Children and Youth Services Review 109 (2020) 104742

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Children and Youth Services Review

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/childyouth

Preschool teachers’ transition practices and parents’ perceptions as T

predictors of involvement and children’s school readiness
Jaime Puccionia, , John Mark Froilandb, Mariola Moeyaerta
⁎

a
University at Albany, United States
b
Purdue University, United States

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Preschool teachers can help support families and children successfully transition to kindergarten by utilizing
Transition practices transition practices that support parental involvement and create smooth linkages between early care settings
Parental perceptions and formal schooling. Additionally, parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement may also play an im-
Parental involvement portant role in shaping parental involvement. Using nationally representative data from the Early Childhood
Academic achievement
Longitudinal Study – Birth cohort (N ≈ 4100) a structural equation model was estimated to examine the re-
Socio-emotional
School readiness
lationship among preschool teachers’ transition practices, parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement,
parental involvement, and measures of school readiness during the transition to kindergarten. Results indicate
that parent’s perceptions of invitations for involvement are positively associated with home-based parental in-
volvement. Additionally, home-based involvement was predictive of school readiness measures. More specifi-
cally, findings suggest that parents who have more positive perceptions about preschool teachers’ invitations for
involvement report engaging in more home-based involvement activities, which in turn, was positively asso-
ciated with children’s academic achievement and prosocial behaviors and negatively associated with conduct
problems and hyperactivity/inattention. Results from this study have important practical implications for
educators who aim to encourage parental involvement that supports children’s transition to elementary school.

1. Introduction practices to improved outcomes for children in kindergarten (Cook &

Early educators can play an important role in supporting children’s
readiness for school by reaching out to parents to encourage parental
involvement that supports children’s transition to kindergarten (Pianta,
Cox, Taylor, & Early, 1999). The most common types of outreach efforts
during the transition to kindergarten, which are commonly referred to
as transition practices, include sending information about kindergarten
home to parents and having an orientation, while the least frequent
activities include having preschool age children spend time in the
kindergarten classroom and conducting home visit (Cook & Coley,
2017; Little, Cohen-Vogel, & Curran, 2016). Hoover-Dempsey et al.
(2005) suggest that parents’ perceptions of educators’ invitations for
involvement also have the potential to shape parental involvement,
which in turn influences children’s outcomes. In fact, a few studies have
demonstrated that parents of elementary school age children who have
positive perceptions about teachers’ invitations for involvement report
engaging in more home and school-based involvement activities
(Anderson & Minke, 2007; Walker, Ice, Hoover-Dempsey, & Sandler,
2011). Although studies have linked kindergarten teachers’ transition
Coley, 2017; Galindo & Sheldon, 2012; Jung & Han, 2013; Schulting,
Malone, & Dodge, 2005), few studies have explored the link between
preschool teachers’ transition practices and kindergarten outcomes (see
Ahtola et al., 2011; LoCasale-Crouch, Mashburn, Downer, & Pianta,
2008 for exception), and no studies to date, have examined the asso-
ciations among preschool teachers’ transition practices, parental per-
ceptions about invitations for involvement, parental involvement, and
children’s readiness for school.
Entering kindergarten is a critical transition in children’s lives, a
time in which early academic achievement and socio-emotional com-
petencies lays the foundation for later learning and development
(Claessens & Engel, 2013; Claessens, Duncan, & Engel, 2009; Sabol &
Pianta, 2012). Given the importance of school readiness and the tran-
sition to kindergarten, it is important to understand the ways in which
preschool teachers’ transition practices can support families and chil-
dren. This study utilizes data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal
Study – Birth cohort (ECLS-B) to estimate a structural equation model
that examines the associations among preschool teachers’ transition
practices, parental perceptions and involvement, and measures of

⁎
Corresponding author at: Department of Literacy Teaching and Learning, University at Albany, Albany, NY 12222, United States.
E-mail address: jpuccioni@albany.edu (J. Puccioni).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104742
Received 14 March 2019; Received in revised form 30 December 2019; Accepted 31 December 2019
Available online 03 January 2020
0190-7409/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Puccioni, et al.
school readiness. Findings from this study have the potential to broaden
our understanding of children’s early educational opportunities and
subsequent outcomes during the transition to elementary school. More
specifically, findings have the potential to demonstrate the degree to
which preschool teachers’ transition practices and parents’ perceptions
about educators’ invitations for involvement shape parental involve-
ment, which in turn, has the potential to positively shape children’s
academic and socio-emotional outcomes at the onset of kindergarten.
1.1. Parental involvement and school readiness
A wealth of scholarship shows that parental involvement during
early childhood has a strong positive influence on a range of child
outcomes during the transition to kindergarten (Booth & Crouter, 2008;
Huat See & Gorard, 2015; Van Voorhis, Mailer, Epstein, & Lloyd, 2013).
Van Voorhis et al. (2013) review of over 95 studies provide a clear link
between parents’ engagement in cognitively stimulating literacy and
mathematics activities and young children’s early learning and socio-
emotional development. Research has shown that literacy-related ac-
tivities like reading to your child (Mol, Bus, & de Jong, 2009), singing
songs (Dunst, Meter, & Hamby, 2011), telling stories, and making books
(Boyce, Innocenti, Roggman, Norman, & Ortiz, 2010) support children’s
early literacy learning and development.
Home-based parental involvement has also been shown to support
children’s mathematical learning (Froiland, Peterson, & Davison, 2013;
Kleemans, Peeters, Segers, & Verhoeven, 2012; Sonnenschein &
Galindo, 2015). More specifically, children whose parents engage their
young child in more numeracy-related activities tend to have higher
levels of early numeracy skills (LeFevre et al., 2009; LeFevre, Clarke, &
Stringer, 2002; Van Voorhis et al., 2013). Research has shown that
parent-child activities such as counting or identifying shapes (Blevins-
Knabe & Musun-Miller, 1996) and playing board games (Ramani &
Siegler, 2008) positively influence children’s early mathematical de-
velopment. Interestingly, the home literacy environment has also been
shown to predict the acquisition of early numeracy skills (Manolitsis,
Georgiou, & Tziraki, 2013; Sonnenschein & Galindo, 2015) and later
mathematics development (Froiland et al., 2013). Overall meta-ana-
lyses have demonstrated that parental involvement and more specifi-
cally literacy-related activities have a positive impact on academic
achievement (Castro et al., 2015; Mol et al., 2009).
Home-based parental involvement also predicts other important
school readiness skills, such as better social skills, reduced externalizing
behaviors, and self-regulation of attention (Puccioni, Baker, & Froiland,
2019). Importantly, this nationally representative study entailed rig-
orous control variables, such as SES, gender, ethnicity, and age
(Puccioni et al., 2019), whereas most related studies have included
smaller samples and limited control variables. For instance, in a study
of 144 Head Start students (96% African American), Fantuzzo,
McWayne, Perry, and Childs (2004) found that home-based parent in-
volvement was positively associated with attention and receptive vo-
cabulary, while negatively associated with conduct problems and hy-
peractivity. However, these effects were established without employing
any control variables. Importantly, school-based involvement was not
significantly associated with any of these outcomes, but it is important
to examine this with larger and more diverse samples.
Home-based parent involvement may provide children with practice
in self‐regulatory behaviors that help in school, such as sitting still and
paying attention (Froiland & Davison, 2016; Son & Tineo, 2016).
Froiland and Davison (2016) found that parent home-based involve-
ment in the form of parent-child shared reading frequency, number of
books at home, and visits to the library put children at a lower risk for
developing inattention and hyperactivity. This nationally re-
presentative study involved rigorous control variables, such as SES,
ethnicity, gender, diagnosis of autism or emotional disturbance, and
family structure. However, it did not examine other key social-emo-
tional school readiness outcomes, such as conduct problems and
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Children and Youth Services Review 109 (2020) 104742
prosocial behaviors.
Studies have also shown that parental involvement at school can
have a positive impact on children’s academic achievement, however
the evidence is mixed. Several studies have demonstrated that school-
based involvement, in the form of attending school meetings, vo-
lunteering in classrooms, and serving on committees, are positively
associated with children’s achievement (Galindo & Sheldon, 2012; Hill
& Craft, 2003; Hill, 2001). While other studies have demonstrated a
negative (Desimone, 1999; Fan, 2001), or no association (Domina,
2005; El Nokali, Bachman, & Votruba-Drzal, 2010), between school-
based involvement activities and achievement. For instance, Powell,
Son, File, and Froiland (2012) found that school-based involvement was
not related to math achievement, whereas home-based involvement
predicted math achievement growth from preschool to first grade.
Jeynes (2005) conducted a meta-analysis to examine the effects of
parental involvement on urban elementary school students and found
that attending school functions did not yield statistically significant
effects on academic achievement. While Puccioni (2018) found that
parents’ school-based involvement during preschool was negatively
associated with children’s reading achievement at the beginning of
kindergarten. Due to the inconsistent findings related to the impact of
school-based involvement on children’s achievement and the lack of
studies examining the degree to which parents’ school-based involve-
ment during preschool shapes later achievement, additional research is
warranted.
Given the important role parents play in contributing to children’s
early learning and transition to school (Booth & Crouter, 2008), it is
important to recognize that parental involvement may vary by one’s
race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status (Cheadle & Amato, 2011;
Phillips, 2011; Puccioni, 2018). Research has shown that children of
color and those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds spent less time
engaged in language, literacy, and education-related activities with
their parent (Phillips, 2011) and children from lower income families
engage in fewer numeracy-related activities in their home environment
than their middle-income peers (Blevins-Knabe & Musun-Miller, 1996;
Vandermaas-Peeler, Nelson, Bumpass, & Sassine, 2009). Cheadle and
Amato (2011) developed a latent construct representing concerted
cultivation which was comprised of school-based involvement, extra-
curricular activities, and learning related materials in the home and
found that parents of color and parents from lower SES backgrounds
engaged in concerted cultivation less than their white counterparts and
those from higher socioeconomic backgrounds. Similar patterns emerge
with regards to school-based involvement, such that children of color
and those living in poverty are less likely to have parents who attend
general meetings, school events, or volunteer their time in the school or
classroom (Trends, 2013). In order to isolate the relations among pre-
school teachers’ transition practices, parents’ perceptions of invitations
for involvement, and parental involvement it is important to include
child and family background characteristics as controls in the analysis.
1.2. Early educators’ transition practices
Early educators can support children during the transition to kin-
dergarten by reaching out to parents in ways that encourage and sup-
port family involvement. These transition practices, which may also be
conceptualized as invitations for involvement have the potential to
serve as a bridge for children and families during this important edu-
cational transition. The most common transition practices include in-
viting parents and children to kindergarten orientations and sending
information about kindergarten to parents, while the least common
practices consist of conducting home visits prior to the start of kin-
dergarten and coordinating efforts with preschool programs (Cook &
Coley, 2017; Pianta et al., 1999; Schulting et al., 2005). Several studies
have linked kindergarten teachers’ transition practices to children’s
outcomes during the transition to elementary school using nationally
representative data drawn from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study
J. Puccioni, et al.
– Kindergarten cohort 1998–1999 (ECLS-K). For example, Schulting
et al. (2005) demonstrated that more transition practices implemented
in the fall of kindergarten was positively associated with children’s
academic achievement at the end of kindergarten and this relationship
was stronger for children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.
Moreover, the authors demonstrated that school-based parental in-
volvement partially mediated the relationship between transition
practices and children’s outcomes. Building upon the work by Schulting
et al. (2005), Galindo and Sheldon (2012) demonstrated that kinder-
garten teachers’ ongoing outreach efforts during the kindergarten
school year were positively associated with achievement gains in kin-
dergarten and this relationship was also mediated by school-based
parental involvement. Jung and Han (2013) found that kindergarten
teachers’ outreach efforts in the fall were positively associated with
sharper gains in reading achievement, and these gains were greater for
children who entered kindergarten with lower reading levels and for
those who read more outside of school. More recently, Cook and Coley
(2017) analyzed data from ECLS-B and found that kindergarten tea-
chers’ transition practices were positively associated with children’s
prosocial behaviors but not academic achievement. Overall, these stu-
dies demonstrate a link between kindergarten teachers’ transition
practices and child outcomes during kindergarten. Some findings in-
dicate that this link is mediated by parental involvement and that
children from disadvantaged backgrounds may benefit more from kin-
dergarten teachers’ transition practices.
Although most studies have focused on kindergarten teachers’
transition practices, a few studies have examined preschool teachers’
outreach efforts and children’s achievement in elementary school. For
example, study by LoCasale-Crouch et al. (2008) examined the asso-
ciation between pre-kindergarten teachers’ transition practices and
kindergarten children’s academic and socio-emotional outcomes using a
sample of approximately 700 children participating in the National
Center for Early Development and Learning Multi-State Pre-kinder-
garten study. The authors reported that the total number of practices,
and more specifically, practices that children experienced directly were
positively linked to kindergarten teachers’ perceptions of children’s
academic achievement and socio-emotional competencies. Further-
more, these positive associations were stronger for children who were
from economically disadvantaged backgrounds. In a study of approxi-
mately 400 children transitioning to formal schooling in Finland con-
ducted by Ahtola et al. (2011), pairs of preschool and elementary school
teachers provided reports of their collaborative outreach efforts in-
tended to support children’s transition to formal schooling. The authors
found that the more transition practices the pairs implemented the
greater children’s growth in children’s reading, writing, and mathe-
matics skills. Even though these studies demonstrate a link between
preschool educators’ transition practices and child outcomes during the
transition to kindergarten, they do not examine the mediating role of
parental involvement.
Although transition practices have been positively linked to par-
ental involvement and children’s outcomes during the transition to
kindergarten by way of parental involvement (Galindo & Sheldon,
2012; Schulting et al., 2005) scholars suggest that parents’ perceptions
about educators’ invitations for involvement also have the potential to
shape parental involvement and child outcomes. Invitations for in-
volvement may be conceptualized as outreach efforts to support and
encourage parental involvement. A few studies have examined the re-
lation between parents’ perceptions of teachers’ invitations for in-
volvement and parental involvement. For example, in a study with over
850 parents of children attending an urban elementary school,
Anderson and Minke (2007) found that parents who held more positive
perceptions of elementary school teachers’ invitations for involvement
reported engaging in more home and school-based involvement prac-
tices. While Walker et al. (2011) found that Latino parents’ who held
more positive perceptions of teachers’ invitations for involvement re-
ported engaging in more school-based involvement practices with their
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Children and Youth Services Review 109 (2020) 104742
elementary age children. Murray, McFarland-Piazza, and Harrison
(2015) found that parents’ satisfaction with information positively
predicted their home-based involvement during the transition to formal
schooling. The current study extends previous research by linking
preschool teachers’ transition practices parents’ perceptions of invita-
tions for involvement, parental involvement, and children’s readiness
for school.
Despite the fact that many educators, researchers, and policymakers
alike advocate for the implementation of outreach efforts, studies have
shown that schools and teachers serving historically disadvantaged
student populations report using fewer transition practices (Daley,
Munk, & Carlson, 2011; Little et al., 2016; Pianta et al., 1999). More
specifically, research has shown that elementary schools in urban lo-
cations and those serving a larger population of students living in
poverty (Daley et al., 2011; Little et al., 2016; Pianta et al., 1999), as
well as those schools serving larger populations of students of color
(Little et al., 2016; Pianta et al., 1999) utilize fewer transition practices.
Additionally, research suggests that kindergarten teachers with more
years of experience report engaging in more overall transition practices
(Cook & Coley, 2017) and those with primary certification report en-
gaging in more individualized practices (Early, Pianta, Taylor, & Cox,
2001). Overall, research suggests that kindergarten students from dis-
advantaged backgrounds may be exposed to fewer outreach efforts than
children from more advantaged backgrounds (Cook & Coley, 2017;
Little et al., 2016; Pianta et al., 1999), yet few studies explore the types
or frequency of transition practices preschool teachers utilize and no
studies to this date examine parents’ perceptions about preschool tea-
chers’ transition practices.
Taken together, these studies demonstrate that educators’ outreach
efforts are positively associated with child outcomes during the tran-
sition to formal schooling. Although some of these studies have de-
monstrated that the relationship between early educators’ outreach
efforts are partially-mediated by school-based parental involvement
and moderated by children’s socioeconomic status and children’s be-
ginning levels of achievement, no studies to date, have simultaneously
examined the relationship among preschool teachers’ transition prac-
tices, parental involvement, and measures of school readiness during
the transition to elementary school. This study contributes to the lit-
erature by using nationally representative data drawn from ECLS-B to
estimate a structural equation model that examines the associations
among preschool teachers’ transition practices, parents’ perceptions of
educators’ invitations for involvement, parental involvement, and
children’s academic and socio-emotional competencies during the
transition to kindergarten while accounting for potential variation in
preschool teachers’ transition practices as well as parental perceptions
and involvement.
1.3. Control variables for measures of school readiness
In order to isolate the associations among preschool teachers’
transition practices, parents’ perceptions of educators’ invitations for
involvement, parental involvement, and children’s readiness for school
it is important to account for a variety of control variables that have
been shown to be associated with measures of school readiness.
Research suggests that socioeconomic and racial/ethnic gaps in aca-
demic (Coley, 2002; Rouse, Brooks-Gunn, & Mclanahan, 2005) and
socio-emotional competencies (Baker, Jensen, & Tisak, 2017; Martin
et al., 2010; Weimer & Guajardo, 2005) exist when children start kin-
dergarten. Studies have also demonstrated that children’s gender
(Ready, LoGerfo, Lee, & Burkam, 2005) and age (Datar, 2006; Lin,
Freeman, & Chu, 2009) are also associated with measures of school
readiness. Our analysis includes a rich set of controls to help disen-
tangle the associations among transition practices, parental perceptions
and involvement, and measures of school readiness.
J. Puccioni, et al.
1.4. Research questions and hypotheses
The present study draws upon nationally representative data from
ECLS-B to estimate a structural equation model which examines the
relationship among preschool teachers’ transition practices, parents’
perceptions of educators’ invitations for involvement, parental in-
volvement, and measures of school readiness. The following research
questions and hypotheses guide the present study:
1. Are preschool teachers’ transition practices and parents’ perceptions
of invitations for involvement associated with measures of school
readiness? Few studies have demonstrated a link between preschool
teachers’ transition practices and children’s kindergarten achieve-
ment, and no studies to date have examined the link between par-
ents’ perceptions of preschool teachers’ invitations for involvement
and measures of school readiness. Therefore, analyses are somewhat
exploratory in nature.
2. Is home and school-based parental involvement associated with
measures of school readiness? We expect home and school-based
involvement to be associated with measures of school readiness.
3. Are preschool teachers’ transition practices and parents’ perceptions
of invitations for involvement associated with parental involve-
ment? We expect preschool teachers’ transition practices to be as-
sociated with parental involvement. Since there are no previous
studies examining the relations between preschool parents’ percep-
tions of early educators’ invitations for involvement and parental
involvement, our analyses are somewhat exploratory in nature.
2. Method
2.1. Data SOURCE and sample
This study draws upon data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal
Study – Birth cohort (ECLS-B), which is a longitudinal study that fol-
lows a nationally representative sample of children born in the U.S.
from birth to kindergarten (Snow et al., 2009). Developed primarily
under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Education, National
Center for Education Statistics, the ECLS-B is a multiple-method, mul-
tiple-respondent study guided by a conceptual model of children’s de-
velopment that emphasizes the interaction between child, family,
school, and community. Data for this study was collected in five waves
beginning when children were approximately 9 months of age. The
second wave of data collection occurred when children were approxi-
mately 24 months of age. The preschool wave (wave 3) of data col-
lection was intended to represent the year before most of the children
would be expected to enter kindergarten. There are two waves of data
representing when children began kindergarten based on age-elig-
ibility, that is, the kindergarten entry in 2006 (wave 4) or kindergarten
entry in 2007 (wave 5). Based upon recommendations from the ECLS-B
staff, outcome measures from waves 4 and 5 were pooled in order to
measure children’s academic achievement and socio-emotional com-
petencies in kindergarten. More specifically, we used the wave 4 kin-
dergarten data for children who were eligible to begin kindergarten
that year; and for those who were not eligible to enter in 2006, we
utilized the data from 2007. Initial kindergarten scores were used for
any child who repeated kindergarten and was assessed more than once.
ECLS-B includes data from parents, early childcare providers, kinder-
garten teachers, as well as child assessment instruments in cognitive
and psychosocial domains. As such, the ECLS-B data set allows one to
analyze the complex relationships between children’s early learning
experiences across home and school contexts to a variety of child out-
comes. Additional information about the sampling design, instruments,
and measures can be found in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,
Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), Kindergarten 2006 and 2007 Data File User’s
Manual (2010–010) (Snow et al., 2009).
This study makes use of data drawn from wave 2 (approximately
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Children and Youth Services Review 109 (2020) 104742
2 years of age), wave 3 (preschool), and waves 4 and 5 representing the
year in which the sampled child entered kindergarten. The analytical
sample was selected based on several steps. First, children with a valid
non-zero panel weight (WKR0), which is a specific weight designed for
longitudinal analyses using the sample of children from wave 2
(24 months), wave 3 (preschool), and waves 4 and 5 (kindergarten
waves) were selected. Second, because this study examines the role of
school-based parental involvement, children who only experienced
parental care during preschool were excluded from the study. This
process yielded an approximate sample of 3650 children. All sample
sizes reported in this analysis are rounded to the nearest 50 in ac-
cordance with IES reporting rules to account for the restricted nature of
ECLS-B data.
2.2. Academic achievement measures
The ECLS-B includes direct cognitive assessments specifically de-
signed to measure children’s early reading and mathematical skills. This
study makes use of individually administered, oral, and untimed
reading and mathematics assessments administered in the fall of kin-
dergarten (2006 or 2007 waves) to develop a latent construct re-
presenting a global measure of academic achievement.
2.2.1. Early reading achievement
The early reading assessment was intended to measure children’s
performance in language and literacy-related domains. Therefore, the
assessment contained items measuring children’s performance on cer-
tain language-based items (receptive language and Peabody Picture
Vocabulary Test items) and literacy items (e.g., conventions of print,
letter recognition, understanding of letter-sound relationships, phono-
logical awareness, sight word recognition, understanding words in the
context of simple sentences). The reliability estimate for the kinder-
garten reading assessment was 0.84 (Bethel, Green, Kalton, & Nord,
2005; Snow et al., 2009).
2.2.2. Early mathematics achievement
The mathematics assessment included items assessing number
sense, properties, and operations; measurement; geometry and spatial
sense; data analysis, statistics, and probability; and patterns, algebra,
and functions. The reliability estimate for the kindergarten mathe-
matics assessments was 0.89 (Bethel et al., 2005; Snow et al., 2009).
2.3. Social-emotional outcomes
The ECLS-B includes an indirect child assessment which is intended
to measure social-emotional constructs. The assessment draws upon
items from the Preschool and Kindergarten Behavior Scales – Second
Edition (PKBS-2) (Merrell, 2003) and the Social Skills Rating System
(Gresham & Elliott, 1990). Guided by previous research by Ferretti and
Bub (2017) we drew upon kindergarten teacher responses in the fall of
kindergarten to develop three latent constructs to measure children’s
conduct problems, hyperactivity/inattention, and prosocial skills.
2.3.1. Conduct problems and hyperactivity/inattention
The latent constructs representing conduct problems and hyper-
activity consists of indicator variables measuring the frequency the
child displayed certain behaviors using a scale from 1 (never) to 5
(often). The construct representing conduct problems consists of the
following items: child has temper tantrums; child annoys other chil-
dren; child has disruptive behavior; and child displays aggression. The
construct representing hyperactivity consisted of the following items:
child displays impulsive behavior; child is over active; child keeps
working until task finished (reverse coded); child pays attention well
(reverse coded); child has difficulty concentrating or staying on task;
and child is restless and fidgety.
J. Puccioni, et al.
2.3.2. Prosocial behaviors
The latent constructs representing prosocial behaviors consists of
indicator variables measuring the frequency the child displayed the
following behaviors using a scale from 1 (never) to 5 (often): child is
invited by other children to play; child shows eagerness to learn new
things; child is accepted and liked by other children; child comforts
other children who are upset; child works independently; child stands
up for other’s rights; child tries to understand others; and child shares.
2.4. Preschool teachers’ transition practices
Three items were used from the preschool wave of data collection to
measure preschool teachers’ transition practices. Preschool teachers
reported whether or not the following practices (1 = yes, 0 = no) were
utilized: phoned or sent home information about the kindergarten
program to parents; preschoolers spend some time in the kindergarten
classroom; and parents and children visit kindergarten prior to the start
of the school year. These items were summed and scores ranged from
zero to three.
2.5. Parents’ perceptions of educators’ invitations for involvement
A latent construct representing parents’ perceptions of preschool
teachers’ invitations for involvement was comprised of five items from
the preschool wave of data collection. Using a scale of 1 = does it very
well to 3 = not at all, parents rated how well the preschool teacher
provided information about their child’s progress in school; helped you
gain understanding of what children are like at that age; made you
aware of chances to volunteer; provided workshops, materials, or ad-
vice about how to help child learn at home; and provided information
on community services to help with your child or your family. Items
were reverse coded with values ranging from 0 = does not at all to
2 = does it very well. Cronbach’s alpha for the five manifest variables
representing parents’ perceptions of preschool teachers’ invitations for
involvement was 0.75 for the subsample.
2.6. Home-based parental involvement
A latent construct representing home-based parental involvement
was estimated using four items from the preschool wave parent inter-
views. Using a scale of 1 = not at all to 4 = every day, parents reported
how often they read books, tell stories, and sing songs with their child
during the week. These items were recoded so that values ranged from
0 = not at all to 3 = every day. Parents were also asked how often they
played together with toys to build things using a scale of 1 = more than
once a day to 6 = not at all. This item was reverse coded with values
ranging from 0 = not at all to 5 = more than once a day, so that higher
numbers indicate more home-based parental involvement. Cronbach’s
alpha for the four home-based parental involvement items was 0.60 for
the subsample.
2.7. School-based parental involvement
Five items were used from the preschool wave of data collection to
measure parental school-based involvement. Parents reported whether
or not (1 = yes, 0 = no) they attended a general meeting (e.g., open
house, back-to-school night); a regularly scheduled parent-teacher
conference; a school or class event (e.g., play); acted as a volunteer; or
chaperoned a field trip. These items were summed to create composite
variable with a range of zero to five.
2.8. Family and child-related controls for measures of school readiness
This study included a set of family and child background char-
acteristics as controls for the analyses. Socioeconomic status was a
continuous composite variable provided in the ECLS-B data set that was
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Children and Youth Services Review 109 (2020) 104742
comprised of: (a) father/male guardian’s level of education; (b) mo-
ther/female guardian’s level of education; (c) father/male guardian’s
occupation; (d) mother/female guardian’s occupation; and (e) house-
hold income. There were categories of race/ethnicity included in the
analysis: European American/non-Hispanic (reference group), African
American/non-Hispanic, Hispanic, Asian American, and Other. In ad-
dition to socioeconomic status and race/ethnicity, children’s age at time
of kindergarten assessment which (measured in months), and gender
which was represented by a dummy variable indicating whether the
child was female were included as controls.
2.9. Preschool measures of academic achievement and socio-emotional
outcomes as controls for school readiness
This study also estimated a set of latent constructs to represent
children’s preschool level of academic achievement and socio-emo-
tional competencies as controls for subsequent measures of school
readiness. The preschool wave of direct child assessments measuring
children’s early reading and mathematics were used as manifest vari-
ables for the latent construct representing preschool children’s aca-
demic achievement. The preschool wave of data collection also in-
cluded the same measures used in the kindergarten waves to assess
children’s socio-emotional competencies. Drawing upon preschool tea-
cher responses about the frequency in which children displayed certain
social skills and behaviors three latent constructs were developed to
measure children’s conduct problems, hyperactivity, and prosocial
skills.
2.10. Controls to account for potential variation in educators’ transition
practices, parents’ perceptions and involvement
We included a set of variables measuring preschool teacher char-
acteristics and type of school setting to account for potential variation
in preschool teachers’ transition practices and parent perceptions of
invitations for involvement. Preschool teachers’ reported what type of
educational degree had been obtained in addition to years of experience
working in early care and education. Dummy codes indicating if the
preschool teacher held an Associate’s degree in child development and/
or a Bachelor’s degree in early education were included as controls. A
set of dummy codes indicating type of preschool setting using the fol-
lowing categories: public prekindergarten (reference category), private
prekindergarten, center-based prekindergarten, Head Start, and other
type prekindergarten.
In addition to preschool teacher characteristics and type of pre-
school, we also included children’s race/ethnicity and family socio-
economic status as a control for transition practices and parents’ per-
ceptions. We also included a latent variable representing parental
involvement at approximately 24 months of age to account for potential
variation parents’ perceptions of teachers’ invitations for involvement.
During the second wave of data collection parents reported how often
they read books, tell stories, and sing songs with their child during the
week using a scale of 1 = not at all to 4 = every day. These items were
recoded so values ranged from 0 = not at all to 3 = every day. Parents
also reported on how often they play indoor games using a scale of
1 = more than once a day to 6 = not at all. These items were reverse
coded so that 0 = not at all to 5 = more than once a day. In order to
account for variation in preschool parental involvement we included
the child’s race/ethnicity, family socioeconomic status, gender, and
parental involvement at 24 months as controls for home and school-
based involvement.
2.11. Analytical plan
In order to account for the complex survey design employed by
ECLS-B all analyses in this study used the paired jackknife replication
method (JK2) by specifying the full sample weight (WKR0) and the
J. Puccioni, et al.
corresponding replicate weights (WKR1-WKR90). This process adjusts
for disproportionate sampling, survey nonresponse, and undercoverage
of the target population when analyzing complex survey data. Weighted
means and proportions of model variables were estimated in Stata 13
(StataCorp., 2013) using the svyset command. Use of the appropriate
weight allows findings to be generalized to the national population of
children born in the United States in 2001 (Snow et al., 2009).
We investigated the missingness mechanism in this multivariate
setting using the R Package maniar (Tierney et al., 2019) and are able to
assume that the patterns of missingess are arbitrary. Only for the kin-
dergartner variables, a small proportion of missing data for a subset of
variables across participants with different background characteristics
was identified. However, formal tests of the missing at random as-
sumption versus the missing completely at random assumption were
conducted using the littleMCAR function within the BaylorEdPsych
package (Beaujean, 2015) and the mice package (van Buuren &
Groothuis-Oudshoorn, 2011). Although missing completely at random
could not be assumed for the kindergartner variables, we can conclude
missing at random for these variables (which is commonly the case in
survey data). For the other variables, missing completely at random can
be assumed. As a consequence nonresponse can be ignored (Rubin,
1976; van Buuren & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, 2011) and no missing data
imputations were necessary.
A structural equation model was estimated to examine the re-
lationship among preschool teachers’ transition practices, parents’
perceptions and involvement, and measures of school readiness using
raw data analyzed in Mplus version 7 with a mean and covariance
structure (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2012). The analytic strategy oc-
curred in several steps in accordance with recommendations from Kline
(2011). The first step involved estimating the measurement model in
which measured variables were estimated as indicators of the proposed
latent variables (Fig. 1 displays the primary latent constructs under
study and does not include the latent constructs used as controls). After
goodness-of-fit for the measurement model was established, the second
step involved estimating the full structural model to estimate the hy-
pothesized relations among the variables of interest. Maximum like-
lihood estimation (ML), which uses the full information maximum
likelihood (FIML) approach to handle missing data, was used as the
estimator in analyses (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2012). Model fit was
primarily evaluated using a two-index strategy recommended by Hu
and Bentler (1999): root mean squared error of approximation
(RMSEA) and the standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR).
RMSEA less than or equal to 0.06 and a SRMR less than 0.08 indicate
good model fit for the data.
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics
Table 1 presents the weighted means and proportions estimated in
Stata 13 (StataCorp., 2011). The analytic sample consisted of approxi-
mately 3650 children with a racial/ethnic composition of 57% Eur-
opean American, 15% African American, 21% Hispanic, 3% Asian, and
4% Other. Bivariate correlations among primary latent variable in-
dicators were also examined and are displayed in Table 2.
3.2. Model estimation
Following the two-step estimation procedure recommended by
Kline (2011), the measurement model (Fig. 1) was assessed first. Ac-
ceptable model fit was indicted for the overall measurement model with
an RMSEA = 0.06 (90% CI [0.063–0.065]), and a SRMR = 0.06. Fig. 1
includes the standardized factor loadings for the indicator variables for
the latent constructs representing parents’ perceptions of invitations for
6
Children and Youth Services Review 109 (2020) 104742
involvement, home-based parental involvement, and measures of
school readiness which include academic achievement and socio-emo-
tional outcomes. The next step involved estimating the full structural
model which included a set of family and child characteristics and
teacher characteristics as controls for transition practices, parents’
perceptions and involvement, and measures of school readiness (Fig. 2
does not display controls). Resulting fit statistics indicate good fit for
the data, with a RMSEA = 0.06 (90% CI [0.055–0.057], and a
SRMR = 0.07. Therefore, the structural model was retained and
parameter estimates were evaluated as they pertained to the research
questions addressed by this study.
3.3. Associations among preschool teachers’ transition practices, parents’
perceptions of invitations for involvement, parental involvement, and
measures of school readiness
Table 3 presents the unstandardized coefficients of model estimates.
For ease of interpretation Fig. 2 presents the standardized model esti-
mates as related to the primary research questions under study. The
unstandardized and standardized regression coefficients can be inter-
preted in a similar way as a conventional linear regression model.
Contrary to hypothesized associations, preschool teachers’ transition
practices and parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement were
not significantly directly associated with measures of school readiness.
However, in support of hypothesized associations, the results show
significant associations of home-based involvement with academic
achievement and socio-emotional outcomes. More specifically, home-
based parental involvement was positively associated with children’s
academic achievement (ß = 0.06, p < .05), and negatively associated
with conduct problems (ß = −0.10, p < .05) and hyperactivity/in-
attention (ß = −0.10, p < .01), holding all else constant. In general,
children whose parents report engaging in more home-based involve-
ment activities had children with higher average levels of academic
achievement, and lower levels of conduct problems and hyperactivity/
inattention. Results also showed that school-based involvement was
negatively associated with academic achievement (ß = −0.04,
p < .05). Comparison of standardized estimates in Fig. 2 suggests that
home-based involvement is more strongly associated with socio-
emotional outcomes in comparison to academic achievement.
Findings also indicate that parents’ perceptions about educators’
invitations for involvement were positively associated with home
(ß = 0.12, p < .01) and school-based involvement (ß = 0.35,
p < .001), holding all else constant. In other words, parents who held
more positive beliefs about preschool teachers’ invitations for involve-
ment reported engaging in more parental involvement activities.
Although there was no direct association between parents’ perceptions
and measures of school readiness, results show that parents’ perceptions
of invitations for involvement were positively associated with home-
based involvement, which in turn was positively associated with mea-
sures of school readiness. As displayed in Fig. 2 the standardized cov-
ariance between transition practices and the latent construct re-
presenting parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement is 0.13
(p < .001). Although not displayed in Fig. 1, the latent constructs
representing children’s academic achievement were negatively corre-
lated with conduct problems and hyperactivity/inattention, and posi-
tively associated with prosocial skills. While the latent construct re-
presenting prosocial behaviors was negatively correlated with the latent
constructs representing conduct problems and hyperactivity/inatten-
tion. This indicates a reciprocal relationship between achievement and
socio-emotional competencies. The model accounted for 67% of the
variation in academic achievement, 31% of the variation in conduct
problems, 34% of the variation in hyperactivity/inattention, and 22%
of the variation in prosocial behavior.
J. Puccioni, et al. Children and Youth Services Review 109 (2020) 104742

Fig. 1. Measurement model depicting primary latent constructs under study. N ≈ 3650. Model fit statistics, RMSEA = 0.06 (90% CI: [0.063–0.065]); SRMR = 0.06.
K wave represents the pooled kindergarten wave) Standardized factor loadings are all statistically significant at the p < .001 level.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 24 mos. (2003–2004),
preschool data collection (2005–2006), Kindergarten 2006 (2006–2007), Kindergarten 2007 (2007–2008) data collections.

3.4. Controls for measures of school readiness, preschool teachers’
transition practices, parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement, and
parental involvement
Table 3 indicates child and family characteristics were associated
with measures of school readiness. All things being equal, socio-
economic status had positive and significant associations with academic
achievement and prosocial skills and a significant negative association
with hyperactivity/inattention. A similar pattern emerged for the re-
lations between children’s age at assessment and measures of school
readiness. As expected, control measures of academic achievement and
socio-emotional outcomes in preschool were significantly associated
with respective measures in kindergarten. There was evidence that
children’s academic achievement and socio-emotional outcomes varied
by race/ethnicity. On average, Asian American children had higher
levels of academic achievement in comparison to European American
children, holding all else constant. Kindergarten teachers’ reported that
African American children displayed more conduct problems in com-
parison to their European American counterparts, while Asian Amer-
ican displayed fewer conduct problems. Kindergarten teachers also re-
ported that girls displayed fewer conduct problems and less
hyperactive/inattentive behavior in comparison to boys.
Table 3 also indicates that several preschool teacher characteristics
included as controls in the analyses were associated with use of tran-
sition practices. Preschool teachers who hold an Associate’s Degree in
Child Development and/or a Bachelor’s Degree in Early Childhood
degree reported utilizing more transition practices in comparison to
those preschool teachers who did not report holding a respective de-
gree. Additionally, preschool teachers who reported having more years
of experience also reported utilizing more transition practices. Results
also indicate transition practices varied in relation to the type of pre-
school program. In comparison to teachers at public prekindergarten
programs, preschool teachers at center-based programs reported using
fewer transition practices, while teachers at Head Start Programs re-
ported utilizing more transition practices. Variation in parents’ per-
ceptions of invitations for involvement also emerged. Parents of chil-
dren who had preschool teachers with a degree in early childhood
reported having more positive feelings about invitations for involve-
ment. Furthermore, parents’ whose children attended Head Start held
more positive perceptions about preschool teachers’ transition practices
in comparison to children who did not attend Head Start.
There were also a set of child and family characteristics included as
controls for parental involvement during preschool. Other things being
equal, parents from higher socioeconomic status backgrounds reported

7
J. Puccioni, et al. Children and Youth Services Review 109 (2020) 104742

Table 1
Weighted descriptive statistics.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 24 mos. (2003–2004),
preschool data collection (2005–2006), Kindergarten 2006 (2006–2007), Kindergarten 2007 (2007–2008) data collections.

Variable Mean or SD Min Max

Proportion

Kindergarten Achievement Indicators

Reading 45.22 14.05 12.84 82.48
Math 44.76 10.00 11.23 69.69

Kindergarten Conduct Problem Indicators

Temper tantrums 0.52 0.88 0 4
Annoys other children 0.85 0.95 0 4
Disruptive 1.22 0.98 0 4
Aggressive 0.53 0.86 0 4

Kindergarten Hyperactivity Indicators

Impulsive 1.17 1.03 0 4
Over active 1.09 1.07 0 4
Finish tasks 1.00 1.00 0 4
Pay attention 1.16 0.99 0 4
Concentrate 1.40 1.13 0 4
Fidget 1.19 1.10 0 4

Kindergarten Prosocial Indicators

Makes friends 3.22 0.83 0 4
Eagerness to learn 3.15 0.91 0 4
Accepted by other children 3.45 0.68 0 4
Communicates with others 2.44 1.04 0 4
Independent 3.07 0.89 0 4
Stands up for others 2.53 1.04 0 4
Understanding of others 2.39 1.03 0 4
Shares 3.21 0.80 0 4

Preschool Teacher Transition Practices

Info home to parents 0.85 0 1
Preschooler sent time in K class 0.50 0 1
Parent/Child visit K class 0.78 0 1
Composite Preschool transition practices 2.13 0.93 0 3

Parent Perception of Invitations for Involvement

Info child’s progress in preschool 1.79 0.46 0 2
Info about child development 1.52 0.68 0 2
Info about volunteering 1.56 0.73 0 2
Info about learning at home 1.34 0.79 0 2
Info about community services 1.08 0.85 0 2

Preschool Home-based Parental involvement

Read books to child 2.13 0.85 0 3
Tell stories 1.66 0.93 0 3
Sing songs 2.22 0.89 0 3
Play with blocks 2.84 1.23 0 5

Preschool School-based Parental Involvement

Attend general meeting 0.76
Attend scheduled conference 0.50
Attend class event 0.43
Acted as a volunteer 0.40
Chaperoned a field trip 0.26
Composite school-based parental involvement 2.35 1.52 0 5

Child and Family Characteristics

Socioeconomic status 0.05 0.82 −1.99 2.09
European American 0.57
African American 0.15
Hispanic 0.21
Asian American 0.03
Other 0.04
Female 0.48
K Age at assessment 67.81 4.21 57.30 84.50

24 months of age Home-based Parental involvement

Read books to child 2.20 0.88 0 3
Tell stories 1.69 1.02 0 3
Sing songs 2.53 0.77 0 3
Play indoor games 4.28 0.91 0 5

Preschool Achievement Indicators

Reading assessment 26.77 10.50 11.79 80.29
Mathematics assessment 30.90 9.43 9.89 65.73

Preschool Conduct Problem Indicators

(continued on next page)

8
J. Puccioni, et al. Children and Youth Services Review 109 (2020) 104742

Table 1 (continued)

Variable Mean or SD Min Max

Proportion

Temper tantrums 0.76 1.01 0 4

Annoys other children 0.89 0.96 0 4
Disruptive 1.18 1.02 0 4
Aggressive 0.70 0.94 0 4

Preschool Hyperactivity/Inattention Indicators

Impulsive 1.24 1.12 0 4
Over active 1.20 1.11 0 4
Finish tasks 1.11 0.98 0 4
Pay attention 1.21 0.90 0 4
Concentrate 1.34 1.07 0 4
Fidget 1.28 1.08 0 4

Preschool Prosocial Indicators

Makes friends 3.14 0.85 0 4
Eagerness to learn 3.06 0.90 0 4
Accepted by other children 3.42 0.68 0 4
Communicates with others 2.27 1.05 0 4
Independent 2.99 0.87 0 4
Stands up for others 2.37 1.09 0 4
Understanding of others 2.20 1.04 0 4
Shares 2.91 0.85 0 4

Preschool Teacher Characteristics

Early Childhood Degree 0.63
Child Development Associate’s Degree 0.34
Years of experience 13.13 8.85 0 70

Type of Prekindergarten Program

Public prekindergarten 0.19
Private prekindergarten 0.21
Center based prekindergarten 0.40
Head Start 0.17
Other Prekindergarten 0.03

Note: N ≈ 3650.

engaging in more parental involvement activities. On average, parents
of African American children reported engaging in fewer home-based
involvement activities than parents of European American children,
holding all else constant. Results also showed that parents of girls re-
ported engaging in more home-based involvement in comparison to
parents of boys. In contrast, parents of children who are African
American, Hispanic, and Asian American reported engaging in more
school-based involvement activities in comparison to their European
American counterparts. In addition, the latent construct representing
parental involvement when children were approximately 24 months of
age was also positively associated with preschool reports of parental
involvement. The model explained 8% of preschool teachers’ transition
practices, 6% of parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement,
65% of home-based parental involvement, and 17% of school-based
involvement.
4. Discussion
The transition to formal schooling is an important time in the life of
children and families. During the transition to kindergarten children
experience a uniquely different environment than their homes and early
educational settings, one that can be characterized as placing an in-
creased demand on children’s cognitive and socio-emotional compe-
tencies. In order to support children and families during this important
point of transition the National Education Goals Panel (National
Education Goals Panel, 1998) recommended that “ready schools” create
smooth linkages between home and school and to strive for continuity
between early care and education programs and kindergarten. Rimm-
Kaufman and Pianta (2000) Ecological and Dynamic Model of Transi-
tion emphasizes that successful transitions to kindergarten occur in an
environment consisting of interactions among child, school, classroom,
family, and community factors. As such, the transition process can be
considered as beginning the year prior to kindergarten entrance and
emphasizing the interrelated connections between children, families,
early educators, and kindergarten teachers (Rimm-Kaufman & Pianta,
2000). Early educators can help build strong linkages between home
and school, and preschool and kindergarten by utilizing transition
practices that invite parents to become involved in their child’s early
learning and schooling experiences. These practices have the potential
to support families and children during the formal transition to kin-
dergarten.
The present study utilized data from the Early Childhood
Longitudinal Study – Birth cohort (ECLS-B) to estimate a structural
equation model that examined the associations among preschool tea-
chers’ transition practices, parents’ perceptions of invitations for in-
volvement, parental involvement, and children’s academic and socio-
emotional competencies during the transition to kindergarten. Our
findings support the Ecological and Dynamic Model of Transition, in
that parental perceptions of preschool teachers’ invitations for in-
volvement predicted home-based involvement, which in turn predicted
higher average academic achievement, fewer conduct problems, and
less hyperactivity/inattention. Parent perceptions of preschool tea-
chers’ invitations for involvement also predicted school-based in-
volvement, but school-based involvement was not significantly related
to social-emotional outcomes and it had a negative relationship with
academic achievement. Overall, these findings suggests that preschool
teachers may want to place more emphasis on creating positive home-
school partnerships which encourage and support home-based in-
volvement, as it is home-based parent involvement that better promotes
school readiness.
Contrary to hypothesized associations, preschool teachers’ transi-
tion practices were not directly associated with measures of school

9
 Table 2
Correlation matrix of primary variables under study.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 24 mos. (2003–2004), preschool data collection (2005–2006), Kindergarten
2006 (2006–2007), Kindergarten 2007 (2007–2008) data collections.
J. Puccioni, et al.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1 –
2 0.80 –
3 −0.16 −0.16 –
4 −0.17 −0.18 0.58 –
5 −0.18 −0.20 0.51 0.74 –
6 −0.18 −0.17 0.64 0.71 0.59 –
7 −0.20 −0.22 0.49 0.61 0.72 0.52 –
8 −0.19 −0.22 0.47 0.66 0.71 0.53 0.70 –
9 −0.35 −0.40 0.35 0.45 0.50 0.36 0.50 0.51 –
10 −0.40 −0.42 0.36 0.52 0.54 0.42 0.55 0.59 0.71 –
11 −0.33 −0.38 0.40 0.55 0.61 0.42 0.60 0.68 0.71 0.74 –
12 −0.23 −0.26 0.46 0.63 0.67 0.50 0.66 0.84 0.55 0.62 0.74 –
13 0.23 0.26 −0.33 −0.36 −0.27 −0.32 −0.29 −0.24 −0.43 −0.47 −0.38 −0.29 –
14 0.40 0.42 −0.29 −0.37 −0.34 −0.29 −0.34 −0.33 −0.60 −0.69 −0.54 −0.40 0.59 –
15 0.22 0.24 −0.41 −0.50 −0.41 −0.43 −0.40 −0.36 −0.46 −0.52 −0.42 −0.38 0.73 0.53 –
16 0.20 0.21 −0.26 −0.31 −0.26 −0.31 −0.27 −0.23 −0.37 −0.42 −0.34 −0.26 0.52 0.50 0.44
17 0.36 0.41 −0.36 −0.43 −0.45 −0.35 −0.45 −0.45 −0.71 −0.66 −0.59 −0.47 0.49 0.61 0.49
18 0.25 0.25 −0.21 −0.24 −0.18 −0.23 −0.21 −0.20 −0.38 −0.40 −0.33 −0.23 0.50 0.50 0.41
19 0.23 0.24 −0.24 −0.28 −0.21 −0.27 −0.23 −0.21 −0.34 −0.39 −0.31 −0.23 0.50 0.49 0.42
20 0.22 0.24 −0.51 −0.56 −0.53 −0.51 −0.49 −0.48 −0.54 −0.55 −0.47 −0.46 0.52 0.49 0.59
21 −0.06 −0.08 0.04 0.05 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.04 −0.03 −0.03 −0.02
22 −0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02

10
23 −0.02 −0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03 −0.02 −0.02 −0.01
24 0.03 0.04 −0.03 −0.03 −0.02 −0.04 −0.02 −0.03 −0.02 −0.02 −0.01 −0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02
25 −0.05 −0.07 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.03 −0.04 −0.06 −0.04
26 −0.09 −0.10 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.04 −0.04 −0.07 −0.03
27 0.22 0.24 −0.10 −0.10 −0.09 −0.12 −0.10 −0.10 −0.12 −0.13 −0.11 0.09 0.06 0.13 0.09
28 0.11 0.11 −0.07 −0.05 −0.07 −0.07 −0.08 −0.05 −0.07 −0.08 −0.06 −0.04 0.07 0.08 0.09
29 0.07 0.02 −0.04 −0.04 −0.05 −0.05 −0.05 −0.02 −0.03 −0.06 −0.03 −0.01 0.07 0.08 0.07
30 −0.02 −0.01 −0.01 0.00 −0.01 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.04 −0.02 0.02 0.01
31 0.11 0.12 −0.03 −0.06 −0.05 −0.07 −0.04 −0.05 −0.07 −0.07 −0.06 −0.06 0.04 0.04 0.04

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16 –
17 0.41 –
(continued on next page)
Children and Youth Services Review 109 (2020) 104742
J. Puccioni, et al. Children and Youth Services Review 109 (2020) 104742

progress; 23 = Info child development; 24 = Info volunteer; 25 = Info help learning; 26 = Info about community; 27 = Read books; 28 = Tell stories; 29 = Sing songs; 30 = Play building games; 31 = School-based
Note. 1 = Reading; 2 = Math; 3 = Temper tantrums; 4 = Annoys; 5 = Disruptive; 6 = Aggressive; 7 = Impulsive; 8 = Over active; 9 = Finishes task; 10 = Pays attention; 11 = Concentrate; 12 = Fidget; 13 = Invited
play; 14 = Eagerness learn; 15 = Accepted by others; 16 = Comforts others; 17 = Works independently; 18 = Stands up for others; 19 = Understands others; 20 = Shares; 21 = transition practices; 22 = Info child
readiness at the onset of kindergarten. These findings are in contrast to
previous studies which demonstrated a direct link between preschool
(Ahtola et al., 2011; LoCasale-Crouch et al., 2008) and kindergarten
31

–
teachers (Galindo & Sheldon, 2012; Jung & Han, 2013; Schulting et al.,
2005) use of transition practices and child outcomes during the tran-
sition to formal schooling. However, the results presented in this study

0.07
are consistent with recent findings from Cook and Coley (2017) who
30

–
also found no direct association between kindergarten teachers’ out-
reach efforts and children’s academic achievement at the onset of kin-
dergarten (Cook & Coley, 2017). One possible explanation for the lack

0.16
0.05
29

of direct association between preschool teachers’ transition practices

–
and measures of school readiness in this study could stem from the
narrow operational definition of transition practices. For example, there
were only three items available in the ECLS-B dataset that were in-
0.28
0.28
0.12
28

tended to measure preschool teachers’ transition practices. As such,

–

there may not have been sufficient variation to capture an association

between transition practices and measures of school readiness. In other
studies examining the relations between early educators’ outreach ef-
0.40
0.20
0.21
0.16
27

forts and child outcomes there are a greater number of items intended
–

to measure transition practices. Although there was no significant direct

association between parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement
and measures of school readiness, it is important to note that we found
0.07

0.09
0.18
0.01

0.02
26

a significant positive correlation between preschool teachers’ transition

–

practices and parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement. This

suggests that preschool teachers’ transition practices are not in vain, but
may have an impact on parental involvement and children’s readiness
0.53

0.08

0.09
0.22
0.02

0.03
25

for school by way of parental perceptions.

–

As predicted, the findings from this study demonstrate a positive

association between parental involvement and measures of school
readiness. More specifically, results indicate that parents who engaged
0.39
0.37
0.10
0.06
0.05
0.09
0.32
24

in more home-based parental involvement had children with higher

–

average levels of academic achievement, and lower levels of conduct

problems and fewer instances of hyperactivity/inattention. These
findings are consistent with a range of studies linking home-based in-
0.39
0.41
0.35
0.06
0.10

0.12
0.19
0.02
23

volvement to young children’s early academic achievement and socio-

–

emotional competencies (Booth & Crouter, 2008; Van Voorhis et al.,

2013). Previous studies have found that home-based parent involve-
ment in the form of home literacy predicts better attention, less hy-
0.49
0.32
0.31
0.29
0.06
0.08
0.04
0.08
0.12
22

peractivity, and less diagnosis of ADHD across the U.S. (Froiland &
Davison, 2016) and Son and Tineo (2016) also found that parents often
give students cues to pay attention during shared book reading. In
−0.06
0.04
0.04
0.09
0.09
0.10

0.04

addition, Fantuzzo et al. (2004) found that home-based involvement

0.00
0.01
0.02

parental involvement. Bold coefficient is significant at the p < .05 level or less.
21

was concurrently associated with less hyperactivity, more attention,

and less conduct problems among a small sample of African American
Head Start students. On the other hand, Fantuzzo et al. (2004) found
−0.03

−0.01

−0.03
−0.03
0.14
0.08
0.06

0.04
0.02

0.03

0.01

that school-based involvement was not related to these important

20

mental health outcomes. Our study replicated the Fantuzzo et al. (2004)
findings and extends them to a national level by finding that home-
based involvement during preschool predicted inattention/hyper-
−0.05
−0.02

−0.02

−0.03

−0.02
0.44

0.04

0.11
0.04
0.08

0.05
0.00

activity and conduct problems in kindergarten, while school-based

19

parent involvement in preschool did not predict inattention/hyper-

activity and conduct problems.
The most salient finding from this study supports the assertion
−0.03

−0.02

−0.02

−0.04
0.67
0.43

0.05
0.09
0.05
0.08
0.01

0.04

0.02

parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement (Hoover-Dempsey

18

et al., 2005) have the potential to shape parental involvement, which in

turn has a positive influence on child outcomes. Our findings indicate
that parents who have more positive perceptions about preschool tea-
−0.04
−0.04
−0.01

−0.06
0.41
0.40
0.54

0.14
0.08
0.05

0.07
0.00
0.04

0.00

chers’ invitations for involvement reported engaging children in more

17

home-based involvement, which in turn was predictive of children’s

academic achievement and socio-emotional wellbeing. These findings
are new and noteworthy because no studies to date have used nation-
−0.04
Table 2 (continued)

−0.04
−0.01
−0.01

−0.02

−0.02
0.70
0.80
0.48

0.10
0.04
0.10
0.03

0.03

ally representative data to link parents’ perceptions of preschool tea-

16

chers’ invitations for involvement to measures of school readiness by

way of home-based parental involvement. Furthermore, this is the first
study that we know of that links parent perceptions to home-based
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

involvement, and children’s social-emotional wellbeing at the onset of

11
J. Puccioni, et al.
kindergarten. Given that parents’ perceptions of preschool teachers’
invitations for involvement in this study emphasized the sharing of
information about children’s progress and development in addition to
information about materials and resources intended to help families
and children, these findings may be framed within a broader range of
scholarship that highlights parents’ desire to know more about how to
help their child learn and succeed at school (Hoover-Dempsey et al.,
2005; McIntyre, Eckert, Fiese, DiGennaro, & Wildenger, 2007). Parents
of young children want information about the transition to kinder-
garten in general and ways to help prepare children for kindergarten
more specifically (McIntyre et al., 2007), and early educators are un-
iquely poised to provide parents with this type of information. There-
fore, the evidence linking parents’ perceptions about invitations for
involvement and parental involvement is encouraging given that
schools and policymakers alike are often interested in increasing par-
ental involvement as way to support young children’s early learning
and development.
Given that findings from this study provide evidence linking pre-
school teachers’ transition practices, parents’ perceptions of preschool
teachers’ invitations for involvement, and parental involvement to
measures of school readiness it is important to consider the ways in
which transition practices, parents’ perceptions and involvement
varied. Consistent with a range of previous studies, findings presented
in this study indicate there is a demographic divide in measures of
school readiness, such that children from higher socioeconomic status
backgrounds (Reardon, 2011) and children who are older (Lin et al.,
2009) begin kindergarten with higher average levels of achievement
and demonstrate more socio-emotional wellbeing (Dee & Sievertsen,
2015). Importantly, children from higher socioeconomic status back-
grounds are more likely to be given the gift of time and be older at the
beginning of kindergarten (Graue & DiPerna, 2000). Therefore, children
from less affluent families may benefit from having a preschool teacher
who helps build reciprocal home-school connections that engender
positive beliefs among families in ways that encourage and support
parental involvement.
Findings presented in this study suggest that parents with children
attending Head Start held more positive perceptions about preschool
teachers’ invitations for involvement in comparison to children who did
12
Children and Youth Services Review 109 (2020) 104742
Fig. 2. N ≈ 3100. Standardized esti-
mates are presented addressing research
questions under study. Standardized
covariance estimate between transition
practices and parent perceptions reported
in figure. Figure does not depict controls.
Model fit statistics, RMSEA = 0.056
(90% CI: 0.055–0.057); SRMR = 0.07.
R2 Transition Practices = 0.08; R2 Parent
perception = 0.06; R2 Home-based
Parental Involvement = 0.65; R2 School-
based Parental Involvement = 0.17; R2
Academic Achievement = 0.67; R2
Conduct Problems = 0.31; R2
Hyperactivity/Inattention = 0.34; R2
Prosocial Behaviors = 0.22. Solid lines
indicate significance p < .05, and da-
shed line indicate no significant associa-
tion.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education,
National Center for Education Statistics,
Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,
Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 24 mos.
(2003–2004), preschool data collection
(2005–2006), Kindergarten 2006
(2006–2007), Kindergarten 2007
(2007–2008) data collections.
not attend Head Start. These are interesting and important findings
considering that Head Start performance standards emphasize the im-
portance of practices that support children’s transition to elementary
school (Rous, Hallam, McCormick, & Cox, 2010) and more importantly,
that Head Start programs make concerted efforts to build home-school
partnerships (Ansari & Gershoff, 2015; Hatcher, Nuner, & Paulsel,
2012). In fact, Ansari and Gershoff (2015) found that parents of chil-
dren attending Head Start who engaged in more school-based in-
volvement engaged their children in more cognitive stimulating activ-
ities at home, which in turn was positively associated with gains in
literacy and mathematics. The authors also found that teacher and staff
training focused on how to involve parents was linked to more parental
involvement. Furthermore, research indicates that preschool teachers
(Rous et al., 2010) who received specialized training to enhance chil-
dren’s transition to kindergarten reported using more types of transition
practices before and after the school year began in comparison to those
teachers who did not have any special training. Additionally, preschool
teachers who held a degree in Early Childhood Education reported
utilizing more transition practices and parents of children who were
taught by a preschool teacher who held a degree in Early Childhood
Education held more positive beliefs about teachers’ invitations for
involvement. These findings point to the importance of advanced
coursework for early educators and ongoing professional development
focused on building productive home-school partnerships which aim to
shape parental involvement.
There were also differences in parental involvement by socio-
demographic characteristics. Consistent with previous research parents
from higher socioeconomic status backgrounds reported engaging in
more parental involvement activities (Cheadle & Amato, 2011; Phillips,
2011). Also consistent with previous research, parents of African
American children reported engaging in fewer home-based involvement
activities in comparison to their European American counterparts
(Phillips, 2011; Puccioni, 2018; Rouse et al., 2005). Importantly, we
also found that Hispanic and African American families engaged in
more school-based involvement, whereas European American families
engaged in more home-based involvement. This suggests that Hispanic
and African American families may benefit even more than European
American families from shifting preschool outreach efforts toward a
 J. Puccioni, et al.

Table 3
Unstandardized regression coefficient for associations among transition practices, parental perceptions of invitations for involvement, parental involvement, and measures of school readiness.
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), 24 mos. (2003–2004), preschool data collection (2005–2006), Kindergarten
2006 (2006–2007), Kindergarten 2007 (2007–2008) data collections.

Preschool Parents’ Perceptions of Preschool Home-based Preschool School-based Kindergarten Academic Kindergarten Conduct Kindergarten Kindergarten Prosocial
transition Invitations for Parental Involvement Parental Involvement Achievement Problems Hyperactivity/ Behaviors
Practices Involvement Inattention

Child/Family Characteristic
Controls
SES −0.05 −0.01 0.10** 0.35*** 2.37*** −0.04 −0.06* 0.11***
African American 0.09 0.03 −0.16** 0.16 −0.74 0.11* 0.05 0.02
Hispanic 0.01 0.02 −0.09 0.18 −0.92 −0.03 −0.02 0.03
Asian American 0.11 −0.06** −0.08 0.13 1.89** −0.08* −0.11 −0.07
Other 0.17 −0.01 −0.02 0.24 −0.46 0.02 −0.07 0.02
Female 0.07* −0.09 −0.52 −0.17*** −0.25*** 0.11**
Age at assessment 0.97*** −0.01 −0.02*** 0.01**
24 month parental involvement 0.04* 0.76*** 0.39***
Preschool Achievement 0.86***
Preschool Conduct Problems 0.41***
Preschool Hyperactivity 0.48***

13
Preschool Prosocial Skills 0.43***

Preschool Teacher and School

Characteristics Controls
BA degree 0.10* 0.04*
AA degree 0.12* −0.02
Years of experience 0.01*** 0.00
Private Pre-k −0.07 −0.04
Center-based Pre-k −0.26** −0.02
Head Start 0.26*** 0.10***
Other Pre-k −0.15 −0.06

Relation among primary model

variables under study
Transition Practices −0.01 0.03 0.02 0.03 −0.01
Parental Perceptions 0.27** 2.08*** 0.22 0.05 0.18 −0.09
Preschool Home-based 1.21* −0.10* −0.13** 0.08
Involvement
Preschool School-based −0.33* −0.02 −0.02 0.00
Involvement

Note. N ≈ 3100. Unstandardized estimates are presented. Model fit statistics, RMSEA = 0.06 (90% CI: 0.055–0.057); SRMR = 0.07. R2 Transition Practices = 0.08; R2 Parent perception = 0.06; R2 Home-based Parental
Involvement = 0.65; R2 School-based Parental Involvement = 0.17; R2 Academic Achievement = 0.67; R2 Conduct Problems = 0.31; R2 Hyperactivity/Inattention = 0.34; R2 Prosocial Behaviors = 0.22. Two tailed
test: *p < .05, **p < .01, *** p < .001.
Children and Youth Services Review 109 (2020) 104742
J. Puccioni, et al.
greater focus on home-based involvement. Importantly, we also found
that parent home-based involvement when children were 24 months of
age predicted home-based involvement during preschool. This suggests
that some outreach to parents about home-based involvement could
begin during late infancy, so that parents create strong home-based
involvement habits well before preschool.
5. Conclusion
This study contributes to the literature by using a nationally re-
presentative sample drawn from ECLS-B to examine the associations
among preschool teachers’ transition practices, parental perceptions
and involvement, and measures of school readiness. The most salient
finding was that parents’ perceptions of preschool teachers’ invitations
for involvement were positively associated with home-based involve-
ment, which in turn was associated with children’s academic achieve-
ment and socio-emotional wellbeing during the transition to kinder-
garten. Although findings presented in this study provide an important
contribution to the field, there are several limitations that should be
considered. Despite the benefits of using longitudinal secondary data,
this study is correlational and direct causation cannot be assumed.
Another issue pertains to measurement error, or the use of imprecise
measures, which may underestimate the influence of preschool tea-
chers’ transition practices and parental involvement on measures of
school readiness. For example, this study includes few measures for
preschool teachers’ transition practices and these items do not capture
information about which families participated in these activities. In
addition, preschool teachers only reported if they engaged in these
transition practices and do not capture the quality of the actual out-
reach efforts. Future research should examine a wider range of pre-
school teachers’ transition practices and seek to measure family parti-
cipation in such efforts. Similar limitations can be found with regards to
parental involvement. Although parents report on the frequency of
engaging in different types of parental involvement, there is no measure
of the quality of those engagements.
Despite these limitations there are several important strengths of
this study that should be discussed. Most studies examining the role
educators’ transition practices have on child outcomes primarily focus
on academic achievement and these studies generally occur during
kindergarten. Fewer studies have used longitudinal nationally re-
presentative data to examine how preschool teachers’ transition prac-
tices have the potential to help support children’s transition to ele-
mentary school by way of parental involvement. Findings from this
study have important implications for encouraging parental involve-
ment by demonstrating the degree to which parents’ perceptions about
preschool teachers’ invitations for involvement shape parental in-
volvement, which in turn, has the potential to positively impact chil-
dren’s academic outcomes during the transition to elementary school.
Subsequent research should explore how parents role construction and
invitations for involvement simultaneously contribute to parental in-
volvement decision making processes (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005).
Future studies should also explore if preschool teachers’ transition
practices and parents’ perceptions of invitations for involvement are
differentially associated with parental involvement activities and
measures of readiness for children living in poverty and those from
historically marginalized communities.
Funding
This research was supported by a grant funded by the Foundation
for Child Development. The views presented in the article belong solely
to the authors and do not reflect the view of the Foundation for Child
Development.
14
Children and Youth Services Review 109 (2020) 104742
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104742.
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