What is the Difference Between Population and Sample?

In the methodology section of your dissertation you will be required to provide details about both the population and sample of your
study. These sections are a common stumbling block for many students, as students often fail to properly distinguish between their
population and their sample. So, what exactly is the difference between the two?
First, your sample is the group of individuals who actually participate in your study. These are the individuals who you end up
interviewing (e.g., in a qualitative study) or who actually complete your survey (e.g., in a quantitative study). People who could have
been participants in your study but did not actually participate are not considered part of your sample. For example, say you e-mailed
study invitations to 200 people on a listserv and 100 of them end up participating in your study (i.e., complete your survey or your
experiment). Your sample is the 100 individuals who participated in your study. The 100 individuals who received invitations but did
not participate would not be considered part of your sample; rather, they are part of what is often called the sampling frame. Your
sampling frame is the group of individuals who could possibly be in your study, which in the above example would be the 200
individuals on the e-mail listserv.
On the other hand, your population is the broader group of people to whom you intend to generalize the results of your study. Your
sample will always be a subset of your population. Your exact population will depend on the scope of your study. For instance, say
your research question asks if there is an association between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction in nurses. In this case, your
population might be nurses in the United States. However, if the scope of your study is more narrow (e.g., if your study deals with a
local problem or a specific specialty/industry), then your population would be more specific, such as “nurses in the state of Florida” or
“licensed practical nurses in the United States.” Importantly, your population should only include people to whom your results will
apply. For example, if you do not have good reason to believe that your results will apply to all nurses in the United States, then your
population will need to be more specific. If you are stuck on defining your population, think about how you would fill in the blank in
the following sentence: “The results of my study will apply to _____.” Your answer will help determine how you define your
population.
To summarize: your sample is the group of individuals who participate in your study, and your population is the broader group of
people to whom your results will apply. As an analogy, you can think of your sample as an aquarium and your population as the
ocean. Your sample is small portion of a vaster ocean that you are attempting to understand. Properly distinguishing between these
two concepts will aid you as you navigate the methodological details of your dissertation.

Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that does not give all the
individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.
Non-Probability Sampling

In any form of research, true random sampling is always difficult to achieve.

Most researchers are bounded by time, money and workforce and because of these limitations, it is almost impossible to randomly
sample the entire population and it is often necessary to employ another sampling technique, the non-probability sampling technique.
In contrast with probability sampling, non-probability sample is not a product of a randomized selection processes. Subjects in a non-
probability sample are usually selected on the basis of their accessibility or by the purposive personal judgment of the researcher.

The downside of the non-probablity sampling method is that an unknown proportion of the entire population was not sampled. This
entails that the sample may or may not represent the entire population accurately. Therefore, the results of the research cannot be used
in generalizations pertaining to the entire population.

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling is probably the most common of all sampling techniques. With convenience sampling, the samples are selected
because they are accessible to the researcher. Subjects are chosen simply because they are easy to recruit. This technique is considered
easiest, cheapest and least time consuming.
Consecutive Sampling

Consecutive sampling is very similar to convenience sampling except that it seeks to include ALL accessible subjects as part of the
sample. This non-probability sampling technique can be considered as the best of all non-probability samples because it includes all
subjects that are available that makes the sample a better representation of the entire population.
Quota Sampling
 Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher ensures equal or proportionate representation of
subjects depending on which trait is considered as basis of the quota.
For example, if basis of the quota is college year level and the researcher needs equal representation, with a sample size of 100, he
must select 25 1st year students, another 25 2nd year students, 25 3rd year and 25 4th year students. The bases of the quota are usually
age, gender, education, race, religion and socioeconomic status.

Judgmental Sampling

Judgmental sampling is more commonly known as purposive sampling. In this type of sampling, subjects are chosen to be part of the
sample with a specific purpose in mind. With judgmental sampling, the researcher believes that some subjects are more fit for the
research compared to other individuals. This is the reason why they are purposively chosen as subjects.
Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is usually done when there is a very small population size. In this type of sampling, the researcher asks the initial
subject to identify another potential subject who also meets the criteria of the research. The downside of using a snowball sample is
that it is hardly representative of the population.

When to Use Non-Probability Sampling

 This type of sampling can be used when demonstrating that a particular trait exists in the population.
 It can also be used when the researcher aims to do a qualitative, pilot or exploratory study.
 It can be used when randomization is impossible like when the population is almost limitless.
 It can be used when the research does not aim to generate results that will be used to create generalizations pertaining to the
entire population.
 It is also useful when the researcher has limited budget, time and workforce.
 This technique can also be used in an initial study which will be carried out again using a randomized, probability sampling.

Non-probability sampling: Definition

Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique in which the researcher selects samples based on the subjective judgment of
the researcher rather than random selection.

In non-probability sampling, not all members of the population have a chance of participating in the study unlike probability
sampling, where each member of the population has a known chance of being selected.

Non-probability sampling is most useful for exploratory studies like pilot survey (a survey that is deployed to a
smaller sample compared to pre-determined sample size). Non-probability sampling is used in studies where it is not possible to
draw random probability sampling due to time or cost considerations.

Non-probability sampling is a less stringent method, this sampling method depends heavily on the expertise of the researchers.
Non-probability sampling is carried out by methods of observation and is widely used in qualitative research.

Types of non-probability sampling and examples

1. Convenience Sampling: Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where samples are selected from the
population only because they are conveniently available to researcher. These samples are selected only because they are easy to
recruit and researcher did not consider selecting sample that represents the entire population.  

Ideally, in research, it is good to test sample that represents the population. But, in some research, the population is too large to
test and consider the entire population. This is one of the reasons, why researchers rely on convenience sampling, which is the
most common non-probability sampling technique, because of its speed, cost-effectiveness, and ease of availability of the
sample.

An example of convenience sampling would be using student volunteers known to researcher. Researcher can send the survey
to students and they would act as sample in this situation.
 2. Consecutive Sampling: This non-probability sampling technique is very similar to convenience sampling, with a slight
variation. Here, the researcher picks a single person or a group of sample, conducts research over a period of time, analyzes the
results and then moves on to another subject or group of subject if needed.

Consecutive sampling gives the researcher a chance to work with many subjects and fine tune his/her research by collecting
results that have vital insights.

3. Quota Sampling: Hypothetically consider, a researcher wants to study the career goals of male and female employees in an
organization. There are 500 employees in the organization. These 500 employees are known as population. In order to
understand better about a population, researcher will need only a sample, not the entire population. Further, researcher is
interested in particular strata within the population. Here is where quota sampling helps in dividing the population into strata or
groups.

For studying the career goals of 500 employees,  technically the sample selected should have proportionate numbers of males
and females. Which means there should be 250 males and 250 females. Since, this is unlikely, the groups or strata is selected
using quota sampling.

4. Judgmental or Purposive Sampling: In judgmental sampling, the samples are selected based purely on researcher’s
knowledge and credibility. In other words, researchers choose only those who he feels are a right fit (with respect to attributes
and representation of a population) to participate in research study.

This is not a scientific method of sampling and the downside to this sampling technique is that the results can be influenced by
the preconceived notions of a researcher. Thus, there is a high amount of ambiguity involved in this research technique.

For example, this type of sampling method can be used in pilot studies.

5. Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling helps researchers find sample when they are difficult to locate.  Researchers use
this technique when the sample size is small and not easily available. This sampling system works like the referral program.
Once the researchers find suitable subjects, they are asked for assistance to seek similar subjects to form a considerably good
size sample.

For example, this type of sampling can be used to conduct research involving a particular illness in patients or a rare disease.
Researchers can seek help from subjects to refer other subjects suffering from the same ailment to form a subjective sample to
carry out the study.

When to use non-probability sampling?

 This type of sampling is used to indicate if a particular trait or characteristic exists in a population.
 This sampling technique is widely used when researchers aim at conducting qualitative research, pilot studies
or exploratory research.
 Non-probability sampling is used when researchers have limited time to conduct researcher or have budget constraints.
 Non-probability sampling is conducted to observe if a particular issue needs in-depth analysis.

Advantages of non-probability sampling

1. Non-probability sampling is a more conducive and practical method for researchers deploying survey in the real world.
Although statisticians prefer probability sampling because it yields data in the form of numbers. However, if done correctly,
non-probability sampling can yield similar if not the same quality of results.

2. Getting responses using non-probability sampling is faster and more cost-effective as compared to probability sampling
because sample is known to researcher, they are motivated to respond quickly as compared to people who are randomly
selected.  
Disadvantages of non-probability sampling
1. In non-probability sampling, researcher needs to think through potential reasons for biases.  It is important to have a sample
that represents closely the population.

2. While choosing a sample in non-probability sampling, researchers need to be careful about recruits distorting data. At the end
of the day, research is carried out to obtain meaningful insights and useful data.

Populations
In statistics the term "population" has a slightly different meaning from the one given to it in ordinary
speech. It need not refer only to people or to animate creatures - the population of Britain, for
instance or the dog population of London. Statisticians also speak of a population of objects, or
events, or procedures, or observations, including such things as the quantity of lead in urine, visits to
the doctor, or surgical operations. A population is thus an aggregate of creatures, things, cases and
so on.

Although a statistician should clearly define the population he or she is dealing with, they may not be
able to enumerate it exactly. For instance, in ordinary usage the population of England denotes the
number of people within England's boundaries, perhaps as enumerated at a census. But a physician
might embark on a study to try to answer the question "What is the average systolic blood pressure of
Englishmen aged 40-59?" But who are the "Englishmen" referred to here? Not all Englishmen live in
England, and the social and genetic background of those that do may vary. A surgeon may study the
effects of two alternative operations for gastric ulcer. But how old are the patients? What sex are
they? How severe is their disease? Where do they live? And so on. The reader needs precise
information on such matters to draw valid inferences from the sample that was studied to the
population being considered. Statistics such as averages and standard deviations, when taken from
populations are referred to as population parameters. They are often denoted by Greek letters: the
population mean is denoted by μ(mu) and the standard deviation denoted by ς (low case sigma)
Samples
A population commonly contains too many individuals to study conveniently, so an investigation is
often restricted to one or more samples drawn from it. A well chosen sample will contain most of the
information about a particular population parameter but the relation between the sample and the
population must be such as to allow true inferences to be made about a population from that sample.

Consequently, the first important attribute of a sample is that every individual in the population from
which it is drawn must have a known non-zero chance of being included in it; a natural suggestion is
that these chances should be equal. We would like the choices to be made independently; in other
words, the choice of one subject will not affect the chance of other subjects being chosen. To ensure
this we make the choice by means of a process in which chance alone operates, such as spinning a
coin or, more usually, the use of a table of random numbers. A limited table is given in the Table F
(Appendix), and more extensive ones have been published.(1-4) A sample so chosen is called a
random sample.The word "random" does not describe the sample as such but the way in which it is
selected.

To draw a satisfactory sample sometimes presents greater problems than to analyse statistically the
observations made on it. A full discussion of the topic is beyond the scope of this book, but guidance
is readily available(1)(2). In this book only an introduction is offered.

Before drawing a sample the investigator should define the population from which it is to come.
Sometimes he or she can completely enumerate its members before beginning analysis - for
example, all the livers studied at necropsy over the previous year, all the patients aged 20-44
admitted to hospital with perforated peptic ulcer in the previous 20 months. In retrospective studies of
this kind numbers can be allotted serially from any point in the table to each patient or specimen.
Suppose we have a population of size 150, and we wish to take a sample of size five. contains a set
of computer generated random digits arranged in groups of five. Choose any row and column, say the
last column of five digits. Read only the first three digits, and go down the column starting with the
first row. Thus we have 265, 881, 722, etc. If a number appears between 001 and 150 then we
include it in our sample. Thus, in order, in the sample will be subjects numbered 24, 59, 107, 73, and
65. If necessary we can carry on down the next column to the left until the full sample is chosen.

The use of random numbers in this way is generally preferable to taking every alternate patient or
every fifth specimen, or acting on some other such regular plan. The regularity of the plan can
occasionally coincide by chance with some unforeseen regularity in the presentation of the material
for study - for example, by hospital appointments being made from patients from certain practices on
certain days of the week, or specimens being prepared in batches in accordance with some schedule.

As susceptibility to disease generally varies in relation to age, sex, occupation, family history,
exposure to risk, inoculation state, country lived in or visited, and many other genetic or
environmental factors, it is advisable to examine samples when drawn to see whether they are, on
average, comparable in these respects. The random process of selection is intended to make them
so, but sometimes it can by chance lead to disparities. To guard against this possibility the sampling
may be stratified.This means that a framework is laid down initially, and the patients or objects of the
study in a random sample are then allotted to the compartments of the framework. For instance, the
framework might have a primary division into males and females and then a secondary division of
each of those categories into five age groups, the result being a framework with ten compartments. It
is then important to bear in mind that the distributions of the categories on two samples made up on
such a framework may be truly comparable, but they will not reflect the distribution of these
categories in the population from which the sample is drawn unless the compartments in the
framework have been designed with that in mind. For instance, equal numbers might be admitted to
the male and female categories, but males and females are not equally numerous in the general
population, and their relative proportions vary with age. This is known as stratified random
sampling.For taking a sample from a long list a compromise between strict theory and practicalities is
known as a systematic random sample.In this case we choose subjects a fixed interval apart on the
list, say every tenth subject, but we choose the starting point within the first interval at random.

Unbiasedness and precision

The terms unbiased and precision have acquired special meanings in statistics. When we say that a
measurement is unbiased we mean that the average of a large set of unbiased measurements will be
close to the true value. When we say it is precise we mean that it is repeatable. Repeated
measurements will be close to one another, but not necessarily close to the true value. We would like
a measurement that is both accurate and precise. Some authors equate unbiasedness with
accuracy,but this is not universal and others use the term accuracy to mean a measurement that is
both unbiased and precise. Strike (5) gives a good discussion of the problem.

An estimate of a parameter taken from a random sample is known to be unbiased. As the sample
size increases, it gets more precise.

Randomisation
Another use of random number tables is to randomise the allocation of treatments to patients in a
clinical trial. This ensures that there is no bias in treatment allocation and, in the long run, the subjects
in each treatment group are comparable in both known and unknown prognostic factors. A common
method is to use blocked randomisation. This is to ensure that at regular intervals there are equal
numbers in the two groups. Usual sizes for blocks are two, four, six, eight, and ten. Suppose we
chose a block size of ten. A simple method using Table F (Appendix) is to choose the first five unique
digits in any row. If we chose the first row, the first five unique digits are 3, 5, 6, 8, and 4. Thus we
would allocate the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and eighth subjects to one treatment and the first, second,
seventh, ninth, and tenth to the other. If the block size was less than ten we would ignore digits bigger
than the block size. To allocate further subjects to treatment, we carry on along the same row,
choosing the next five unique digits for the first treatment. In randomised controlled trials it is
advisable to change the block size from time to time to make it more difficult to guess what the next
treatment is going to be.

It is important to realise that patients in a randomised trial are not a random sample from the
population of people with the disease in question but rather a highly selected set of eligible and willing
patients. However, randomisation ensures that in the long run any differences in outcome in the two
treatment groups are due solely to differences in treatment.

Variation between samples

Even if we ensure that every member of a population has a known, and usually an equal, chance of
being included in a sample, it does not follow that a series of samples drawn from one population and
fulfilling this criterion will be identical. They will show chance variations from one to another, and the
variation may be slight or considerable. For example, a series of samples of the body temperature of
healthy people would show very little variation from one to another, but the variation between
samples of the systolic blood pressure would be considerable. Thus the variation between samples
depends partly on the amount of variation in the population from which they are drawn.

Furthermore, it is a matter of common observation that a small sample is a much less certain guide to
the population from which it was drawn than a large sample. In other words, the more members of a
population that are included in a sample the more chance will that sample have of accurately
representing the population, provided a random process is used to construct the sample. A
consequence of this is that, if two or more samples are drawn from a population, the larger they are
the more likely they are to resemble each other - again provided that the random technique is
followed. Thus the variation between samples depends partly also on the size of the sample. Usually,
however, we are not in a position to take a random sample; our sample is simply those subjects
available for study. This is a "convenience" sample. For valid generalisations to be made we would
like to assert that our sample is in some way representative of the population as a whole and for this
reason the first stage in a report is to describe the sample, say by age, sex, and disease status, so
that other readers can decide if it is representative of the type of patients they encounter.

Standard error of the mean

If we draw a series of samples and calculate the mean of the observations in each, we have a series
of means. These means generally conform to a Normal distribution, and they often do so even if the
observations from which they were obtained do not (see Exercise 3.3). This can be proven
mathematically and is known as the "Central Limit Theorem". The series of means, like the series of
observations in each sample, has a standard deviation. The standard error of the mean of one
sample is an estimate of the standard deviation that would be obtained from the means of a large
number of samples drawn from that population.

As noted above, if random samples are drawn from a population their means will vary from one to
another. The variation depends on the variation of the population and the size of the sample. We do
not know the variation in the population so we use the variation in the sample as an estimate of it.
This is expressed in the standard deviation. If we now divide the standard deviation by the square
root of the number of observations in the sample we have an estimate of the standard error of the
mean, . It is important to realise that we do not have to take repeated samples in order
to estimate the standard error, there is sufficient information within a single sample. However, the
conception is that ifwe were to take repeated random samples from the population, this is how we
would expect the mean to vary, purely by chance.

A general practitioner in Yorkshire has a practice which includes part of a town with a large printing
works and some of the adjacent sheep farming country. With her patients' informed consent she has
been investigating whether the diastolic blood pressure of men aged 20-44 differs between the
printers and the farm workers. For this purpose she has obtained a random sample of 72 printers and
48 farm workers and calculated the mean and standard deviations, as shown in Table 3.1.

To calculate the standard errors of the two mean blood pressures the standard deviation of each
sample is divided by the square root of the number of the observations in the sample.

These standard errors may be used to study the significance of the difference between the two
means, as described in successive chapters

Table 3.1
 Standard error of a proportion or a percentage
Just as we can calculate a standard error associated with a mean so we can also calculate a
standard error associated with a percentage or a proportion. Here the size of the sample will affect
the size of the standard error but the amount of variation is determined by the value of the percentage
or proportion in the population itself, and so we do not need an estimate of the standard deviation.
For example, a senior surgical registrar in a large hospital is investigating acute appendicitis in people
aged 65 and over. As a preliminary study he examines the hospital case notes over the previous 10
years and finds that of 120 patients in this age group with a diagnosis confirmed at operation 73
(60.8%) were women and 47 (39.2%) were men.

If p represents one percentage, 100 p represents the other. Then the standard error of each of these
percentages is obtained by (1) multiplying them together, (2) dividing the product by the number in
the sample, and (3) taking the square root:

which for the appendicitis data given above is as follows:

Problems with non-random samples

In general we do not have the luxury of a random sample; we have to make do with what is available,
a "convenience sample". In order to be able to make generalisations we should investigate whether
biases could have crept in, which mean that the patients available are not typical. Common biases
are:
 hospital patients are not the same as ones seen in the community;
 volunteers are not typical of non-volunteers;
 patients who return questionnaires are different from those who do not.
In order to persuade the reader that the patients included are typical it is important to give as much
detail as possible at the beginning of a report of the selection process and some demographic data
such as age, sex, social class and response rate.
Common questions
Given measurements on a sample, what is the difference between a standard deviation and a standard
error?
A standard deviation is a sample estimate of the population parameter; that is, it is an estimate of the
variability of the observations. Since the population is unique, it has a unique standard deviation,
which may be large or small depending on how variable the observations are. We would not expect
the sample standard deviation to get smaller because the sample gets larger. However, a large
sample would provide a more precise estimate of the population standard deviation than a small
sample.

A standard error, on the other hand, is a measure of precision of an estimate of a population

parameter. A standard error is always attached to a parameter, and one can have standard errors of
any estimate, such as mean, median, fifth centile, even the standard error of the standard deviation.
Since one would expect the precision of the estimate to increase with the sample size, the standard
error of an estimate will decrease as the sample size increases.

When should I use a standard deviation to describe data and when should I use a standard error?
It is a common mistake to try and use the standard error to describe data. Usually it is done because
the standard error is smaller, and so the study appears more precise. If the purpose is to describe the
data (for example so that one can see if the patients are typical) and if the data are plausibly Normal,
then one should use the standard deviation (mnemonic D for Description and D for Deviation). If the
purpose is to describe the outcome of a study, for example to estimate the prevalence of a disease,
or the mean height of a group, then one should use a standard error (or, better, a confidence interval;
see Chapter 4) (mnemonic E for Estimate and E for Error).

An appendix contains supplementary material that is not an essential part of the text itself but which may be helpful
in providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem or it is information that is too cumbersome
to be included in the body of the paper. A separate appendix should be used for each distinct topic or set of data and
always have a title descriptive of its contents.

Appendices are always supplementary to the research paper. As such, your study must be able to stand alone
without the appendices, and the paper must contain all information including tables, diagrams, and results necessary
to understand the research problem. The key point to remember when including an appendix is that the information is
non-essential; if it were removed, the reader would still be able to comprehend the significance, validity, and
implications of your research.

It is appropriate to include appendices for the following reasons:

 Including this material in the body of the paper that would render it poorly structured or interrupt the
narrative flow;
 Information is too lengthy and detailed to be easily summarized in the body of the paper;
 Inclusion of helpful, supporting, or useful material would otherwise distract the reader from the main content
of the paper;
 Provides relevant information or data that is more easily understood or analyzed in a self-contained section of
the paper;
 Can be used when there are constraints placed on the length of your paper; and,
  Provides a place to further demonstrate your understanding of the research problem by giving additional
details about a new or innovative method, technical details, or design protocols.

I.  General Points to Consider

When considering whether to include content in an appendix, keep in mind the following points:

1. It is usually good practice to include your raw data in an appendix, laying it out in a clear format so the
reader can re-check your results. Another option if you have a large amount of raw data is to consider placing
it online and note that this is the appendix to your research paper.
2. Any tables and figures included in the appendix should be numbered as a separate sequence from
the main paper. Remember that appendices contain non-essential information that, if removed, would not
diminish a reader's ability to understand the research problem being investigated. This is why non-textual
elements should not carry over the sequential numbering of non-textual elements in the body of your paper.
3. If you have more than three appendices, consider listing them on a separate page at the beginning
of your paper. This will help the reader know before reading the paper what information is included in the
appendices [always list the appendix or appendices in a table of contents].
4. The appendix can be a good place to put maps, photographs, diagrams, and other images, if you feel
that it will help the reader to understand the content of your paper, while keeping in mind the point that the
study should be understood without them.
5. An appendix should be streamlined and not loaded with a lot information. If you have a very long and
complex appendix, it is a good idea to break it down into separate appendices, allowing the reader to find
relevant information quickly as the information is covered in the body of the paper.

II.  ContentNever include an appendix that isn’t referred to in the text. All appendices should be
summarized in your paper where it is relevant to the content. Appendices should also be arranged sequentially by the
order they were first referenced in the text [i.e., Appendix 1 should not refer to text on page eight of your paper and
Appendix 2 relate to text on page six].

There are few rules regarding what type of material can be included in an appendix, but here are some
common examples:

 Correspondence -- if your research included collaborations with others or outreach to others, then
correspondence in the form of letters, memorandums, or copies of emails from those you interacted with
could be included.
 Interview Transcripts -- in qualitative research, interviewing respondents is often used to gather
information. The full transcript from an interview is important so the reader can read the entire dialog
between researcher and respondent.
 Non-textual elements -- as noted above, if there are a lot of non-textual items, such as, figures, tables,
maps, charts, photographs, drawings, or graphs, think about highlighting examples in the text of the paper
but include the remainder in an appendix.
 Questionnaires or surveys -- this is a common form of data gathering. Always include the survey
instrument or questionnaires in an appendix so the reader understands not only the questions asked but the
sequence in which they were asked. Include all variations of the instruments as well if different items were
sent to different groups.
 Raw statistical data – this can include any numerical data that is too lengthy to include in charts or tables in
its entirety within the text.
 Research instruments -- if you used a camera, or a recorder, or some other device to gather information
and it is important for the reader to understand how that device was used; this information can be placed in
an appendix.
 Sample calculations – this can include quantitative research formulas or detailed descriptions of how
calculations were used to determine relationships and significance.

NOTE:  Appendices should not be a dumping ground for information. Do not include vague or irrelevant information in
an appendix; this additional information will not help the reader’s overall understanding and interpretation of your
research and may only distract the reader from understanding the significance of your overall study.
ANOTHER NOTE:  Appendices are intended to provide supplementary information that you have gathered or created;
it is not intended to replicate or provide a copy of the work of others. For example, if you need to contrast the
techniques of analysis used by other authors with your own method of analysis, summarize that information, and cite
to the original work. In this case, a citation to the original work is sufficient enough to lead the reader to where you
got the information. You do not need to provide this in an appendix.

III.  Format
Here are some general guideline on how to format appendices, but consult the writing style guide [e.g., APA]
your professor wants you to use for more detail, if needed:

 Appendices may precede or follow your list of references.

 Each appendix begins on a new page.
 The order they are presented is dictated by the order they are mentioned in the text of your research paper.
 The heading should be "Appendix," followed by a letter or number [e.g., "Appendix A" or "Appendix 1"],
centered and written in bold type.
 Appendices must be listed in the table of contents [if used].
 The page number(s) of the appendix/appendices will continue on with the numbering from the last page of the
text.