SBF 3033

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY
e-PORTFOLIO FOR REFLECTION ASSIGNMENT

NAME : NOR AUNI NAJIAN BINTI MAT DAUD

MATRIC NO. : D20181082870

GROUP : C

LECTURER : DR. NORLIANA BINTI MOHD ROSLI

Topic 2 : Nervous system

The nervous system is unique in the vast complexity of thought processes and control actions
that it can perform. One of the most important functions of the nervous system is to process
incoming information in such a way that appropriate mental and motor responses will occur.

The motor neuron can be subdivided into two functional components. The motor system
carries signals from the CNS to skeletal muscle. The other motor output component, the
autonomic nervous system, regulates the internal environment by regulating the organs and
glands of digestive, cardiovascular, excretory, and endocrine systems and also smooth and
cardiac muscles. This controls in involuntary. It's important to realize these two groups are
working together to maintain homeostasis. In reaction to a drop in body temperature for example,
the brain signals the autonomic nervous system to constrict surface blood vessels, which reduces
heat loss. At the same time, the brain also signals the motor nervous system to cause shivering,
which increases heat production.

Most of the synapses used for signal transmission in the central nervous system of the
human being are chemical synapses. In these synapses, the first neuron secretes at its nerve
ending synapse a chemical substance called a neurotransmitter, acts on receptor proteins in the
membrane of the next neuron to excite the neuron, inhibit it, or modify its sensitivity in some
other way. Acetylcholine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, histamine, gamma-aminobutyric acid
(GABA), glycine, serotonin, and glutamate are examples of neurotransmitter.

You probably don’t think about how caffeine is impacting your neurotransmitters when you have
your cup of coffee. Caffeine, found in coffee keeps us awake by countering the effects of
inhibitory neurotransmitters, ones that normally suppress action potentials.

Adenosine is a neurotransmitter that makes us tired. It limits brain stimulation by

blocking other neurotransmitters that excite the brain. When adenosine binds to its receptors,
neural activity slows down, and you feel sleepy. The molecular structure of caffeine is
comparable to adenosine. It binds to the same receptors with which adenosine binds and thus
blocks adenosine from reaching our brain. Caffeine keeps us awake and alert, by preventing
adenosine from reaching the brain. However, if the brain isn't getting enough adenosine
regularly, it will create more receptors. When more receptors are present, it takes more caffeine
to block them. For this reason coffee drinkers are becoming addicted to coffee. Caffeine
enhances energy by stimulating the output of adrenaline, which is the hormone of "fight or
flight," so it increases your concentration and provides an additional burst of energy to the whole
body. Eventually, like most drugs, caffeine increases the output of dopamine in the pleasant
circuits of the brain, thereby helping to help maintain its dependency on this drug;
Topic 3 : Sensory system

The sensory receptors, specialized neurons, sense sensations such as light and sound. The
effect in all cases is to open or close ion channels. The reception of a stimulus leads to second
step, sensory transduction, or conversion of a stimulus to a receptor potential. For example, when
we are eating ice-cream, the sugar molecules in ice-cream are first detected at the taste bud,
where they bind to sweet receptors embedded in the plasma membrane of a taste receptor cell.
The binding activates a signal transduction pathway which causes opening of certain ion
channels within the membrane. Changes in the flow of ions generate an electrical charge
difference in sensory receptor cells called a receptor potential. The transduction of a “sweet”
stimulus to a receptor potentials result in neurotransmitters being secreted at the synapse and
trigger action potential in the sensory neuron, which travel along the axon of brain.

How body’s reaction to a loud noise such as taxi honking? Within milliseconds, receptor
cells in inner ears transduce the sound, and action potentials conduct the signal to the brain. A
vast of network neurons in brain, with millions of synapses, integrates the information and sends
out command signals, again in the form of action potentials. The commands go out via motor
neurons to muscles, then you turn your head to look toward the noise.

Several organs in the inner ear allow to sense movement, position and balance. The
semicircular canals detect changes in the head’s rate of rotation or angular movement. The canals
are arranged in perpendicular planes so you can sense movement in any direction. What triggers
the sickness of motion? Boating, flying or riding in a car can cause nausea and dizziness.
Conflicting inner ear and eye signals can cause motion sickness. When a person in a moving
plane, signals from equilibrium receptors in the inner ear indicate that the body is moving up and
down, left and right but the eyes see a static view, as if not moving at all. Somehow, the
conflicting signal makes the person not feeling well such as dizziness and nausea.

When you have a cold, food just does not taste right? Your senses of smell and taste
depend on receptor cells that detect the chemicals in the environment. Chemoreceptors in taste
buds detect molecules in solution; chemoreceptors in nose detect airborne molecules that
dissolve into the mucus that coats the nasal cavity. Taste receptors release neurotransmitters,
triggering action potentials that carried to the brain by sensory neurons. Olfactory receptors are
themselves sensory neurons. Our olfactory system also detects the most of what we taste. When
a cold occurs, it leads to a slightly blocked in airflow to the olfactory receptors. The sense of
smell is significantly weakened. Although the receptors and brain pathways for taste and smell
are independent, the two senses do interact. Indeed, much of what we perceive as flavor is really
smell. The perception of flavors are the combination of way that taste and smell work together.
Topic 4 : Muscular system

The muscular system is a set of tissues in the body with the ability to change shape.
Muscle cells connect together and eventually to elements of the skeletal system. When the
muscle cells contract, force is created as the muscles pull against the skeleton.

The muscular system’s main function is to allow movement. When muscles contract, they
contribute to gross and fine movement. Gross movement such as walking, running, swimming.
Fine movement involves smaller movements, such as writing, speaking, facial expressions. Most
muscle movement of the body is under conscious control. However, some movements are
reflexive, such as withdrawing a hand from a source of heat. Muscular system take part in
circulation which the heart is a muscle that pumps blood throughout the body. The movement of
the heart is outside of conscious control, and it contracts automatically when stimulated by
electrical signals. Smooth muscle in the arteries and veins plays a further role in the circulation
of blood around the body. These muscles maintain blood pressure and circulation in the event of
blood loss or dehydration. They expand to increase blood flow during times of intense exercise
when the body requires more oxygen. Breathing involves the use of the diaphragm muscle. The
diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle located below the lungs. When the diaphragm contracts, it
pushes downward, causing the chest cavity to get bigger. The lungs then fill with air. When the
diaphragm muscle relaxes, it pushes air out of the lungs. Maintaining normal body temperature is
an important function of the muscular system. When body heat falls below optimal levels, the
skeletal muscles increase their activity to make heat. Shivering is one example of this
mechanism. Muscles in the blood vessels also contract to maintain body heat. Body temperature
can be brought back within normal range through the relaxation of smooth muscle in the blood
vessels. This action increases blood flow and releases excess heat through the skin.

What are some of the advantages associated with endoskeletons, over exoskeletons?

Endoskeletons are internal, articulated systems of rigid supports consisting of bone and
cartilage to which muscles are attached while exoskeletons are hardened outer surfaces to which
internal muscles are attached. An advantage that endoskeletons have over exoskeletons is that
endoskeleton consist of living tissues, this enables vertebrate organisms to grow to much larger
sizes than those with exoskeletons (non-living skeleton) that the overall growth is restricted due
to periodic moulting, such as insects. In addition, the exoskeletons animals are vulnerable when
it is in moulting process, because the new skeleton is very soft until the new exoskeleton has
dried and hardened. The skeletal bones (endoskeleton), muscles attached directly to allow for
movement in different modes of locomotion such as walking, running, jumping, swimming and
flying meanwhile exoskeletons are weaker at the joints that are low in locomotion.
Endoskeletons are also able to support greater body weights than exoskeletons.
Topic 5 : Circulatory system

The main function of the circulatory system is to deliver oxygen to the body tissues,
whilst simultaneously removing carbon dioxide produced by metabolism. Beginning in the heart,
deoxygenated blood (contain carbon dioxide) is returned from systemic circulation returns to
right atrium via vena cava. It is pumped into pulmonary circulation and is delivered to the lungs,
where gas exchange occurs. The carbon dioxide is removed from blood and replaced with
oxygen. The blood is oxygenated, return to the left side of heart. The blood also acts as an
excellent transport medium for nutrients, such as electrolytes as well as hormones. The blood
also transports waste products, that are filtered from the blood in liver.

The majority of mammals (including humans) utilize a double circulatory system which
we have two loops in our body in which blood circulates. One is oxygenated, meaning oxygen
rich and other is deoxygenated which means it has little to no oxygen, but a lot of carbon
dioxide. Double circulatory systems are important because they ensure that we are giving our
tissues and muscles blood full of oxygen for cellular respiration, instead of a mixture of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. While it may take a bit more energy than a single
circulatory system, this system is much more efficient that benefit to humans.

How blood return to heart ?

The heart alternately contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic cycle. When it contracts, it
pumps blood; when it relaxes, its chambers fill with blood. One complete sequence of pumping
and filling is called the cardiac cycle. A contraction phase of the cycle is called systole, and a
relaxation phase is called diastole. Rhythmic contraction of smooth muscles in the walls of
venules and veins account for some movement of the blood. The activity of skeletal muscles
(contract) during exercise helps to pump blood through veins towards the heart, but the flow of
blood away from the heart is prevented by closure of the venous valves. When we inhale, the
change in pressure within the thoracic (chest) cavity causes the venae cava and other large veins
near the heart to expand and fill with blood.

How can atherosclerosis effect our health?

Atherosclerosis is the narrowing of arteries due to plaque buildup on the artery walls.
Arteries carry blood from the heart to the rest of body. Endothelium cells lining the wall keeps
them smooth and allow blood to flow easily. Atherosclerosis happened when endothelium
become damaged, due to factors such as smoking, high blood pressure or high level of glucose,
fat, and cholesterol in blood. The damage allows a collection of substances (plaque) build up and
become hard block the artery and disrupted the blood flow around the body. Sometimes, pieces
of plaque break open and blood cells, known as platelets, stick at the damaged tissues, forming
blood clots. A clot can block the artery, leading to threatening compilation, such as stroke and
heart attack.
Topic 7 : Immune system

Nearly everything in our environment teems with pathogens, bacteria, fungi, viruses, and
other disease-causing agents. Yet we do not constantly become ill, thanks to the immune system,
the body system of defenses against agent that cause disease.

Invertebrates rely solely on innate immunity. For example, insects have an exoskeleton,
which is tough, dry barrier that keeps out bacteria and viruses. Pathogens that breach these
external defenses contfront internal defenses such as low pH and antimicrobial molecules.
Circulating immune cells are capable of phagocytosis, the cellular ingestion and digestion of
foreign substances. In vertebrates, innate immunity coexist with more recently evolved adaptive
immune respond. In mammals, innates defences include external barriers such as skin, and
mucous membrane. Mucous membranes line internal surfaces that are open to external
environment, including digestive, respiratory, reproductive and urinary tracts. The mucous
produced by these tissues provide protection. It also traps foreign particles and contain defensive
proteins that kill harmful microbes. In airway, cilia assist by sweeping trapped particle away
from the lungs.

The inflammatory response disinfect damaged tissue

The skin will become red, warm and swollen caused by insect bites, microorganisms, or
physical injury. This is call as an inflammatory response, a major component of our innate
immunity. The main function of the inflammatory response is to disinfect and clean injured
tissues. At the damaged tissues cause by the injury allowing infection by bacteria. The bacteria
activate macrophages, which signaling molecules that increase local blood flow. At the injury
site, mast cells (white blood cell that reside in connective tissue) release histamine, which
induces neighboring blood capillaries to dilate and become leaky. Fluid passes out into affected
tissues. Clotting proteins along with platelets form local clots that help seal off the infected area,
preventing the spread of infection to surrounding tissues and allowing healing to begin. The
neutrophil that migrate into the area engulf bacteria and the remain of any body cells killed by
physical injury. Inflammation is a natural defense. However, chronic inflammation – the
persistence of inflammatory for abnormally long periods can be harmful. A variety of common
disorders are associated with chronic inflammation, including arthritis, heart disease,
Alzheimer’s disease and some cancer.

Immune function. When the body is fighting an infection, the organs of lymphatic
system become a major battle ground . A lymph circulates through lymphatic organs such as the
lymph nodes, it carries microbes and their toxin pick up from infection sites anywhere in the
body. Once inside lymphatic organs, macrophage engulf the invaders as part of the innate
immune respond. Lymph nodes fill with huge number of defensive cells, causing the “swollen
glands” in neck or armpits that doctor look for as a sign of infection. Many of the defensive cells
in the lymph nodes are lymphocytes which are responsible for the adaptive immune response.
Topic 8 : Excretory system

There are several functions of excretory system. First ,maintenance of proper internal levels of
inorganic solutes (Na+, K+, Cl-, H+, CO2 and so forth). Second, to maintain plasma water
volume. Third, removal of nonnutritive and harmful substances resulting from metabolism (urea,
bilirubin) or ingestion (plant alkaloids, drugs). The kidney plays an important role in the
excretion of nitrogenous wastes as well as other water-soluble toxins. Next, maintenance of
osmotic balance by selective retention and excretion of water and ions.

How water is being regulated in your kidney when you are fasting in summer region?

The process of ultrafiltration which the high hydrostatic pressure forces small molecules
such as water, glucose, amino acids, sodium chloride and urea through the filter, from the blood
in the glomerular capsule across the basement membrane of the Bowman's capsule and into the
nephron. Then, reabsorption of water into bloodstream at proximal tubule , more reabsorption of
water at descending limb of loop of Henle which is permeable to water.

During fasting, blood and extracellular fluid become hyperosmolarity. During this
condition, your blood need to conserve the water. Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus sense
osmolarity of blood and give signal to hypothalamus to stimulate ADH release from pituitary.
ADH (water conserving hormone) most important role to conserve the fluid volume of body by
reducing amount of water passed out in urine. More water return to bloodstream during
reabsorption. ADH increases permeability of water of tubule and collecting duct lead to water
reabsorption that helps prevent further osmolarity increase. This condition causes urine more
concentrated and in lower volume.

How do bony fish live in concentrated salt water?

The concentration of salt water is higher than inner body. This lead to rate of water loss is
high in marine bony fish. They drink water seawater at a rate of approx. 1% of their body
weight/hour. They have specialized cells in the gills to excrete excess salt. Excretion of salt ions
and small amount of water in urine from kidney. This will maintain their concentration fluid and
within surrounding.

How do desert animal such as kangaroo rat prevent water loss in desert?

Their ability to produce small quantities of hyper-concentrated urine is attributed to their

possession of extremely long loops of Henle. It responsible to give a greater opportunity for
water to be reabsorbed specifically in the part descending limb of loop of Henle that permeable
to water but not to salt. This leads to increases of concentration of urine and conserve water from
loss. The increase in concentration of ions deep in the medulla is effectively proportional to the
length of the loops of Henle.
Topic 9 : Endocrine System

To maintain homeostasis and carry out other coordinated functions, the cell’s of an
animal’s body must communicate one another. They do so through chemical and electrical
signals, travelling by way of two major organs system; the endocrine system and nervous system.
The endocrine system is a group of interacting glands and tissues that produce and secretes
chemicals to initiate and maintain body functions. Endocrine cells release chemical signals called
hormones, which travel in bloodstream to all parts of body, but only certain types of cells, called
target cells, have receptor for that specific hormone. The endocrine system is well suited for
coordinate the body’s responses to stimuli such as dehydration, low level of blood glucose, and
stress.

What stimulates an endocrine gland to produce hormone? For some endocrine

glands, a change in the levels of certain ions and nutrients is the stimulus. For example, in
response to low calcium levels, the four parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormones (PTH)
into the blood, leading to a rise in calcium levels. Ca2+ reabsorption in the kidney, and inducing
osteoclasts to decompose the matrix of bone and release Ca2+ into the blood. A lack of PTH lead
to low blood Ca2+ , result in convulsive contractions of skeletal muscle/tetany.

How the hormone response to stress? Your body responds to stress by releasing
hormones that increase your heart and breathing rates and ready your muscles to respond. The
endocrine system includes two adrenal glands which are adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex.
Both secrete hormones enable body to respond to stress. The adrenal medulla secretes hormone
that prepare the body for sudden action; they ensure a rapid response to stress stimulated by a
physical threat, exercise or exposure to cold. For example, the situation when someone fall into
an icy lake. Adrenal medulla secretes two hormones : epinephrine (adrenaline) and
norepinephrine (noradrenaline) stimulate fight- or-flight reactions. The heart will beat faster and
skin will develop goose bumps when sensing danger. Epinephrine and norepinephrine are
secreted in response to positive or negative stress. When nerve cells are excited by some form of
stressful stimulus, adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline and noradrenaline into the blood. Both
hormone stimulate liver cells to release glucose, making more fuel available for cellular work.
They also prepare body for action by raising the blood pressure, breathing rate and metabolic
rate.

A single hormone can perform variety of functions in different animals. Hormone

play important roles in all vertebrates that are only distantly related. Interestingly, the same
chemical signal can have different effect in different animals. The hormone prolactin (PRL), is a
good of example of a hormone that produce diverse effects in different vertebrates species. In
mammals, mammary gland growth and milk synthesis. PRL also help to regulates fat metabolism
and reproduction in birds. While in amphibians, PRL stimulates movement to water in
preparation for breeding and delays metamorphosis, also as larval growth hormones. In fish such
as salmon that migrate between salt and fresh water, PRL helps to regulates salt and water
balance in the gills and kidneys.
Topic 10 : Digestive system

The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into energy
and basic nutrients to feed the entire body. Food passes through a long tube inside the body
known as the alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). The alimentary canal is
made up of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, and large intestines.
In addition to the alimentary canal, there are several important accessory organs that help your
body to digest food but do not have food pass through them. Accessory organs of the digestive
system include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

The pharynx or throat, opens to two passageways; the esophagus (part of the digestive
system) and the trachea (windpipe, part of the respiratory system). Before swallowing,
esophageal opening is normally closed off by a sphincter. Air enters the larynx (voice box), flows
past the vocal cords, through trachea, and into the lung. The situation change when we start to
swallow. The tongue pushes a bolus of food into the pharynx, triggering the swallowing reflex.
Movement of the trachea tips a door like flap cartilage called the epiglottis over the opening of
the trachea. Like a crossing guard at the dangerous intersection, the epiglottis directs the
closing the trachea, ensuring the food go down the esophagus. The esophageal relaxes, and the
bolus enters the esophagus. The esophagus sphincter then contracts above the bolus and
epiglottis tips up again, reopening the breathing tube. The esophagus is a muscular tube that
conveys food to the stomach. The muscles at the top of the esophagus are under voluntary
control (the act of swallowing voluntarily). But then, involuntary contraction of smooth muscles
in the rest of esophagus take over. Muscle contraction (peristalsis) squeeze a bolus toward the
stomach. What happening in the trachea when food “goes down the wrong pipe”? An
incorrectly positioned epiglottis lets food enter the trachea (rather than esophagus) triggers a
strong cough reflex.

Our breathing and swallowing are carefully coordinated by the epiglottis, but sometimes
our swallowing mechanism goes awry. For example, someone may eat too quickly or fail to
chew the food thoroughly , or a young child may swallow an object too big to pass through the
esophagus. This can lead to a blocked pharynx or trachea. The blockage may prevent air from
flowing into the trachea, causing the person to choke. If breathing is not restored within
minutes, brain damage or death will result. To save someone from who is coking, we need to
quickly dislodge any foreign objects in the throat and get air flowing by using “Heimlich
maneuver” invented by Dr. Henry Heimlich in the 1970s. To perform the maneuver, stand
behind the victim and place your arm (in fist condition) around the victim’s upper abdomen,
well below the rib cage. Press into the victim’s abdomen with a quick upward thrust. The
diaphragm is forcibly elevated pushing air into the trachea. The pressure of air being expelled
from the lung causes food to dislodge from the throat.
Topic 11 : Reproductive system

A female mammal’s reproductive cycle is a recurring sequence of events that produces

gamete, makes them available for fertilization, and prepares the body for pregnancy. The
reproductive cycle repeats every 28 days, on average. The reproductive cycle is actually two
closely linked cycles. The ovarian cycle controls oogenesis (the growth and release of egg).
During the menstrual cycle, the uterus is prepared for possible implantation of an embryo.
Hormonal massages coordinate the two cycles, synchronizing follicle growth in the ovaries and
ovulation with the establishment of a uterine lining that can support a growing embryo. Events in
the menstrual cycle are synchronized with the ovarian cycle. The first day of a woman’s period is
designed day 1 of the menstrual cycle. Menstruation is uterine bleeding caused by breakdown of
the endometrium. This corresponds to the beginning of the pre-ovulatory phase of the ovarian
cycle. After menstruation, the endometrium lining regrows. If continues to thicken through the
time of ovulation. If embryo has not implanted in the uterine lining, menstruation begins again,
marking the start of the next ovarian and menstrual cycles.

The growth of the follicle and ovulation with events in the menstrual cycle (preparation
of the uterine lining for possible implantation of embryo). A releasing hormone from the
hypothalamus in the brain regulates secretion of the FSH (stimulates growth of an ovarian
follicle, starting the ovarian cycle) and LH. In turn the follicle secretes estrogen. Early pre-
ovulatory phase, the follicle is small which secretes small amount of estrogen . As the follicle
grows, it secretes more estrogen, This keep the blood level of FSH and LH low. As the time of
ovulation approaches, estrogen reaching a critical peak before ovulation. This high level of
estrogen exerts positive feedback on the hypothalamus, then pituitary secrete surges of FSH and
LH. LH stimulate the completion of meiosis I, transform primary oocyte in the follicle into
secondary oocyte. It also signals enzymes to rupture the follicle, allowing ovulation to occur, and
trigger the development of corpus luteum from the ruptured follicle. LH also promotes secretion
of progesterone and estrogen by the corpus luteum.

Parturition is induced by hormone and other chemical signals

Estrogen, reaches its highest level in the mother’s blood during late pregnancy. An important
effect of estrogen is to induce oxytocin receptors on cells of uterus. Cells of the fetus produce
hormone oxytocin, and late in pregnancy, the mother’s pituitary gland secretes it in increasing
amounts. Oxytocin stimulates the smooth muscles in the wall of uterus, produce contraction. It
also stimulates the placenta to make prostaglandins, chemical regulators that stimulate the
uterine muscle cells to contract even more. The induction of labor involves positive feedback, a
type of control in which the change triggers mechanisms that amplify the change. In this case,
oxytocin and prostaglandins cause uterine contractions that in turn stimulate the release of more
oxytocin and prostaglandins. The result is a steady increase in contraction intensity, climaxing in
forceful muscle contraction that propel a baby from the uterus.
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