Chapter 1: Literature Survey

1-1 Stainless steels and their types

Leon guillet develops the alloying compositions of the first stainless steels at 1904 1.
Stainless steels are a generic term for a family of corrosion resistant alloy steels
containing 12.5% or more chromium. All stainless steels have a high resistance to
corrosion. This resistance to attack is due to the neutrally occurring chromium-rich oxide
film formed on the surface of the steel. Although extremely thin, this invisible, inert film
is tightly adherent to the metal and extremely protective in a wide range of corrosion
media. The film is rapidly self-repairing in the presence of oxygen, and damage by
abrasion, cutting or machining is quickly repaired.2

1-1.1 The effect of alloying constituents

Alloying elements can be divided into two main groups, depending on their effect in the
temperature ranges where ferrite or austenite are stable phases. They are referred to as
austenite or ferrite forming elements. Austenite forming elements include nickel,
manganese, carbon and nitrogen, while ferrite-forming elements include chromium,
molybdenum, silicon and niobium. The austenite forming elements extend the steel's
austenite zone as concentrations increase, while ferrite-forming elements reduce the zone
as their concentrations increase.

Some alloying elements and their effect:

 Chromium: forms a surface film of chromium oxide to make the stainless steel
corrosion resistant. It also increases the scaling resistance at elevated temperatures.
 Nickel: stabilizes the austenitic structure and increases ductility, making stainless
steel easier to form. It increases high temperature strength and corrosion resistance,
particularly in industrial and marine atmospheres, chemical, food and textile
processing industries.
 Silicon: increases scaling resistance by forming a tight initial scale, which will withstand
cyclic temperature changes. It resists carburizing at high temperatures and slightly
increases tensile strength and hardness. Small amounts of silicon are added to all grades
of stainless for deoxidizing.
 Manganese: promotes the stability of austenite, at or near room temperature and
improves hot working properties. Addition of up to 2% manganese has no effect on
strength, ductility and toughness. Manganese is important as a partial replacement of
nickel in 200 series stainless grades.

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 Molybdenum: increases corrosion resistance, strength at elevated temperatures, and
creep resistance. It expands the range of passivity and counter-acts tendency to pit
especially in chloride environments.

 Aluminium: is a very strong ferrite former and lowers the hardenability of stainless
steel. It improves scaling resistance.
 Carbon: strengthens stainless steel but promotes the formation of precipitates
harmful to corrosion resistance.
 Columbium: combines with carbon to reduce susceptibility to intergranular corrosion. It
acts as a grain refiner and promotes the formation of ferrite.
 Copper: is added to stainless steels to increase their resistance to certain corrosive
environments. It also decreases susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking and provides
age hardening effects.
 Titanium: combines with carbon to reduce susceptibility to intergranular corrosion, it
acts as a grain refiner and promotes the formation of ferrite. 3

The Schaeffler diagram in (fig. 1.1) shows how the structure of the material is
affected by varying concentrations of austenite and ferrite forming elements.
As, depending on the type and quantities of alloying elements, the structures of the
materials in the group differ, giving them differing physical and mechanical
properties, corrosion resistances and weldabilities, they have been divided up into the
following groups for continued discussion:

 Austenitic steels.
 Ferritic steels.
 Martensitic steels.
 Ferritic-austenitic steels.
 Martensitic-austenitic steels.

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 Figure 1.1 Schaeffler diagram for stainless steel

Some benefits of stainless steel type:

i. Corrosion resistance.
ii. High and low temperature resistance.
iii. Ease of fabrication.
iv. High strength.
v. Aesthetic appeal…. Varity of surface finish.
vi. Hygienic properties…. The cleanability of stainless steel makes it the first choice. In
kitchens, hospitals food and pharmaceutical processing facilities.
vii. Life cycle characteristics…. Low maintaince material and often the least expensive
choice in a life cycle cost comparison.

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 1-1.2 Types of stainless steels
In addition to chromium nickel, molybdenum, titanium niobium and other elements
may also be added to stainless steels in varying quantities to produce a range of
stainless steel grades, each with different properties. There are a number of choose
from, but all stainless steels can be divided into five basic categories as shown in
table (1.1).

Table 1.1 types and grades of stainless steels

Type Grade
i. Austenitic (3xx)
ii. Ferritic (4xx)
iii. Martensitic (4xx)
iv. Duplex (DSS)
v. Precipitation hardening (6xx)

These names are according to the microstructure in each steel group. Austenitic and
Ferritic grades account for approximately 95% of stainless steel applications. 4

1-1.2.1 Austenitic stainless steels

Austenitic stainless steels exhibit a single-phase, face-centred cubic (FCC) structure that
is maintained over a wide range of temperatures. This structure results from a balance of
alloying additions that stabilize the austenite phase from elevated to cryogenic
temperatures. Because these alloys are predominantly single phase, they can only be
strengthened by solid solution alloying or by work hardening. Contain from16 to 25% Cr
and from 8 to 20% Ni to maintain a stable austenitic structure over the temperature
range from cryogenic temperatures, where they exhibit high toughness to elevated
temperatures of nearly 600 °C (1110 °F), where they exhibit good oxidation resistance.
Because the austenitic materials are nonmagnetic, they are sometimes used in
applications where magnetic materials are not acceptable.
Minor alloying additions are approximately 1% Si (maximum), which is used as a
deoxidizer; 0.02 to 0.08% C, which is used as an austenite stabilizer; and approximately
1.5% Mn, which is used both as an austenite stabilizer and as a sulphur and silicon
compound former. The most common types of austenitic stainless steels are the UNS
S20000 and S30000 alloys (AISI 200 and 300 series). 5
And the most widely used stainless steel is 304 stainless steel. It is also known as 18-8
stainless steel because of its composition of 18% Cr and 8% Ni.
The addition of Ni (FCC) into Fe-Cr alloys, as shown in (fig. 1.2) tends to widen
the range over which austenite (FCC) exists and increase its stability of austenite at low
temperatures. Austenitic stainless steel is the most commonly used accounting for more
than 70% of production.

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 6
Figure 1.2 Phase diagrams: (a) Fe-C; (b) Fe-Cr; (c) Fe-Ni-Cr at 70% Fe.

Basic properties of austenitic stainless steel:

 Excellent corrosion resistance in organic acids.
 Excellent weldability.
 Excellent formability, fabricability and ductility.
 Excellent cleanability and hygiene characteristics.
 Excellent low temperature properties (high toughness at all temperatures).
 Non-magnetic.
 Hardenability cold work only (these alloys are not hardenable by heat treatment).

Common uses of austenitic stainless steels:

 Computer floppy disk shutters which use 304 austenitic stainless steel.
 Computer keyboard key springs which use 301 austenitic stainless steel.
 Kitchen sinks.
 Food processing equipment.
 Architectural applications.
 Chemical plant and equipment.
Austenitic stainless steel has small amounts of carbon, nickel up to 25%, and should have a Cr
at least 12.5%. Chemical composition of some austenitic stainless steel alloys is shown in table
(1.2).

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Table 1.2 Chemical compositions of some austenitic stainless steels alloys.
Alloying 302 304 316
element
Carbon 0.15% max 0.08% max 0.08% max
Chromium 17.00 to 18.00 to 16.00 to
19.00% 20.00% 18.00%
Manganese 2.0% max 2.0% max 2.0% max
Silicon 1.0% max 1.0% max 1.0% max
Nickel 8.00 to 8.00 to 10.00 to
10.00% 10.50% 14.00%
Molybdenum -------- ------------- 2.00 to
3.00%

Austenitic stainless steels have good mechanical properties, tensile strength may reach 500
Ksi, hardness may reach 380 HV if cold rolled and elongation may reach 60%, hence such
austenitic stainless steels are used over 70% in industry. Some mechanical properties of
some austenitic stainless steel alloys are shown in table (1.3).

Table 1.3 Mechanical properties of some austenitic stainless steels alloys.

Mechanical
property 302 304 316
Tensile
strength 90-185 84-185 84-485
(Ksi)
Yield
strength 40-140 42-140 42-140
(Ksi)
Elongation
in 2-inches 50% 55% 50%
(annealed)
Modulus of
elasticity 28x10e6 28x10e6 28x10e6
(psi)
Hardness
(annealed) 75-90 HRB 75-90 HRB 75-90 HRB
Hardness
(cold work) 25-39 HRB 25-39 HRB 25-39 RB

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 1-1.2.2 Ferritic Stainless Steels:

These are composed mainly of a BCC phase. Chromium (BCC) tends to stabilize
-Fe (BCC) and its high-temperature counterpart -Fe (BCC), which merge to
form the so-called closed  loop. It can be said that Ferritic stainless steels have
metallurgical characteristics similar to those of Fe-Cr alloys containing
sufficient Cr (11-30%) to remain outside the  loop but with low carbon content
(less than 0.12%C).. They are essentially Ferritic over the whole solid-state
temperature range. To avoid forming an excessive amount of the brittle  phase,
however, the maximum Cr content of Ferritic stainless steels is in general kept
below 27% as shown in (fig 1.3).
This group of alloys generally containing only chromium, with the balance mostly Fe,
these alloys are somewhat less ductile than the austenitic types and again are not
hardenable by heat treatment. 7

Figure 1.3 Ferritic stainless steel and the brittle  phase formation 8

Basic properties of ferritic stainless steel:

 Moderate to good corrosion resistance increasing with chromium content.
 Not hardenable by heat treatment and always used in the annealed condition.
 Magnetic.
 Weldability is poor.
 Formability not as good as the austenitic.

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 Common uses of ferritic stainless steel:
 Computer floppy disk hubs using 430 alloys.
 Automotive trim using 430 alloy.
 Automotive exhausts using 409.
 Colliery equipment.
 Hot water tanks using 444 alloys.

Some chemical composition and mechanical properties of some Ferritic stainless steel alloys
are shown in table (1.4) and table (1.5) respectively.

Table1.4 Chemical composition of some Ferritic stainless steels grades

405 409 430

Carbon 0.08% max .08% max 0.12% max
Chromium 13.00% 11.00% 17.00%
Aluminum 0.2% ------------- ----------------
Other elements --------------- Ti 6xc ----------------

Table1.5 Mechanical properties of some Ferritic stainless steels grades

405 409 430
Yield strength
276 276 345
(Mpa)
Tensile strength
448 469 517
(Mpa)
% Elongation 25% 20% 25%
Transition
4.4 21 21-100
temperature °C

1-1.2.3 Martensitic stainless steels:

Martensitic stainless steels were the first stainless steels commercially developed (as
cutlery) and have relatively high carbon content (0.1-1.20%) compared to others stainless
steels.
They are plain chromium steels containing between 12 and 18% chromium These
stainless steels can be said to behave like Fe-Cr alloys containing less than about 12%
Cr (inside the  loop), these alloys solidify as -ferrite and transform to austenite
during cooling. When the cooling rate is sufficiently rapid, as in the case of
welding, the austenite that forms transforms into martensite. It should be
emphasized that the Fe-Cr phase diagram can be used only as a convenient basis for
distinguishing the above two different structural categories of stainless steels.

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 Basic properties of martensitic stainless steel:
 Moderate corrosion resistance.
 Can be hardened by heat treatment and therefore high strength and hardness levels.
 Poor weldability due to relatively high carbon content.
 Magnetic.

Common uses of martensitic stainless steel:

 Knife blades.
 Surgical instruments.
 Shafts.
 Spindles.
 Pins.

Chemical composition and mechanical properties of some Martensitic stainless steel

alloys are shown in table (1.6) and table (1.7) respectively.

Table1.6 Chemical composition of Martensitic steels

420 422 440A

Carbon .15% .22% .72%
Chromium 13.00% 13.00% 17.00%
Molybdenum 1.0% 1.0% 1.0%
Vanadium 0.25% 0.25% 0.25%
Tungsten 1.00% 1.00% 1.00%

Table1.7 Mechanical properties of Martensitic stainless steels

420 422 440A

Yield strength
345 1379 1445
(Mpa)
Tensile strength
655 1758 1724
(Mpa)
%Elongation 25% 10% 10%
Tempering
Annealed 204 315
temperature °C

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 1-1.2.4 Precipitation hardening stainless steels:
These steels have been formulated so that they can be supplied in a solution treated
condition, (in which they are machinable) and can be hardened, after fabrication, in a
single low temperature “aging” process.
Age hardening elements such as Al, Ti, Cu they contain (10-30) % Cr and varying
amounts of molybdenum and nickel. It has high mechanical strength without significant
loss of corrosion resistance.

Basic properties of PH stainless steel:

 Moderate to good corrosion resistance.
 Very high strength.
 Good weldability.
 Magnetic.

Common uses of PH stainless steel:

 Shafts for pumps and valves.

Some chemical composition and mechanical properties of some precipitation hardening

stainless steel alloys are shown in table (1.8) and table (1.9) respectively.

Table1.8 Chemical composition of Precipitation hardening steels

17-7 PH 17-4 PH
Carbon 0.07% 0.04%
Chromium 17.00% 17.00%
Nickel 7.00% 4.00%
Manganese 1.20% -----------------
Copper ------------ 3.40%

Table1.9 Mechanical properties of Precipitation hardening stainless steels

17-7 PH 17-4 PH
Yield strength (Mpa) 1276 1207
Tensile strength (Mpa) 1370 1310
% Elongation 9% 14%
Hardness (HRC) 47 40

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 1-1.2.5 Duplex stainless steels
These are stainless steels containing 50 vol. %Ferrite + 50 vol. %Austenite and
relatively high chromium between (18-28) percent And moderate amounts of nickel
between (4.5-8)% .The nickel content is insufficient to generate a fully austenitic
structure and the result in combination of Ferritic and austenitic structures is called
duplex. Most duplex steels contain molybdenum in a range of (2.5-4) % to increase
pitting resistance.

Basic properties of Duplex stainless steel:

 High resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
 Increased resistance to chloride ion attack.
 Higher tensile and yield strength than austenitic or Ferritic steels.
 Good weldability and formability.

Common uses of Duplex stainless steel:

 Marine applications, particularly at slightly elevated temperature.
 Desalination plant.
 Heat exchangers.
 Petrochemical plant.9

1-2 Chromium-molybdenum Martensitic Steels:

The development of 9–12% chromium steels is reported to have originated in 1912 with
the manufacture of a 12%Cr: 2–5% Mo steel for steam turbine blades by Krupp and
Mannesmann in Germany. However, in 1912–13 Brearleyin the U.K., while attempting to
develop high-temperature steels for gun barrels, accidentally discovered that Martensitic
steels containing 13% Cr and 0.2% C did not rust. The stainless characteristics of high-
chromium steels were also recognized by Haynes in the USA and by Strauss and Maurerin
Germany at about the same time. The high-chromium, high-carbon Martensitic steels were
hard and had a sharp cutting edge and were subsequently developed commercially for
applications such as cutlery knives and tableware in competition with austenitic stainless
steels as well as for razors, scalpel blades, and heat-resisting tools and bearings. The 9 and
12% Cr transformable steels with lower carbon (0.1% max) contents and additions of Mo,
W, V, Nb, N and other elements, possessing higher creep-rupture strengths combined with
good oxidation and corrosion resistance at elevated temperatures, have subsequently been
developed. These steels have been used or considered for use in petrochemical and
chemical plants, gas turbine engineering, aircraft and aerospace industries, electrical power

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 plants, and as nuclear fission and fusion reactor components. The steel compositions are
given in tables (1.10) and tables (1.11).10, 11, 12

Table 1.10 Compositions of commercial and developmental 9% Cr martensitic steels.

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Table 1.11 Compositions of commercial and developmental 12% Cr martensitic steels.

13
Table 1.11 (continued)

The 9Cr-1Mo (T9) type of steel possessing fairly moderate creep-rupture strength was
initially developed in the 1930s for such applications. However, the principal uses of the
high-chromium Martensitic steels are currently for components in gas turbines and in the
boilers and turbines in steam power plants. 13, 14 The development and usage of the 9–12%
Cr steels for these applications, as well as the 7–12% Cr steels for core components in fast
breeder reactors and as potential first wall and breeder blanket structural materials in
fusion reactor systems .15, 16.

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1-3 Welding variables and common defects of
Stainless Steel
Methods for joining metals have been known for thousands of years, but for most of this
period the only form of welding was forging welding by a blacksmith.
A number of totally new welding principles emerged at the end of 19th century;
sufficient electrical current could then be generated for resistance welding and arc
welding. Arc welding was initially carried out using carbon electrodes, developed by
Bemados, and was shortly followed by the use of steel rods. The Swede Oskar Kjellberg
made an important advance when he developed and patented the coated electrode. The
welding result was amazing and formed the foundation of the ESAB welding company.
Another early method of welding, which was also developed at that time, was gas
welding. The use of acetylene and oxygen made it possible to produce a comparatively
high flame temperature, 3100°C, which is higher than that of other hydrocarbon based
gas. The intensity of all these heat sources enables heat to be generated in, or applied to
the work piece quicker than it is conducted away into the surrounding metal.
Consequently it is possible to generate a molten pool, which solidifies to form the
unifying bond between the parts being joined.17

1-3.1 Welding variables:

There are a number of variables to remember when welding stainless steel. A few of
the most important are:
a) Make sure the base metal and filler metal are clean

b) Minimize the heat input whenever Possible

c) Use the correct filler metal

d) Fill the crater upon weld completion

e) Avoid sensitization (overheating the base material)

Sensitization is the formation of chromium carbides in the heat-affected zone (HAZ), the
area directly adjacent to the weld. The heat-affected zone has been heated to just below
its melting temperature followed by rapid cooling. As figure (1.4) shows, the metal
atoms occupy the regular sites in the matrix. These metals are the iron, chromium, nickel,
molybdenum and manganese atoms. The carbon atoms occupy the small spaces between
the metal atoms called interstitial spaces. In the temperature range of 800 F - 1500 F, the

15
 carbon atoms actually move through the metal matrix and combine with the chromium
atoms to form chromium carbide (Cr23C6). Stainless steels begin to lose corrosion
resistance when the free chromium in the matrix falls below about 10.5%. When carbide
precipitation occurs, some chromium is tied up as carbides (lowering the level to
<10.5%), and the corrosion resistance of the material is reduced.

Figure 1.4 The formation of chromium carbides in the heat-affected zone

This loss of corrosion resistance typically occurs in the HAZ, as shown in figure (1.5).
When a sensitized weldment is put into service, the corrosion will occur just beside
The weld (HAZ) and often penetrates through the base metal. Sensitized stainless steel
weldments are sometimes referred to as “peppered weld metal” as the precipitate is dark
in colour and heavily oxidized.18

Figure 1.5 Sensitization Reduces the Free Chromium Level in the HAZ

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 1-3.2 Weld Discontinuities and Problems
The AWS defines discontinuities as interruptions in the typical structure of a weldment.
A discontinuity only becomes a defect when the component is rendered unserviceable.

1-3.2.1 Lack of Fusion

Lack of fusion is little or no penetration and tie-in to the base metals, as shown in figure
(1.6). This can be caused by many different reasons; some of the common ones are

 Torch Not Centred:

This concentrates the heat of the arc on only one of the pieces. If both pieces to be
joined are not melted by the arc, the molten puddle will have a tendency to lie on top of
the second piece without fusing to it.

 Poor Torch Oscillation:

If a welder makes “little circles” with the torch, it is easier to make a pretty bead, but
there is a good chance for lack of fusion. As the torch moves back into the puddle, the
molten metal doesn’t stop and wait. It continues to advance, but without the benefit of
the intense heat of the arc to melt the base metal. The puddle just lies on top of the work
instead of fusing to it. Exaggerated oscillation produces the same problem.

Figure 1.6 lack of fusion

17
  Excessive travel speed

If the travel speed is too high, it is possible to not spend enough time to allow fusion with
the base metal. There is a minimum amount of heat required for every welding joint,
because the base metal can cool the puddle very rapidly after it is deposited.

 Vertical down Welding:

Is notorious for lack of fusion at the toes (where the weld metal intersects the base metal)
and very little penetration. This lack of fusion can also occur in flat and horizontal
positions where it is called overlap, or cold lap. Getting on top of the weld puddle usually
causes lack of fusion in vertical down welds. This prevents the arc from adequately
heating the base material to produce proper fusion. An old slang term for this defect is
“finger nailing” because if it is bad enough, you can insert a fingernail beneath it.

 Travel Speed too slow:

It is similar to improper torch oscillation. The heat from the arc is used to further heat of
the already molten puddle and raise its temperature instead melting the base metal.

 Current too Low can also cause lack of fusion.

This is usually only a problem on thicker sections, where the base metal pulls heat out of
the puddle very rapidly.

 Incorrect Welding Parameters is the last major cause for lack

of fusion.
This category would include all the variables covered plus incorrect ESO (electrical
stick-out), torch angle wrong, incorrect shielding gas, etc

1-3.2.2 Porosity
Porosity (figure 1.7) can be a significant problem, and not easily solved. The biggest
causes are probably contamination of the shielding gas, followed by filler metal and base
metal contamination.Porosity can also be caused by excessive tip-to-work distance. This can
create turbulence in the shielding gas column; aspirating oxygen and nitrogen from the
atmosphere, which then react with the high temperature weld metal. Additional causes of
porosity are shielding gas flow too low and shielding gas flow too high. At low rates,
the gas cannot exclude the atmosphere. At high flows, turbulence in the gas column
causes mixing with the atmosphere.

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Figure 1.7 porosity in a weld

1-3.2.3 Burn-Through
Excessive current for the application, as shown in figure (1.8), usually causes burn-
through. Sometimes an easy solution is to increase your ESO (electrical stick-out.) This
reduces heat input into the part. Another problem can be that the travel speed is too low.
Travelling too slowly increases heat input greatly. When possible, increase the travel
speeds and make multiple passes, if necessary. Incorrect wire diameter is also a cause of
burn-through. Reducing the wire diameter allows you to weld at lower currents but at the
same deposition rate with reduced heat input. One more variable that can cause
additional heat is using the incorrect shielding gas. The shielding gas can be tailored to
the application to help control the heat input. Excessive gaps can also be a cause of burn-
through,
.

Figure 1.8 burn through

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 1-3.2.4 Undercut
Undercut (figure 1.9) has three main causes. The first is excessive voltage, which can
cause the arc to wander. The melted area of the base metal is too large for the puddle to
flow into and fill the undercut area. High travel speeds can lead to under- cut for the
same reason. The heat input is too low to allow the weld metal to flow and the bead is
generally convex.

Figure 1.9 undercut on the upper leg of a filled weld

1-3.2.5 Spatter

Operating outside acceptable parameters for the desired metal transfer mode usually
causes spatter. For example, operating in the spray transfer mode with a .045" diameter
electrode and a8% Ar/2% O2 gas requires about 200 amps and 27 volts.

1-3.2.6 Cracking
Cracking (figure 1.10) in stainless steels can be a problem and is usually caused by:
High Restraint - A highly restrained part will not allow the material to move to relieve
the stresses of the weld metal during cooling. This also leads to local stresses beyond the
yield strength of the material.
Poor Bead Shape - A convex bead will greatly increase the stress at the toes of the weld.
The increased thickness of the centre of the bead forces the stress into the toes, and can
rapidly exceed the yield strength of the material.
Contamination - Contamination of the weld puddle from material on the base metal, the
filler metal, or in the shielding gas can cause cracking. These cracks are generally found
in the weld crater.

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Figure 1.10 centerline and underbead cracking

1-3.2.7 Sensitization of Alloying Elements

Sensitization or the grain boundary precipitation of chromium carbide cannot be seen or
detected in any way during welding. Some of the things to do to minimize - the
possibility of sensitization are:
Ensure that base metals and filler metals remain as clean as possible any contamination
that contains hydrocarbons in any form can cause problems. The arc heat causes
hydrocarbons such as an oil or grease to dissociate into its component elements. Since
one is generally carbon, that can add to the carbon content of the weld metal and lead
to sensitization.19

1-4The weldability of steel

The following section briefly describes the metallurgical aspectd processes and the
suitability of various steels for thermal welding. Weldability means that the welding
process is intended to produce as homogenous properties as possible in the weld, i.e.
that the materials affected by the weld must have at least the same strength,
corrosion resistance, oxidation resistance etc. as the base material. The properties of
the weld metal are determined largely by the choice of filler material, the type of
base material, the welding method and the welding methodology, while the
properties of the HAZ are determined primarily by the composition of the base
material and the amount of thermal energy delivered during welding.

Figure (1.11) shows the names of the various parts of the materials affected by the
weld. 20

21
Figure 1.11 Nomenclature of zones and boundaries in heat affected zone

1-4.1.Carbon steels
As used here, the term 'carbon steels' refers to plain carbon steel, carbon-manganese
steel and micro-alloyed steel. Plain carbon steels are characterized by the alloying with
up to 0.20-0.25 % of carbon as the strength-determining element. Carbon-manganese
steels Contain, in addition, up to about 1.5 % of manganese, with a maximum carbon
content of 0.25 %. Examples of such steels include SS 13 12 and SS 14 12 structural
steels and SS 13 30 and SS 14 30 pressure vessels steels.

Microalloyed steel consists of a plain carbon steel or a carbon-manganese steel as the

basic material, to which a small quantity (0.001-0.1 %) of one or more alloying
substances has been added in order to reduce the grain size of the material and thus
improve the yield strength and give better impact toughness. Examples of such grain
size- reducing elements include aluminum, niobium, titanium, zirconium and vanadium.

Plain carbon steels have largely been specially developed as structural materials for

Welded structures. The International Institute of Welding (IIW) divides steels up into
five quality classes, A, B, C, D and E, depending on the method of manufacture and the
requirements in respect of impact strength: see Table (1.12). The new European
standard for general-purpose structural steel, EN 10 025-1993, gives a different
classification for the steels, depending on their impact strength at various (low)
temperatures21

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 Table 1.12 quality classes for plain carbon steels

1-4.2 Changes in the grain structure resulting from

welding:
The iron-carbon diagram (Figure 1.12) can be used to explain the origins of the various
zones in those parts of the base material affected by welding. It can be seen from this
that steels with low carbon contents are predominantly Ferritic, while pearlite (a eutectic
mixture of ferrite and cementite) increases with increasing carbon content and cementite

Figure 1.12 Part of the iron-carbon diagram, with a schematic schematic representation of
the structure.

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Starts to appear in the grain boundaries at carbon contents over about 0.8 %. Bearing in mind
what was said above concerning the composition of plain carbon steels, it can be seen that they
will generally have a ferritic-perlitic structure. In the diagram, the PSK line represents the Al
conversion temperature, the GS line represents the A3 conversion temperature and the SE line
represents the A, conversion temperature.

Figure (1.13) shows the primary structure of a single-pass weld. Heat flows quickly from the
weld to the base material via the surface represented by the line abc, while the Surface adc,
exposed to the atmosphere on the top of the weld, loses heat less quickly. As the metal
solidifies, the primary grains grow perpendicularly from the surface that is losing heat the most
quickly, i.e. the melt face.22

Figure 1.13 The primary structure can be seen in a section through the weld, x4

Figure (1.14) shows schematically how the heat of the weld affects the base material
closest to the weld. The structure of the rolled, unaffected base material is shown at the
right, adjacent to the structural change zone, which has been heated to temperatures
between Al and A3. The transition zone - often also referred to as the Heat Affected
Zone (HAZ) - can be clearly seen adjacent to the weld. It can be divided into the
normalize zone, which has been heated to somewhat over A3, and the overheated zone,
where temperatures have been considerably over A3, up to the melting point of the
material. The structure of the overheated zone exhibits a substantial amount of grain
enlargement, and is partly Widmanstiitten-orientated.
The weld metal can be seen on the left of the diagram, in this case with a
Widmanstiitten structure, which is a characteristic of single-pass, welds (see also Figure
(1.15)). Schematic diagram of the structure of the heat-affected zone and of the base
material.

24
Figure 1.14 Schematic illustration of how the weld heat afectes the base meta

In a multi-pass weld, each weld bead will be heat-treated by the subsequent bead. This
means that, with the exception of the top pass, which retains its Widmanstiitten
structure, a multi-layer weld has what is known as a normalized weld structure, as
shown in Figure (1.16).

Figure 1.15 The Widmanstatten structure Figure 1.16 Normalisedweld structure of in a

single-pass weld. Manual metal arc a multi-pass weld. Manual metal arc welding,
welding, 200x magnification 200x magnification

Composition of the filler material in the case of deep penetration into the base material,
this also affects the properties of the weld metal. When welding without filler, it is of
course the suitability of the base material for welding that determines the properties and
quality of the weld. Together with the heat input, it is also the composition of the base
material that determines the changes in the properties of the base material in the HAZ.
This applies in particular to the overheated zone, which, in several respects, is the most
critical area.23

25
1-4.3.Risks of cracking:
If the heat input is low in comparison with the thickness of the surrounding metal,
cooling will be rapid and martensite may be formed. This means that hardness will
increase and, in difficult cases, that there will be a risk of hydrogen cracking and
embrittlement. It I generally accepted that the hardness should not exceed 350 HV, or
somewhat more for micro-alloyed steels. Figure (1.17) shows characteristic hardness
contours around a weld.

Figure 1.17 Typical hardness of various parts of the heat-affected zone in plain carbon
steel.

To some extent, the risk of complications can be determined by calculation of the

equivalent carbon content, Ec, of the material:

Steel is regarded as fully weldable if Ec does not exceed 0.41. At higher values, it is
regarded as being weldable to a limited extent, which in general means that welding must
be accompanied by heating of the workpiece in order to reduce the rate of cooling. Even if
Ec does not exceed these values, heating of the workpiece may still sometimes be
necessary. For steels in the minimum strength group, this means that heating is needed for
metal thickness over about 50 mm, while for those in the highest strength groups it is
needed for thickness over about 30 mm. In the case of plain carbon steels, temperatures
over 200 ° C are unlikely to be needed.
As the plain carbon steels have been developed for use in welded structures, there are not
normally any problems if welding is carried out correctly. However, for 'nonstandard'
steels, and particularly for unkilled steels, there is a risk of thermal cracking if the material

26
 contains higher levels of contaminating elements. In addition, if a material not having
guaranteed impact toughness is used where such toughness is required, there is a risk of
fractures due to brittleness in the HAZ. Welded plain carbon steel structures can be stress-
relieved at 550600 "C when this is regarded as necessary.24

1-4.4.Stainless steels
1-4.4.1 Austenitic steels
The main applications for these steels are for domestic items, such as sinks and saucepans,
and for pipes and pressure vessels requiring good corrosion resistance in the chemical,
cellulose, building and food industries.25

1-4.4.1.1 Ferrite formation

Although the heating and cooling caused by welding does not produce any significant
structural changes in austenitic material, secondary phases can be formed under certain
conditions in the weld metal and HAZ. The most important of these phases is ferrite,
which has both beneficial and adverse effects on the properties of the weld. The figure
(1.18) shows an austenitic weld with about 8 % ferrite.

Figure 1.18 Section through an austenitic weld containing about 8%ferrite,

Magnification, 500 x.

A major concern, when welding the austenitic stainless steels, is the susceptibility to
solidification and liquation cracking. As discussed below, these materials can be very
resistant to these forms of high-temperature cracking, if the material is compositionally
balanced such that the solidification behavior and microstructure is controlled to ensure
that the weld metal contains more than 3 vol. % ferrite. In cases where fully austenitic
welds are required, such as when the weld must be nonmagnetic or when it is placed in
corrosive environments that selectively attack the ferrite phase, the welds will solidify

27
as austenite and the propensity for weld cracking will increase. In some alloys, such as
AISI 310 and the superaustenitic grades.26
The beneficial effect of ferrite is that it largely prevents the formation of hot cracks in
the weld, partly because it dissolves elements as phosphorus, sulfur, boron, selenium,
niobium, silicon and titanium which would otherwise segregate and substantially
increase the risk of cracking as the stresses in the weld increase .Small additions of
oxygen and nitrogen are somewhat beneficial and are thought to affect the wetting
characteristics of the liquid phases. However, high concentrations of these elements may
promote porosity. Manganese also can reduce cracking susceptibility, primarily by tying
up sulfur and silicon that would otherwise be available to form low-melting phases.
Modern methods of steelmaking have made it possible to produce filler materials that
give ferrite-free welds with good hot cracking resistance. They contain relatively high
proportions of manganese and low levels of sulphur and phosphorus. The adverse effect
of ferrite in the weld metal is that certain corrosive media can selectively attack it. As
the grain boundary ferrite is contiguous at concentrations of about 10 % and above,
failures caused by corrosion can occur in such cases. This means that it is necessary to
use a filler material giving considerably lower ferrite concentrations for structures likely
to encounter such corrosion conditions. At operating temperatures in the 550-900 ° C
range, ferrite is converted to what is known as the sigma phase, which reduces the
ductility of the material. However, this is generally of little practical importance, if the
ferrite content of the weld metal is less than about 5 %.
A radical way of avoiding adverse effects of ferrite in the weld metal is, of course, to
anneal the material at about 1100 ° C, thus dissolving the ferrite and stabilizing the
austenite. However, this is often not feasible for practical reasons.27

 Measurement of Weld-Metal Ferrite

As described previously, weld-metal ferrite content significantly influences both the

weldability and service performance of austenitic stainless steels. Weld-metal ferrite
content can either be predicted using constitution diagrams, such as the WRC-1992
diagram, or measured using instruments that take advantage of the ferromagnetic
characteristics of the ferrite phase.

The term Ferrite Number, designated FN, has been adopted as a relative measure for
quantifying ferrite content using standardized magnetic techniques .The FN approach
was developed in order to reduce the large variation in ferrite levels determined on a
given specimen when measured using different techniques by different laboratories. FN
approximates the "volume percent ferrite" at levels below 8 FN. Above this level,
deviation occurs, where the FN value exceeds the actual volume percent ferrite. For
example, a weld metal with 16 FN contains approximately 13.8 vol. %.28

28
 1-4.4.1.2 Welding stresses

In comparison with those of plain carbon steels, the coefficient of thermal expansion of
austenitic steels is about 50 % greater, while the coefficient of thermal conductivity is
about 40 % less. This means that there will be more contraction in a welded joint, so that
welding must be carried out with particular consideration of possible distortion. It is
generally sufficient to weld with a low heat input, with careful planning of the work and of
the order in which welds are to be made, and to apply the welds symmetrically. Stress
relieving of the stresses introduced in the structure by welding is carried out at 850-950 ° C
or 400-500 ° C. It is important that temperature ranges at which carbide can form are
avoided in all heat treatment.29

1-5.Welding Stainless Steel with Shielded Metal-

Arc Process30
Aws specification A5.4-81, corrosion- resisting chromium and chromium-nickel covered
welding electrodes, classes' electrodes on the basis of chemistry, mechanical properties of
the weld metal, and the type of welding current. Chemical requirements of the deposited
weld metal are listed in table (1.13), and mechanical property requirements are listed in
table (1.14).

The system of classification is similar to that other electrode specification: the letter E
indicates an electrode; the last two digits indicate the type of current (-15 are for DC only
and -16 are for DC or AC); and digits and letters between identify the alloy.

Most stainless steel electrodes are imprinted near the holder and with the classifications
number. All stainless steel shielded metal-arc electrode covering are of the low-hydrogen
type and must be protected from moisture pickup. Normally, electrodes packaged are
hermetically sealed containers can stored for several months without deteriorating.
However; after the container is opened, the coating begins to absorb moisture and,
depending on the ambient air condition, may need to recondition after only four hours of
exposure. Usually redrying at 500˚F for 1 hr restores the electrode to its original condition
and storing in a holding oven at 300˚F is satisfactory. Due to differences in materials and
processing, the supplier should consult if large amounts of electrodes are involved.

29
Table 1.13. Chemical Composition Requirements For Undiluted Weld Metal (AWS A5.4-81)

Aws UNS Element, Amount percent by weight

classification Number C Cr Ni Mo Cb plus Mn Si P S N Cu
Ta
E209 W32210 0.06 20.5-24 9.5-12 1.5-3 --------- 4-7 0.9 0.04 0.03 0.1-0.3 0.75
E219 W32310 0.06 19-2105 5.5-7 0.75 ------- 8-10 1.01.00.9 0.04 0.03 0.1-0.3 0.75
E240 W32410 0.06 17-19 4-6 0.75 -------- 10.5-13.5 0.9 0.04 0.03 0.1-0.2 0.75
E307 W30710 0.04-0.14 18-21.5 9-10.7 0.5-1.5 ----------- 3.3-4.75 0.9 0.04 0.03 -------- 0.75
E308 W30810 0.08 18-21 9-11 0.75 ----------- 0.5-2.5 0.04 0.03 ----------- 0.75
E308H W30810 0.04-0.08 18-21 9-11 0.75 ------- 0.5-2.5 0.04 0.03 --------------- 0.75

E308L W30810 0.04 18-21 9-11 0.57 ------ 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 ------------ 0.75
E308Mo W30820 0.08 18-21 9-12 2-3 ------- 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 ------------ 0.75
E308MoL W30823 0.04 18-21 9-12 2-3 ------- 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 ------------ 0.75
E309 W30910 0.15 22-25 12-14 0.75 ------- 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 ------------ 0.75
E309L W30913 0.04 22-25 12-14 0.75 -------- 0.5-2.5 0.90 0.04 0.03 ------------ 0.75

E309Cb W30917 0.12 22-25 12-14 0.75 0.7-1 0.5-2.5 0.9 0.04 0.03 ------------ 0.75
E309Mo W30920 0.12 22-25 12-14 2-3 -------- 0.5-2.5 0.9 0.04 0.03 ------------ 0.75
E309MoN ---------- 0.04 22-25 12-14 2-3 -------- 0.5-2.5 0.9 0.04 0.03 ------------ 0.75
E310 W31010 0.08-0.2 15-28 20-22.5 0.75 -------- 1-2.5 0.75 0.03 0.03 ------------ 0.75
E310H W31015 0.35-0.45 25-28 20-22.5 0.75 -------- 1-2.5 0.75 0.03 0.03 ------------ 0.75

E310Cb W31017 0.12 25-28 20-22 0.75 0.7-1 1-2.5 0.75 0.03 0.03 ------------ 0.75
E310Mo W31020 0.12 25-28 20-22 2-3 ------- 1-2.5 0.75 0.03 0.03 ------------ 0.75
E312 W31310 0.15 28-32 8-10.5 0.75 ------- 0.5-2.5 0.9 0.04 0.03 ------------ 0.75
E316 W31610 0.08 17-20 11-14 2-3 ------- 0.5-2.5 0.9 0.04 0.03 ------------ 0.75
E316H W31610 0.04-0.08 17-20 11-14 2-3 ------- 0.5-2.5 0.9 0.04 0.03 ------------ 0.75

E316L W31613 0.04 17-20 11-14 2-3 -------- 0.5-2.5 0.9 0.04 0.03 ------------ 0.75
E317 W31710 0.08 18-21 12-14 3-4 -------- 0.5-2.5 0.9 0.04 0.03 ------------ 0.75
E317L ---------- 0.04 18-21 12-14 3-4 -------- 0.5-2.5 0.9 0.04 0.03 ------------ 0.75
E318 W31910 0.04 17-20 11-14 2-3 6XC, min to 0.5-2.5 0.9 0.04 0.03 ------------ 0.75
1.00 max.

E320 W88021 0.07 19-21 32-26 2-3 8XC, min to 0.5-2.5 0.6 0.04 0.03 ---------- 3-4
1.0 max
E320LR W88022 0.03 19-21 32-36 2-3 8XC, min to 1.5-2.5 0.3 0.02 0.015 ---------- 3-4
0.4 max
E330 W88331 0.18-0.25 14-17 33-37 0.75 ----------- 1.0-2.5 0.9 0.04 0.03 ---------- 0.75

E330H W38335 0.35-0.54 14-17 33-37 0.75 ----------- 1-2.5 0.9 0.04 0.03 ---------- 0.75
E347 W34710 0.08 18-21 9-11 0.75 8XC, min to 0.5-2.5 0.9 0.04 0.03 ---------- 0.75
1.0 max
E349 W34910 0.13 18-21 8-10 0.35-0.65 0.75-1.2 0.5-2.5 0.9 0.04 0.03 ---------- 0.75
E383 W88028 0.03 26.5-29 30-33 3.2-4.2 ----------- 0.5-2.5 0.9 0.04 0.03 ---------- 0.6-1.5

E385L W88904 0.03 19.5-21.5 24-26 4.2-5.2 ----------- 1-2.5 0.75 0.04 0.03 ---------- 1.2-2
E410 W41010 0.12 11-13.5 0.75 0.75 ----------- 1 0.9 0.04 0.03 ---------- 0.75
E410NiMo W41016 0.06 11-12.5 4-5 0.4-0.7 ----------- 1 0.9 0.04 0.03 ---------- 0.75
E430 W43010 0.1 15-18 0.6 0.75 ----------- 1 0.9 0.04 0.03 ---------- 0.75
E630 W37410 0.05 16-16.75 4.5-5 0.75 0.15-0.3 .25-.75 0.75 0.04 0.03 ---------- 3.25-4

E16-8-2 W36810 0.1 14.5-16.5 7.5-9.5 1-2 ----------- 0.5-2.5 0.6 0.04 0.03 ------- 0.75
E2209 --------- 0.04 21.5-23.5 8.5-10.5 2.5-3.5 ----------- 0.5-2 0.9 0.04 0.03 0.08-0.2 0.75
E2553 -------- 0.06 24-27 6.5-8.5 2.9-3.9 ----------- 0.5-1.5 1 0.04 0.03 0.1-0.25 1.5-2.5
E502 W50210 0.1 4-6 0.4 0.45-0.65 ----------- 1 0.9 0.04 0.03 ------- 0.75
E505 W50410 0.1 8-10.5 0.4 0.85-1.2 ----------- 1 0.9 0.04 0.03 -------- 0.75
E7Cr W50310 0.1 6-8 0.4 0.45-0.65 ----------- 1 0.9 0.04 0.03 -------- 0.75

30
Table 1-14 All-Weld-Metal Mechanical Property Requirements
AWS classification Tensile Strength, min. Elongation Heat treatment
Ksi min percent
E209 100 15 None
E219 90 15 None
E240 100 15 None
E307 85 30 None
E308
80 35 None

E308H 80 35 None
E308L 75 35 None
E308Mo 80 35 None
E30mMoL 75 35 None
E309
80 30 None
E309l 75 30 None
E309Cb 80 30 None
E309Mo 80 30 None
E309Mol 75 30 None
E310
80 30 None

E310H 90 10 None
E310Cb 80 25 None
E310Mo 80 30 None
E312 95 22 None
E316
75 30 None

E316H 75 30 None
E316L 70 30 None
E317 80 30 None
E317L 75 30 None
E318
80 25 None
E320 80 30 None
E320LR 75 30 None
E330 75 25 None
E330H 90 10 None
E347
75 30 None
E349 100 25 None
E383 75 30 None
E385L 75 30 None
E410 75 20 A
E410NiMo
110 15 C

E430 65 20 D
E502 60 20 B
E505 60 20 B
E630 135 7 E
E16-8-2
80 35 None

E7Cr 60 20 6
E2209 100 20 None
E2553 100 15 None

31
(A) specimen shall be heated to between 1350 to 1450˚F (730 to 760˚C) held for 1 hour, furnace cooled at a rate of
100˚F (60˚C) per hour to 600 (315˚c) and air cooled to ambient.
(B) Specimen shall be heated to between 1550 and 1600˚F (840 and 870˚C), held for 2 hours, furnace cooled
at a rate not exceeding 100˚F (55˚c) per hour to 1100˚F (595˚C) and air cooled to ambient.
(c) Specimen shall be heated to between 1100 and 1150˚F (595 and 620˚C), held for 1 hour, and air cooled to
ambient.
(D) Specimen shall be heated to between 1400 and 1450˚F (760 and 790˚C), held for 2 hour, and furnace cooled at
a rate not exceeding 100˚F (55˚c) per hour to 100˚F (55˚C) and air cooled to ambient.
(E) Specimen shall be heated between 1875 and 1925˚F (1025 and 1050˚C), held for 1hours, air cooled to at
least 60˚F (15˚c) and then precipitation hardened at 1135 to 1165˚F (610 to 630˚C), held for 4 hours, and
air cooled to ambient.

1-5.1. SELECTING ELECTRODES31

Mechanical properties of stainless steel weld metal usually are not as important as the
chemical composition table (1.15) and the heat treatment.

There is little difference in mechanical properties or chemical composition between the DC

(EXXX-15) and the AC-DC (EXXX-16) weld deposits made with electrodes of the same
class. Typical mechanical properties of stainless steel weld metal are given in table (1.15).

A DC electrode operates on DC only, has good penetration, produces fillets with a slightly
convex profile, and is recommended for:

 Vertical and over-head welding and all-position applications such as pipe. The slag
has fast-freeze characteristics.
 Root passes on heavy plate. The larger throat section of the convex bead helps
prevent cracking.

TABLE 1.15. Typical Composition Of Stainless-Steel Weld Metal

Composition (%)
AWS
Type C Cr Ni Mo Nb (Cb)

308 0.06 20.1 9.6 ------------ ------------

308L 0.03 20.5 9.8 ------------ ------------
309 0.09 23.8 13 ------------ ------------
310 0.17 27 20.5 ------------ ------------
312 0.12 29 9 ------------ ------------
316 0.06 19 12.2 2.2 ------------
316L 0.03 19.2 12.4 2.2 ------------
318 0.05 19.5 12.5 2.3 0.6
347 0.06 19.9 9.6 ------------ 0.8

32
Table 1.16 Typical Mechanical Properties Of Stainless-Steel Weld Metal
Tensile Strength
AWS Type Elongation in 2 in. (%)
(1000 Psi)

308 90 41

308L 82 41

309 81 40

310 91 36

312 112 32

316 89 38

316L 82 41

318 85 35

347 96 35

AC-DC electrodes are always used on DC when this type of power is available. The fillet
profile is flat to concave, the weld surface is smoother, and penetration is less than with
EXXX-15 (DC only) electrodes. The larger amount of slag requires more care to avoid slag
inclusions. These electrodes are recommended for horizontal fillets and for all flat-position
welding. EXXX-16 electrodes are also used in all position by skilled weldors.

Selecting the proper electrode must be done with care because of the large number of
stainless-steel alloys. All AISI stainless alloys are not available as electrodes. The titanium
in type 321 does not transfer efficiently to the weld metal and free machine type such as the
303Se crack readily. Thus electrodes of these compositions are not reduced.

Table (1.17) lists the electrodes commonly used with the various types of stainless alloys.
When two different types are to be joined, table (1.18) can be used as a guide. These tables
should be used only as general guides, however ----- particularly where surface conditions
are severally corrosive or where high temperature may cause scaling.

The free-machining grades of stainless steel are not recommended for welding because the
sulfur, selenium, or phosphorous cause severs e porosity and high short cracking. If these
steels must be welded, use E212 or E309 electrodes and techniques that reduce the
admixture of the base metal into the weld metal. Grades 416 and 440A, B and C are also not

33
 recommended for welding due to severe brittleness caused by the formation of high carbon
martensite.

Table 1.17. Typical Filler Metals for Welding Stainless Steels

Base metal Service Covered Bare rod or filler wire
condition electrode
Wrought Cast
201 CF-8
202 CF-20

301
302 As weld or E308 ER308
annealed
304
305
308

302B As welded E309, E310 ER309

303 As weld or E312, E309 ER314
annealed
303Se

304L CF-3 As welded E308L, E347 ER308l, ER347

308L As welded E308L ER308L
309 CH-20 As welded E309 ER309
309S E309, E309Cb ER309
310 CK-20 As welded E310 ER310
310S As welded E310, E310Cb ER310
316 CF-8M As weld or E316, E309Cb ER316
CF-12M annealed
316L CF-3M As welded or E316L, ER316L
stress relieved E309Cb
317 CG-8M As weld or E317 ER317
annealed
321 As welded E347 ER321, ER347
321H
347 As welded E347 ER347
347H
348
348H
403 Annealed or E410 ER410
hardened
410 As welded E308, E309, ER308, ER309,
E310 ER310
405 Annealed E430 ER430
As welded E308, E309, ER308, ER309,
E310 ER310

34
420 Annealed or ER420 ER420
hardened ER308, ER308, ER309,
As welded ER309, ER310
ER310
430 Annealed E430 ER430
As welded E308, E309, ER308, ER309,
E310 ER310
430Ti As welded E430 430Ti, ER430
431 Annealed or 431 431
hardened E308, E309, ER308, ER309,
As welded E310 ER310
442 Annealed 442 442
As welded E308, E309, ER308, ER309,
E310 ER310
446 Annealed 446 446
As welded E308, E309, ER308, ER309,
E310 ER310
16-8-2 As welded E16-8-2 ER16-8-2
A584 As welded E630
Type Heat treated
630
2205 As welded E2209 ER2209
255 As welded ER2553

35
Table 1-18 . Typical Filler Metals for Dissimilar Metals Joints in Austenitic Stainless Steel

304L 308 309 309S 310 310S 316 316L 317 321 347,347H
316H 321H 348, 348H
304H, 308 308 308 308 308 308 308 308 308 308 308
305, 309 309 309 309 316 316 316
310 310 317
304
304L 308 308 308 308 308 308 308L 308 308L 308L
309 309 309 309 316 316 316 347 347
310 310 317
308 308 308 308 308 308 308 308 308 308
309 309 309 309 316 316 316 347
310 310 317
309 309 309 309 309 308 309 309 309
310 310 316 316 316 347 347
309S 309 309S 309 309S 309 309 309
310 310S 316 316L 316 347 347
310 316 316 317 308 308
310 310Mo 310Mo 310 310
310Mo 310 310
310S 316 316 317 308 308
310Mo 310Mo 310Mo 310 310
316H, 316 317 308 308
316 316 316 316
347
316L 317 316L 316L
347
317 308 308
317 317
347
321H, 308L
321 347

36
1-6. welding of dissimilar materials
There is often a need, when fabricating stainless steel structures and/or when
incorporating them in other plant, to weld stainless steel to plain carbon or low-alloy
steels. In addition, different types of stainless steels often have to be welded to each
other. In order to obtain the best performance of such joints, particular attention must be
paid to the metallurgy of the weld metal. For this purpose, the Schaeffler diagram is a
good help. In general, the following methods of working can be employed when deciding
on the appropriate choice of filler material.
The position of the material in the Schaeffler diagram is determined from its chromium
and nickel equivalents, and a straight line is then drawn between the points. Similarly,
the position of the proposed filler material is plotted. When welding symmetrical joints,
it can be assumed that the joint surfaces of the base material will be more or less equally
melted. A straight line can therefore be drawn between the position of the filler material
and the centre of the line between the base materials. In general, about 20-40 % of the
filler material will be 'diluted' by the molten base material, with the result that the
structure of the weld metal will be as indicated by a point about 20-40 % of the way
along the line from the position of the filler material. If this structure is suitable, then the
proposed filler material can be used. If it is not suitable, repeat the above procedure for
filler having a different composition.
The Schaeffler diagram in Figure 1.19 shows an example of the above for the case of a
low-alloy steel (A) being welded to stainless steel (B), using 23 12 2 L filler (D). This
gives a weld metal structure as shown at point E, i.e. austenite with about 10 % ferrite.
The filler material to be used for joining the two materials must also be selected as
described above when welding compound materials consisting of plain carbon and high
alloy materials. The same applies for selection of the filler material for the first layer of
stainless material to plain carbon or low-alloy steel.32

37
Figure 1.19 schaffler diagram

Stainless steels are widely used in various industries because of their resistance to
corrosion. The welding of stainless steels, especially the austenitic grades, is important in
energy related systems, for instance, power generation and petrochemical refining
systems. Table (1.19) summarizes typical welding problems in stainless steels and some
recommended solutions.

38
Table 1.19 welding problems in stainless steels and some recommended solutions

39
1-6.1 AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS.
Depending on alloy composition, the austenitic stainless steels may solidify with a
microstructure containing some retained ferrite at room temperature, as a result of
welding. Weld cracking, of which the most common form is solidification cracking,
can be another consequence of welding. Cracks can occur in various regions of the
weld with different orientations, such as centerline cracks, transverse cracks, and
microcracks in the underlying weld metal or adjacent heat-affected zone (HAZ).
These cracks are due, primarily, to low-melting liquid phases, which allow
boundaries to separate under the thermal and shrinkage stresses resulting from weld
solidification and cooling. Other possible metallurgical consequences of welding are:

 The precipitation of intergranular chromium rich M23C6 chromium carbides in the

weld HAZ, which can leave these regions sensitive to corrosion
 The transformation of weld ferrite to sigma phase during elevated temperature
service, which can reduce ductility and toughness.33

1-6.1.1 Solidification Behavior

In austenitic stainless steels, the primary phase of solidification may be either
austenite or ferrite. This is dictated predominantly by composition. That welds that
solidify as primary austenite are inherently more susceptible to weld solidification
cracking than welds that solidify as primary ferrite. Thus, control of weld
solidification behavior is critical to ensuring crack-free welds.34

1-6.1.1 Weld Decay35

The HAZ of austenitic stainless steels containing more than about 0.05% C can be
susceptible to a form of intergranular corrosion called weld decay. Figure (1.20)
shows the microstructure in the HAZ of a 0.05% C 304 austenitic stainless steel
subjected to an accelerated corrosion test .The preferential attack at the grain
boundaries is evident.

A. Cause

Weld decay in austenitic stainless steels is caused by precipitation of Cr carbide at

grain boundaries, which is called sensitization. Typically, the Cr carbide is Cr-
enriched M23C6, in which M represents Cr and some small amount of Fe. Within

40
 the sensitization temperature range carbon atoms rapidly diffuse to grain boundaries,
where they combine with Cr to form Cr carbide. Figure 18.4a shows a TEM
micrograph of Cr carbide particles along a grain boundary of a 316 stainless steel
that has been sensitized At 750°C for 1 h.

Figure 1.20 Intergranular corrosion in HAZ of a 304 stainless steel containing

0.05% C.

Composition analyses show that these particles contain 63-71 wt % Cr. The Cr
concentration distribution measured along the straight line in Figure (1.21a) is
shown in Figure (1.21b), and it clearly indicates Cr depletion at the grain boundary.
Because of Cr carbide precipitation at the grain boundary, the areas adjacent to the
grain boundary are depleted of Cr.

41
Figure 1.21 chromium carbide precepitation on a grain boundary in 316 stainless steel
a)TEM micrograph b)Cr concentration profile across grain boundary

As shown schematically in Figure (1.22) these areas become anodic to the rest of
the grain and hence are preferentially attacked in corrosive media, resulting in
intergranular corrosion (Figure 1.20).

Figure 1.22 Grain boundary microstructure in sensitized austenitic stainless steel.

Figure (1.23) shows the isothermal precipitation or time-temperature-

sensitization (TTS) curves of a 304 stainless steel containing 0.05% C (7). As

42
 shown, the sensitization temperature range of Cr carbide is about 600-850°C

Figure 1.23 Isothermal precipitation curve for Cr23C6 in 304 stainless steel.

Figure (1.24) shows the solvus curves of Cr23C6 and TiC (and NbC) in 18Cr-8Ni
stainless steel .The marked areas indicate the precipitation temperature ranges

Figure 1.24 Solvus curves for Cr23C6 and TiC in 304 stainless steel.

Of the carbides, about 600-850°C for Cr23C6 and up to about 1100°C for TiC.
Chromium carbide dissolves at temperatures above its solvus curve. Upon
cooling slowly from above the solvus temperature, Cr carbide can precipitate again.

43
 However, if the cooling rate is high, Cr carbide may not have enough time to
precipitate and the material can be supersaturated with free carbon

Solomon and Lord have reported TTS curves for 304 stainless steel with 0.077% C.
It was also observed that deformation prior to welding or strain during cooling can
enhance sensitization. According to Solomon, this is perhaps due to the fact that
dislocations can increase the carbide nucleation rate and the diffusion rate
Weld decay does not occur immediately next to the fusion boundary, where the
peak temperature is highest during welding. Instead, it occurs at a short distance
away from it, where the peak temperature is much lower. This phenomenon can be
explained with the help of thermal cycles during welding, as shown in Figure (1.25).

Figure 1.25 Sensitization in austenitic stainless steel: (a) phase diagram; (b) thermal
cycle; (c) precipitation curve; (d) microstructure.

At position 1 near the fusion boundary, the material experiences the highest peak
temperature and cooling rate. Consequently, the cooling rate through the

44
 precipitation range is too high to allow Cr carbide precipitation to occur. At
position 2, which is farther away from the fusion line, the retention time of the
material in the sensitization temperature range is long enough for precipitation to
take place. At position 3, outside the HAZ, the peak temperature is too low to allow
any precipitation
Figure (1.26) shows thermal cycles measured during the welding of 304 stainless
steel and the location of the resultant weld decay. Consider the microstructure of a
304 stainless steel weld. At position c, which is away from the fusion boundary, the
thick, dark grain boundaries are the evidence of weld decay due to grain boundary
precipitation. At position e, which is immediately adjacent to the fusion boundary,
there are no signs of grain boundary precipitation.

Figure 1.26 Thermal cycles and weld decay in 304 stainless steel weld.

B. Effect of Carbon Content

The carbon content of the material can affect the degree of sensitization. As shown
in Figure (1.27), sensitization takes place more rapidly in 304 stainless steel as its
carbon content is increased as shown showed that under a given heat input and
welding speed weld decay in 304 stainless steel increases with increasing carbon
content.

45
Figure 1.27 Effect of carbon content on isothermal precipitation of Cr23C6 in 304 stainless
steel.

C. Effect of Heat Input

Also showed that for a 304 stainless steel of a given carbon content weld decay
increases with increasing heat input per unit length of weld. The higher the heat
input, the wider the region of sensitization and the longer the retention time in the
sensitization temperature range. It is interesting to point out that in the case of
resistance spot welding the metal is rapidly heated by a momentary electric current
followed by a naturally rapid cooling, As such, sensitization may not occur.

D. Remedies

Weld decay in austenitic stainless steels can be avoided as follows

D.1. Postweld Heat Treatment

The weldment can be heat treated at 1000-1100°C followed by quenching. The

high-temperature heat treatment dissolves the Cr carbide that has precipitated
during welding, and quenching prevents its re-formation. This treatment is not
always possible, however, because of the size and/or the quenching-induced
distortion of the weldment.

D.2. Reduction of Carbon Content

Low-carbon grades such as 304L and 316L stainless steels can be used. These
stainless steels are designed to have less than 0.035% C to reduce susceptibility to
weld decay Table 1.20. Figure 1.28 shows that alloy 316L is much less susceptible
to sensitization than alloy 316 .The TTS curve of the former is much farther to the
right (longer time) than that of the latter.

46
Table 1.20 Nominal Composition of Wrought Stainless Steels

47
Figure 1.28 Intergranular attack (etching) of 316 and 316L stainless steels.

D.3. Addition of Strong Carbide Formers

Elements such as titanium (Ti) and niobium (Nb) have a higher affinity for C than
Cr and thus form carbides more easily than Cr. Types 321 and 347 stainless steels
are essentially identical to304 stainless steel except for the addition of Ti and Nb,
respectively. As shown in Figure (1.29), the stabilized grade is more resistant to
weld decay since Cr carbide precipitation is suppressed during welding.

Figure 1.29 Welds in austenitic stainless steels: (a) weld decay in 304 stainless
steel;
(b) No weld decay in 321 stainless steel.

48
 1-6.1.2 Knife-Line Attack 36
Although stabilized austenitic stainless steels such as 321 and 347 are not
susceptible to weld decay, they can be susceptible to a different kind of
intergranular corrosion attack, called knife-line attack. Like weld decay, knife-
line attack is also caused by precipitation of Cr carbide at grain boundaries.
Knife-line attack differs from weld decay in two ways: (i) knife-line attack
occurs in a narrow region immediately adjacent to the weld metal and (ii)
knife-line attack occurs in stabilized-grade stainless steels (13, 17). Figure (1.30)
shows knife-line attack next to the weld metal (left) in a 321 stainless steel.

Figure 1.30 Knife-line attacks in a stabilized austenitic stainless steel.

A. Cause
Knife-line attack in stabilized austenitic stainless steels can be explained with the
help of thermal cycles during welding, as shown in Figure (1.31). Position 1 is very
close to the fusion boundary and is thus subjected to a high peak temperature and a
high cooling rate during welding. Since this peak temperature is above the solvus
temperature of Ti carbide, Ti carbide dissolves in this area. Due to the rapid cooling
rate through its precipitation temperature range, Ti carbide does not reprecipitate
during cooling, thus leaving abundant free carbon atoms in this area. When the
weld is reheated in the Cr carbide precipitation range (for stress-relief or in
multiple-pass welding), Ti carbide does not form appreciably since the temperature
level is not high enough. Consequently, Cr carbide precipitates at grain boundaries,
and this area becomes susceptible to intergranular corrosion attack. Position 2,
however, is not susceptible because of its low peak temperature. Because of the
high temperate gradient near the fusion boundary (this is especially true for
austenitic stainless steels due to the low thermal conductivity) and the high Ti
carbide dissolution temperature, the region in which Ti carbide dissolves during
welding is very narrow. As a result, subsequent intergranular corrosion attack

49
 occurs in a very narrow strip immediately adjacent to the fusion boundary, and thus
the name knife-line attack.

Figure 1.31 Sensitization in stabilized austenitic stainless steel: (a) phase diagram;
(b) Thermal cycle; (c) precipitation curve; (d) microstructure.

Figure (1.32) shows the transmission electron micrographs in the area immediately
outside the fusion boundary of a 347 stainless steel (18). Precipitation of Cr
carbides is clearly visible at grain boundaries after postweld sensitizing heat
treating at 650°C for 50 h. Figure (1.33) shows the intergranular corrosion
attack in the same area by a corrosive liquid for 15 h.

Figure 1.32 Transmission electron micrographs near fusion boundary of 347 stainless
steel.

50
Figure 1.33 Intergranular corrosion near fusion boundary of 347 stainless steel.

B. Remedies

The knife-line attack of stabilized austenitic stainless steels can be avoided as

follows
.
B.1. Postweld Heat Treatment

Annealing in the temperature range of 1000-1100°C after welding helps Cr carbide

dissolve. Since Ti carbide and Nb carbide form in this temperature range
subsequent quenching to avoid Cr carbide precipitation is not necessary.

B.2. Using Low-Carbon Grades

As in the case of weld decay, low-carbon grades reduce the chance of Cr

carbide precipitation.

B.3. Adjusting Welding Procedure

Sometimes, it is possible to avoid knife-line attack by modifying the welding

procedure. Figure (1.34) shows one such example involving the dual-pass seam
weld of a stainless steel pipe of the stabilized grade, the first pass on the inside of
the pipe and the second pass on the outside. During the deposition of the first pass,

51
 Ti or Nb carbide near its fusion boundary dissolves. As shown in Figure (1.34a), the
sensitization temperature range (600-850°C) of the second pass overlaps the fusion
boundary of the first pass at the pipe inner wall and causes Cr carbide to precipitate,
thus making the inner wall susceptible to attack by the corrosive liquid inside the
pipe. To correct the problem, the size of the first pass should be increased and that
of the second pass decreased so that the sensitization temperature range of the
second pass overlaps the fusion boundary of the first pass away from the pipe inner
wall, as shown in Figure (1.34b). The problem can also be corrected by making the
first pass from the outside of the pipe and the second pass from the side if this is
possible to do.

Figure 1.34 Dual-pass weld of stabilized austenitic stainless steel: (a) knife-line attack; (b)
no attack.

B.4. Adding Rare Earth Metals

It has been shown that adding rare earth metals (REMs) such as La and Ce can
reduce the knife-line attack of stabilized stainless steels (18, 19). High-resolution
electron micrographs reveal that carbide precipitation in the grain interior is
accelerated in these materials, thus leaving less free carbon atoms for carbide
precipitation at grain boundaries. Figure (1.35) shows the reduction in the rate of
intergranular corrosion in a 347 stainless steel by addition of a small amount of
REMs. As can be seen by comparing Figure (1.36) with Figure 3.14b, treating with
REMs significantly reduces Cr carbide precipitation at grain boundaries. Similar
results have been observed in REM-treated 321 stainless steel. Addition of small
amounts of REMs in stabilized stainless steels does not appear to have an adverse
effect on their mechanical properties.

52
Figure 1.35 Effect of addition of REMs on knife-line attack sensitivity of 347 stainless
steel

 Susceptibility Tests

The susceptibility of austenitic stainless steels to weld decay or knife-line attack

can be evaluated by the Huey test. This test (ASTM A-262) consists of exposure of
sensitized materials to boiling 65% nitric acid for five 48-h periods. A less time-
consuming method is the Streicher test. This test (ASTM A-262-55T) consists of
polishing a small specimen through No. 000 emery paper, etching in 10% oxalic
acid for 1.5 min under an applied current density of 1 A/cm2, and then examining
the surface at 250-500 magnification. The specimen is the anode and a stainless
steel beaker is used as the cathode.

1-6.1.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking 37

Due to the low thermal conductivity and high thermal expansion coefficient of
austenitic stainless steels, severe residual stresses can be present in these materials
after welding. When exposed to corrosive media, stress corrosion cracking may
occur in the HAZ. Cracking is usually transgranular and branching and can extend
far into the base metal (20). Figure (1.37) shows stress corrosion cracking in a
circumferential gas-tungsten arc weld in a 304 pipe of 100 mm (4 in.) diameter and
2.4 mm (3/32 in.) wall exposed to a corrosive liquid.

53
 Figure 1.36 Transmission electron micrograph near fusion boundary of REM-
treated 347 stainless steel

Figure 1.37 Stress corrosion cracking in a 304 stainless steel pipe gas-tungsten arc Welded and
exposed to a corrosive liquid

In the lower half of the photographs there are many very fine cracks
branching from the main crack that are covered with corrosion products.
They are visible with the naked eye but not in the photograph. Figure (1.38) shows
stress corrosion cracking that has initiated near the toe of a weld in 316L stainless
steel.

54
When stress-relief heat treating is carried out, the possibility of Cr carbide
precipitation should be carefully considered. Stress relief can be achieved while
solutionizing austenitic stainless steels to dissolve Cr carbide at a temperature level
of 1000°C. New residual stresses may develop, however, during subsequent
quenching. To avoid this problem, low-carbon or stabilized grades can be used to
allow the material to cool slowly after solutionizing.

Figure 1.38 Stress corrosion cracking near the toe of a 316L weld

1-6.1.4 Sigma-Phase Embrittlement38

Sigma is a hard, brittle phase that can form in stainless steels when they are held in
the temperature range from approximately 600 to 800 °C (1110 to 1470 °F). The
tendency for sigma-phase formation increases with increasing amounts of chromium,
molybdenum, and silicon, and is reduced somewhat by nitrogen, nickel, and carbon.
As a consequence of alloy partitioning during both solidification and the solid-state
transformation of ferrite to austenite, ferrite is enriched in the alloying elements,
which promotes the sigma phase, and depleted in the elements that retard its
formation. Thus, ferrite in austenitic stainless welds is especially susceptible to
sigma-phase formation. The sigma phase has been observed to nucleate preferentially
at the ferrite-austenite interface in weld metal.

The transformation kinetics of ferrite to sigma has been studied by Vitek and David
in type 308 gas-tungsten arc welds (Fig. 1.39). They found that sigma started to form
after approximately 15 h at 725 °C (1335 °F), and all the ferrite had transformed to
sigma and M23C6 after approximately 3000 h.

55
FIG. 1.39 Time-temperature transformation diagram for welded and aged type 308L alloy
gas tungsten
The notorious effect of sigma phase is a decrease in ductility and toughness. When
materials are to be used in elevated temperature service, the effects of sigma
formation must be considered. The sigma phase can be minimized by using filler
materials that produce fully austenitic structures. However, even in these
compositions, sigma formation can still occur, initiating in chromium-enriched
interdendritic boundaries. In cases where solidification cracking is a concern, some
ferrite in the weld deposit is required. Weld-metal ferrite content should be controlled
in the range from 3 to 8 FN to prevent the formation of a continuous network of
ferrite. Because the chromium content of sigma is nearly double that of the weld
ferrite, the potential maximum level of the sigma phase is always less than that of the
original weld-metal ferrite.

1-6.1.5 Solidification cracking39

Which results from the formation of low-melting liquid films along grain boundaries
during the last stages of solidification, is probably of greater concern to the welding
engineer than is any other metallurgical defect in austenitic stainless steel welds.
Welds that solidify as primary austenite may be very susceptible to solidification
cracking. This susceptibility is increased by elements that promote the formation of
liquid phases. These elements include phosphorus and sulfur, which are often present
as impurities, and silicon, niobium, titanium, and boron, which are sometimes present
as minor alloying additions. In these welds, high manganese levels may be beneficial

56
in reducing cracking, for example, by tying up sulfur and silicon. Several percent of
eutectic ferrite may be somewhat beneficial in counteracting the detrimental effect of
phosphorus and sulfur. However, because the amount of eutectic ferrite is alloy
dependent and seldom exceeds several percent it is not a practical solution for
improving cracking resistance. Cracking susceptibility is drastically reduced in welds
that solidify as primary ferrite with the peritectic/eutectic solidification of austenite
(FA-type), even at high levels of phosphorus and sulfur. Welding electrodes such as
308L are specifically designed to produce a desired range of ferrite, and thus promote
this solidification mode. In applications where no such filler metal is used and
cracking is a concern, it may be necessary to limit composition ranges or to select
heats of material that solidify in this mode. However, at the higher Cr eq./Ni eq. ratios,
where welds solidify completely as ferrite, and when the transformation of ferrite to
austenite occurs at lower temperatures, cracking susceptibility again increases, but not
to the extent of welds solidifying as austenite. The solidification-cracking behavior can
thus be directly related to the structures .The welds that solidify as ferrite and exhibit
skeletal and lathy morphologies are very resistant to cracking, whereas cracking
increases in welds that exhibit microstructures of Widmanstatten austenite. Many
rationales have been proposed to explain the cracking behavior of the austenitic
stainless steel welds. The two that seem to be most consistent in explaining this
behavior are related to the nature of the weld microstructure during solidification and
the early stages of cooling.

During single-phase solidification, the fairly planar ferrite/ferrite or austenite/austenite

grain boundaries that form are easily wet by low-melting liquids, often involving
eutectics with phosphates and sulfides. If sufficient stresses and strains are developed
before these liquids are solidified, then solidification cracks can easily form and
propagate. However, when solidification occurs as primary ferrite with the secondary
solidification of austenite (FA-type), or if austenite is nucleated at the grain boundaries
near the solidus temperature of welds solidifying completely as ferrite (F-type), then
very irregular grain-boundary structures are formed. These ferrite/austenite boundaries
that become potential crack paths are of lower energy than the grain boundaries of
either of the single-phase structures. The resulting tortuous crack paths and/or the low-
energy boundary configurations not readily wetted by the low-melting liquids are very
resistant to the nucleation and propagation of cracks. Thus, it can be seen that
understanding and being able to identify solidification behavior are important in
preventing solidification-cracking problems. Because increased solidification
velocities and cooling rates shift the transition between primary austenite and primary
ferrite to higher Cr Eq. /Ni. Eq. ratios, this effect on weld cracking must be considered,

57
as discussed in the section "Solidification Behavior and Microstructure of High-
Energy-Density Welds."

 Heat-affected zone liquation cracking

Is occasionally observed in austenitic stainless steels, particularly in the stabilized
grades (containing titanium and/or niobium). This cracking occurs as a result of the
constitutional liquation of carbides, such as niobium carbide, in AISI type 347 alloys,
resulting in grain-boundary liquation. HAZ cracking can also occur in other alloy types
as a result of impurity segregation along HAZ grain boundaries. This form of cracking
is always intergranular and located immediately adjacent to the weld fusion boundary.
Occasionally, cracking is continuous across the fusion boundary into the weld metal.
Analogous to weld solidification cracking, alloys with a ferrite potential (predicted
FN) above approximately 2 to 3 FN are generally resistant to HAZ liquation cracking
(Ref 30). This results from the formation of ferrite along HAZ grain boundaries. HAZ
cracking that is due to grain-boundary liquation also can be limited by minimizing heat
input. Lower weld heat inputs result in steeper HAZ thermal gradients, thereby
limiting the spatial extent over which cracking is possible.

 Weld-metal liquation cracking

Is defined as HAZ cracking that occurs in weld metal. By definition, this form of
cracking is associated with Multipass welds. The cracking that occurs is sometimes
referred to as "microfissuring or Underbead cracking, because the cracks are typically
small and located adjacent to the Interpass fusion boundary in the previously deposited
weld metal. These defects are almost always associated with fully austenitic weld
metal and are located along solidification grain boundaries or migrated grain
boundaries. Analogous to weld solidification cracking, weld-metal liquation cracking
can generally be avoided by reducing the impurity levels in fully austenitic
microstructures or by selecting filler metals that produce weld deposits containing
more than approximately 3 FN.

 Copper contamination cracking

Adjacent to austenitic stainless steel welds can also occur as a result of contact with
copper or copper-bearing alloys, such as brass. This type of cracking is a form of
liquid-metal embrittlement, where by molten copper meritless austenitic grain
boundaries. Because copper melts at 1083 °C (1981 °F), this type of cracking caused
by pure copper is only observed in regions of the weld (typically, the HAZ) that are

58
heated near or above this temperature. Cracking is always intergranular and, normally,
traces of copper or copper-rich material can be observed along the grain boundary.
This contamination can often be traced to copper weld fixturing, contact tips, or
fabrication tools. The use of alternate fixturing, often incorporating chromium plating,
and the prevention of copper abrasion normally eliminates the problem.

 Ductility dip cracking

Occurs in the solid state and is typically associated with the HAZ or weld metal in
highly constrained welds or thick sections. Such cracking occurs as a result of strain-
induced grain-boundary precipitation, which limits mid-temperature ductility, but is
much more common in precipitation-strengthened nickel-base alloys. However, this
type of cracking has been observed in type 347 alloys, resulting from strain-induced
precipitation of niobium carbides.

 Weld porosity
Can result either from alloying additions (especially in the high-nitrogen alloys) or by
contamination. In the Nitronic alloys, for example, nitrogen levels near the upper
limit of 0.4% can result in porosity in gas-tungsten arc weld deposits, whereas lower
levels (above approximately 0.25%) can result in excessive porosity in electron-beam
welds. Porosity can also occur as a result of surface contamination, such as by oil and
greases or undetected leaks in water-cooled welding torches or weld fixtures. Thus,
surfaces should be thoroughly cleaned prior to welding. If wire brushing is used, then
the brushes should be made of stainless steel and dedicated to stainless usage, rather
than made of steel, which can result in iron deposition and in-service corrosion

1-6.2 MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS

40

 Phase Diagram
Martensitic stainless steels are employed because of the combination of high
strength and good corrosion resistance. The commercial 13% Cr steel containing
more than 0.08% C is the most widely used Martensitic stainless steel. Figure (1.40)
shows a vertical section of the Fe-Cr-C at 13% Cr (4). The temperature and
composition ranges of the austenite phase () are much wider in the case of 13% Cr
steel.

59
Figure 1.40 Vertical section of Fe-Cr-C phase diagram at 13% Cr.

 Underbead Cracking
The hardness of Martensitic stainless steels increases rather significantly with
increasing carbon content. For 12% Cr steel quenched from 1050°C, for instance,
the hardness increases from 364 HV at 0.07% C to 620 HV at 0.60% C.
Consequently, Martensitic stainless steels with higher carbon contents are rather
susceptible to Underbead cracking, especially when hydrogen is present during
welding. Because of the internal stresses induced by the volume increase associated
with the austenite-to-martensite transformation, Underbead cracking can still occur
even if relatively low restraint is employed during welding. As a result, Martensitic
stainless steels with carbon content above 0.25-0.30% are not normally welded

 Remedies
To avoid Underbead cracking in Martensitic stainless steels, both preheating and
postweld tempering (between 600 and 850°C) are usually employed. In addition,
filler metals of austenitic stainless steels are often used. This is because the weld
metal so produced remains ductile, thus reducing the chance of Underbead cracking.
Also, due to the greater solubility of hydrogen in austenite, hydrogen can dissolve
in the weld metal and the possibility of Underbead cracking is thus reduced.
As in the case of welding heat-treatable alloy steels, Martensitic stainless steels are
usually not allowed to cool directly to room temperature upon the completion of
welding in order to avoid Underbead cracking. Figure (1.41) shows the postweld

60
 heat treatment for a creep-resistant 12% Cr steel (12% Cr/0.2% C/1% Mo/0.4%
W/0.3% V) and the resultant microstructure

Figure 1.41 Proper postweld heat treatment and resultant microstructure of a 12% Cr
Martensitic steel (magnification 500 ).

Upon the completion of welding, the weldment is held at 150°C in order to avoid
cracking. After about 1 h the weldment can be heat treated at 750°C for 4 h to
temper the martensite that has formed. The resultant microstructure of the HAZ is
essentially tempered martensite. Figure (1.42) shows a different postweld heat
treatment and the resultant microstructure. From the viewpoint of completely
avoiding the possibility of Underbead cracking, it might seem better to hold the
weldment at a temperature higher than MS (say 300°C) so that no martensite can
form after welding. During subsequent heat-treating at 750°C, however, the
untransformed austenite phase decomposes and the microstructure of the HAZ
becomes Ferritic with agglomerated carbides precipitated at the grain boundaries.
Unfortunately, such microstructure is rather brittle and is, in fact, inferior to that of
Tempered martensite.

61
Figure 1.42 Improper postweld heat treatment and resultant microstructure of a
12% Cr Martensitic steel (magnification 500 X).

1-6.3. CASE STUDY: FAILURE OF A PIPE41

Figure (1.43a) shows a section from a failed 304 stainless steel pipe (24). The pipe,
about 100 mm in diameter, was seam welded first from the inside and then from the
outside. It was carrying hot, dilute nitric acid and it was in service only two months
before it failed.
The transverse cross section of the seam weld and its surrounding area is shown in
Figure (1.43b). The attack is about 1.5-3.0 mm from the inner weld pass, thus
suggesting that weld decay is the cause of failure. Corrosion is intergranular
judging from the missing grains in the microstructure shown in Figure (1.43c), and
this is consistent with the intergranular characteristics of weld decay. During
welding the corroded areas were heated up into the sensitization temperature range,
causing Cr carbide to precipitate along grain boundaries.

62
Figure 1.43 Failure of a 304 stainless steel pipe (10 cm diameter): (a) section from
failed pipe; (b) transverse cross section of seam weld; (c) microstructure of weld decay
area.

63