafts have an axis
parallel to that of the crankshaft axis 5.
The purpose of these intermediate gears is to keep the direction of
rotation of the crank member 6 and the crankshaft 2 same. The
auxiliary gear 14 is fixed to an auxiliary shaft 16 which is concentric
with the crankshaft rotation axis 5. The bearing portion 7 is eccentric
to the crankpin. Depending on the position of the crank member 6,
the TDC and BDC of the piston 11 can be varied hence changing the
CR this case a control ring is attached to the auxiliary shaft. As
shown in figure 13, an actuator 21, which controls a pin, is fitted into
a recess 20. This actuator can be controlled hydraulically, electrically
or by other suitable means. The pin (not shown in figure) is controlled
by the actuator, which determines the position of pin depending on
combustion properties. In such a case the CR is changed in steps. If a
lower CR is required the pin is taken out of the recess 20. On
decreasing combustion pressure the torque, due to the auxiliary shaft
16, on the torsion spring 18 decreases, which leads to turning of the
control ring and the auxiliary shaft in the direction of the resultant
force. This will lead to a decrease in the force felt by the spring and
eventually reaching an equivalence point, after which the control ring
will be fixed with respect to the crankcase by inserting the pin. The
same concept is used to increase the CR. The advantage of this
system is that it leads to the building of a compact and simple
reciprocating engine system.
To vary the CR in discrete and continues steps, two different control
methods have been discussed. Referring to figure 14, the first method
is by the usage of a torsion spring 18. In figure 14, an actuator 21,
which controls a pin, is fitted into a recess 20. This actuator can be
controlled hydraulically, electrically or by other suitable means. The
pin (not shown in figure) is controlled by the actuator, which
determines the position of pin depending on combustion properties.
In such a case the CR is changed in steps. If a lower CR is required
the pin is taken out of the recess 20. On decreasing combustion
pressure the torque, due to the auxiliary shaft 16, on the torsion
spring 18 decreases, which leads to turning of the control ring and the
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auxiliary shaft in the direction of the resultant force. This will lead to
a decrease in the force felt by the spring and eventually reaching an
equivalence point, after which the control ring will be fixed with
respect to the crankcase by inserting the pin. The same concept is
used to increase the CR. The advantage of this system is that it leads
to the building of a compact and simple reciprocating engine system.
Figure 13. Perspective View of a part of reciprocating piston mechanism [96]
Figure 14. Torsion Spring used as a Control Unit[96]
To change the CR in a continuous manner an actuator in the form of
an electric motor is used to drive the auxiliary gear 14 via worm
gears. Upon rotation of the worm gear, which will take inputs
depending on the torque applied on the auxiliary shaft 16, the
auxiliary gear 14 will rotate hence it will cause the rotation of the
eccentric crank member 6. This will lead to an increase or decrease of
CR depending on the input. This design is an improvement on the
previous design of the same concept [97]. Furthermore this design
when implemented leads to a reduction in number of gears thus
enhancing compactness of the engine.
4.2. MCE-5 VCRi
The kinematics of MCE-5 (figure 15) is identical in all aspects to that
of a conventional engine at all compression ratios leading to
minimum modification of combustion process and internal
aerodynamics. The engine is a combination of a rod-crank
mechanism and long life gears. Furthermore the engine is rigid,
compact and its integration into all vehicles remains identical to that
of conventional engines. The compact crankshaft and guided piston
reduce frictional losses while making it compatible with high
supercharging pressures over high mileages. The compression ratio in
this engine can be varied from 7:1 to 20:1.
Figure 15. MEC-5 VCR engine components[98].
The gears and roller guided piston are not subjected to piston slab
and radial stresses leading to a highly durable, robust and reliable
engine. A small crank radius combined with elimination of radial
stress on the piston makes it easier to design long stroke engines
leading to an increase in piston to cylinder clearance at high CR.
This feature also optimizes the cylinder filling at low speeds. The
engine block does not impact other vehicle components and
requires no additional parts for connection with gearbox, intake and
exhaust pipes and peripherals. Furthermore the engine can be easily
fixed into all vehicles.
This engine technology provides a higher low end torque than a
diesel engine while its noise and vibration emissions are identical to
that of a conventional SI engine. Although the engine is more
expensive than a conventional engine, it remains viable as it is paid
off in under 60,000 km. Better of the better usage of its 3-way
catalytic converter due to the VCR, the engine emits fewer pollutants
than a conventional engine.
The MCE-5 VCRi VCR actuator is made up of a hydraulic power
stage and an electromechanical control stage. A hydraulic pump is not
required in this design due to presence of a follower jack which is
displaced by gas pressure and engine inertia. This leads to minimum
energy consumption (few dozen watts in NEDC). This system has
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two balls, each having two functions: act as a valve when a push rod
lifts them from their seat and to act as a check valve when resting in
their seat The balls were chosen as they ensured excellent sealing and
large passage section as well as being highly tolerant to impurities
found in engine oil.

Each cylinder of the MCE-5 VCRi has an independent VCR

actuator, which opens the way to various industrial and functional
strategies. To increase the compression ratio, the ball in the lower
chamber of the VCR actuator is maintained in the open position by
its push-rod for as long as required for the compression ratio set
point to be reached. A 2D Hall-effect sensor indicates the position
of the control rack to an accuracy of 0.02 mm. This causes the ball
to immediately return to its seat after reaching the set point. For the
opposite case (to move from the current ratio to a lower one), the
operation is exactly opposite.

The control piston of the VCR has physical stops at the end of the
maximum stroke These stops are never reached during normal
operation. This is what defines the maximum compression ratio.
During the assembly of the engine, the combustion piston is adjusted
such that the combustion chamber can never collide with the cylinder
even when the maximum compression ratio is reached [52,98-99].
4.3. FEV Geometrically Modified Conrod
FEV has made a two stage VCR system which has low manufacturing
cost and can be easily integrated into conventional engine
architectures. The engine uses a length-adjustable connecting rod
with an eccentric piston pin in the small end of the conrod as shown
in figure 16. A combination of gas and mass forces causes a change in
the compression ratio adjustment. Conrod length is varied by rotating
the eccentric bearing in the small end of the conrod. The moment
acting on the eccentric due to the vectorial sum of gas and interia
forces is used to adjust the length of the conrod. The moment acting
on the eccentric can be both positive and negative during a
combustion cycle as seen in figure 17, hence making it feasible to
adjust in both directions ( can increase or decrease the conrod length).
The two support chambers are connected to the oil circuit via one
check valve each. Further by means of a 3/2 check valve, a passage
from the chamber to the crankcase can be controlled. This makes it
possible for one hydraulic piston to enter more deeply into its support
chamber, displacing oil from it in the process, while the other support
chamber is being filled with oil. In this scenario the eccentric can
rotate in a single direction. The drawback is that the adjustment
process takes several working cycles to conclude. The number of
cycles required for the adjustment depends on two factors mainly the
operating point and the hydraulic resistance. Orificies are used to
control the hydraulic resistance. The hydraulic resistance is to be
adjusted in a manner so as to conclude the adjustment process as
quickly as possible. Failure to do so will lead to engine knocking
during step load changes from part load to full load and the usage of
improved efficiency of the higher compression at load changes will
not be possible. However adjustment time must not be too short as it
can cause cavitation at the check valve of the enlarging support
chamber and Inordinately high impact loads on the support
mechanism when the end stops are reached. Calculations have
demonstrated that it is possible to achieve switch-over times of less
than one second.
Figure 16. Cross sectional view of the connecting rod[32].
To reverse the eccentric's direction of rotation, the 3/2 way value is
triggered. This is a mechanical switch which actuates two cam discs
in such a way that the valve is axially moved in either "CR-low" or in
the "CR-high" direction. The actuation is completed in a single
engine revolution. The valve body, at the end position, is arrested by
a combination of spring and ball catches due to which changes by
subsequent engine revolutions are restricted. Furthermore on
dismantling the engine the parts did not show significant wear.
Figure 17. Movement of the eccentric due to the gas and inertial forces[32].
The key feature to meet a cost effective VCR solution provided by
FEV in this design is by not having used expensive and power
consuming actuators as well as adding all functional elements into
only one component, the connecting rod [32,100].
Conclusion
This paper reviews the major principles on the basis of which a VCR
engine can be developed, namely by the variation in cylinder head,
geometry of connecting rod, crankshaft axis, piston deck height, and
be application of dual piston mechanism and gear mechanism. The
above mentioned principles are comparatively studied on the basis of
8 parameters namely:- combustion chamber integrity, crankshaft -
piston assembly kinematics, mechanical losses, engine overall
rigidity, effect of varying CR on engine displacement, CR control
accuracy, capability to control CR cylinder by cylinder and suitability
of conversion of a stock engine to VCR engine. As seen from the
comparison, each parameter has own limitations and thus those
principles should be selected which have high compatibility with
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existing engines. To achieve this, it is imperative that the combustion
chamber shape and piston kinematics are identical to that of a
conventional engine.
Table 2. Summary of Designs by Manufacturers
These major principles of developing VCR were then chosen as the
benchmark to select prominent companies worldwide and review the
historical developments made by them in this field. It can be seen
from the above discussion that VCR designs being developed by the
automotive manufacturers continually aim to enhance the mechanical
stability, engine performance and emission characteristics of the
engines. VCR engines are characterized by higher power outputs at
high load operating conditions while high efficiency is seen at lower
loads. This leads to a reduction in the specific fuel consumption,
carbon dioxide emissions. Since the driving cycle of an automobile
for the major part of its life consists of city driving conditions i.e.
operation under low loads, hence this improved efficiency plays a
major role in the conservation of fuels. After extensive research the
models being developed today have successfully replaced their
predecessors and improved upon their shortcomings.
After the discussion of the historical developments, newer designs
closer to production are discussed, which present the future path of
development of this technology. As seen most researchers are
working towards a method by which actuation is done by using gas
and inertial forces. Utilization of these forces prevents the usage of
energy consuming and bulky actuators.
VCR engines can truly be referred to as the state-of-the-art
technology of near future in automotive industry because of the
inherent benefits it presents. The number of automobiles is increasing
at a incredible rate and the demand for increased performance is
undying. VCR promises to reduce the consumption of fuels by
decreasing the fuel consumption at low loads. It claims in minimizing
the damage to the environment by reducing the C02 emissions, while
providing increased power and torque at high loads.
However these VCR designs face some stumbling blocks in the form
of higher costs of development, lack of reproducibility of the design
on mass scale and integration with the existing units. This is an
exciting technology in the field of automotive engineering, which
when fully supported by economic and intellectual means will pave
the path towards a revolutionized means of efficient transportation.
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Abbreviations
Variable compression ratio device for internal combustion
engine. US 2009/0038588 A1, filed July 23, 2008, and issued VCR - Variable Compression Ratio
February 12, 2009. CR - Compression ratio
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2013, and issued November 11, 2014.
CO2 - Carbon Dioxide
91. de Gooijer, Lambertus Hendrik. Internal combustion engine
BMEP - Brake Mean Effective Pressure
with variable compression ratio. EP 1 245 803 A1, filed March
30, 2001, and issued October 2, 2002. TDC - Top Dead Centre

92. Hedelin, Lars,. Method and a device for changing the BDC - Bottom Dead Centre
compression ratio in an internal combustion engine. U.S Patent NOx - Oxides of Nitrogen
US5605120A filed on July 30,1993 issued on February 25,1997. Conrod - Connecting rod
NEDC - New European Driving Cycle

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