Teacher knowledge database

ARC is one way to describe three possible stages of a class. It stands for Authentic Use, Restricted Use
and Clarification and Focus.

Example
ARC could be used to describe the staging of a grammar presentation lesson which starts with an
explanation of rules. Here it would have a different order: CRA.

In the classroom
Authentic use might be a conversation stage that is designed to include the language that learners should
practise; restricted use could be a gap-fill exercise on the language, and clarification and focus an
explanation of rules on the board.

Accuracy refers to how correct learners' use of the language system is, including their use
of grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary. Accuracy is often compared to fluency when we
talk about a learner's level of speaking or writing.

Example
A learner might be fluent (make their meaning clear) but not accurate (make a lot of
mistakes).

In the classroom
Language manipulation activities can help develop accuracy. These include controlled
practice, drills, the study and application of grammar rules, and activities that help students
to 'notice' their own mistakes.

An achievement test evaluates a learner's understanding of a specific course or study

programme. It can be compared with proficiency tests, which measure a learner's level of
language, diagnostic tests, which identify areas learners need to work on, and a prognostic
test, which tries to predict a learner's ability to complete a course or take an exam.

Example
The learners have finished units 1 - 4 of a course book and the teacher now gives them an
achievement test based on what they have seen in these units. The test is taken from the
teacher's book.

In the classroom
Achievement tests can have many additional functions aside from evaluation. Learners can
for example develop an action plan for further study based on the results of an achievement
test.

Acquisition is the way we learn our first language, i.e. through being involved in real
communication, and without formal teaching. As we learn, we hypothesise rules, and use
these to communicate until we notice that the rule is different, or has exceptions. This leads
to classic early mistakes such as 'I seed' and 'I buyed'. Language learning programmes
that immerse learners in the target language aim to create the conditions for acquisition to
happen in second language learning. In a communicative classroom, opportunities for
natural acquisition are often provided alongside opportunities for formal learning, to make
the most of both ways of learning.

Example
A learner can acquire language by living in a country where the language they want to
speak is used. They do this without formal training and by being in contact with it and
needing to use it.

In the classroom
Learners can be encouraged to acquire language by exposure to authentic spoken or written
language and authentic communicative tasks, such as watching TV in order to summarise
what they understand, rather than to analyse the language they hear in depth.

Action research is a development tool for a teacher that involves observing or gathering
other data about a class through interviews, case studies, and questionnaires. A teacher can
establish a cycle of identifying problems, planning changes in response, implementing
changes and gathering and analysing data to evaluate the implementation. Action research
can be used to help general development or to resolve specific problems with teaching or
learners.

Example
A teacher has problems with giving feedback to learners on speaking problems and decides
to record their classes. They then analyses the recordings to identify more effective ways of
correction. They implement changes based on this, and collect data to analyses whether
feedback is now more useful to learners.

In the classroom
Peer observations, learner and teacher diaries, audio and video recordings, case studies,
questionnaires and interviews with learners are all methods that can be used to gather data
for action research.

An adverbial clause tells us more about a main clause, in the same way as an adverb tells
us more about a verb.

Example
He went there because he wanted revenge.

In the classroom
The conjunctions that link adverbial clauses and other parts of the sentence are often a
focus of work in this area. Learners can practise these by linking parts of sentences using
the correct conjunctions, or by finishing sentence starters appropriately.

Affective factors are emotional factors which influence learning. They can have a negative
or positive effect. Negative affective factors are called affective filters and are an important
idea in theories about second language acquisition.

Example
A learner's attitude to English, to the teacher, to other learners in the group and to herself
are all affective factors and have impact on how well she learns.

In the classroom
Affective factors may be as important for successful language learning, if not more so, than
ability to learn. Teachers can reduce negative factors and develop positive ones by doing
activities to build a positive group dynamic, by including students in deciding aspects of the
course and choosing activities that are motivating for the age and interests of the learners.
Affective strategies are learning strategies concerned with managing emotions, both
negative and positive. The relationship between affective strategies and learning is not
clear, but a positive affective environment helps learning in general.

Example
Lowering anxiety levels with relaxation techniques is one kind of affective strategy.

In the classroom
The teacher can play an active role in developing and exploiting affective strategies by
building a generally positive atmosphere in the class. This can happen by encouraging and
counselling learners, by helping them identify achievable aims and work towards
autonomous learning, through personalising activities, and through pair and group work.

Affixes are groups of letters that are added to the beginning or the end of words to make
new words. Prefixes go at the beginning of words and often change meaning, whilst suffixes
go at the end of words and often change the kind of word (e.g. from verb to noun, or noun
to adjective etc.).

Example
'Substandard' and 'pre-cooked' are examples of prefixes, 'hopefully' and 'happiness' are
examples of suffixes.

In the classroom
It is very important to teach affixation as it helps learners guess the meaning of new words
they find, and construct new forms successfully. Word guessing games can help develop
awareness.

Affricatives are consonant sounds made up of a stop, like /t/, immediately followed by a
fricative, like /s/.

Example
The /tʃ/and /dʒ/ consonant sounds are affricatives.

In the classroom
The affricative sounds in English are common in other languages and relatively easy to
produce for many learners.

Aims are what teachers (and learners) want to achieve in a lesson or a course. Activity in a
class is planned in order to achieve these aims.

Example
A lesson aim could be for the learners to demonstrate that they understand the form or use
of the passive better, or to have practised intensive reading. A course aim could be to
improve the report writing skills of a group of business students.

In the classroom
Aims on lesson plans often describe what the teacher wants learners to be able to do by the
end of a lesson, or what they will have done during it. Teachers can tell learners their lesson
aims, or involve learners in setting them. This can help create a sense of purpose and
progress.

Allomorphs are different forms of the same morpheme, or basic unit of meaning. These
can be different pronunciations or different spellings.

Example
There are three allomorphs of the morpheme -s in English. Compare the sound of the -s in
‘cats', ‘dogs' and ‘foxes'.

In the classroom
Certain allomorphs are difficult for learners to produce correctly, for example the allomorphs
of the -ed regular past morpheme, which learners often do not produce correctly until
higher levels. Recognition activities such as sorting words into groups according to
pronunciation are useful to raise awareness.

Allophones are phonetic variations - different pronunciations - of the same phoneme.

Using a different allophone does not change meaning.

Example
The /l/ sound is pronounced differently in ‘love' and in ‘wool'. These two words contain
allophones of the phoneme /l/.

In the classroom
It is important to be aware of what allophones and phonemes exist in other languages, as
these can cause problems when learning the sounds of English. For example, the /b/ and
/v/ phonemes in English are only allophones in Spanish and Spanish learners often have
difficulty recognizing the difference. Discrimination activities on minimal pairs of words,
distinguished only by the phonemes concerned, can help with this.

Alveolar consonants are consonant sounds that are produced with the tongue close to or
touching the ridge behind the teeth on the roof of the mouth. The name comes from alveoli
- the sockets of the teeth.

Example
The consonant sounds /t/, /n/ and /d/ are all alveolar consonants.

In the classroom
Alveolar consonants exist in many languages, including Spanish, Italian, French and
German. Learners can practise these in minimal pairs such as ‘tent' and ‘dent'.

Anaphoric reference means that a word in a text refers back to other ideas in the text for
its meaning. It can be compared with cataphoric reference, which means a word refers to
ideas later in the text.

Example
‘I went out with Jo on Sunday. She looked awful.' ´She` clearly refers to Jo, there is no
need to repeat her name.
In the classroom
Asking learners to identify what or who the pronouns in a text refer to is one way to raise
awareness. They can then practise this by using pronouns to replace words themselves.
Comparing texts with well managed referencing to ones with poorly managed referencing
can help students develop an idea of effective referencing even at low levels.

Anchoring is a technique used to manage emotional states in Neuro-Linguistic

Programming. It involves setting up an association with a desired mental state such as
happiness or calm by creating an anchor stimuli to that state. Anchoring is one of various
NLP techniques which have applications not only in terms of managing thinking and feeling
but also as classroom activities to support other learning aims.

Example
Hearing a song and remembering a sad experience, or smelling a particular food and
recalling a time in childhood, are both examples of anchors.

In the classroom
Anchoring can be used to reduce affective factors such as stress. Learners - and teachers in
stressful situations such as exams or observations - can be encouraged to make
associations with a previous, happier experience that they have created an anchor to.

An antonym is a word which means the opposite to another word.

Example
'Sad' is an antonym of ‘happy'.

In the classroom
Antonyms are an interesting way for learners to explore the meaning of words, for example
when there are various antonyms for a word with multiple meanings, such as ‘rich' or ‘hard'.
This can be done through activities such as mini-presentations of all the antonyms of a
word, or by matching pairs.

Applied linguistics is a field of study that looks at how linguistics can help understand
real-life problems in areas such as psychology, sociology and education. It can be compared
with theoretical linguistics, which looks at areas such as morphology, phonology and lexis.
Areas of applied linguistics of interest to teachers of languages include language acquisition,
corpus studies and sociolinguistics.

For example
Linguistic anthropology is a field of applied linguistics that links analysis of linguistics and
socio-cultural issues.

In the classroom
Studies in applied linguistics which inform the ELT classroom include bilingualism,
conversation and discourse analysis, sociolinguistics, language assessment and language
teaching itself.

An approach is a way of looking at teaching and learning. Underlying any language

teaching approach is a theoretical view of what language is, and of how it can be learnt. An
approach gives rise to methods, the way of teaching something, which use classroom
activities or techniques to help learners learn.
Example
The communicative approach is the best-known current approach to language teaching.
Task-based teaching is a methodology associated with it. Other approaches include the
cognitive-code approach, and the aural-oral approach (audiolingual method).

In the classroom
Learners in the modern language classroom often learn through techniques drawn from a
variety of methods/approaches in what has been labelled an ‘eclectic approach'. Teachers
select techniques from various approaches according to the different needs of their learners.
Most coursebooks mix methods and techniques in this way.

Appropriacy refers to whether a word is suitable for the context it is being used in. It is an
important aspect of language but an extremely complex one, as decisions about how to say
things depend on understanding exactly what is right for the context and the culture.

Example
It may be appropriate to say ‘hold on a minute, will you?' in one context and ‘Could you wait
a moment, please?' in another.

In the classroom
Focusing on inappropriate forms of language and delivery first is a good way to raise
awareness of this area. For example, learners can identify inappropriate in language in
video material such as comedy programmes, match language to contexts where it can be
used, and discuss what is appropriate in their own cultures. In general, it is exposure to a
range of authentic material that will help students develop their understanding of
appropriacy.

Aspect is information described by a verb that is not related just to tense and time. For
example, aspect shows whether an action is unfinished or not. It can be compared to tense,
which refers to the verb's past or present form, and time, which is whether the verb refers
to past, present or future.

Example
In English, aspects include the simple, the continuous and the perfect.

In the classroom
Teachers may take a functional approach to teaching each verb form, rather than looking
explicitly at tense, time or aspect. For example, learners may study the uses of the present
perfect continuous, or the past simple.

Assimilation is a process where sounds in separate words change when they are put
together in speech. One way this happens is by the second sound changing to be more
similar to the first.

Example
The phrase 'white bag', which becomes 'wipe bag' when it is said.

In the classroom
Raising awareness of assimilation is often easier to achieve than actively encouraging
learners to produce it, as it is a natural process as fluency increases. One way to help
learners notice is to use phonemic script to describe the changes to sounds.
Asynchronous learning occurs when learner and teacher are not in the same place at the
same time. It can be compared with synchronous learning, where the learner and the
teacher are in the same place at the same time. Both terms are used to define types of
online learning.

Example
In online learning, e-mail and discussion threads on forums are asynchronous learning tools.

In the classroom
Asynchronous learning tools are potentially less powerful than synchronous tools such as
videoconferencing and live chat, but they are often used by teachers to support classroom
learning rather than as a substitute for it. For example, learners can send written homework
to their teacher for correction, then revise and re-write it.

Written or spoken communication has an audience - the people the message is for. In
order for the message to be effective it must be written or said with the audience in mind.
The audience will particularly affect the choice of register; the level of formality of lexis and
expressions.

Example
The target audience for a newspaper report will be much wider than a message left on
someone's desk on a post-it note.

In the classroom
Analysis of who the target audience is when learners are planning writing can help develop
awareness. Learners can also be shown how thinking about the target audience can improve
the effectiveness of a piece of writing or speaking.

Audio-lingualism is a method of foreign language teaching where the emphasis is on

learning grammatical and phonological structure, especially for speaking and listening. It is
based on behaviourism and so relies on formation as a basis for learning, through a great
deal of mechanical repetition.

Example
The teacher spends most of the time in the class drilling the learners on grammatical and
phonological structures. Error correction is also important.

In the classroom
Audio-lingualism evolved in the context of large-scale language teaching programmes in the
1950s and 60s. It is unusual in modern language learning and has largely fallen out of use
as a methodology, as cognitive views of language learning and communicative accounts of
language have led to other methodologies.

Authentic materials are written or spoken texts used with learners without changing the
level of language.
Example
A story from a news webpage, streamed radio, a story from a CDROM, a podcast, or a live
native speaker talking to learners without adjusting the level of their language.

In the classroom
Authentic materials can be exploited at different levels by changing the level of the task to
suit learner levels. Thus, the same piece of authentic material can be used with an
elementary level class or an advanced one.
An authentic task is a task that native speakers of a language would do in everyday life.
When learners do an authentic task they are doing something that puts real communicative
demands on them.

Example
The learners need to plan a trip around their country for a group of students on an
exchange trip.

In the classroom
Authentic tasks are easy to identify as they are what we do with our own language all the
time. Examples include phoning for information, preparing a party, planning a holiday,
answering e-mail, preparing reports, holding a meeting and filling in application forms.

Autonomy means the ability to take control of one's own learning, independently or in
collaboration with others. An autonomous learner will take more responsibility for learning
and is likely to be more effective than a learner who is reliant on the teacher. Learner
training in the classroom encourages autonomy and is an important element of language
teaching.

Example
An autonomous learner will set their own goals, reflect on their progress, and seek
opportunities to practise outside the classroom.

In the classroom
Asking learners to keep diaries to reflect on the way they learn best, and teaching them
how to use tools such as dictionaries can encourage autonomy. Asking the question, 'could
the learners do this for themselves?' about any activity planned for class will help create the
conditions for the development of greater learner autonomy in class.

Auxiliary verbs are added to main verbs to make them work in other forms, such as
questions, negatives, and other times.

Example
‘do', ‘have' and ‘be' are examples of auxiliary verbs.

In the classroom
Drilling or matching activities are useful activities to practise the use of auxiliary verbs in
questions, short answers, negatives and tags, as learners need to make mechanical changes
to structures.

For example
T: I have a new car.
Ls: Do you?

T: You like fish...

L: Don't you?

Awareness-raising activities aim to make learners more aware of language and so

improve their understanding, but do not involve learners in using the language themselves.
As such, awareness-raising activities are often the first stage of learning new language.

Example
A pre-intermediate level group have just finished a reading comprehension using an
authentic text and the teacher goes back and highlights the phrasal verbs in the text,
explaining what they are and their meaning, but not asking the learners to use them in any
way.

In the classroom
Awareness-raising is a useful technique in mixed-ability classes, as learners will be able to
respond to the new information in different ways and process it according to their level of
competence.

Backchaining is a drilling technique intended to help learners pronounce difficult sound

groups, words or phrases. The teacher begins with the last sound, which the learners
repeat, and then gradually builds up the word or phrase by going 'back' to the beginning.

Example
The following sequence is an example of a backchaining drill:
Teacher: Known
Learners: Known
Teacher: I'd known
Learners: I'd known
Teacher: If only I'd known
Learners: If only I'd known etc

In the classroom
Backchaining is one of many drilling techniques which can be used to focus on pronunciation
problems. It is particularly useful to help learners pronounce weak, elided or intrusive
sounds. In addition to helping learners say difficult phrases, it is also fun.

Blending is one of the many ways new words are made in English. It refers to joining the
beginning of one word and the end of another to make a new word with a new meaning.

Example
Smog, from smoke and fog, and brunch, from breakfast and lunch, are examples of blends.

In the classroom
Discussion of blends can help learners understand how words are formed in English, e.g.
Asking learners to identify root words. Learners can also invent new blend words.

A blog, or weblog, is a website which functions as a diary or personal journal. The writer
makes regular additions to the site in text, file and image form, and others add comments.
The latest entry appears first, and other people can leave comments on what is written,
encouraging a dialogue to develop between the writer and the readers.

Example
The Guardian newspaper and the BBC now have blogs on their online sites.

In the classroom
Class blogs are an excellent way to motivate learners to produce English, and the
applications such as ‘Blogger' make them extremely easy to start. Students can be
encouraged to communicate with each other outside class through a blog. To monitor them,
many teachers use a central ‘hub' blog of their own, with links to learner blogs through this.

Bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence is one of the many types of intelligence described in

multiple intelligence theory. People with significant bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence may
enjoy doing things rather than reading or hearing about them, and are good at making
things and at physical activities in general.

Example
Total Physical Response is an example of an approach that seeks to develop and support
this kind of intelligence.

In the classroom
A learner with bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence may enjoy drama and physical games such as
running dictations and mime rather than more static activities. In general they may
welcome opportunities to get up and move around the class.

Bottom-up processing happens when someone tries to understand language by looking at

individual meanings or grammatical characteristics of the most basic units of the text, (e.g.
sounds for a listening or words for a reading), and moves from these to trying to
understand the whole text. Bottom-up processing is not thought to be a very efficient way
to approach a text initially, and is often contrasted with top-down processing, which is
thought to be more efficient.

Example
Asking learners to read aloud may encourage bottom-up processing because they focus on
word forms, not meaning.

In the classroom
Learners can be encouraged to use both bottom-up and top-down strategies to help them
understand a text. For example, in a reading comprehension learners use their knowledge
of the genre to predict what will be in the text (top-down), and their understanding of
affixation to guess meaning (bottom-up).

Brainstorming is the random generation of ideas based around a topic. There is no editing
or ordering of these ideas. They may then be used as the basis for another activity such as
writing or discussion. It is often very productive as a whole-class activity.

Example
Learners brainstorm the topic of smoking by writing all the words they associate with it on
the board. This is then followed by a discursive essay-writing lesson on the topic.

In the classroom
Brainstorming can encourage learners to think more freely and creatively than if they were
doing a more controlled planning exercise. It allows learners to remember what they know,
and to teach each other. It is a dynamic and stimulating way to lead learners into a topic.

A conjunction is a word used to connect other words and phrases together.

Example
‘I wanted to go but she said no, and Tom just laughed.
In the classroom
Using conjunctions is problematic for learners because of how they connect with other
words, for example ‘in spite of...' , ‘however..' and ‘although' mean the same thing but are
used differently. Learners can be helped to use a wider range of conjunctions accurately by
identifying and analysing examples in texts.

Computer-based testing, or CBT, is testing using a computer for all or part of the test.
Computer-based testing is cheaper, more accessible and easier to administer than manual
forms of testing but there are limitations, as CBT which evaluates speaking or writing still
requires human examiners.

Example
IELTS now has computer-based versions, and the TOEFL is now a computer-based test.

In the classroom
Students who are preparing for a computer-based test need real-time practice of doing test
items on computer.

Content and Language Integrated Learning, or CLIL, is where a subject is taught in

the target language rather than the first language of the learners. In CLIL classes, tasks are
designed to allow students to focus on and learn to use the new language as they learn the
new subject content.

Example
In a bilingual English/Spanish school, after a certain age half of the subjects, including
maths and sciences, are taught in English.

In the classroom
CLIL materials are often characterised by lots of visual support for meaning, to allow low
language level students to access high level content. The materials allow the students to
focus on the language they need to learn about that particular subject in English. The choice
of language focused on is determined by the demands of the subject.

Cataphoric reference means that a word in a text refers to another later in the text and
you need to look forward to understand. It can be compared with anaphoric reference,
which means a word refers back to another word for its meaning.

Example
'When he arrived, John noticed that the door was open'.

In the classroom
Matching parts of sentences can help learners understand how cataphoric reference works,
for example:
a) As she entered the building 1) Jim fell over
b) When he was running upstairs 2) the woman saw a huge crowd

Categorisation is a task where learners have to put language into different categories.

Example
Learners categorise conjunctions according to their function.

In the classroom
Examples of activities include categorising words according to type, e.g. verb, noun,
preposition; categorising functions, e.g. request, order, suggestion; categorising vocabulary
by negative or positive.

Catenation is one of the ways speakers join words together. In catenation, a consonant
sound at the end of one word joins with a vowel sound at the beginning of the next word.

Example
The two words an + apple become 'anapple' in speech, with catenation of the consonant n
and the vowel a sounds.

In the classroom
Learners often have difficulty hearing individual words due to catenation. Specific listening
tasks such as counting the number of words heard, dictation, and reading with a cassette
recording can help practise this.

Choral repetition is when the teacher or a learner models language and the group of
learners repeat it together.

Example
The class are practising the pronunciation of the schwa sound. The teacher models words
from a list and the learners repeat them together.

In the classroom
Choral repetition is not a very common choice of activity, but it can contribute well to
learning some aspects of language, especially pronunciation of connected speech and
formulaic language such as classroom language. It is also an activity that many learners
enjoy.

Chunks are groups of words that can be found together in language. They can be words
that always go together, such as fixed collocations, or that commonly do, such as certain
grammatical structures that follow rules. A listener or reader uses their knowledge of
chunks to help them predict meaning and therefore be able to process language in real
time. Chunks include lexical phrases, set phrases, and fixed phrases.

Example
'Utter disaster', 'by the way', 'at the end of the day', 'encourage + someone + infinitive',
'dependent + on' are all examples of chunks.

In the classroom
Areas of work such as idioms, collocations and verb patterns all focus on types of chunks.
Learners can be encouraged to identify and record lexical and grammatical chunks as they
find them.

A class contract is an agreement made between learners and the teacher to follow certain
rules and standards. It applies to both the learners and the teacher, and is drawn up at the
beginning of the course.

Example
‘We will hand in our homework on time' and 'I will mark and return homework quickly' are
two terms often included in a class contract.

In the classroom
Aside from being an enjoyable, relevant and motivating activity a class contract can be a
useful way to start a dialogue concerning how the class works and can so encourage learner
autonomy.

A class library is a collection of books kept in the classroom and used for extensive
reading, not generally for classroom activities.

Example
A classroom library can include readers, the teacher's own books, and books lent by
learners.

In the classroom
Ways to encourage learners to use a class library include practising sub-skills such as
guessing meaning from context, guiding learners in their selection of material, and giving
learners the opportunity to share their thoughts and reactions to books through discussions
and mini-presentations.

A class reader is a book that the learners read and analyse together in the class and as
homework over an extended period of time. It may be graded or have authentic language.

Example
The class are reading a collection of short stories. The teacher occasionally reads one aloud
in the class, and others the learners read at home. Learners do a range of activities on the
stories in class.

In the classroom
Whilst a range of relevant and motivating pre- and post-reading activities are important, a
key factor for success in getting learners to read is selecting the right reader. A good
starting point is to find out what the learners read in their own language.

A class round-up is an activity where the teacher and learners summarise what they have
been doing during the class. Class round-ups are important not only to focus learner
attention on information but also to help the process of remembering it.

Example
The learners have been practising techniques for a formal reading exam and at the end of
the class each learner shares one useful tip with the group.

In the classroom
Class round-ups can also be done after the lesson in the form of e-mail, or on a class blog.

A class survey is an activity where all the learners in the group need to ask each other
questions to find information, which they then need to analyze and report back to the class.

Example
The class have been reading about things that are bad for their health and now conduct a
class survey to find out who in the class has these unhealthy habits. They do this by
choosing a question each to ask all the other learners, then collating this information.

In the classroom
Class surveys can have various aims and functions: as warmers, as ice-breakers for new
classes, as pre-reading activities, to provide freer practice of target language, as tasks etc.
The key qualities of surveys are that they are communicative and dynamic.
The term class-centred teaching draws attention to the importance of behaving in ways
that encourage classes to develop into cohesive groups in which learning is regarded as a
collective, collaborative endeavor and the performance of individuals is lifted by the positive
atmosphere of the overall class group. Example A teacher engages in light-hearted banter
with the class for a few moments. Students, appreciative of the opportunity to be involved
in group social interaction, return to the learning task with renewed vigour.

In the classroom Class-centred teachers develop trusting relationships with their classes and
find themselves teaching in flexible ways. Guided by the principle of inclusivity they give as
many students as possible the opportunity to contribute to the collective learning of the
class group.

Classroom management refers to the decisions a teacher makes regarding the physical
environment and resources available to them, including furniture, resources, learners and
themselves. These decisions are made to support the aims of the class.

Example
The decision to put individual tables together into one big circle for an open class discussion
supports the aim of involving all learners in the activity.

In the classroom:
Different classroom activities require very different management and an essential part of
planning is to make decisions about areas such as learner groupings, teacher involvement,
positioning of furniture where possible, instruction giving and timing.

A clause is a phrase that contains a verb and normally a subject. It can be a full sentence
by itself or be part of a sentence.

Example
'The rain fell heavily' is an example of a clause that is a full sentence. 'It fell on the land,
which quickly flooded' is an example of a clause as parts of a sentence, in this case a
relative clause.

In the classroom
Areas that can be focussed on include defining and non-defining relative clauses, conditional
clauses, and how to link clauses together in writing.

A cleft sentence is made by separating a single clause into two clauses, one main and one
subordinate. Cleft sentences are useful to change emphasis; for example, compare ‘You
stole the money' and ‘It was you who stole the money, not him'.

Example
‘It was me who broke the vase' is a cleft sentence made up of two clauses. A single clause
version would be ‘I broke the vase'.

In the classroom
Sentence transformations are a form of controlled practice of cleft sentences, for example:
Pat broke the window.
Was: ...It was Pat who broke the window.
A cline is a scale of language items that goes from one extreme to another, for example,
from positive to negative, or from weak to strong.

Example
The teacher asks learners to map modal verbs of probability such as ‘must', ‘might not' and
‘may' on a cline of probability from 100% sure to 100% not sure.

In the classroom
Clines can be a useful tool for learners to record information, and they can help teachers as
a concept check. However, a learner's ability to use a cline does not mean that they can use
the target language in context.

Clipping is one of the ways new words are created in English. It involves the shortening of
a longer word, often reducing it to one syllable. Many examples are very informal or slang.

Example
Maths, which is a clipped form of mathematics, is an example of this. Informal examples
include 'bro' from brother and 'dis' from disrespect.

In the classroom
Discussion of clipping can help learners understand how words are formed in English, and
will help learners understand authentic speech. One possible exercise to do this is for
learners to identify the original words that have been clipped. Learners can also invent new
clipped words.

Working in closed pairs means that the learners are all working in pairs simultaneously
and therefore privately. Closed pairs are the opposite of open pairs, where one pair works
while the rest of the learners’ watch.

Example
The learners are practising pronunciation of stressed and unstressed syllables in pairs; the
teacher monitors the group.

In the classroom
Closed pair work is important because it gives learners a chance to explore new language
without pressure; it is also useful for teachers because it gives them a chance to monitor
the work of all learners discretely and give accurate and personalised feedback to
individuals if they wish.

A cloze is a practice exercise where learners have to replace words missing from a text.
These are removed at regular intervals, for example every five words. This contrasts with a
gap-fill exercise, where words are chosen and removed in order to practise a specific
language point.

Example
The third sentence above as a cloze would be: 'This contrasts with a ______ exercise,
where words are ______ and removed in order ______ practise a specific language
______'.
In the classroom
Clozes are often used to practise reading skills or as a general language review. They are
common in testing.

Cognates are words in English and the learner's language that are similar and have similar
meaning. They can be compared to false cognates, which look similar but have different
meanings.

Example
The Spanish word pausa has a similar meaning to the English word pause.

In the classroom
In a mono-lingual class translation is one way to raise awareness of real and false cognates.
Learners can translate a text from their L1 into English in groups or individually, then
compare their versions and identify possible cognates.

Cognitive overload is a situation where the teacher gives too much information or too
many tasks to learners simultaneously, resulting in the learner being unable to process this
information. In this situation, the language processing demands of an activity go beyond the
language processing limits of the learner. It produces anxiety and stress, as well as
affecting learning.

Example
A teacher introduces learners to the passive by explaining all its uses in English in one class.
The learners experience a cognitive overload due to the large amount of information and
they are unable to understand, or integrate the new knowledge with what they already
know.

In the classroom
It is important to be selective when asking learners to process information, particularly in
terms of the amount of new information a task asks learners to cope with. If necessary, a
large amount of information can be broken up into several classes.

Cognitive strategies are one type of learning strategy that learners use in order to learn
more successfully. These include repetition, organising new language, summarising
meaning, guessing meaning from context, using imagery for memorisation. All of these
strategies involve deliberate manipulation of language to improve learning. Classifications of
learning strategies distinguish between cognitive strategies and two other types,
metacognitive strategies (organising learning), and social/ affective strategies (which enable
interaction).

Example
A learner remembers new words by visualising them represented in a memorable or
ridiculous situation. This makes it easier and faster to recall these words.

In the classroom
Activities which can be described as cognitive strategies include making mind maps,
visualisation, association, mnemonics, using clues in reading comprehension, underlining
key words, scanning and self-testing and monitoring.
Cognitive style refers to the way a person thinks and processes information. Many of the
most useful models of cognitive style place learners on a bi-polar scale. These include field
dependence - independence, convergent-divergent, and holist-serialist. Cognitive style can
be compared with cognitive ability, which refers to how good a person is at thinking and
processing information.

Example:
In the field dependence - independence model some learners are better at distinguishing
information and separating it from the information around it.

In the classroom
Learners can be encouraged to think about their cognitive style and how it affects their
learning by trying a quiz to identify their preferences. If they understand how they prefer to
think then they can learn how to optimise their work in the classroom, and also try
alternative ways.

A cognitive theory of learning sees second language acquisition as a conscious and

reasoned thinking process, involving the deliberate use of learning strategies. Learning
strategies are special ways of processing information that enhance comprehension, learning
or retention of information. This explanation of language learning contrasts strongly with
the behaviourist account of language learning, which sees language learning as an
unconscious, automatic process.

Example
This view leads to a classroom focus on using learning strategies that have been observed
in successful language learners and to a view of the learner as an 'information-processor',
with limitations as to how much new information can be retained, and who needs strategies
to be able to transfer information into memory.

In the classroom
Relevant activities include review and revision, class vocabulary bags, using a scaffolding
approach with young learners, analysis and discussion of language and topics, inductive
approaches and learner training.

The cognitive-code approach of the 1970s emphasised that language learning involved
active mental processes, that it was not just a process of habit formation (the assumption
underlying the audiolingual method that came before it). Lessons focussed on learning
grammatical structures but the cognitive code approach emphasised the importance of
meaningful practice, and the structures were presented inductively, i.e. the rules came after
exposure to examples. There was, however, little use of examples from authentic material.

Example
The aim of the class is for learners to understand the ‘rule of the day', which is that the past
form of regular verbs is made using -ed. The teacher elicits a dialogue that includes clear
examples of the structure. The learners practise it, and the teacher uses it to elicit the rules.

In the classroom
The approach included the clear and structured use of concept questions to help learners
identify the limits of use of structure and lexis, and teachers still find this useful. The PPP
methodology, (Presentation, Practice and Production), through which learners gain a clear
understanding of a grammatical rule before they practise it in meaningful contexts, may still
suit some learning contexts and teachers.
Coherence is one of the two qualities that give a written or spoken text unity and purpose.
The other is cohesion. Coherence refers to the general sense that a text makes sense
through the organisation of its content. In writing, it is provided by a clear and understood
structuring of paragraphs and sentences in writing.

Example
A learner's argument essay is coherent because it has a structure that gives unity and
follows an accepted form. It begins with a statement of belief, gives the opposing
arguments, refutes these, and summarises in a final paragraph.

In the classroom
Coherence in written work and extended speaking, e.g. presentations, can be practised by
looking at suitable organisation of content, and by planning exercises.

Cohesion is one of the two qualities that give a written or spoken text unity and purpose,
the other being coherence. It refers to the use of linguistic devices to join sentences
together, including conjunctions, reference words, substitution and lexical devices such as
repetition of words, collocations and lexical groups.

Example
The second sentence above has cohesive devices such as conjunctions (and, such as,
including), articles (the), references (it), and collocations (join _____ together, lexical
groups).

In the classroom
Cohesion is an extensive area and can be approached at a discrete item level, e.g.
practising article use or differing synonyms. Teachers can also make learners aware of the
cohesive features of a text, asking them to identify examples of reference, substitution,
lexical cohesion, and conjunction.

Collaborative activity involves learners working together in order to complete a task.

Collaboration increases the opportunities a student has to use the target language, and
thereby develop their skills in it.

Example
The task-based learning approach requires learners to work on collaborative activities.

In the classroom
Learners can benefit from collaboration in a variety of activities, including writing tasks,
projects and inductive approaches.

Collocation refers to words that are found together in language. Collocations can be fixed,
where it is difficult to replace one of the words with an alternative, or freer, allowing for
more choice of words.

Example
'Utter disaster' is a fixed collocation, as there are few words that can be used instead of
'disaster'. 'Make a cake' is a freer collocation, as there are many words that can be used
instead of 'cake'.

In the classroom
Collocations often have to be memorised; teachers can help learners focus on and
 remember collocations by exposing them to authentic texts, and by helping students to
record collocations in their notebooks.

The communicative approach is based on the idea that learning language successfully
comes through having to communicate real meaning. When learners are involved in real
communication, their natural strategies for language acquisition will be used, and this will
allow them to learn to use the language.

Example
Practising question forms by asking learners to find out personal information about their
colleagues is an example of the communicative approach, as it involves meaningful
communication.

In the classroom
Classroom activities guided by the communicative approach are characterised by trying to
produce meaningful and real communication, at all levels. As a result, there may be more
emphasis on skills than systems, lessons are more learner-centred, and there may be use of
authentic materials

Communicative competence refers to a learner's ability to use language to communicate

successfully. Canale and Swain (1980) defined it as composing competence in four areas:

• Words and rules

• Appropriacy
• Cohesion and coherence
• Use of communication strategies

Example
The aim of communicative language teaching and the communicative approach is
communicative competence.

In the classroom
Testing communicative competence is challenging. Formats teachers can use to evaluate
their learners' competence include information gap and role-play activities for speaking,
letters for writing, and note-taking and summarising, which combines listening and writing
competencies.

Community-building software allows users to create and maintain an online community.

Example
Joomla! is open-source software which can be used to build a community.

In the classroom
Whether teachers create a new community or use an existing commercial site, there are
numerous features that can be exploited in the classroom, including forums, bulletin boards,
chat, personal profiles, and galleries.

Compensation strategies are communication strategies used by learners to compensate

for limitations in their language. Different kinds of learners have preferences for different
kinds of learning strategies, for example female learners tend to prefer social and affective
strategies and monolingual learners may favour compensation strategies.
Example
Guessing the meaning when you don't understand and using gestures are examples of
compensation strategies.

In the classroom
Miming games and definition activities such as crosswords are two ways to help learners
practise compensation strategies.

A compound word is made up of other words. It can be compared to a derivative, which is

made up of a word plus a bound structure such as a prefix or a suffix.

Example
Backache and filmgoer are examples of compound words.

In the classroom
Compound words are an excellent way to help learners expand their vocabulary, for
example by focusing on one head word - such as ache in the example above - and then
looking at what modifiers can go with it. Learners sometimes need help with the question of
whether compounds are together, separate or hyphenated, and can be encouraged to use
dictionaries to check this information.

Comprehensible input is language input that can be understood by listeners despite them
not understanding all the words and structures in it. It is described as one level above that
of the learners if it can only just be understood. According to Krashen's theory of language
acquisition, giving learners this kind of input helps them acquire language naturally, rather
than learn it consciously.

Example
The teacher selects a reading text for upper-intermediate level learners that is from a lower
advanced level course book. Based on what the teacher knows about the learners, the
teacher believes that this will give them 'comprehensible input' to help them acquire more
language.

In the classroom
Trying to understand language slightly above their level encourages learners to use natural
learning strategies such as guessing words from context and inferring meaning. As the
example suggests, a teacher needs to know the level of the learners very well in order to
select comprehensible input, and in a large class of mixed ability, different learners will need
different texts.

Concept checking is finding out if a learner has understood a new item. There are a
variety of ways to do this, including asking concept questions. It is especially important in
inductive language teaching, where learners arrive at an understanding of rules through
looking at examples of use, and the teachers may need to check that the learners have a
clear understanding of the concepts presented.

Example
Asking learners to point to someone wearing glasses to check whether they understand the
item 'glasses' checks their understanding of the concept.

In the classroom
Concept checking is an important tool as it avoids asking the question, 'Do you
understand?', which can be answered 'yes' without indicating true understanding. Concept
questions, using realia, asking learners to repeat instructions, learners explaining meaning,
and open-class questions are all ways of concept checking.

Concept questions are used to find out if a learner has understood a new item. The
question is designed to test the key concepts of the item and normally requires a yes/no or
short answer.

Example
To test understanding of the use of 'used to' in the example 'I used to swim in the summer',
a teacher might ask 'Do I still swim now?' and 'Did I only swim once?' to test understanding
of 'used to' as a finished and repeated action in the past.

In the classroom
When planning a presentation lesson on a new language point, many teachers prepare a
series of concept questions that will fully test understanding of the new language.

Concord refers to grammatical agreement between different parts of a sentence. Some

aspects of concord are more difficult for learners to learn than others, for example the third
person ‘s'.

Example
In the sentence ‘He doesn't want to go, and now they don't either' there is concord between
‘he' and ‘doesn't' because ‘he' needs an ‘s' on the verb, and between ‘they' and ‘don't'.

In the classroom
Focusing on writing is a useful way for learners to practise concord. Relevant activities
include dictogloss, and editing written work in groups.

Congruency refers to all the parts of something working together; in ELT this means how
different elements work together to produce successful communication. These elements can
include such tools as intonation, gesture, grammatical structure and lexis.

Example
Learners working on matching different intonation patterns to utterances are thinking about
how different elements of language can work together.

In the classroom
The concept of congruency - all parts working together - is a useful one, as learners and
teachers need to consider how a wide variety of language tools combine to make
communication effective. One way to draw learner attention to this is to emphasize the
impact on the listener or reader of their communication, for example by asking them ‘how
would a reader feel?' or ‘how would a listener respond?'

In connected speech, the pronunciation of a word will change depending on the words
around it. Changes in pronunciation within and across word boundaries include changes to
individual sounds and new sounds being inserted. Learners have to become aware of these
changes in order to understand authentic speech, and to help their pronunciation.

Example
Intrusion: If the words 'go' and 'up' are said together, there is a new /w/ sound between the
two words.
Elision: The disappearance of a sound in connected speech; chris(t)mas, int(e)rest.
Linking: We tend to link final consonants and initial vowels across word boundaries.
Weak forms: In connected speech, many words are pronounced in a weak form.

In the classroom
Intensive listening activities can help raise awareness of the features of connected speech,
as can teaching phonemic symbols to illustrate these features. Modelling and drilling
contextualised language can help learners to approximate connected speech.

The connotation of a word is its suggested or emotional meaning, as compared to its

literal meaning. Connotations can be negative or positive, and are often subjective.

Example
'Thin' is more or less neutral, 'slim' may have a positive connotation, 'skinny' a negative
one.

In the classroom
Teachers often teach negative and positive connotations along with literal meaning. It is
important to raise learners' awareness of the connotations of a word if they are to use them
appropriately, although it is a complex and changeable area.

Consciousness-raising, also known as awareness-raising, is part of the process a learner

can go through with new language. They first become aware or conscious of the new
language, then recognise and distinguish it, then produce it.

Example
Learners studying the contracted form 'didn't' first may become aware that the form exists
in English, then recognise it when they hear it and distinguish it from other sounds, and
then produce it themselves.

In the classroom
Often a teacher decides to encourage learners to notice new language, or to recognise it,
rather than produce it themselves. Two examples could be recognising phrasal verbs, and
guessing their meaning context, or distinguishing the words said in connected speech.

Consolidation is a lesson stage where new material is reviewed, and hopefully learning is
reinforced. It normally occurs at the end of the lesson. Consolidation can be compared with
revision, which takes place at a later time and serves to remind learners.

Example
At the end of a lesson on vocabulary of the body a game of 'Simon Says', e.g. 'Simon says
touch your nose', is played to consolidate the material seen.

In the classroom
As well as helping learners retain material and reinforcing it, consolidation is an opportunity
to clarify and address any doubts. It can also offer a different 'angle' on new language,
which is productive for learners with different styles.

A consonant cluster in a word is a group of consonants with no vowels between them. The
longest possible cluster in English is three consonant sounds at the start, such as 'splash',
and four at the end, as in 'twelfths'.
Example
The tongue twister 'The sixth twisty crisp' has several consonant clusters in it, making it
difficult to pronounce.

In the classroom
Consonant clusters cause problems for learners whose first language does not allow so
many consonants together without intervening vowel sounds. Examples of this are Spanish
and Arabic.

If a test has content validity, then it has been shown to test what it sets out to test.
Content validity can be compared to face validity, which means it looks like a valid test to
those who use it.

Example
Public examination bodies ensure through research and pre-testing that their tests have
both content and face validity.

In the classroom
Not only teachers and administrators can evaluate the content validity of a test. Learners
can be encouraged to consider how the test they are preparing for evaluates their language
and so identify the areas they need to work on.

Content words are words that have meaning. They can be compared to grammatical
words, which are structural. Nouns, main verbs, adjectives and adverbs are usually content
words. Auxiliary verbs, pronouns, articles, and prepositions are usually grammatical words.

Example
‘We flew over the mountains at dawn'.

In the classroom
There is an important difference in pronunciation between content and grammatical words.
Content words tend to be stressed and grammatical words are often pronounced in a
reduced form or with a schwa sound. Practice of this can be provided in listening
comprehension activities that require learners to reconstruct what they have heard.

Contextualisation is putting language items into a meaningful and real context rather than
being treated as isolated items of language for language manipulation practice only.
Contextualising language tries to give real communicative value to the language that
learners meet. The context can help learners remember the language and recall it at a later
date. Learners can use natural learning strategies to help them understand contextualised
language, such as guessing meaning from context.

Example
Teaching the language used to give advice by looking at problem pages from teenage
magazines gives the target language context.

In the classroom
Contextualisation can be as simple as providing an example sentence that uses a new word,
or as complex as preparing a telephone role-play to practise functional language.

Continuous assessment means assessing aspects of learners' language throughout their

course and then producing a final evaluation result from these assessments. It can be
compared with a final or summative assessment, which only assesses the learner at the end
of the course. Continuous assessment often provides a more accurate and complete picture
of the learner's level and has a positive impact on learning.

Example
The learners are giving mini-presentations on their favourite films as a follow-up activity
after reading about the history of cinema. The teacher evaluates their presentations and
uses the results as part of their final result.

In the classroom
Continuous assessment can be made more relevant and motivating by asking the learners
to decide which assignments and tasks will be assessed during the course.

Controlled language is language that the teacher gives the class that is in some way
changed to suit the level or the aims of the lesson. This contrasts with authentic language,
which is not adjusted in any way.

Example
A teacher may prepare a written biography of a famous person that only uses present
simple tense, for an elementary class.

In the classroom
There is debate over the use of controlled and authentic language. Many teachers favour an
'in at the deep end' approach, where the target language is within a text that is not
changed.

Controlled practice is a stage in a lesson where learners practise new language in a

limited form. It can be compared to free practice, which involves learners producing
language using the target content freely.

Example
The teacher has shown the learners the form and use of the past passive form. They now
practise using the structure by completing sentences using cues, e.g.
My car (stolen) _________ last week.

In the classroom
Controlled practice can still be meaningful despite its limitations. For example, we could ask
the learners to complete the following based on their experiences:
(What?) was stolen (when?).
This is even more controlled in terms of the target language but allows the learners to
personalise the activity.

A correction code is used to show learners what kind of mistakes they have made in
written work. The teacher underlines each mistake and writes a symbol or an abbreviation
next to it, showing the kind of mistake.

Example
‘We made our homework' - WW (wrong word).

In the classroom
Correction codes need to be adjusted to level and also to the degree of learner self-
correction expected. For example, for higher level learners who have been editing their own
work for some time the teacher can indicate that there is a mistake in a line, and not say
where or what kind.

Correction codes are symbols the teacher uses when correcting written work. The code
tells the learner what type of error they have made, and learners can then attempt to
correct their errors themselves, using the symbols to guide them.

Example
The following is an example of correction using a code:
I felt very comfortable in my new house SP (spelling)

In the classroom
Typical codes include WO (word order); WW (wrong word); T (tense); and P (punctuation).
Teachers use correction codes to develop the learners' ability to correct and edit their own
work, as well as making learning from errors more memorable. However, some learners are
either resistant to self-correction or find it difficult.

Counselling is a teacher talking with a learner about their learning and advising them. It
can be done in a formal or informal way, and integrated into the beginning or end of a
language course.

Example
At the end of the course, each learner has 15 minutes of counselling with the teacher. They
discuss the learner's strengths and weaknesses, progress, plans and get feedback about the
course.

In the classroom
Young learners can be helped by having counselling sessions with their parents. This is an
effective way to include the parents as a learning resource and support.

Countable nouns are nouns that can be preceded by a number and that have singular and
plural forms. Some nouns have both forms. The opposite of countable nouns is uncountable
nouns.

Example
'Apple' is a countable noun, 'coffee' is both countable (representing a cup of coffee) and
uncountable (meaning the product).

In the classroom
This is a problematic area, countable nouns are often taught as nouns that can be counted.
However, this is not a consistent explanation and also varies from language to language,
e.g. bread is uncountable in English but not in other languages. There are also rules
concerning determiners such as 'many' and 'some'.

A criterion-referenced test measures a candidate's mark against a series of criteria and

produces a description of level based on that criterion. It can be compared with a norm-
referenced test, which places a learner's mark against what other people are achieving in
the same test. Criterion-based tests are useful for indicating how a group of learners are
progressing as they compare candidates against a standard, rather than each other.

Example
Many formal English exams, including IELTS and TOEFL, are criterion-based tests.
In the classroom
It is useful for candidates to understand how criteria are used to evaluate their language.
Writing comprehension activities can help. For example, learners can put jumbled up criteria
in order, or do a three way matching activity with level descriptions, the bands they
correspond to, and the input from the examiner.

The critical period hypothesis says that there is a period of growth in which full native
competence is possible when acquiring a language. This period is from early childhood to
adolescence. The critical period hypothesis has implications for teachers and learning
programmes, but it is not universally accepted. Acquisition theories say that adults do not
acquire languages as well as children because of external and internal factors, not because
of a lack of ability.

Example
Older learners rarely achieve a near-native accent. Many people suggest this is due to them
being beyond the critical period.

In the classroom
A problem arising from the differences between younger learners and adults is that adults
believe that they cannot learn languages well. Teachers can help learners with this belief in
various ways, for example, by talking about the learning process and learning styles,
helping set realistic goals, choosing suitable methodologies, and addressing the emotional
needs of the adult learner.

Cuisenaire rods are small wooden rods of different lengths and colours. They are used as
a classroom resource to visually represent various areas of language. Cuisenaire rods are
used in the Silent Way, a teaching methodology associated with humanism.

Example
Rods of one colour are used to represent verbs, another is added at the end to represent
the past -ed form.

In the classroom
Many uses have been found for rods in the classroom. They can for example be used as
realia, e.g. asking learners to compare sizes and to demonstrate prepositions, or as
representations of concepts such as verb forms and word order.

A curriculum is a set of subjects for an educational institution, or a set of subjects within a

course. In bilingual schools some subjects in the curriculum are taught in one language and
some in the other.

Example
School curriculae give increasing importance to foreign language learning, making
competence in one or two foreign languages one aim of schooling.

In the classroom
There are often cross curricular elements in a school curriculum, such as Personal and Social
Education and Environmental Education, and the content of these can often provide
interesting content for projects in the language classroom.
De-contextualised language is a term that describes language that is presented as an
isolated item rather than with a meaningful and real context. This means that the teacher
and learners focus on the target language only, often through an example at sentence level.
This 'abstract' language contrasts with contextualised language.

Example
In young children, the ability to recognise and understand de-contextualised language is
one milestone in the development of language.

In the classroom
Learners can produce some very interesting responses in activities that use de-
contextualised language. For example, abstract terms can form a basis for creative writing,
and many words games use de-contextualised vocabulary.

De-lexicalised verbs are verbs that have little meaning alone but that can be joined
together with many other words, so generating a wide variety of new meanings. These have
also been called 'empty' verbs.

Example
'Get' is a common example of this. 'Get' does not have one single meaning but can be linked
with many other words to generate meanings, e.g. get in, get away, get married, get paid,
get older, get more difficult etc.

In the classroom
Learners often have problems with these verbs because they try to find a general meaning.
They also struggle to find the right collocation, often translating possible equivalents from
their own language. An example of this is the confusion caused by the de-lexicalised verbs
'make' and 'do'.

A deductive approach to teaching language starts by giving learners rules, then

examples, then practice. It is a teacher-centred approach to presenting new content. This is
compared with an inductive approach, which starts with examples and asks learners to find
rules, and hence is more learner-centred.

Example
The form and use of the third conditional is explained to learners, then they have a gap-fill
exercise to complete, then prepare their own examples.

In the classroom
The deductive approach may be suitable with lower level learners who need a clear base
from which to begin with a new language item, or with learners who are accustomed to a
more traditional approach and so who lack the training to find rules themselves.

Delayed correction techniques are corrections a teacher uses some time after a learner
has made an error. This is usually done to avoid interrupting fluency practice, although
there are other reasons also. Delayed correction contrasts with correction techniques such
as reformulation and echoing, which occur immediately, 'on the spot'.

Example
The teacher monitors closely as learners discuss a topic in groups, making a note of the
most interesting/important errors. When the discussion finishes, these are discussed open
class.
In the classroom
The decision whether to correct immediately or not depends on various factors. These
include aims, class dynamics, learner attitude and expectations, motivation, level, and the
teacher's evaluation of whether a mistake or an error has been made.

A descriptive grammar is a set of rules about language based on how it is actually used.
In a descriptive grammar there is no right or wrong language. It can be compared with a
prescriptive grammar, which is a set of rules based on how people think language should be
used.

Example
A descriptive grammar might include ‘He goes...', meaning ‘He said'.

In the classroom
Learners can be encouraged to move away from a prescriptive approach to grammar by
using a guided discovery, or inductive, approach, in which they look for examples of
variations in use in authentic texts. These examples can be compared to prescriptive rules
in order to decide if they are useful or not.

A determiner is a word that goes before a noun and describes how we are referring to it in
the sentence. Determiners can be compared to adjectives, which express how something is.
Determiners can include demonstratives such as that, articles such as the, and possessive
pronouns such as his.

Example
This is the third drink you've had.

In the classroom
Realia is a good way to demonstrate determiners such as ‘this' and ‘that', for example by
asking learners to play games such as I-spy.

A diagnostic is an activity that a teacher carries out with learners in order to identify
problem areas they may have. This data is then used to plan further activities.

Example
Before teaching phrasal verbs to a class, the teacher asks the learners to identify all the
verbs and their meanings in a prepared text. The teacher observes that most learners know
what phrasal verbs look like and how they work, but have difficulty using context to guess
meaning. The next class is planned based on this information.

In the class:
Test Teach Test (TTT) is a classroom approach that uses a form of diagnosis, in this case
tests, in order to get data on learners and then plan accordingly.

A diagnostic test is a test that helps the teacher and learners identify problems that they
have with the language.

Example
At the start of the course, the teacher gives the learners a diagnostic test to see what areas
of language need to be in the syllabus.
In the classroom
Progress tests given during the course can also act as diagnostic tests as they help the
teacher and learners identify what areas will be looked at next on the course.

Dictogloss is a classroom dictation activity where learners are required to reconstruct a

short text by listening and noting down key words, which are then used as a base for
reconstruction.

Example
Learners discuss the sea. The teacher then explains the task, and reads a short text on the
sea to the class, who just listen. The teacher reads the text again, and the learners take
notes. In groups, the learners then reconstruct the text.

In the classroom
Dictogloss is often regarded as a multiple skills and systems activity. Learners practise
listening, writing and speaking (by working in groups) and use vocabulary, grammar and
discourse systems in order to complete the task.

Diglossia is a situation where a language that has two forms, one a ‘higher' and more
prestigious form used by educated speakers in formal situations, and the other a ‘lower',
vernacular form used more commonly. Although English is not a diglossic language, it does
have a wide variety of dialects, colloquial forms and levels of formality.

Example
Greek, Arabic and Tamil are diglossic languages.

In the classroom
Teachers working with multi-lingual groups may find this is an interesting area to explore if
there are learners in the class who speak diglossic languages. Learners can explain the
different types of language and the roles they have in society and comparisons can be made
with English.

A diphthong is a one-syllable sound that is made up of two vowels. In Received

Pronunciation English there are eight diphthong sounds.

Example
The sound /ei/ in play and made is a diphthong made up of two vowel sounds, /e/ and /i/.

In the classroom
Learners often have problems discriminating between diphthong sounds (and also certain
vowel sounds which are similar) and exercises that raise awareness and practise recognition
are useful. Examples include sounds bingo, minimal pairs, odd one out and sorting.

The direct method of teaching was developed as a response to the Grammar-Translation

method. It sought to immerse the learner in the same way as when a first language is
learnt. All teaching is done in the target language, grammar is taught inductively, there is a
focus on speaking and listening, and only useful ‘everyday' language is taught. The
weakness in the Direct Method is its assumption that a second language can be learnt in
exactly the same way as a first, when in fact the conditions under which a second language
is learnt are very different.

Example
The teacher explains new vocabulary using realia, visual aids or demonstrations.
In the classroom
Aspects of the Direct Method are still evident in many ELT classrooms, such as the emphasis
on listening and speaking, the use of the target language for all class instructions, and the
use of visuals and realia to illustrate meaning.

Discourse is one of the four systems of language, the others being vocabulary, grammar
and phonology. Discourse has various definitions but one way of thinking about it is as any
piece of extended language, written or spoken, that has unity and meaning and purpose.
One possible way of understanding 'extended' is as language that is more than one
sentence.

Example
Something as short as two phrases in a conversation or as long as an entire extended essay
are both examples of discourse and both show various features of discourse.

In the classroom
Areas of written and spoken discourse looked at in language classrooms include various
features of cohesion and coherence, discourse markers, paralinguistic features (body
language), conventions and ways of taking turns.

Discourse management refers to the ability to produce extended written and spoken
texts, for example conversations.

Example
Discourse management is often a criteria in formal evaluation of spoken and written
language.

In the classroom
We use a range of devices to produce effective discourse, including cohesion and coherence,
paralinguistic tools, different communicative functions, and conversational principles. Some
of these can be taught explicitly, for example features of cohesion and functions. Others
develop through practice in managing discourse in activities such as guided and free
conversation, role-play, drama, and presentations.

Discourse markers are words and phrases used in speaking and writing to 'signpost'
discourse. Discourse markers do this by showing turns, joining ideas together, showing
attitude, and generally controlling communication. Some people regard discourse markers
as a feature of spoken language only.

Example
Words like 'actually', 'so', 'OK', 'right?' and 'anyway' all function as discourse markers as
they help the speaker to manage the conversation and mark when it changes.

In the classroom
Discourse markers are an important feature of both formal and informal native speaker
language. The skilful use of discourse markers often indicates a higher level of fluency and
an ability to produce and understand authentic language.

A discrete item is an item of language isolated from context.

Example
Examples of discrete items could be a single phoneme such as /e/, the past form -ed, a
phrasal verb such as 'get up', or a conjunction such as 'in addition'.
In the classroom
A discrete item approach to teaching language isolates the language and enables teachers
and learners to focus on the item itself. For example, it is often useful to practise sounds as
discrete items, then in words and connected speech. Discrete items often appear in testing,
where there is a need to focus on knowledge of specific items.

Display questions are questions you ask to see if the person you are speaking to knows
the answer. In an ELT classroom, this normally means questions teachers ask learners to
see if they understand or remember something. Display questions can be compared to
referential questions, which are questions you ask because you don't know the answer.

Example
The teacher asks a learner ‘What is the past simple form of leave?'

In the classroom
Display questions clearly lack the communicative quality and authenticity of referential
questions, but they are an important tool in the classroom, not only for the teacher to be
able to check and test their learners, but also as a source of listening practice. One of the
first things a beginner learns in English is how to understand and answer display questions.

Dogme is an approach to teaching that argues that teaching should focus on the learner
and not be driven by the resources available, including course books. It is a recent
movement in ELT, started by a group of teachers who are against 'resource heavy' teaching,
arguing that if learners are not interested they will not learn and therefore all material
should be generated by the learners and the lessons directed by them, rather than the
teacher.

Example
Learners come to class discussing something that is in the news. The teacher encourages
and facilitates discussion and provides answers to questions about grammar and vocabulary
as they arise.

In the classroom
In a Dogme lesson, the classroom as such does not exist, as there are no resources, course
books or lesson structures apart from those that learners bring. The teacher involves the
learners in deciding on their priorities each lesson, and takes the role of facilitator of their
objectives.

A drill is a classroom technique used to practise new language. It involves the teacher
modelling a word or a sentence and the learners repeating it. There are different kinds of
drilling, such as choral drill, which involves the whole class, and substitution drill, where the
teacher changes the cue words after each repetition.

Example
The following sequence is an example of a substitution drill
Teacher: I like cheese
Learners: I like it
Teacher: I like apples
Learners: I like them
Teacher: I like Sue etc

In the classroom
Drilling is a classroom technique which some teachers reject due to a possible lack of
communicative quality and its highly controlled, teacher-centred nature. However, there are
advantages to it also, such as offering learners an opportunity to practise pronunciation in a
non-threatening dynamic.

E-learning is the delivery of a learning programme by electronic means; it includes web-

based learning, virtual classrooms, digital collaboration and delivery of content through
internet. It can be combined with face-to-face learning with a teacher, in blended learning.

Example
A learner may choose to sign up for an online language skills programme, which will offer
reading, writing, listening and live speaking activities over the web. There may be a tutor
who will monitor his progress, organise speaking sessions, and mark written work.

In the classroom
The face-to-face class time in a blended learning programme will be used to clear up
organisational problems, for an emphasis on speaking skills, and as an opportunity to help
build a good class dynamic between group members.

English for Academic Purposes, or EAP, refers to learning English in order to use it to
study another subject.

Example
Many universities have pre-sessional EAP courses. Courses concentrate on specific skills the
learners will need to benefit from their learning in another language.

In the classroom
EAP classes can include areas such as academic reading skills, listening and taking notes,
writing summaries, justifying opinions, interpreting graphical information and writing
essays. Learners may need specific preparation for an external test they will take to prove
their ability to study in English, such as IELTS.

English as a Foreign Language, or EFL, refers to learning and using English as an

additional language in a non-English speaking country. It can be compared with ESL and
ESOL, which refer mainly to learning English as a new resident in an English-speaking
country.

Example
EFL includes short summer courses in an English-speaking country, such as the UK, Canada
or the US.

In the classroom
EFL materials tend to be written for learners either studying English in their own country or
on a short course in an English-speaking country. ESL materials tend to focus on ‘survival
English' for people now living in an English-speaking country.

English Language Teaching, or ELT, refers to the activity and industry of teaching
English to non-native speakers.

Example
Many large editorial companies have ELT sections which publish books for English teachers
and learners to use.
English for Speakers of Other Languages, or ESOL, refers to learning English as a new
resident in a English-speaking country. ESOL is similar to ESL. It can be compared with EFL,
which refers to learning and using English as an additional language in a non-English
speaking country.

Example
There are many ESOL projects in countries such as the UK or US, where there are
immigrants from non-English speaking countries.

In the classroom
ESOL classes can include areas such as survival English, functional language, specific
speaking and listening skills, and sociocultural information. They often have an element of
citizenship training also.

English for Specific Purposes, or ESP, refers to learning English because you have a
specific need. It can include the area of EPP, English for Professional Purposes.

Example
Survival English for immigrants, English for Hotel Management, and English for Air Traffic
Controllers are all ESP.

In the classroom
Asking learners what they need to learn is an important element of ESP classes, as often
their language needs and aims are very specific. This data can then be combined with the
teacher's analysis of core language and learning needs in order to prepare a syllabus.

In the move away from teachers following one specific methodology, the eclectic
approach is the label given to a teacher's use of techniques and activities from a range of
language teaching approaches and methodologies. The teacher decides what methodology
or approach to use depending on the aims of the lesson and the learners in the group.
Almost all modern course books have a mixture of approaches and methodologies.

Example
The class starts with an inductive activity with learners identifying the different uses of
synonyms of movement using a reading text. They then practise these using TPR. In
another class the input is recycled through a task-based lesson, with learners producing the
instructions for an exercise manual.

In the classroom
A typical lesson might combine elements from various sources such as TPR and TBL (the
examples); the communicative approach, e.g. in communication gap activities; the lexical
approach, e.g. focusing on lexical chunks in reading; and the structural-situational
approach, e.g. establishing a clear context for the presentation of new structures.

In process writing, the editing stage is where the writer and peers edit the written
work. It comes after the other stages: pre-writing activities, focusing ideas and structuring.

Example
The learners have written their first drafts, based on their notes, without thinking too much
about organisation and accuracy. Then they move to the editing stage.

In the classroom
In order to optimise the opportunity for practice and noticing aspects of language use,
editing can be done as a group activity, or with each learner working on another's text and
then briefing the writer on the changes they suggest.

Elicitation is a technique by which the teacher gets the learners to give information rather
than giving it to them.

Example
A teacher elicits the rules for the structure of the first conditional by asking learners to look
at some examples, then writing 'We make the first conditional in English with…?' on the
board.

In the classroom
Elicitation is an important technique for various reasons. It helps develop a learner-centred
dynamic, it makes learning memorable as learners can link new and old information, and it
can help produce a dynamic and stimulating environment.

Elision is the omission of sounds, syllables or words in speech. This is done to make the
language easier to say, and faster.

Example
'I don't know' /I duno/ , /kamra/ for camera, and 'fish 'n' chips' are all examples of elision.

In the classroom
Elision is an important area in listening skills, as learners are often unable to hear elided
words correctly, especially if they have little contact with native speakers. Word-counting
and dictations are two activities that practise recognition, whilst at the production stage
drilling elided forms such as contracted forms is common.

Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words from a sentence, where they are unnecessary
because they have already been mentioned. Meaning can be understood without these
words. Ellipsis is one of the aspects of language that gives text cohesion.
Example
An example of nominal ellipsis, where a noun phrase is omitted, is 'as it has the last three (
)' and of verbal ellipsis 'Yes, I have ( )'.

In the classroom
Analysis of tape scripts of native speakers is one way of raising learners' awareness of
ellipsis. This can then be continued as a controlled practice exercise by asking learners to fill
in the gaps by replacing the missing words.

Embedding refers to the process of inserting one sentence into another sentence. It
includes putting questions into affirmative sentences, with a subsequent change in word
order (embedded questions).

Example
'I wonder if you could tell me what time it is?' is the question 'What time is it?' embedded in
a polite structure. 'He asked me if I wanted to have a drink' is another embedded question,
this time in reported speech.

In the classroom
Learners need opportunities for recognising embedded questions as questions and practice
in changing word order when they use the form.
Emoticons, a form of paralanguage, are symbols made up of characters available on a
keyboard. They normally represent emotions, such as happiness or anger. Emoticons are
also available on chat sites as small symbols, normally faces.

Example
: ) is happy, (:-$ is sick, :-@ is screaming.

In the classroom
Focusing on emoticons as a feature of text will help learners understand authentic materials
from the worldwide web or e-mail. Students can practise writing messages to each other
using emoticons.

Empathy is the ability to imagine another person's thoughts, beliefs and feelings. In an ELT
context, it normally refers to the ability to understand how a learner is feeling. It can be
compared with sympathy, feeling sorry for how they are feeling.

Example
A teacher working in a highly unstable and dangerous environment chooses not to do a
reading comprehension where a writer describes their feelings after the violent death of
their mother.

In the classroom:
Showing empathy with learners is important when they choose to communicate real feelings
and experiences, for example in learner diaries or extended writing work. Similarly, it is
important to understand the emotional difficulties connected with a learning experience.

Empowerment refers to giving learners the power to make their own decisions about
learning rather than the teacher having all the control. This opportunity to make decisions is
part of what can make a learner more independent, or autonomous.

Example
A teacher decides to negotiate the syllabus of a skills course for a group of high level
learners. The learners identify what they need and help design a suitable course.

In the classroom
Certain teaching approaches and methodologies have learner empowerment as an aim.
Examples include Community Language Learning, the Dogme approach, the inductive
approach to new language and humanistic traditions.

There are many kinds of Englishes spoken around the world, both as a first and
second language and the term 'Englishes' suggests this. One view holds that these are
equally correct and valid. This lessens the importance of a 'standard' English, and questions
giving priority to 'British' or 'American' English as targets for teaching English.

Example
A learner in India who is not planning to travel to another English-speaking country but who
needs to transact business in India might need to be taught Indian English.

In the classroom
The experience of many teachers is that learners know very clearly what kind of English
they want to learn. It is important to identify needs and not make assumptions about what
they are.
Errors are mistakes caused by a learner not knowing something. They can be compared
with slips, which are caused by a learner being tired, nervous, excited or another temporary
factor.

Example
The learner says ‘I buyed a new book' because she does not know that buy has an irregular
past form.

In the classroom
Errors are a key part of the learning process and give teachers essential - and reliable -
information about where their learners are, and what needs to be done next. It is important
to emphasise the positive role errors have and to involve learners in correction, for example
by using correction codes, doing group correction of writing or by dealing with typical
spoken errors as a class after a speaking activity

Exploitation is the way a teacher or learner uses resources to meet their learning aims.

Example
A teacher can exploit a native speaker by asking them to come into the class and talk to
learners, asking learners to prepare interview questions beforehand or by using the native
speaker in a role-play, etc.

In the classroom
One interesting area many teachers explore is finding new ways to exploit the course books
prescribed for their classes. Few course books are suitable for every learner and finding new
approaches to material in them based on learner needs is a useful skill.

Exposure refers to the contact that the learner has with the language that they are trying
to learn, either generally or with specific language points. Referring to the language in
general, it often refers to contact outside the classroom.

Example
A learner studying in a country where English is spoken as a first language has a lot of
exposure and so more opportunities to learn.

In the classroom
One of the most important tasks of the teacher is to give learners enough exposure to
examples of language in different contexts, and from different speakers. As a competent
speaker of the language, the teacher themselves can provide useful examples of language,
and can also use natural input from cassettes, television, video, web sites, magazines, and
books.

Extended speaking is a type of speaking activity that involves learners speaking for longer
periods of time and in a freer form than controlled speaking practice. Extended speaking is
an opportunity to practise all the skills needed for communication.

Example
The learners have been reading about xenophobia in different countries and they now share
their opinions on causes in an open class discussion.

In the classroom
Extended speaking activities can include speaking games such as ‘Just a minute',
presentations and discussions led by learners, interviews, and informal conversation. Jigsaw
reading or listening tasks may also give an opportunity for extended speaking.

An extension task is further activity around the aims of a class but after it, often as
homework. Extension tasks can provide more, or different, forms of practice. They can also
make classroom learning more meaningful, as they give learners a chance to personalise
language and content.

Example
The learners have been reading about extreme sports and as an extension task they
research other examples, choose one to explore further, and present their findings to the
group.

In the classroom
Extension tasks can be a useful strategy to deal with mixed ability classes, as they can be
given to early finishers or set as extra, more demanding work for higher level learners.

Extensive reading involves learners reading texts for enjoyment and to develop general
reading skills. It can be compared with intensive reading, which means reading in detail
with specific learning aims and tasks.

Example
A teacher reads a short story with learners, but does not set them any tasks except to read
and listen.

In the classroom
Extensive reading is often overlooked, especially as a classroom activity. Teachers often feel
it is not an effective use of class time or are just uncomfortable with the extended silence.
Learners can be encouraged to read extensively by setting up a class library, encouraging
review writing, and incorporating reading of books into the syllabus, and dedicating some
class time to quiet reading.

Extrinsic motivation is a motivation to learn caused by external pressures such as work,

because a parent has sent a learner to class, or the need to gain a qualification in the
language. It contrasts with intrinsic motivation, which is an internal force such as interest in
learning a language to communicate with other people or for further personal development
in general.

Example
Exams preparation classes often have a high degree of extrinsic motivation as learners are
attending class to pass an exam, often for work purposes.

In the classroom
Many teachers believe that intrinsic motivation is rare in learners. Learners often have a
mixture of the two types of motivation, or change from one to another.

Face validity\If a test has face validity then it looks like a valid test to those who use it.
Face validity can be compared with content validity, which describes how far the test
actually measures what it aims to measure.

Example
Many public English exams have high face validity as they are seen as being very good tests
by those who take them.
In the classroom
Face validity is not an objective measure of how good a test may be. However, it is as
important as content validity, because learners and teachers need to think a test is credible
if it is to work.

Facilitation is a term used to describe a possible role of the teacher. Facilitation is

providing the necessary resources, information and support in order for learners to
complete a task, rather than teaching.

Example
A teacher facilitates a discussion on euthanasia by asking learners to research the issues for
homework, structuring the groups, providing a list of useful functional phrases, acting as a
quick reference for language questions, and managing the discussion where necessary.

In the classroom
The role of teacher as facilitator is fundamental in modern language classrooms. For
example, it is key in developing learner-centred work, communicative activities and
humanistic approaches.

False friends are words that look or sound the same as words in the learner's first
language but in fact are not so, causing the learner to make a mistake. They can be
compared with cognates, which are words that are the same in different languages.
Example
The Spanish word 'sensible' means sensitive in English and the German word 'gift' means
poison.

In the classroom
Learners usually enjoy doing simple translations of sentences containing false cognates, and
this can result in amusing mis-translations, which help learners focus on the correct version.
Dealing with false cognates can help remove a major source of common mistakes for a
group of learners. It is useful for a teacher to be aware of the common false cognates of
various L1s and to anticipate problems when looking at materials for lessons.

Feedback is information a teacher or another speaker, including another learner, gives to

learners on how well they are doing, either to help the learner improve specific points, or to
help plan their learning. Feedback can be immediate, during an activity, or delayed, at the
end of an activity or part of a learning programme and can take various forms.
Example
A teacher agrees with learners that they will not be corrected during a conversation activity
but that the teacher will take notes and give feedback afterwards.

In the classroom
In correction, it is typical to use feedback in a way that shows the learner has made a
mistake, but allows the learner to attempt to correct it themselves. Facial expression, body
language, gesture and intonation can all be used to give this type of feedback to speaking.
Correction codes are used in writing to achieve this; if learners have made a word order
mistake, the teacher marks 'WO' at that point, allowing the learner to go back and correct it
themselves.

In the field-dependent/independent model of cognitive or learning style, a field-

dependent learning style is defined by a relative inability to distinguish detail from other
information around it. It can be compared to a field-independent learning style, which is
defined by a tendency to separate details from the surrounding context.
Example
Field-dependent learners often work well in teams as they tend to be better at interpersonal
relationships.

In the classroom
Activities that connect different parts of a lesson are useful for field-dependent learners. For
example, learners can discuss what they know about a topic, predict content, or look at and
listen to related material

In the field-dependent/independent model of cognitive or learning style, a field-

independent learning style is defined by a tendency to separate details from the surrounding
context. It can be compared to a field-dependent learning style, which is defined by a
relative inability to distinguish detail from other information around it. Theorists define
these two cognitive styles in terms of how they are psychologically different - which makes
this a useful model for teachers trying to understand their learners.

Example
Field-independent learners tend to rely less on the teacher or other learners for support.

In the classroom
Activities such as extensive reading and writing, which learners can carry out alone, are
useful for field-independent learners.

A ‘find someone who' activity is a speaking activity which involves learners trying to find
someone in the group who matches a description.

Example
The group are practising using the present perfect for experiences. Amongst the group there
are learners who have to:
find someone who has been abroad
find someone who has eaten something really strange
find someone who has done a bungee jump

In the classroom
This is a very versatile activity, which can be adapted to almost any language aim. For
example, learners can practise multi-word verbs (‘Find someone who has fallen out with
their partner') or character vocabulary (‘Find someone who is a lone wolf').

Flashcards are pictures or photographs mounted on small cards. They are used as a visual
resource in language teaching.

Example
A teacher can use flashcards showing different faces in a lesson on describing how people
look.

In the classroom
In the above class, learners can describe a face on one of the flashcards, and the other
students can guess which one it is. They then follow this with an imaginary biography for
the face they like most. Apart from being used for new vocabulary items, flashcards can
be exploited as a prompt for extended skills work including discussion and creative writing.
Fluency refers to how well a learner communicates meaning rather than how many
mistakes they make in grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary. Fluency is often compared
with accuracy, which is concerned with the type, amount and seriousness of mistakes
made.

Example:
A learner might be fluent (make their meaning clear) but not accurate (make a lot of
mistakes).

In the classroom:
Activities that help to develop fluency focus on communication, for example discussions,
speaking games, presentations, task work such as projects and e-mailing.

Formal assessment uses formal tests or structured continuous assessment to evaluate a

learner's level of language. It can be compared to informal assessment, which involves
observing the learners' performance as they learn and evaluating them from the data
gathered.

Example
At the end of the course, the learners have a final exam to see if they pass to the next
course or not. Alternatively, the results of a structured continuous assessment process are
used to make the same decision.

In the classroom
Informal and formal assessments are both useful for making valid and useful assessments
of learners' knowledge and performance. Many teachers combine the two, for example by
evaluating one skill using informal assessment such as observing group work, and another
using formal tools, for example a discrete item grammar test.

Formative assessment is the use of assessment to give the learner and the teacher
information about how well something has been learnt so that they can decide what to do
next. It normally occurs during a course. Formative assessment can be compared with
summative assessment, which evaluates how well something has been learnt in order to
give a learner a grade.

Example
The learners have just finished a project on animals, which had as a language aim better
understanding of the use of the present simple to describe habits. The learners now prepare
gap-fill exercises for each other based on some of their texts. They analyse the results and
give each other feedback.

In the classroom
One of the advantages of formative feedback is that peers can do it. Learners can test each
other on language they have been learning, with the additional aim of revising the language
themselves.

Fossilization refers to the process in which incorrect language becomes a habit and cannot
easily be corrected.

Example
Many advanced level learners who have Spanish as an L1 do not distinguish between ‘he'
and ‘she'. This could be a fossilized error.
In the classroom
Errors in general take time to correct but a fossilized error may never be corrected unless
the learner sees a reason to do so, e.g. if it is seriously hindering communication. Teachers
can help learners notice their fossilized errors by for example recording them speaking, or
by asking them to keep a record of written errors as part of a language portfolio.

Free practice is a stage in a lesson where learners produce language using the target
content freely. It can be compared with controlled practice, which involves learners
producing the language previously focussed on in a restricted context.

Example
The teacher has shown the learners the form and use of the present passive form. They
have practised using the structure by completing sentences using cues, and now they
practise the form more freely by describing a process they have chosen.

In the classroom
Free practice appears in the production stage of a PPP lesson (Presentation, Practice,
Production), and can also be the first stage in models such as TTT (test-teach-test) and ARC
(Authentic Use-Restricted Use-Clarification and Focus).

Functions refer to what items of language actually do in a real context, as opposed to

what they might mean literally. These include suggesting, criticising, refusing, agreeing and
disagreeing, enquiring, talking about the past, and giving advice.

Example
The phrase 'What time do you call this?' has a clear literal meaning but its function is to ask
'Why are you late? I'm very angry!'

In the classroom
It is important for learners to understand that one form may have many different functions,
and to see how functions work in context, as the example above shows. Many forms have
sensitive functions and so their Appropriacy, formality and degree need to be considered.

A gap-fill is a practice exercise in which learners have to replace words missing from a
text. These words are chosen and removed in order to practise a specific language point.
Gap-fill exercises contrast with cloze texts, where words are removed at regular intervals,
e.g. every five words.

Example
The first sentence above prepared to practise article use could read '______ gap-fill is
______ practice exercise where ______learners have to replace ______ words which have
been removed from ______ text.'

In the classroom
Gap-fills are often used to practise specific language points, for example items of grammar
and vocabulary, and features of written texts such as conjunctions. They are common in
testing.

A generative grammar is a set of rules that tries to include all examples of correct
language and predict how these will be formed.
Example
The tree structure is important in the context-free generative grammar model. It describes
phrases in terms of constituent grammatical parts.

In the classroom
Generative grammars are of limited use to learners and are not meant to be a guide to how
to use language. Learners looking for more information about grammar can be supported by
grammar usage books, which show how structures are used in language, and by
prescriptive grammars, which describe rules.

Genre is a term used to classify types of spoken or written discourse. These are normally
classified by content, language, purpose and form.

Example
Learners analyse an example of a formal letter of complaint, looking at structure, set
phrases, formality and purpose. They identify the key elements of this genre then produce
their own examples based on this data.

In the classroom
Written genres that learners deal with in class include reports, news articles, letters of
enquiry, stories, invitations, e-mails and poems. Spoken genres include presentations,
speeches, interviews and informal conversation.

Gist is the general meaning or purpose of a text, either written or spoken. Reading a text
for gist is known as skimming.

Example
Before answering detailed comprehension questions on a short story, learners read it
quickly for gist, and then match the text to a picture that summarises what happens in the
story.

In the classroom
Readers employ a variety of reading skills including prediction, reading for
gist, scanning and intensive reading. Learners need to be shown these and taught how to
use them in order to find their own effective strategies.

Global comprehension means understanding the general meaning of what you are
listening to or reading. It can be compared to selective comprehension, which means
understanding specific information in the text, and detailed comprehension, which means
understanding everything. Global, selective and detailed comprehensions have parallels with
the three reading skills of skimming, scanning and intensive reading.

Example
The learners have listened to a story and now try to recreate it by putting jumbled
sentences into the correct order.

In the classroom
Various activity types can test global comprehension. Learners can be asked to sort out
jumbled versions of a text, as in the example, produce or complete summaries, answer
comprehension questions that test general understanding, such as ‘true or false statements,
and suggest titles.
Glosses are summaries of the meanings of words, usually found as notes in the margin or
between the lines of a text. Glosses can be interpretations, explanations or translations.

Example
Learners work together on a project to provide a gloss for a text on pub life in the UK,
investigating the socio-cultural significance of the language in the text.

In the classroom
One interesting gloss exercise is to translate terms within a text into L1. If this is done in
groups, then various communicative and analytical aims can be introduced.

The glottal stop is a consonant sound produced when the flow of air is stopped by the
glottis closing, and then released. Many languages use glottal stops, often much more than
in English.

Example
The sound /t/ in ‘cat' is often a glottal stop sound.

In the classroom
Few learners have difficulty producing the glottal stop sound but they can have problems
understanding words that can be pronounced with it in certain accents, like bottle and
butter. Listening to examples from speakers with relevant accents and following tapescripts
identify different ways of pronouncing the same words.

Goals are the targets that learners and teachers have in language learning. These may be
short- and long-term. Goals can be compared to aims, which usually refer to the targets of
one lesson or unit of work.

Example
One learner includes among her goals: to be able to deliver a presentation in English to
overseas colleagues, to understand the music of her favourite band, and to be able to use
all the English language software on her laptop.

In the classroom
Goal-setting is an important activity in the development of a learner's metacognitive skills
and awareness. Learners can be encouraged to set goals about how, what and when they
are going to learn. Teachers need to find out about learners' goals, since learners may come
to the course with goals that are different from those expressed in the course.

Gradable adjectives are adjectives which have different degrees and so can be graded.
They can be compared with non-gradable adjectives, which do not have degree.

Example
‘Hot' and ‘cold' are both gradable adjectives. You can say ‘very hot', ‘a bit cold' ‘really hot',
‘rather cold' etc.

In the classroom
Learners find focusing on collocations such as ‘absolutely awful' and ‘a bit chilly' interesting,
and this is a natural way to focus on whether adjectives are gradable or not. It may not
necessarily be useful for learners to spend time separating adjectives into gradable and
non-gradable, as this will not immediately help them use adjectives correctly.
Graded language is classroom language that is adapted to the level of the learners in
some way. Many course books use graded language. It can be compared with authentic
language, which is not changed in any way.

Example
An intermediate level class are using graded readers, reading works of literature but written
in simplified English.

In the classroom
Most learners using course books are exposed to graded language, so it is useful to try to
include authentic language and highlight the differences between them. For example, the
teacher can invite a native speaker into the class for a listening exercise which mirrors one
the learners have done from a course book

Graded readers are reading books that contain language adjusted to the level of the
learner rather than authentic language.

Example
Many ELT publishers produce graded readers for a wide range of levels.

In the classroom
Graded readers can help learners build their confidence in reading, and they can make a
useful addition to exposure of authentic reading texts, even at very low levels. Activities
with graded readers include imagining and creating the past lives of characters, dramatizing
key scenes, and writing letters to the author.

A grammatical syllabus is based on the structures of a language. It can be compared to

other types of syllabi based around tasks, vocabulary, functions or topics. Learners learn
grammatical structures in a sequence that reflects their complexity, rather than their use in
communication, leading to many artificial contexts for practice, and perhaps an inability to
transfer learning to real communication. Organising learning around a grammatical syllabus
has been criticised because of this, but it is still the most common type of syllabus in
published materials, mostly because it is the easiest type of syllabus to sequence.

Example
A grammatical syllabus may start with the present simple, then the present continuous,
then the past simple, and so on. Learners are not usually exposed to more difficult
structures than the ones they are learning.

In the classroom
Teachers may find it useful to blend a grammatical syllabus with other elements. For
example, it may be suitable to teach verb times explicitly but structures such as the use of
‘would' in requests and advice in a functional framework instead.

Group dynamics refer to the relationships between learners in a group and the impact that
this has on the way they work.

Example
The group dynamics of a class can change enormously when a new learner or teacher joins
the class.
In the classroom
In the language classroom, the teacher needs to recognise which of the factors that
contribute to group dynamics are within their control, as not all are. Teachers can contribute
to positive group dynamics through choosing relevant aims, topics and appropriate activity
types, and establishing a good rapport.

Group work is when the learners work together on a task or activity in groups.

Example
Learners in threes, a class separated into two, and an open class, are all examples of
groups.

In the classroom
Group work increases the opportunities for all learners to speak the new language, it allows
them to learn from each other, and frees the teacher to monitor individuals and give them
feedback. Examples of typical group work activities include ranking discussions, jigsaw
activities, project work group and group writing tasks.

Guided discovery, also known as an inductive approach, is a technique where a teacher

provides examples of a language item and helps the learners to find the rules themselves.

Example
The learners are shown a problem page containing various examples of the second
conditional 'If I were you,…..'. They identify the structure and then the rules for making it.

In the classroom
Guided discovery is regarded by many teachers as an important tool. It encourages
independence, makes learning more memorable, and if analysis is done in groups is a
meaningful communicative task. It is important, however, to understand that some learners
are resistant to this approach.

Guided writing involves a teacher working with a group of learners on a writing task. The
aims of the task are based on what they have previously been learning about the writing
process. Guided writing aims to support learners in this psychologically and cognitively
difficult activity.

Example
The learners have been looking at how conjunctions are used to contrast and compare
ideas. They are now writing a short discursive essay on the subject of animal
experimentation. The teacher is working with the groups to guide them in the correct use of
the target language.

In the classroom
Guided writing can be fully exploited by providing learners with the language they need to
complete the task together with the teacher. For example, this may include making
suggestions (‘Why don't we start by saying...?'), agreeing and disagreeing (‘That's a good
idea - let's put that'), and asking for help (‘Is it right to say...?').

Higher-order questions require answers that go beyond simple information and as such
both the language and thinking behind them is more complex. They take learners into more
abstract language functions, such as giving and justifying opinions, speculation, and
hypothesising.
Example
Asking ‘What colours make up a rainbow?' is an observational question, asking ‘Why are
rainbows important?' is a higher question.

In the classroom
Amongst their many functions, higher order questions can be used to get learners to
interpret things, suggest solutions to problems, explain why something is important, give
opinions, and make comparisons. Learners need the opportunity to practise using language
for these functions.

A holistic approach to language sees it as a whole, which is not divisible in a meaningful

way for teaching. This contrasts with an atomistic approach to language, which attempts to
analyse language into parts, such as grammatical structures or functional exponents, which
can later become the content of a syllabus. A holistic approach would focus on everything
the learner needs to know to communicate effectively.

Example
Young learners have a set of daily tasks in the classroom including cleaning the board and
collecting materials. This is all done in the target language.

In the classroom
Content-based instruction, language across the curriculum, the Cognitive Academic
Language Learning Approach and topic-based syllabi take a holistic approach by using a
framework of meaningful content.

A homonym is a word that has the same sound or spelling as another but a different
meaning. Homonyms can be separated into two groups, homographs (same spelling) and
homophones (same sound).

Example
‘Write', ‘right' and ‘rite' are examples of homophones, and ‘wind' is a homograph with
several meanings (‘wind the clock' ‘a howling wind').

In the classroom
There are various useful learning opportunities associated with homonyms. For example,
learners can better understand the difference between English spelling and pronunciation by
looking at homophones, and homonyms can be a good way of showing the usefulness of
phonemic script.

A homophone is a word that has the same sound as another word but different meaning
and spelling. This can be compared with a homonym, which has the same spelling and
sounds the same but has a different meaning.

Example
The words 'rain', 'reign' and 'rein' are homophones. 'Set' is a homonym.

In the classroom
Homophones are useful to help learners understand that the relationship between spelling
and sound is not consistent in English. Dictations, poems, jokes, and word games such as
bingo are all used to practise this area.

A horseshoe layout is a way of organizing learners' seats in a class in the form of a

horseshoe.
Example
The teacher needs to use the board a lot in a class so arranges the seats in a horseshoe
shape.

In the classroom
A horseshoe shape is a very effective way to organize the classroom, as it means the
learners can see each other, the teacher and the board. Thus it is useful for whole-group
work such as an open discussion or for a teacher-centred class.

Humanistic language teaching is an approach based on the principle that the whole
being, emotional and social, needs to be engaged in learning, not just the mind.

Example
A teacher always responds to the content of learners' written work, not just the quality of
the language. They write an extended 'answer' to this work, and also offer choices for
learners who prefer to write on another topic.

In the classroom
Humanistic teaching approaches include the Silent Way, Community Language Learning,
Total Physical Response and Suggestopaedia.

Hyponyms are words that are the specific examples of a general word, a ‘superordinate'.
They can be compared with synonyms, which mean the same things, and antonyms, which
mean opposite things.

Example
Red, white and blue are all colours.

In the classroom
Learners can record words in hyponym groups in vocabulary banks and add new words to
these groups. This can be a useful way to process new vocabulary and may mirror how we
organise words in our first language.

Hypotheses are possible ideas about language rules that learners form as they receive
information. Learners test their hypotheses by using language and these ideas change as
new information is received.

Example
A learner has noticed that English often uses the suffix -ness to form a noun from an
adjective and so develops a hypothesis that this is a rule. The teacher gives them more
information and the learner adjusts the hypothesis accordingly.

In the classroom
Learners often make systematic errors as they test hypotheses. For example, overuse of the
past -ed may be due to an incorrect hypothesis about past forms in English. Teachers can
find out a lot about learners' current understanding of the new language from noticing the
errors learners make.

Information and Communication Technology, or ICT, refers to technological tools that

are used to communicate and to manage information.

Example
Interactive Whiteboards are an example of ICT.
In the classroom
ICT is often part of a teacher-centred class but it is easy to exploit these tools in learner-
centred activities. For example, learners can control a cassette or DVD, stopping it each
time they hear a contraction, develop their own class blog on the Internet with minimum
teacher involvement, or use a computer in a multi-media area to present their findings from
a pre-reading task.

Ice-breakers are speaking activities used with a new class in order to give the learners
an opportunity to meet each other. In order to complete an ice-breaker task learners must
talk to each other.

Example
The teacher gives each learner a sheet with a series of 'Find someone who…' statements,
e.g. 'Find someone who has a cat'. Learners circulate around the class and complete the
statements with names.

In the classroom
Relationships between learners are fundamental to successful learning in many approaches
and methodologies, and ice-breakers are designed to begin the process of building a
positive dynamic in the class.

Idioms are expressions whose meanings are different from the words that make them.
Understanding an idiom requires some other knowledge than knowing the words used.
Idioms normally cannot be modified or the words within them changed.

Example
'I lost my head completely' as an idiom means 'I got very angry', whilst literally it means
something very different.

In the classroom
Idioms are an area of language that learners and teachers find very enjoyable. Authentic
material offers a good source of contextualised idioms, and teachers can encourage
learners to guess the meaning from context. An interesting exercise in a multi-lingual class
is to compare idioms from different cultures and languages.

In immersion programmes learners are fully immersed in the target language for a
certain period of time, both in and outside the class. It is sometimes compared to
submersion, where individual learners are placed in classes where everybody else speaks
the same language. There are varying degrees of immersion, including full, partial and
bilingual immersion, which involves two groups of students learning each other's languages.

Example
Immersion programmes have been a popular way to teach French in Canada for many
years.

In the classroom
Teachers can simulate an immersion environment by establishing an ‘English-only' area in
their institutions and by insisting on all communication with them being in English. This
gives learners the opportunity to develop a range of relevant skills in a more spontaneous,
authentic - and demanding - context than the class.
An inductive approach to teaching language starts with examples and asks learners to
find rules. It can be compared with a deductive approach that starts by giving learners
rules, then examples, then practice.

Example
Learners listen to a conversation that includes examples of the use of the third conditional.
The teacher checks that the students understand the meaning of its use through checking
learners' comprehension of the listening text, and only after this focuses on the form, using
the examples from the text to elicit rules about the form, its use and its pronunciation.

In the classroom
Inductive approaches to presenting new language are commonly found in course books, and
form part of a general strategy to engage learners in what they learn. Some learners may
need introduction to inductive approaches since they may be more familiar, and feel more
comfortable, with a deductive approach.

Inference is the technique of finding answers from clues and from prior knowledge rather
than directly.

Example
Learners listen to a discussion between two unidentified speakers and must infer their
relationship from what they hear.

In the classroom
The ability to infer meaning and situation correctly is an important skill, as in many cultures
speakers avoid saying something directly by using implication. Ways to look at this include
analysis of dialogue from films, learner implication - inference exchanges, listening tasks,
using video and games, e.g. 'Find 10 ways to say Shut the door!'

Informal assessment involves observing the learners as they learn and evaluating them
from the data gathered. It can be compared to formal assessment, which involves
evaluating a learner's level of language in a formal way, such as through an exam or
structured continuous assessment.

Example
The teacher has carried out informal assessment of the learners during speaking activities
throughout the course by keeping notes about how well individuals are doing in speaking
and uses the data gathered to evaluate the learners at the end of the course.

In the classroom
Informal and formal assessments are both useful for making valid and useful assessments
of learners' knowledge and performance. Many teachers combine the two, for example by
evaluating one skill using informal assessment such as observing group work, and another
using formal tools, for example a discrete item grammar test.

An information gap activity is an activity where learners are missing the information they
need to complete a task and need to talk to each other to find it.

Example
Learner A has a biography of a famous person with all the place names missing, whilst
Learner B has the same text with all the dates missing. Together they can complete the text
by asking each other questions.

In the classroom
Information gap activities are useful for various reasons. They provide an opportunity for
extended speaking practice, they represent real communication, motivation can be high,
and they require sub-skills such as clarifying meaning and re-phrasing. Typical types of
information gap activities you might find include; describe and draw, spot the difference,
jigsaw readings and listenings and split dictations.

Initiation-response-feedback, or IRF, is a pattern of discussion between the teacher and

learner. The teacher initiates, the learner responds, the teacher gives feedback. This
approach to the exchange of information in the classroom has been criticized as being more
about the learner saying what the teacher wants to hear than really communicating.

Example
The teacher asks a learner for rules about use of the present perfect, the learner gives an
answer, and the teacher says whether that is correct or not.

In the classroom
Although this approach has been criticized, it can provide a useful framework for developing
meaningful communication in a controlled form. For example, there is room for authentic
input in an IRF dialogue such as:
- How many brothers have you got?
- Three!
- Oh so you've got three brothers! That's a big family! Etc

Input refers to the exposure learners have to authentic language in use. This can be from
various sources, including the teacher, other learners, and the environment around the
learners. Input can be compared to intake, which is input then taken in and internalized by
the learner so it can be applied.

Example
Acquisition theories emphasise the importance of comprehensible input, which is language
just beyond the competence of the learner, and provides the ideal conditions for acquisition
to happen.

In the classroom
The most important and accessible input for learners is that of the teacher. When teachers
are talking in classes they are providing opportunities for learners to develop their
comprehension. Teachers can optimise this opportunity by choosing the right levels of
complexity of vocabulary and structures, speed of delivery, degree of clarity, and range of
register and style.

Intensifiers are words that make the meaning of other words stronger.

Example
‘She's very good at maths' and ‘You are much taller than your brother'.

In the classroom
One high level function of intensifiers is in sarcasm, for example:
‘Oh, yeah, that was really clever'
Learners at higher levels can look at this use of intensifiers, especially if they are in an
English-speaking country. It is important that they can recognise this function.

Intensive reading involves learners reading in detail with specific learning aims and tasks.
It can be compared with extensive reading, which involves learners reading texts for
enjoyment and to develop general reading skills.

Example
The learners read a short text and put events from it into chronological order.

In the classroom
Intensive reading activities include skimming a text for specific information to answer true
or false statements or filling gaps in a summary, scanning a text to match headings to
paragraphs, and scanning jumbled paragraphs and then reading them carefully to put them
into the correct order.

In ELT interaction patterns are the different ways learners and the teacher can interact in
the class. Using the right interaction pattern is a fundamental factor in the success of any
activity and the achievement of aims.

Example
The class are doing a dictation activity. The interaction pattern is teacher to the whole group
(T-Ss). Other patterns include pair work (S-S), and group work (Ss-Ss).

In the classroom
Different interaction patterns can support the aims of different kinds of activities. For
example, if the learners are doing group writing then small Ss-Ss groups are best, but for
elicitation of ideas the interaction pattern could be Ss-T. Changing interaction patterns can
help vary the pace and choosing an appropriate pattern can help achieve learning aims, for
example, making learners take the place of the teacher (S-Ss) can be very productive.

Interactional language is the language we use to build and maintain relationships. It can
be compared to transactional language, which normally carries a message and is the
language used to get things done. To maintain interaction, speakers use interactional
strategies.

Example
Learners in a multi-lingual group chatting together before a class begins are using
interactional language.

In the classroom
Teachers can present elements of interactional language, and raise learners' awareness of
interactional strategies by exposure to video and authentic conversation. Learners can learn
to use paralinguistic features such as gestures, eye contact, and body language, and
linguistic features used to maintain an interactional conversation including functions such
as expressing interest and asking for clarification.

The Interactive White Blackboard, or IWB, is a large interactive display attached to a

computer and a projector. The teacher and learners control the computer through the
display.
Example
The learners are looking at words that are difficult to say. They check the phonetic script in
the dictionary, then click on symbols on a phonemic [symbols] chart on the IWB to hear the
pronunciation and decide how the word is pronounced.

In the classroom
IWBs are often criticised for making classes much more teacher-centred and it is important
that learners are given appropriate opportunities to use the resource. Learner-centred
activities involve them using the board themselves, and include presentations or learners
leading a stage of the class.

Intercultural communicative competence, or ICC, refers to the ability to understand

cultures, including your own, and use this understanding to communicate with people from
other cultures successfully.

Example
ICC could include understanding how gestures and the distance between speakers vary from
culture to culture.

In the classroom
Ways to develop this competence include learners producing a written or online guide to
their own country and culture for visitors, reading and discussing guides written by visitors,
researching aspects of a target culture in various media including cinema, literature and
television, giving presentations on aspects of the target culture, and exploiting the teacher's
own expertise of their own culture.

Interlanguage is the learner's current version of the language they are learning.
Interlanguage changes all the time but can become fossilised language when the learners
do not have the opportunity to improve.

Example
A learner who has lived in an English-speaking environment for many years but not
attended classes or studied for some time has problems with reported speech and forming
tag questions. His interlanguage has become fossilised.

In the classroom
Interlanguage is often heavily influenced by L1 and interference from this may make it
seem perfectly logical to the learner, although it is incorrect. It is important for teachers to
understand this and also to see interlanguage as a series of learning steps.

The interlocutor is a person who is actively involved in a conversation.

Example
In some oral exams, there is an interlocutor, who talks with the candidates, and an
assessor, who marks them.

In the classroom
Successful communication in another language is being aware of your impact on the other
interlocutor, especially if they are from another culture with different conventions. Some
teachers spend time with learners looking at areas such as body language, facial expression
and physical distance between speakers, all of which can have significant impact.
 Internalisation is the process of learning something so that it can be used as the basis for
production. Once language is internalised, it can then be retained and retrieved when
needed for communication.

Example
A learner finds that using a spidergram helps them record a new lexical set on words that
describe emotions effectively and so internalising this new vocabulary is easier.

In the classroom
A learner discovering for themselves what the meaning of a new word is by using context
will internalise this information more deeply than a learner being told what the meaning is.
This kind of processing is key to techniques such as guided discovery, learning strategies
such as the example above, and task-based learning.

Intonation is crucial for communication. It's also a largely unconscious

mechanism, and as such, a complex aspect of pronunciation.

It's no surprise that many teachers don't feel confident about tackling it in the classroom.
When teaching grammar or lexis, we find ways of making the language accessible to our
learners. How then to do this with intonation?

• What is intonation?

• Why teach intonation?

• Can I improve my own awareness of intonation?

• How I help my students:

o Awareness-raising

o Intonation and grammar

o Intonation and attitudes

o Intonation and discourse

• Conclusion

What is intonation?
Intonation is about how we say things, rather than what we say. Without intonation, it's
impossible to understand the expressions and thoughts that go with words.
Listen to somebody speaking without paying attention to the words: the 'melody' you hear
is the intonation. It has the following features:

• It's divided into phrases, also known as 'tone-units'.

• The pitch moves up and down, within a 'pitch range'. Everybody has their own pitch range.
Languages, too, differ in pitch range. English has particularly wide pitch range.

• In each tone unit, the pitch movement (a rise or fall in tone, or a combination of the two)
takes place on the most important syllable known as the 'tonic-syllable'. The tonic-syllable
is usually a high-content word, near the end of the unit.

• These patterns of pitch variation are essential to a phrase's meaning. Changing the
intonation can completely change the meaning.

Example:

o Say: 'It's raining'.

o Now say it again using the same words, but giving it different meaning. You could say it to
mean 'What a surprise!', or 'How annoying!',or 'That's great!'. There are many possibilities.

Why teach intonation?

Intonation exists in every language, so the concept we're introducing isn't new. However,
learners are often so busy finding their words that intonation suffers. Yet intonation can be
as important as word choice - we don't always realise how much difference intonation
makes:

• Awareness of intonation aids communication.

• Incorrect intonation can result in misunderstandings, speakers losing interest or even taking
offence!

Though it's unlikely our learners will need native-speaker-level pronunciation, what they do
need is greater awareness of intonation to facilitate their speaking and listening.

Can I improve my own awareness of intonation?

It's difficult to hear our own intonation. Choose somebody to listen to closely: as you listen,
visualise the melody in your head, 'seeing' how it's divided into tone-units. Next time you do
a class speaking activity, focus on your students' intonation. Are there students whose
language is 'correct', but something doesn't sound right? Do they come across as boring or
insincere? It may well be their pitch range isn't varied enough.

How I help my students

Awareness-raising
Some techniques I find useful for raising learners' awareness of intonation:

• Provide learners with models - don't be afraid to exaggerate your intonation.

• Let students compare two examples of the same phrase, eg: varied/flat intonation, English /
L1.

• Ask students to have a 2-minute conversation in pairs as 'robots' (elicit the word using a
picture if necessary), i.e. with no intonation. When they then go back to speaking
'normally', point out that the difference is made by intonation - this is what gives movement
to our voices.

• Get students to imitate my intonation, but without words, just humming.

Intonation doesn't exist in isolation. So it makes sense to approach it together with other
factors.

Intonation and grammar

Where patterns associating intonation and grammar are predictable, I highlight these to my
students. I see these as starting-points, rather than rules.

Some examples are:

• Wh-word questions: falling intonation

• Yes/No questions: rising

• Statements: falling

• Question-Tags: 'chat' - falling; 'check' - rising

• Lists: rising, rising, rising, falling

When practising these constructions, I include activities focusing specifically on intonation.

For example, Question-Tags: Students in groups are assigned jobs to mime to each other.
Students make notes about what they think each person's job is. They then have to check
they've understood the jobs: Students use rising/falling intonation question-tags depending
how sure they are: 'You're a pilot, aren't you?'. At the end, students confirm their jobs.

Intonation and attitude

It's important that students are aware of the strong link between intonation and attitude,
even if it's difficult to provide rules here.

• The first thing is for learners to recognise the effect of intonation changes. I say the word
'bananas' - firstly with an 'interested' intonation (varied tone); then 'uninterested' (flat).
Students identify the two and describe the difference. We then brainstorm attitudes, such as
'enthusiastic', 'bored', 'surprised', 'relieved'. I say 'bananas' for these. Students then do the
same in pairs, guessing each other's attitude.

• This can be developed by asking students to 'greet' everybody with a particular attitude. At
the end, the class identify each person's attitude. For younger learners, I use 'Mr Men'
characters (Miss Happy, Mr Grumpy, Miss Frightened, etc.) Each student is allocated a
character and, as above, they greet the class with that character's voice.

Intonation and discourse

Learners' also need awareness of intonation in longer stretches of language. Here, we can
give our learners clearer guidelines: 'new' information = fall tone; 'shared' knowledge =
'fall-rise'.

A simple shopping dialogue demonstrates this:

SK: Can I help you?

C: I'd like a chocolate (fall) ice-cream.
SK: One chocolate (fall-rise) ice-cream. Anything else?
C: One strawberry (fall) ice-cream.
 SK: One chocolate (fall-rise), one strawberry (fall-rise). Anything else?
C: Yes. One chocolate (fall-rise), one strawberry (fall-rise), and one vanilla (fall).

Higher level students can identify the 'new' / 'shared' information, and then practise
reading accordingly.

With lower level students, we memorise the dialogue together. Although I don't refer to
intonation directly, I use my hands to indicate it (fall = hand pointing down; fall-rise =
down then up). Students then prepare their own dialogues. I've found my learners pick up
these patterns very quickly.

Conclusion
When working on intonation in the classroom I:

• Remember that intonation is relevant to any speaking activity, and makes interesting
remedial/revision work.

• Remember that students don't always have to 'know' we're focusing on intonation: every
time I drill phrases they're hearing intonation models.

• Provide realistic and clear contexts.

• Avoid going into theory.

• Help students find patterns / rules-of-thumb, wherever possible.

• Use a consistent system for marking intonation on the board for example: arrow for tone;
tonic-syllable in CAPITALS; double lines ( // ) for tone-unit boundaries.

• Keep it positive and don't expect perfection. The last thing I'd want is to make my students
so anxious about their intonation that they stop speaking!

Further reading
Sound Foundations by Adrian Underhill
Pronunciation by Dalton and Seidlholfer
How to Teach Pronunciation by Gerald Kelly
Teaching English Pronunciation by Joanne Kenworthy

Marta J. Sabbadini, British Council, Cameroon

Intransitive verbs do not have a direct object. They can be compared to transitive verbs,
which need one.

For example:
'I lied', 'She is crying', 'We left on Tuesday' are all examples of intransitive verbs.
In the classroom
Students can explore which verbs can be both transitive and intransitive; they are verbs
that are often used to talk about some kind of change. E.g. 'The door opened' and 'He
opened the door'. Other examples include empty, increase, shut, spoil.

Intrapersonal intelligence is one of the many types of intelligence described in multiple

intelligence theory. People with strong intrapersonal intelligence are often introspective,
prefer working alone, and are very self-aware.

Example
A student with strong intrapersonal intelligence may not like working in groups, or save
certain kinds of work for home.

In the classroom
Teachers interested in developing intrapersonal intelligence often try to encourage their
learners' self-awareness and autonomy. Learner diaries and developing learning skills such
as dictionary use and effective recording of vocabulary are ways to help this.

Intrinsic motivation is a motivation to learn that comes from an internal force such as
interest in language learning or the desire for further personal development in general. It
compares with extrinsic motivation, which is motivation from external pressures such as
the need to speak English for work or because a parent has sent a learner to class.

Example
Often high level learners show a high degree of intrinsic motivation as they continue to
study a language beyond any practical need.

In the classroom
Sometimes learners join a class because of extrinsic motivation and become motivated
intrinsically as learning becomes enjoyable and rewarding. Getting feedback from the
learners on the teaching and learning process through simple questionnaires about aspects
of class can help a teacher identify what students find most useful and enjoyable.

Intrusion is a feature of connected speech. When two words are said together, an extra
sound is sometimes placed between them in order to make them easier to say.

Example
When a native speaker says 'I am not happy' there is an intrusive /j/ sound between 'I' and
'am' which makes it easier to say the phrase quickly.

In the classroom
Teachers can help learners hear and recognise the words and sounds involved through
asking students to predict where in a dialogue they might hear intrusive sounds, and then
listening to check

A jigsaw listening or reading activity is an information gap exercise. Learners hear or

read different parts of a text, then exchange information with others in order to complete a
task.

Example
Learners in three groups hear different versions of an encounter with aliens. Together with
other learners, they complete comprehension questions based on all three descriptions of
the encounter.
In the classroom
Jigsaw tasks are an excellent way to integrate the skills, as learners read or listen to a text,
and speak and listen to others to reconstruct the information in the text. Most written texts
can be made into a jigsaw activity easily. Managing a jigsaw listening exercise is more
challenging as it requires multiple tape recorders, enough space to listen without disturbing
other groups, and time.

In a jumble activity learners need to put sentences or paragraphs from a text, or pictures
illustrating a text, into the correct order.

Example
The learners put jumbled pictures into a possible order and then read the text to see if their
ideas are right.

In the classroom
Ordering jumbled sentences and paragraphs is an excellent way to raise learners'
awareness to features of discourse.

The key points of a spoken or written text are the most important points.

Example
The learners listen to a talk from an outside speaker on how to do a parachute jump and
note the key points. They then check these together and write an article for their class blog.

In the classroom
One way to help learners develop the skill of identifying key points in texts is by not giving
them too much time to read (and so to start focusing on detail). Reading races, timed
readings and reading exam practice questions can encourage learners to find key points as
quickly as possible.

Kinesics is the study of non-verbal communication achieved by movement of the body.

Example
This includes gestures such as waving or tapping your fingers, eye movements such as
winking and rolling, and body movements such as shrugging your shoulders.

In the classroom
Learners in a multi-lingual group can be encouraged to think about this by asking them to
compare the different meanings of gestures and facial expressions in their cultures. This
could also be done in an extended form as a project. Learners in a monolingual group could
compare British and American behaviour with their own.

L1 is a speaker's first language. L2 is the second, L3 the third etc.

Example
A learner whose L1 is Spanish may find Portuguese and Italian easy languages to learn
because of a fairly close connection between the languages.

In the classroom
L1 interference - where a speaker uses language forms and structures from their first
language in language they are learning - is an area many teachers are concerned with. In a
mono-lingual class where the teacher also speaks the L1, it is easier to
identify interference and address it, often discussing it explicitly with learners.
A labial consonant is produced by using your lips. Bilabial consonants are made by using
both lips, labiodental consonants by using your top lip and your teeth. Some learners have
problems recognizing the difference between labial and labiodental consonants. Spanish
speakers, for example, have problems with /v/ and /b/.

Example
/p/ and /b/ are labial consonants, /v/ and /f/ are labiodental consonants.

In the classroom
Asking learners to distinguish between minimal pairs such as ‘ban' and ‘van' and ‘bet' and
‘vet' is one way to help them learn to recognise these sounds. Learners can make pairs
themselves for other students.

The Language Acquisition Device, or LAD, is part of Chomsky's acquisition hypothesis.

The LAD is a system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn
language, and accounts for the order in which children learn structures, and the mistakes
they make as they learn. Second language learning theory proposes that acquisition is
possible in second and subsequent languages, and that learning programmes have to create
the conditions for it.

Example
One piece of evidence for the existence of a LAD is the fact that physical areas of the brain
concerned with production and comprehension have been identified.

In the classroom
The belief that acquisition is possible lies at the heart of any method that involves engaging
the learner in natural communication and authentic input, these include task-based
learning, CLIL, and some story- and activity-based programmes.

Language aptitude refers to the potential that a person has for learning languages. This
potential is often evaluated using formal aptitude tests, which predict the degree of success
the candidate will have with a new language. Aptitude tests vary but many include
evaluation of ability to manage sounds, grammatical structures, infer rules, and memory.

Example
The Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) evaluates language aptitude.

In the classroom
Language aptitude may be fixed but there are many things teachers can do in the area of
learner training to improve the learner's ability. These include helping learners identify their
preferences for learning; thinking about learning styles, and then looking at how these can
be developed; and developing learner autonomy by teaching learners how to study
effectively.

Language usage refers to the rules for making language, i.e. the structures used. It can
be compared to use, which considers the communicative meaning of language.

Example
The usage of the third conditional is: If + past perfect + would + present perfect

In the classroom
Using an inductive approach is an effective way to get learners to explore usage. They can
for example identify the target language in a text and then look at its usage and use.
Language use refers to the communicative meaning of language. It can be compared to
usage, which refers to the rules for making language and the structures we use to make it.

Example
One use of the third conditional is to express regret, e.g. ‘If I hadn't spent so much time
mucking about at school, I would have passed a few more exams'.

In the classroom
A key stage in awareness of how English works is when learners understand that usage and
use are not necessarily connected. For example, the past form of verbs (usage) can express
a wish about the present (use), such as:
- I wish I didn't have this boss. He's awful!

Learner training involves helping learners find out how they learn most effectively. It
means encouraging learners to take responsibility for learning and helping them to
develop learning strategies and study skills. Most importantly, it asks learners to reflect
on how they are learning. The aim of learner training is to produce effective, independent
language learners.

Example
Learners think about what time of day they are most productive and then produce a
diagram showing their peaks and troughs. Together they discuss how to plan study with this
in mind.

In the classroom
Areas often discussed include ways of recording new vocabulary, different learning styles
and preferences, finding opportunities to use English outside the class, reflecting on
strengths and weaknesses, and study skills.

Learning strategies are tools and techniques that learners develop as they learn. Learning
strategies are an important part of developing autonomy.

Example
A learner keeps a small notebook in their pocket and records interesting new language
when they hear it, then researches it later using online reference material they have been
shown.

In the classroom
There are a wide range of strategies available to learners. A teacher's responsibility is to
expose learners to as many as possible, give them the opportunity to experiment, and help
them identify what works.

The lexical approach is a way of analysing and teaching language based on the idea that
it is made up of lexical units rather than grammatical structures. The units are
words, chunks formed by collocations, and fixed phrases.

Example
The phrase 'Rescue attempts are being hampered by bad weather' is a chunk of language,
and almost a fixed phrase. It is formed by the collocations 'Rescue' + 'attempt', 'rescue
attempt' + 'hampered', 'hampered' + 'by', 'hampered by' + 'bad weather'.
In the classroom
A simple activity to incorporate the lexical approach is to encourage learners to identify and
record lexical chunks and fixed phrases in texts they read.

A lexical chunk is a group of words that are commonly found together. Lexical chunks
include collocations but these usually just involve content words, not grammar.

Example
In this dialogue there are five possible chunks:
- Did you stay long at the party?
- No, I got out of there as soon as they ran out of food.

In the classroom
Focussing on lexical chunks is a useful way to look at language and to extend learners'
control of it. For example, learners can spend a little time at the end of a reading
comprehension exercise identifying chunks in the text and analysing them, or identifying
other contexts they might be found in.

A lexical set is a group of words with the same topic, function or form.

Example
'Cat, dog, tortoise, goldfish, gerbil' is part of the topical lexical set pets, and 'quickly,
happily, completely, dramatically, angrily' is part of the syntactic lexical set adverbs.

In the classroom
Lexical sets are a way of looking at new vocabulary that some learners find useful. Activities
include asking learners to sort words into groups, word games such as the chaining game 'I
went to the market and bought…', Odd One Out, and Stop, and class poster projects.

A lexicon is often used to describe the knowledge that a speaker has about the words of a
language. This includes meanings, use, form, and relationships with other words. A lexicon
can thus be thought of as a mental dictionary.

Example
A successful learner develops an L2 lexicon independently of their L1 lexicon, which means
there is less confusion, translation and L1 interference.

In the classroom
Many teachers and learners regard expanding the target language lexicon - in other words,
learning more vocabulary - as a priority. Advanced level learners, for example, will express
the need for 'more words' frequently.

A lingua franca is a language that is used widely outside the country where it is spoken as
a native language.

Example:
French, Greek, Portuguese and Latin have all been major lingua franca at some point in
history. The current lingua franca of international business is English.

In the classroom
The position of English as a lingua franca, or international language, and the growth and
diversification of other Englishes, has raised many questions about what kind of English
learners want and need.
Linguistic intelligence - also known as verbal-linguistic - is one of the many types of
intelligence described in multiple intelligence theory. People with significant linguistic
intelligence are often good at languages and enjoy reading and writing.

For example
A student with strong linguistic intelligence may remember new words very easily and use
them quickly.

In the classroom
Supporting and developing linguistic intelligence involves encouraging learners to enjoy real
communicating through reading and writing, and speaking and listening. This allows
learners to see the purpose of language, and helps them take an interest in it. Writing and
receiving real letters or emails from classmates or e-pals is motivating, as are any group
communicative speaking activities.

Linking is when sounds are joined together or when a sound is inserted between two
others to make them easier to say.

Example
When we say ‘I did it!' we join together the /d/ and the /it/ to produce ‘I didit'. When we
say ‘I am' we insert a /j/ sound to produce ‘I yam'.

In the classroom
Learners can be helped to distinguish how words are linked through ‘how many words did
you hear?' activities, and can be encouraged to produce linked language through the
teacher backchaining models for pronunciation.

Logical/mathematical intelligence is one of the many types of intelligence described in

multiple intelligence theory. People with significant logical/mathematical intelligence are
often good at logical reasoning and scientific investigation.

For example
A student with strong logical/mathematical intelligence may ask a lot of questions as they
organise and categorise new information about language.

In the classroom
Certain approaches may be more suited to learners with strong logical/mathematical
intelligence, for example the inductive approach, where learners find rules themselves from
examples of the language.

Long vowels are vowel sounds that are longer than normal, or short, vowels. In RP
English the long vowel sounds are those in 'seat', 'suit', 'sort', 'shirt' and 'start'. Phonemic
symbols for long vowel sounds have a /:/ to indicate length.

Example
The word 'kiss' has a short /i/ sound, whilst the equivalent long sound /i:/ produces the
word 'keys'.

In the classroom
Differences in length in vowel sounds are difficult for many learners. One approach is to
highlight the difference in minimal pairs (pairs of words that have only one difference, in
this case the vowel length) such as the example above and to model the different sounds
for learners to copy.
Marker or model sentences are sentences that are clear examples of the target language
of the lesson. Marker sentences help learners understand the structure, use and meaning of
new language. They can also provide information about context, including collocations and
connotation and work as a reliable example for learners to record.

Example
The aim of the class is for learners to understand the use of the present perfect to describe
something that starts in the past and continues. The marker sentence the teacher writes on
the board is ‘I have lived here in Japan since 1989'.

In the classroom
As part of looking at new language, learners can be asked to suggest a marker sentence
themselves. This helps them focus on the target language and is also a useful learning
strategy for them to develop for private study.

A maze is a task where learners have to make decisions about what to do at certain points,
in order to continue towards a final goal.

Example
The aim of the maze activity is for learners to successfully get the job they want. They have
to make decisions about areas such as their CVs, how to prepare for the interview, and
what to say when talking to their new employer.

In the classroom
The target language of a maze activity can be the content, such as the example, and it can
be the language learners need to complete the task. Learners need to have available
functional language for agreeing and disagreeing, making a suggestion, reaching a decision,
moving the conversation on, concluding etc.

Mechanical activities are activities learners do which are not meaningful but which may
be necessary in order to have the tools to use language. The move away from mechanical to
communicative activity has been emphasized and prioritized for many years.

Example
Learners thinking about the position of the tongue in the pronunciation of certain sounds, or
learning how to write in Roman script are doing mechanical but necessary activities.

In the classroom
Drills, substitution exercises, and using prompts to produce structures are common
mechanical activities.

The medium of instruction is the language used by the teacher to teach. Teaching the
language, or educational content, through the target language increases the amount of
exposure the learner gets to it, and the opportunities they have to communicate in it, and
therefore to develop their control of it.

Example
English is used from the beginning of a course as the main language in class, and the
teacher adapts their methodology to support meaning, by using a lot of visual information
and non-verbal communication to support meaning.

In the classroom
The question of which medium of instruction to use, and the impact on learners and
learning, is a complex one. It is useful to consider how the language used supports the aims
of the class. For example, it may fit the aims to give all classroom instructions in English in
a low level class, because this is useful exposure to new language and will be learnt, but
explaining the methodology behind an activity to the same group might be done in L1.

Meta-language is the language teachers and learners use to talk about the English
language, learning and teaching.

Example
Words and phrases such as 'verb', 'noun', 'present perfect continuous', 'phrasal verb' and
'reported speech' are all examples of common classroom meta-language.

In the classroom
Certain classroom teaching materials rely on the learner knowing an extensive range of
meta-language and teachers sometimes spend time teaching learners some of the more
common terms.

Metacognitive awareness means being aware of how you think. In the ELT classroom, it
means being aware of how you learn. Developing metacognitive awareness is an important
part of helping learners become more effective and, importantly, more autonomous. If
learners are conscious of how they learn then they can identify the most effective ways of
doing so.

Example
The teacher asks the learners to keep a diary of their classes in which they can note what
they liked and didn't like and why. They then discuss their ideas and develop individual and
class action plans.

In the classroom
One of the most effective and easiest ways to develop metacognitive awareness is simply
talking with learners about how they do things in the classroom, such as recording new
words, reading a text, and laying out a page in their notebooks.

Metaphors are words and phrases that are not used in their literal meaning, but are used
to describe something else.

Example
'I have a lot on my plate', 'Sales really took off' and 'He's a real couch potato' are all
metaphors.

In the classroom
Metaphors are a rich and enjoyable area of language for learners but also can be
problematic, as their meaning is not immediately obvious. Activities that encourage the use
and study of metaphors include; creative writing, classroom posters of metaphor groups,
looking at euphemisms and finding L1 equivalents.

Methodology is a system of practices and procedures that a teacher uses to teach. It will
be based on beliefs about the nature of language, and how it is learnt (known as
'Approach').

Example
Grammar Translation, the Audiolingual Method and the Direct Method are clear
methodologies, with associated practices and procedures, and are each based on different
interpretations of the nature of language and language learning.

In the classroom
Many teachers base their lessons on a mixture of methods and approaches to meet the
different needs of learners and the different aims of lessons or courses. Factors in deciding
how to teach include the age and experience of learners, lesson and course objectives,
expectations and resources.

A mind map is a visual record of new vocabulary, or other content. Vocabulary mind maps
are also known as word maps or spidergrams, and are organised in a way that shows
groupings or relationships between the words.

Example
The teacher writes a list of words based around the topic of food on the board. Learners
organise the words in a mind map and then compare ideas on how they have grouped
words and related them.

In the classroom
Mind maps are often used as a tool in the planning stage for writing exercises, as learners
can structure ideas and discuss how they are related.

A mingle is a short activity where learners walk around the classroom and talk to each
other. An ice-breaker, where learners get to know each other, is a type of mingle.

Example
The learners are talking about attitudes to marriage. They prepare a question each and then
mingle to ask others in the class what they think.

In the classroom
Mingle activities include class questionnaires, matching activities (finding your partner),
group dictations, and role-plays.

Minimal pairs are pairs of words that only have one sound different.

Example
‘But' and ‘bat' are a minimal pair. Only the vowel sound is different.

In the classroom
Minimal pairs are a useful way to highlight a sound in a meaningful context and also to show
the learner how important correct pronunciation of the sound is. Activities to practise
minimal pairs include reverse dictation (the teacher writes what the learners say on the
board), tongue twisters and drilling.

Mistakes are things that are wrong in a learner's English. They can be divided into two
types, errors and slips. Slips may not require feedback but errors will, at some point, or at
least they tell us important things about the learner's knowledge.

Example
A learner saying ‘I look forward seeing you' because they don't know that we use ‘to' in the
structure is making an error, but if the learner says this because they are tired and not
concentrating it may just be a slip.
In the classroom
There are many ways to give feedback on learner mistakes. Techniques for spoken mistakes
include recording learners for delayed correction, and using gestures and echoing for
immediate correction. Written mistakes can be addressed using correction symbols, group
editing and models.

Mixed ability as used in ELT usually refers to the differences that exist in a group in terms
of different levels of language proficiency. This might be a result of simply the amount of
time they have spent learning, their different language learning abilities or learning style
preferences. Almost all groups are mixed ability.

Example
A teacher has a large intermediate group of mixed ability teenage learners - some learners
are actually pre-intermediate, a minority are intermediate, and a small number should be in
an upper-intermediate level.

In the classroom
Teachers need to have a range of strategies for managing mixed ability classes. Extension
tasks for fast finishers, differing levels of difficulty on tasks that work towards common
aims, and putting learners of different levels together for some activities, and apart for
others are all possible strategies.

Modal verbs are a small group of verbs which convey the speaker's opinion about or
attitude towards what is being expressed. Modal verbs include ‘could', ‘should', ‘might' and
‘may'.

Example
The modal verb ‘must' can express a speaker's sense of obligation - ‘I really must finish that
project' - and how probable a speaker thinks something is - ‘You must be feeling awful'.

In the classroom
Modal verbs are problematic for learners for various reasons. They can have various uses
and irregular negative and past forms. For example, the past of ‘must' depends on its
function and can be either ‘had to' or ‘must have'. Exploring examples of the use of modal
verbs from authentic texts will help learners build their confidence in using them.

A model is an example of the target language a teacher shows learners to help them notice
language patterns, or to encourage them to imitate. This could be a sentence, a model of
an intonation pattern, or an entire text, such as an example of a writing genre.

Example
Learners are looking at different uses of the present perfect continuous. The teacher writes
two models on the board, 'I've been waiting for you for ages', and 'What have you been
doing? You look awful'.

In the classroom
Clear, accurate, contextualised models are an important part of language presentations as
they show learners correct form and provide an example of use in context.
To monitor is to watch and listen to learners while they are doing an activity but not to
lead them in the activity. Teachers monitor to find out what problems the learners are
having, and to identify the type of errors learners make as they produce language.

Example
The class break into pairs to practise pronunciation of contracted forms in a short dialogue.
The teacher walks around the class monitoring for difficulties and corrects where necessary,
then talks to the whole class about common mistakes.

In the classroom
Monitoring is an important classroom technique and works best when it is directed at lesson
aims. Teachers can take time to explain to learners why they are doing it, and negotiate
when they will give feedback on problems.

Monolingual

Students in a monolingual class speak the same first language, and will share most aspects
of a culture. Monolingual classes can be compared to multilingual ones, where there are a
variety of first languages.

Example
Monolingual classes are typically found in schools in the learners' own country.

In the classroom
In a monolingual class there may be more use of L1, which can create problems but can be
a useful tool, e.g. translation can be used when necessary. There is also a shared culture,
which a teacher can exploit. The learners may have similar learning strategies, and
similar problems learning the target language.

A morpheme is the smallest single unit of language that has meaning.

Example
The word 'uneconomical' has three morphemes, 'un-', 'economy' and '-al'. 'un-' is a negative
and a bound morpheme (appearing only with other morphemes), 'economy' is a free
morpheme, and '-al' is a bound morpheme which forms an adjective.

In the classroom
The most common bound morphemes are prefixes and suffixes. They are frequently taught
by looking at word families based on the same free morpheme.

Multi-word verbs, or MWVs, are verbs made up of two or more words. These words are a
verb plus a preposition or particle. They are often known as phrasal verbs.

Example
‘Get on' and ‘turn off' are multi-word verbs.

In the classroom
Recording MWVs correctly can help learners understand and use them. Verbs can be
grouped together according to the particle, e.g. verbs with ‘up', according to meaning, e.g.
verbs about feelings, or according to the main verb, e.g. verbs beginning with ‘turn'.
However verbs are grouped, it is useful to encourage learners to include an example of the
verb in use.
A multilingual class is a class where the learners speak a variety of first languages.
Multilingual classes can be compared to monolingual ones, where all the learners speak
the same first language.

Example
Multilingual classes are typically found where learners have travelled from other countries to
learn a language, e.g. summer schools.

In the classroom
In a multilingual class there can be much more use of the target language, because it will
be the only common language between the learners, who will use it for their normal
interactions both in and out of class. Learner behaviour and cultures can be very different,
which may create problems but can be used as a focus of comparison and discussion.

Multiple choice items are questions that require learners to choose the best response from
a group of answers.

Example
Complete the sentence with the best answer:
My car broke ____
- down
- away
- off
- up

In the classroom
One way to make multiple choice items more productive is to prepare the question so that
learners have to choose the best answer rather than the only correct one. This is a way to
include issues such as collocation, connotation and formality.

Multiple Intelligence Theory says that there are at least eight different kinds of
intelligence, and that human beings possess all of them to different degrees. Learners'
profiles of intelligences will affect their preferences when learning.

Example
Learners with a predominantly verbal-linguistic intelligence tend to have large vocabularies
and be good at languages, whilst those with high body-kinaesthetic intelligence may learn
best by doing things physically.

In the classroom
Multiple Intelligence Theory is one of many models of intelligence and learning style. For
many teachers the most important implication of these models is that they need to use a
wide range of resources and techniques with learners.

Musical intelligence is one of the many types of intelligence described in multiple

intelligence theory. People with strong musical intelligence are more sensitive to music and
often have clear musical ability.

For example
A student with strong musical intelligence may prefer to study with music playing in the
background.
In the classroom
It is interesting to note that some students like having music on in the classroom and others
do not and actually find it has a negative impact on their ability to learn.

Narrative tenses are verb tenses that are used to talk about the past. They are often
found in stories and descriptions of past events, such as personal anecdotes.

Example
The following are examples of narrative tenses:
Past simple - 'We left on a rainy day' Past continuous - 'It was pouring down even at
midday' Past perfect - 'It had rained off and on for ten days' Past perfect continuous - 'We
had been waiting to escape for what seemed ages'

In the classroom
Activities used to practise narrative tenses include gap fills, dictations, story writing and
reading, ordering jumbled text, and re-writing events starting at the end.

The natural order hypothesis is the idea that children learning their first language acquire
grammatical structures in a pre-determined, 'natural' order, and that some are acquired
earlier than others. This idea has been extended to account for second language acquisition
in Krashen's theory of language acquisition.

Example
According to the natural order hypothesis, learners acquire the grammatical morpheme -ing
before the morpheme third person -s.

In the classroom
One possible implication of this hypothesis is that teaching language through a traditional
structural syllabus may not necessarily help them to acquire the language they need.
Attempts to get the learners to produce structures before they are ready to do so may fail.

Naturalistic intelligence is one of the many types of intelligence described in multiple

intelligence theory, although not as widely accepted as other types. People with strong
naturalistic intelligence are more sensitive to nature and to their role in nature.

For example
A person with strong naturalistic intelligence may prefer to be outside more and in a natural
environment.

In the classroom
Aside from using materials with content about nature, animals and plants, it has been
suggested that learners who have strong naturalistic intelligence benefit from moving
around a lot while learning.

Needs analysis involves doing some kind of activity with a learner in order to find out what
their learning needs are. A good understanding of learner needs can contribute to successful
course planning.

For example
On the first day with a new group the teacher gives the proposed syllabus aims for the
course, and asks learners to prioritise them in relation to the contexts that they will need to
use language in.
In the classroom
Needs analysis is part of building learner awareness and autonomy. Asking learners what
they feel they need to practise is a good initial step. As well as providing data, it can
encourage them to start thinking about their learning and taking responsibility for it.

Negotiation of meaning is a process that speakers go through to reach a clear

understanding of each other.

Example
Asking for clarification, rephrasing, and confirming what you think you have understood are
all strategies for the negotiation of meaning.

In the classroom
Information gap activities such as jigsaw readings or listenings, group story building, spot
the difference and communicative crosswords are examples of activities that give learners
the opportunity to develop their communicative competence through negotiation of meaning
as they share information.

Neologisms are words or phrases that are invented to describe either new things or to give
a new name to an old idea. Neologisms occur in the English language very frequently.

Example
Neologisms may become accepted language or disappear through lack of use, but recent
examples include analysis, paralysis, WMDs, VJ, bimmers and no-fly list.

In the classroom
There are many ways neologisms are created and this can be an interesting area for
learners to work on. Neologisms are formed, for example, by blending, by borrowing from
other languages, from acronyms and from affixes.

Neuro-linguistic Programming is based on a model of communication and

psychotherapy. In ELT this model has implications for learning, as it says that we all have
different learning and perceptual preferences, and in order to learn well we need to both
exploit our preferred styles and develop our less preferred ones.

Example
The teacher draws a mind map on the board to show learners the relationship between new
words; in this way she is addressing the visual intelligence of her learners.

In the classroom
To exploit NLP in the classroom teachers need to use a variety of techniques, resources and
methodologies to address different types of intelligence in learners. Tools as diverse as TPR,
Cuisenaire rods and playing music all address different kinds of intelligence.

Non-gradable adjectives are adjectives that cannot be expressed in degrees and so

cannot be graded. They can be compared with gradable adjectives, which have different
degrees and so can be graded.

Example
‘Enormous', ‘impossible' and ‘ridiculous' are non-gradable adjectives.
In the classroom
Learners can explore non-gradable adjectives and have fun discussing things they think are
absolutely disgusting, totally unbearable, utterly unbelievable, etc.

Non-verbal communication is communication that does not involve a verbal element.

Example
Non-verbal communication includes gestures such as waving or tapping your fingers, eye
movements such as winking and rolling, and body movements such as shrugging your
shoulders.

In the classroom
Many examples of non-verbal communication are different in different cultures, including
body movements, gestures and distance between speakers. It can be interesting and
productive to ask learners in a multi-lingual class to compare these.

A norm-referenced test measures a candidate's mark against what other people are
achieving in the same test. It can be compared with a criterion-referenced test, which
measures a candidate's mark against a series of criteria and produces a description of level
based on those criteria. Norm-based tests are useful for indicating the level of an individual
learner in comparison with others.

Example
The SAT test in the United States is a norm-referenced test.

Noticing

When learners "notice" new language, they pay special attention to its form, use and
meaning. Noticing is regarded as an important part of the process of learning new language,
especially in acquisition-driven accounts of language learning, when learners at some point
in their acquisition, notice their errors in production. Noticing will only occur when the
learner is ready to take on the new language.

Example
A learner might make an error in the use of a preposition, but "notice" its correct use by
another learner, or in an authentic text. This might allow them to begin to use it correctly.

In the classroom
In task-based work, part of the teacher's role will be to create the conditions under which
learners can notice aspects of language use that are important for developing their
interlanguage. This might be achieved by recording and listening to models of the task, or
the learner’s production on the task. Learners talking informally in the classroom, will also
be helping each other notice new language and understand how well they are using it via
the feedback they are getting.

A noun clause is a clause that is used in the same way as a noun or a pronoun.

Example
I know what he was doing there.
In the classroom
A way for learners to identify a noun clause is for them to change the noun clause for ‘it',
‘he' or ‘she' and see if it still works. Noun clauses are a useful area to explore with more
advanced learners, who can make their language more sophisticated by extending the
complexity of noun clauses they use.

An objective test is a test that has right or wrong answers and so can be marked
objectively. It can be compared with a subjective test, which is evaluated by giving an
opinion, usually based on agreed criteria. Objective tests are popular because they are easy
to prepare and take, quick to mark, and provide a quantifiable and concrete result.

For example
True or false questions based on a text can be used in an objective test.

In the classroom
Marking objective tests together in the class is a useful way to exploit them further as it
gives the learners the opportunity to discuss answers, try to justify choices, and help each
other etc.

An observation checklist is a list of things that an observer is going to look at when

observing a class. This list may have been prepared by the observer or the teacher or both.
Observation checklists not only give an observer a structure and framework for an
observation but also serve as a contract of understanding with the teacher, who may as a
result be more comfortable, and will get specific feedback on aspects of the class.

For example
The teacher has asked the observer to look at the issue of timing so the observer's checklist
includes these questions:
- Does the teacher follow the timings on the lesson plan?
- Does the teacher tell learners how long they have for an activity?
- Does the teacher tell learners when time is nearly up?

In the classroom
It is important that learners understand the function of the observer and are pre-warned
about the observation. If not, the observer may intimidate the class and the data gathered
may not be accurate.

On-the-spot correction is when a teacher corrects a learner's mistake as soon as they

make it.

Example
The learner is telling the teacher about a hobby and says, ‘I am going every weekend'. The
teacher immediately elicits or says ‘I go every weekend'.

In the classroom
On-the-spot correction techniques include giving the correct answer, echoing the learner but
correcting the language, and using facial expressions and gestures to indicate where the
problem was in what the learner said, and therefore encourage learners to correct the
mistake themselves.
Onomatopoeia refers to words that have a sound that represents what the word means.
They are one way in which new words can be created.

Example
'Splash', 'crackle' 'thud' and 'drip' are all examples of onomatopoeia.

In the classroom
Onomatopoeia are an interesting and fun area for learners. As well as learners guessing
what they represent, activities which use them include comparisons between languages,
writing poems, creating sound effects for radio plays, and inventing new examples. There
are many examples in children's poetry which can be exploited.

An open class activity is an activity which is carried out with the whole group participating
together with the teacher, rather than in closed groups or closed pairs. Open class work is
often teacher-led.

Example
The class have finished analysing a text on inventions and in groups have looked at
discussion questions based on the topic. Their ideas are now fed back to the whole group in
open class.

In the classroom
Teachers have to make decisions about whether to do an activity in closed groups or open
class, or a mixture. It can be difficult to ensure that all learners are involved in open class
activities as the more confident can dominate.

An open pair is a pair of learners working together with the rest of the group observing.
They can be compared to closed pairs, where all the learners work in pairs that do not
monitor each other.

Example
The learners are working on developing telephone conversations using prompts. The teacher
asks one pair to continue working while the rest of the group watches.

In the classroom
Open pair work can be a fast and effective way to highlight language learners might need
for an activity, and clarify that people understand what to do. It needs to be managed
sensitively, choosing confident learners to demonstrate, and dealing with errors through a
"hotsheet"; a record of errors in performance, which can be discussed later.

Open questions are questions which cannot be answered with just 'yes' or 'no'. Many of
them begin with 'wh': why, where, who etc. Open questions can be compared to closed
questions, which need only yes or no answers.

Example
'Why did you decide to study English?' is an example of an open question. Compare this
with 'Did you decide to study English because it's useful for work?', a closed question.

In the classroom
Asking open questions can encourage learners to expand on their answers, which requires
them to construct longer examples of language. A series of closed questions can be useful
for checking concepts.
In language learning orthography can have two meanings. One is the way a language is
spelt and the other is the way the letters are written. English orthography (spelling) is
notoriously difficult for both native speakers and learners and produces corresponding
difficulties in pronunciation. Almost every sound in English has more than one correct
spelling.

Example
a) English has an alphabetic orthography, because words are made using an alphabet; b)
The orthography of English handwriting can cause problems for Arabic speakers at beginner
levels.

In the classroom
One important way to help learners with spelling is to teach them how to use dictionaries
and dictionary websites correctly. Low-level learners also need to learn how to ask their
teacher for the correct spelling of a word, and understand the letters of the alphabet.

Outcomes are what learners should be able to do or have done at the end of the class or
course. Outcomes are similar to aims but are more focussed on end results and often
describe what actually happened rather than what the teacher intends to happen.

Example
Learners are doing a video project on local tourist sites. Learning outcomes for this work
include better speaking skills, increased vocabulary, and more learning skills.

In the classroom
The outcomes question 'What do I really want my learners to be able to do when we finish
this?' is a very useful prompt for planning.

PPP is a paradigm or model used to describe typical stages of a presentation of new

language. It means presentation, production and practice. The practice stage aims to
provide opportunities for learners to use the target structure. Criticism of
this paradigm argues that the freer 'practice' stage may not elicit the target language as it
is designed to do, as in this meaning-based stage, students communicate with any language
they can. It is not clear that forcing students to use certain structures to communicate in a
practice activity will necessarily mean they will use these structures spontaneously later.

Example
The teacher presents and illustrates the communicative purpose of a new structure 'If I was
you…' for advice. Then learners use prompts to complete sentences with the correct forms
of the verbs. They practise by giving each other advice.

In the classroom
Despite current doubts about the usefulness of the practice stage in the PPP model, it is still
a common framework to find in classes and in materials.

Pace refers to the speed of the class. It is a subjective judgement, connected with how it
feels for the learner to go through the sequence of activities in a class.

Example
Some activities inevitably affect the pace of a class, for example, a whole group
brainstorming activity will work best at a fast pace and an intensive reading at a slow one.
In the classroom
A pace that is either too slow or too fast can have negative impact on the learner. Simply
asking learners if they feel activities went on for the right amount of time, and if they were
too fast or slow will give a teacher good information about the pace of a class. Alternatively,
another way to assess this is to ask another teacher to watch the class and give feedback.

Pair work is learners working together in pairs. One of the main motivations to encourage
pair work in the English language classroom is to increase the opportunities for learners to
use English in the class.

Example
The learners are answering comprehension questions in pairs after reading a text. This
allows them to compare answers, and clarify problems together using English.

In the classroom
Teachers can evaluate the impact and effectiveness of pair work on their learners by using
action research tools such as asking the learners how they feel about working like this or by
actually participating in an activity in a pair and evaluating this experience afterwards.

Paradigms are theoretical models used to describe sequences of teaching.

Example
The following are examples of paradigms
PPP - presentation, production and practice OHE - observation, hypothesis formation,
experimentation
ARC - authentic use, restricted use, clarification ESA - engage, study, activate

In the classroom
Paradigms can be useful to describe and identify the stages of a lesson, for example when
planning or documenting a class. They often describe similar stages in different ways, for
example a PPP lesson can be described as having a CRA staging.

Paralinguistics are the aspects of spoken communication that do not involve words. These
may add emphasis or shades of meaning to what people say. Some definitions limit this to
verbal communication that is not words.

Example
Body language, gestures, facial expressions, tone and pitch of voice are all examples of
paralinguistic features.

In the classroom
Paralinguistic features of language are extremely important as they can change message
completely. Tone and pitch of voice is commonly dealt with at all language levels, but a
fuller consideration of paralinguistics is often left to very advanced courses.

Paraphrasing is finding another way to say something when you don't know how to say it.
Paraphrasing is not only an essential skill for all speakers but also key to learners
developing communicative ability beyond their existing knowledge of language.

Example
The learner is describing a photograph of a glider and doesn't know the word, so
paraphrases by saying ‘an airplane that uses the wind'.
In the classroom
One way to practise paraphrasing is through word games. For example, in a definition game
learners have to provide paraphrases, so that others can guess the original word. This can
be done in written form in crossword activities as well.

Parts of speech describe the categories that words are assigned to according to what
grammatical or lexical function they have. These categories are examples of classroom
meta-language.

Example
Noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, and conjunction are all examples of
parts of speech.

In the classroom
How much metalanguage, including parts of speech, learners need to know depends on
their aims. Terms such as the examples above are very useful tools when learners are
developing autonomy, for example by using dictionaries more.

Participles are a verb form used in passive sentences and to form perfect and progressive
aspect. There are two participles in English, the present participle (-ing) and the past
participle (-ed).

Example
'I'm leaving', 'we wanted to go', 'a very boring film' and 'they were really excited by the
news' are examples of participle forms.

In the classroom
Areas of language involving participles include present continuous, past simple and perfect
forms, passives and adjective formation. Learners sometimes have considerable difficulties
understanding the differences between adjective forms such as 'exciting' and 'excited'

A particle is a word that has a grammatical function but does not fit into the main parts of
speech (i.e. noun, verb, adverb). Particles do not change.

Example
The infinitive 'to' in 'to fly' is an example of a particle, although it can also act as a
preposition, e.g. 'I'm going to Spain next week'.

In the classroom
Many words can be described as particles, e.g. conjunctions such as 'and' and 'but' and
interjections such as 'oh' and 'wow'. Particles appear frequently in the teaching of phrasal
verbs, which can be grouped for teaching purposes by particle, e.g. 'off', 'on', 'out' etc.

A learner's passive vocabulary is the words that they understand but don't use yet. This
can be compared with active vocabulary, which are words that learners understand and use
in speaking or writing. The active and passive vocabulary of a learner changes constantly.
They start using words, try new meanings, forget words, abandon words that have no use,
revise words, etc.

Example
Advanced learners often have an extremely large passive vocabulary but a considerably
smaller active one.
In the classroom
A simple way to help learners keep building their active vocabulary is by constant revision
activity, such as asking learners to use words left on the board from a previous class in a
sentence. Learners can all contribute to a vocabulary bag with words and definitions or
example sentences on cards; these can be used to play vocabulary revision games.

A pedagogic grammar is a description of how to use the grammar of a language to

communicate, for people wanting to learn the target language. It can be compared with a
reference grammar, which just describes the grammar of the language. Pedagogic
grammars contain assumptions about how learners learn, follow certain linguistic theories in
their descriptions, and are written for a specific target audience.

Example
How English Works and Grammar in Use are pedagogic grammar books, as they help
learners use the grammar of English for communication.

In the classroom
Learners can be asked to compare different explanations of a language point from different
grammars. This allows learners to think about grammar and its role in communication.

Peer correction is a classroom technique where learners correct each other, rather than
the teacher doing this.

Example
Using a computer room, each learner quickly writes a short text on someone who has
inspired them. They then move to the next terminal and correct the next learner's text. This
rotation continues until they come back to their work.

In the classroom
Peer correction is a useful technique as learners can feel less intimidated being helped by
others in the class. However, some learners are highly resistant to being corrected by
someone other than the teacher.

A pejorative is a word or phrase that is used to express contempt.

Example
'Idiot' 'plonker' and 'moron' are pejoratives. 'Chav', 'Tree-hugger' and 'Bottom feeder' are
other recent examples.

In the classroom
Learners are likely to hear this language informally in English speaking contexts or through
exposure to authentic language in films. It may not be appropriate to teach students
pejoratives and other slang, and many teachers will choose to teach it for recognition
only. Context is important, e.g. a learner working in the UK may need to understand a lot
of British slang.

Pelmanism

In ELT Pelmanism refers to any activity that learners have to complete by memorising
objects. Pelmanism can help learners who have a strong visual/spatial intelligence as the
activity exploits physical objects.
Example
The teacher has a collection of countable and uncountable objects on a table. Learners
memorise the objects, then the teacher removes some, unseen. The learners then have to
identify which objects are missing.

In the classroom
Pelmanism can be used to focus on specific language points, such as the example with
countables and uncountables, descriptive language such as colours and sizes, adjective
order for higher levels, and functional language such as ‘I think there was...' and ‘Are you
sure...?'

Personalisation happens when activities allow students to use language to express their
own ideas, feelings, preferences and opinions. Personalisation is an important part of
the communicative approach, since it involves true communication, as learners
communicate real information about themselves.

Example
The learners have read a text about sports. In pairs they talk about what their favourite
sports are and whether they prefer to play or watch.

In the classroom
Personalisation is important for several reasons. It makes language relevant to learners,
makes communication activities meaningful, and also helps memorisation. Personalisation
can take place at any stage of a lesson.

Phatic communication is verbal or non-verbal communication that has a social function,

such as to start a conversation, greet someone, or say goodbye, rather than an informative
function. Learners sometimes find it difficult to recognise phatic communication. For
example, a learner may interpret the American English phatic structure ‘What's up?' as a
question that needs an answer.

Example
Waving hello is non-verbal phatic communication and saying ‘How's it going?' is verbal.

In the classroom
To explore phatics, learners can analyse the verbal and non-verbal phatic communication
from a video extract, and then prepare new dialogues with more examples.

Phonemes are the smallest units of sounds in a language. If a phoneme is changed, the
word may change, e.g. change the l sound in 'lack' to a b and the word changes to 'back'.

Example
In English, the sound e in 'pet' and i in 'bit' are examples of vowel phonemes, the sounds j
in 'judge' and sh in 'ship' are consonant phonemes. Diphthongs include the oy sound in 'boy'
and the ay sound in 'bay'.

In the classroom
Phonemes are the basic building blocks of spoken language. Learners can be helped to
discriminate phonemes through comparing 'minimal pairs'; pairs of words which differ only
in one phoneme. Another approach is to integrate the teaching of pronunciation, dealing
with aspects of pronunciation as they come up, rather than systematically.
Phonemic script is a transcription of the sounds of a word or phrase, using phonemic
symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

Example
The phrase 'please do it' can be transcribed as /pli:zdu:wit/ (without stress marks), showing
an intrusive /w/ sound.

In the classroom
Phonemic script is a useful tool for many features of English pronunciation. Learners can be
introduced to the phonemic alphabet systematically, and this knowledge can help them
approximate pronunciation models, and use dictionaries. Dictionary use can show learners
silent letters, weak forms, main word and sentence stresses, and features of connected
speech, such as elision and intrusion, as in the example above.

Phonemic symbols are the symbols used to represent individual phoneme sounds in
transcription, e.g. in a dictionary.

Example:
The following are examples in English:
/p/ as in pet /k/ as in cat /ei/ as in pay /i:/ as in beat

In the classroom
Activities which can help learners include phonemic bingo, phonemic hangman, practice with
dictionaries, class posters and looking at homophones. There is much discussion about how
useful phonemic symbols are to learners, and some teachers choose never to teach them,
especially if learner do not feel they are useful.

Phonetics is the study of human speech. Phonetics includes the study of how sounds are
physically produced (by positioning the mouth, lips and tongue), and how sounds are
perceived by a listener. Phonetics can be compared to phonology, which is the study of the
particular sound units (phonemes) of language.

Example
The different mouth movements of the short /i/ and long /i:/ can be compared to help
learners notice the difference.

In the classroom
Articulatory phonetics, how sounds are made, can be useful for teachers and learners.
Problems with the pronunciation of certain sounds can be discussed in terms of how they
are made with the mouth, and learners can be made aware of the differences between their
first language phonemes, and English phonemes.

Phonics is a method of teaching young learners how to read which focuses on how letters
make sounds, and how these sounds make words. It can be compared with the whole word,
or 'Look and say' approach, which focuses on recognising words.

Example
Using a phonics approach, the word 'cat' would be read aloud by reading the letters c - a - t.

In the classroom
There are many arguments about the best way to teach children how to read. Some schools
use an approach that mixes elements of the phonic and the whole word methods, or uses
one and then the other.
Phonology, also known as phonemics, is the study of the particular sound units
(phonemes) in languages. It can be compared to phonetics, which is the study of human
speech in general, and includes the articulation and perception of sounds.

Example
Phonology aims to describe the sounds (phonemes) that are distinctive in a language. This
can be done by identifying minimal pairs such as 'tin' and 'bin'.

In the classroom
Phonological areas looked at in language teaching include phonemes, intonation, stress,
accent and features of connected speech such as elision, intrusion and catenation.

Pitch movement is the way the quality of the voice changes as a speaker communicates.
Pitch is produced by the vibration of the vocal folds. When meaning is also considered, this
is known as tone. English is an example of an intonational language, which uses pitch
change across words and phrases to communicate meaning, especially attitude.

Example
An English speaker changes the pitch of their voice to communicate sarcasm.

In the classroom
Pitch movement itself is not studied but the way it is used to communicate meaning (tone
and intonation) is.

A plenum in language teaching means the whole group, so an activity in plenum / plenary
will involve all learners and the teacher. This can be compared to closed pair and group
work.

Example
Learners work in pairs to correct the errors in a text, then in plenum work with the teacher
and an overhead transparency on a final version.

In the classroom
Learner groupings are an extremely important part of classroom management. Teachers
decide what kind of grouping best supports the aims of the activity they are doing. Possible
groupings include; closed or open pair, groups of varying sizes, or whole class with or
without the teacher.

Polysemy refers to the quality of some words to have several related meanings. A word
which has several related meanings is thus a polyseme. These can be compared to
homonyms, which are words that have several completely different meanings.

Example
The word 'head' is a polyseme because it has several related meanings:
'My head hurts' 'He heads the news section' 'We'll head them off at the turning'

In the classroom
Polysemy is a very useful aspect of language as it enables learners to make informed
guesses about the meaning of new words if they recognise them as polysemes.

A portfolio is a collection of work prepared, maintained and developed by a learner.

Portfolios can contain information about the learner and about their learning experiences,
and examples of their work.
Example
The Council of Europe uses Language Portfolios as part of its framework for the learning of
European languages.

In the classroom
Aside from direct benefits for the learner, portfolios are a very useful tool for enabling
parents to take an active role in their children's learning. They can read their child's
portfolio and add their own comments and contributions.

Pre-listening activities are things learners do before a listening activity in order to

prepare for listening. These activities have various purposes, including pre-teaching or
activating vocabulary, predicting content, generating interest and checking understanding of
task.

Example
The learners are going to listen to a radio programme about sharks. First, they work in
groups to pool their knowledge of sharks and then tell the rest of the class.

In the classroom
Pre-listening tasks include discussion questions, true or false statements, vocabulary work,
prediction tasks and brainstorming the topic.

Pre-teaching is the teaching of the language learners need before an activity.

Example
The learners are going to hear a short discussion on environmental issues. Before listening,
they match key environment words to definitions.

In the classroom
In order to pre-teach vocabulary effectively, the teacher needs to identify what the learners
already know and what might cause problems. Although course books often provide this
information in pre-teaching stages, many teachers take time when planning to identify
problem areas.

Prediction is an activity learners carry out before reading or listening to a text, where they
predict what they are going to hear or read. This gives them a reason to listen or read, as
they confirm or reject their predictions.

Example
Learners are going to listen to a presentation about a journey through Africa. They predict
what vocabulary they might hear, and also what kind of emotions the speaker might have
felt. They listen to confirm their ideas.

In the classroom
Prediction is a valuable stage in listening and reading activities. It mirrors L1 skills use,
where predictions form an important base for being able to process language in real time.
Both content and language can be predicted.

A preposition is a word that connects a noun, pronoun or noun phrase to other parts of a
clause.

Example
‘I insist on it' and ‘We went from here to there in 10 days'.
In the classroom
Dependent prepositions - prepositions which always go with certain language - cause
problems even for advanced level learners. Memorisation and controlled practice can help,
but perhaps the best way of gaining control over prepositions is through a lot of exposure to
authentic language.

A prescriptive grammar is a set of rules about language based on how people think
language should be used. In a prescriptive grammar there is right and wrong language. It
can be compared with a descriptive grammar, which is a set of rules based on how language
is actually used.

Example
A prescriptive grammar would reject ‘He goes...', meaning ‘He said', as incorrect language.

In the classroom
At higher levels it is useful to raise learner awareness of differences between prescriptive
grammars and use of language. This can be done in an inductive approach, with learners
identifying examples of language that doesn't follow rules from authentic listening or written
texts. They can then produce their own ‘mini' descriptive grammars.

Prior knowledge is the knowledge the learner already has before they meet new
information. A learner's understanding of a text can be improved by activating their prior
knowledge before dealing with the text, and developing this habit is good learner training
for them.

Example
A group of young learners are going to read about dolphins. First they talk about what they
already know in a brainstorm activity.

In the classroom
Pre-task activities are a good way to explore and share prior knowledge. Making predictions
about content, answering true or false questions, agree on ‘5 things you know about...' and
class or group brainstorming are all effective tools.

Process writing focuses learners on the different stages and aspects of writing as they
have been observed in good writers, and spend time on each, led by the teacher. These
are; planning, drafting, revising, editing and considering the audience.

Example
The learners are at the editing stage of their writing work so spend time identifying
problems and correcting them, with the teacher helping.

In the classroom
Process writing in its full form can take a lot of class time. Some parts can be done in class,
such as brainstorming and discussion, leaving others for homework such as drafting.

A process-oriented syllabus focuses on the skills and processes involved in learning

language. It can be compared with a product-oriented syllabus, which focuses on completed
acts of communication, the outputs.

Example
A process-writing syllabus would focus on the processes writers use to complete their tasks,
such as collecting information, organising ideas, drafting and revising, rather than just the
features of the products of writing, such as letters, compositions, notes, reports etc.

In the classroom
Working on the writing processes is hard work for learners because it involves thinking,
organising and planning, but it is time well-invested in skills that will enable the learner to
become an autonomous writer. One way to apply a process approach to tasks is to provide
the language they need on demand as they work, rather than before they start. This can be
done by the teacher, by referring the learners to useful language lists or dictionaries, or by
other learners.

A proclaiming tone is an intonation pattern that either rises and then falls, or just falls. A
proclaiming tone shows that the speaker is giving new information. It can be compared to a
referring tone, which shows that the speaker is referring to something everybody already
knows.

Example
In the sentence ‘That guy we met at the party is my new teacher', there is a proclaiming
tone on ‘is my new teacher' because it is new information.

In the classroom
Proclaiming tones are often more difficult for learners to produce than referring tones.
Encouraging learners to exaggerate the falling intonation and move their head and body
downwards at the same time can help.

A product-oriented syllabus focuses on things learnt at the end of the learning process
(outcomes) rather than the process itself. It can be compared with a process-oriented
syllabus, which focuses on the processes of learning. Many people have questioned the
validity of separating syllabi into process- and product-oriented and argue that most syllabi
are, and must be, a combination of processes and outcomes.

Example
Grammatical, functional and lexical syllabi are product-oriented as they focus on
grammatical, functional and lexical outcomes.

In the classroom
Learners working with a product-oriented syllabus can be supported with other approaches
and techniques. For example, teachers can incorporate elements of learner training and
development from learner-centred syllabi, or use activities from process-oriented syllabi
such as task-based learning.

The productive skills are speaking and writing, because learners doing these need to
produce language. They are also known as active skills. They can be compared with the
receptive skills of listening and reading.

Example
Learners have already spent time practising receptive skills with a shape poem, by listening
to it and reading it. They now move on to productive skills by group writing their own,
based on the example.

In the classroom
Certain activities, such as working with literature and project work, seek to integrate work
on both receptive and productive skills.
Proficiency is how good a learner is at the language they are learning.

Example
Proficiency tests such as IELTS and Cambridge Main Suite examinations test how good a
candidate's overall ability in English is.

In the classroom
The level of proficiency in English that learners want to reach varies considerably and
depends on the reasons and motivations for study. Many learners say they want a very high
level of proficiency but need to be guided by teachers to identify the level they really need,
and also the areas they need to be proficient in.

A proficiency test measures a learner's level of language. It can be compared with an

achievement test, which evaluates a learner's understanding of specific material, a
diagnostic test, which identify areas to work on, and a prognostic test, which tries to predict
a learner's ability to complete a course or take an exam. Proficiency tests are uncommon
within the classroom but very frequent as the end aim (and motivation) of language
learning.

Example
IELTS and TOEFL are examples of proficiency tests.

In the classroom
Proficiency tests often have a significant backwash effect on the classroom, as learners'
focus narrows to preparing the test items. One way to make practice for exams more
meaningful is by asking learners to prepare their own practice questions for the group.

Project work is work which focuses on completing a task. Project work normally involves a
lot of resources - time, people and materials - and learners practise a range of skills and
language systems.

Example
A group of teenage learners work on a project to develop a series of posters on how to
protect the environment.

In the classroom
Project work may provide many opportunities to meet a variety of learning aims but it
requires strong classroom management skills. Learners need independence in planning and
realizing the work but they also need the teacher to act as a driver in ensuring it is carried
out in a way that meets learning aims.

Prompts are stimuli a teacher uses to get learners to give a response using target
language. Prompts can be visual, spoken or written.

Example
The learners are asking each other about their food likes and dislikes. The teacher puts
photos of various foods up on the board as prompts for their questions.

In the classroom
Resources that can be used as prompts include flashcards, realia, body language, facial
expression (for correction), key words, questions, repeating errors, and other learners.
Prosodic features are features that appear when we put sounds together in connected
speech. It is as important to teach learners prosodic features as successful communication
depends as much on intonation, stress and rhythm as on the correct pronunciation of
sounds.

Example
Intonation, stress and rhythm are prosodic features.

In the classroom
One way to focus learners on various aspects of prosody is to select a text suitable to be
read aloud - for example a famous speech - and ask learners to mark where they think
pauses, main stress, linking, and intonation changes occur. They can then practise reading
this aloud.

A pyramid discussion is a speaking activity where learners form progressively larger

groups as they carry out a speaking task, which normally requires each grouping to reach
agreement before joining another group.

Example
In small groups, the learners have to agree on the most important of the five senses. They
then join with another group and have to agree again, and so on, until the whole class is
involved in one discussion.

In the classroom
Pyramid discussions are useful for practising a range of functions, including agreeing and
disagreeing, negotiating, summarising, and putting forward an argument.

Quantifiers are words put before nouns to show how many there are.

Example
‘A few', ‘some', ‘seven' and ‘all' are quantifiers.

In the classroom
Pelmanism games are a good way to practise quantifiers, as is using the realia of the
classroom itself, for example ‘some chairs', ‘a few students', ‘all the books' etc.

Rapport in language learning refers to the relationship between the teacher and the
learners. Teachers try to build good rapport with the learners in order to produce an
environment that will help learning.

Example
Classroom management tools such as eye contact, body language and learning and using
names can help to build rapport.

In the classroom
Building good rapport is often a matter of personalities, and many teachers will have
excellent rapport with one class and bad rapport with another, for no clear
reason. Personalisation can help build rapport, as learners and teachers find out more
about each other.

A rating scale is a scale against which a learner's performance is rated, producing a

quantifiable result. The rater is usually trained in applying the scale before they rate real
samples of language.
Example
The IELTS exam is an example of an exam that uses a rating scale.

In the classroom
Developing - or adapting- a good rating scale can improve evaluation of learners by
providing clear and consistent criteria. These can also be communicated to the learners
themselves and form part of a syllabus structure or portfolio. Learners can rate their own,
or a classmate's work against a rating scale to help them become more aware of what is
important to work on.

Re-duplicatives are one of the many ways new words are made in English. Re-duplicatives
are words made by copying the sound of the first word in the second.

Example
'Honky-tonk', 'wishy-washy', 'mish-mash' and 'ping-pong' are examples of re-duplicative
words.

In the classroom
Re-duplicatives are an interesting and creative area of vocabulary, and can be exploited to
practise problematic areas of pronunciation, such as consonant clusters and rhyming
sounds.

Realia are real things that are brought to the class and used as a resource.

Example
The learners are learning to describe clothes. In turn, they describe someone in the class for
others to identify.

In the classroom
Realia can include the learners themselves, the classroom, furniture, the school, published
material such as advertisements and menus, the contents of learners' pockets and bags,
and the view outside the window.

Received pronunciation, or RP, refers to an accent in English regarded by many people

as a ‘standard' accent. It has also been called ‘the Queen's English' or ‘BBC English'. In the
past, RP had high status in the UK, indicating an educated speaker, and this transferred into
EFL where it has been used as a model for pronunciation. With the emergence of
international English, the recognition of the equality of a variety of accents, and the
emphasis on authentic communication, learners now become aware of a wider range of
accents.

Example
In RP bath is pronounced with an /a:/ sound. In other UK accents it can be pronounced with
an /æ/.

In the classroom
Using authentic listening texts is one way to expose learners to a variety of accents.
Sources for this include films, online radio broadcasts and podcasts, and guest speakers.

The receptive skills are listening and reading, because learners do not need to produce
language to do these, they receive and understand it. These skills are sometimes known as
passive skills. They can be contrasted with the productive or active skills of speaking and
writing.
Example
Often in the process of learning new language, learners begin with receptive understanding
of the new items, then later move on to productive use.

In the classroom
The relationship between receptive and productive skills is a complex one, with one set of
skills naturally supporting another. For example, building reading skills can contribute to the
development of writing.

Recycling is practising language that learners have seen previously. The recycled language
will be re-introduced in a different context, or through a different skill. This helps the
student extend their range of use of the new item.

Example
On the last course, the learners were introduced to functional language of greetings and
introductions. Now they do a quick mingle activity where they recycle this language.

In the classroom
Recycling is an important part of the consolidation of learning. It is often included in course
and course book structures. Teachers can look for opportunities to recycle new language
through varying the skills work a class meets.

Referential questions are questions you ask someone because you don't know the
answer. In an ELT classroom, this can mean questions teachers ask learners and learners
ask each other. Referential questions can be compared to display questions, for which the
answer is already clear and teachers ask just to see if the learners know the answer, or for
language manipulation.

Example
The teacher asks a learner ‘What did you do at the weekend?', or a learner asks another
‘Why are you so sad?'

In the classroom
Extended activities in which learners can practise production of referential questions include
quizzes (setting and answering questions), interviews, discussion of work in the class, and
posting questions on general knowledge forums.

A referring tone is an intonation pattern which shows that the speaker is referring to
something everybody already knows. A referring tone falls and rises, or just rises. It can be
compared to a proclaiming tone, which shows that the speaker is giving new information.

Example
In the sentence ‘That guy we met at the party is my new teacher', there is a referring tone
on ‘That guy we met at the party' because it is not new information.

In the classroom
Learners can analyse dialogue for shared and new information and then practise suitable
intonation. They can also prepare their own dialogue, for example using the model ‘You
remember...? Well, he ...', ‘No, really?' etc.

Reformulation is an error correction technique. In reformulation, the teacher repeats what

the learner has said but correctly, without drawing attention explicitly to the error itself.
This technique offers a correct example of relevant language to a learner, at a time when
the learner may be ready to notice the difference between what they say, and the correct
version.

Example
The learner says 'I have been to the swimming pool last week'. The teacher replies 'You
went to the swimming pool last week? So did I'.

In the classroom
Reformulation is one of many ways to correct learners' spoken errors. Others include echo
correction, which is repeating the error with emphasis, and using facial expressions or
gesture. These correction techniques avoid giving the right answer and encourage the
learner to correct themselves.

Register often refers to the degree of formality of language, but in a more general sense it
means the language used by a group of people who share similar work or interests, such as
doctors or lawyers.

Example
For formal and informal register; 'Would you mind passing the salt?' is appropriate for a
formal situation with strangers, whereas 'Pass me the salt' would be used for a situation
where friends are talking, or possibly when being rude.

In the classroom
Although register is a complex area, the most common aspect looked at in language
learning is the degree of formality. Teachers often divide functional language into three
working categories, formal, neutral and informal.

A relative clause is a clause which tells us more about a noun or a noun phrase. There are
two types, defining and non-defining. Defining add essential information to tell us what we
are talking about, non-defining adds extra information.

Example
‘They demolished the house where I used to live' is an example of a defining relative clause.

In the classroom
Effective activities to practise relative clauses include writing definitions for crosswords and
competitions to make sentences as long as possible.

Restricted use is a stage where learners do controlled practice of the target language.
Restricted use is part of the model Authentic Use, Restricted Use and Clarification and Focus
(ARC).

Example
Learners have seen examples of the structure 'If I were you…' in a text from a teenage
magazine. They then look at the form and practise making it using prompts.

In the classroom :
The ARC model is useful to label the different stages of a lesson. For example, a lesson
following a model CRCAC would have a presentation stage, practice, clarification, free
practice and further clarification based on problems that arise in the free practice.

Retention is remembering new language rather than forgetting it. Once a word is retained,
it can be retrieved and used later.
Example
If learners have to work to guess or infer the meaning of a new word, and do so
themselves, then retention of that word is more likely.

In the classroom
Activities which can help retention of new language include learners deducing meaning from
context, recording tools such as mind maps and visualisation, using material relevant to
the learners, and a range of approaches to suit learner styles.

Retrieval is the action of recalling and using language stored in long-term memory.

Example
Students will find it easier to retrieve language that they have met and used in a number of
different contexts.

In the classroom
Asking learners to retrieve language is important as it can be forgotten very quickly.
Teachers help this process by using revision and recycling activities. Learner training is
also important, for example encouraging learners to use new language outside the
classroom and looking at different ways of recording new items for easy access later.

Rubric refers to the written instructions for a task.

Example
The writing part of a proficiency exam such as FCE or IELTS has a rubric giving instructions.

In the classroom
Learners may need to be trained to pay attention to the rubric, especially for an exam. They
can be encouraged to do this by group analysis of questions, the highlighting of key points,
and quick answer plans - which they can then explain to other learners.

STT means Student Talking Time. It is the time learners spend talking rather than the
teacher. It can be compared with Teacher Talking Time (TTT). It can be a useful category
for observation of teaching, or for self-reflection about teaching.

Example
Group work with the teacher monitoring, rather than an open class, is a way to increase the
STT in an activity.

In the classroom
Many teachers (and approaches) seek to maximise the amount of time learners spend using
the target language. One way to do this is to ensure that learners know the necessary
classroom language, e.g. to ask for clarification and express doubts.

Scanning is reading a text quickly in order to find specific information, e.g. figures or
names. It can be contrasted with skimming, which is reading quickly to get a general idea
of meaning.

Example
A learner taking a reading test needs to scan a text on population rates quickly to find out if
a series of statements about the population figures are true or false.
In the classroom
As the above example shows, scanning is a specific reading skill which is often used in
combination with others such as skimming and intensive reading. Learners need to learn
different ways and understand that choosing how to read is an important step in building
reading skills.

A scheme of work is a plan that defines work to be done in the classroom. Involving
learners in defining a scheme of work, whether for a short project or a long course, is an
important step towards motivation and involvement.

Example
Before starting a project, a group works on defining a scheme of work for it.

In the classroom
Questions to ask learners for a scheme of work include:
What are your aims?
What do you want to produce?
Who is going to do what?
What resources do you need?
How long is it going to take?

The schwa is an unstressed vowel sound which occurs in many words of two syllables or
more and in connected speech. It is the most common vowel sound in English and is
represented by the symbol below.

Example
The word 'banana' has a main stress on the second syllable and the other two syllables are
schwa sounds.

In the classroom
Many teachers and learners feel that correct pronunciation of the schwa is fundamental in
developing a satisfactory accent, since it is found in many weak forms of words, and in
unstressed parts of words. Learners often have great difficulty reproducing the sound.

A term from cognitive psychology; a script is a sequence of events and actions that are
related to specific situations. Our understanding of a script in a situation allows us to predict
what happens and therefore can help a learner interpret language.

Example
Learners are going to watch a comedy sketch about restaurants, they explore the typical
sequence of what happens in a restaurant before they watch, which prepares them for what
happens in the comedy sketch, which may or may not follow this typical routine.

In the classroom
Teachers can encourage learners to suggest the typical sequence of events in different
situations when the class is focusing on the functional language associated with situations.

Second language acquisition, or SLA, has two meanings. In a general sense it is a term
to describe learning a second language. More specifically, it is the name of the theory of the
process by which we acquire - or pick up - a second language. This is mainly a subconscious
process which happens while we focus on communication. It can be compared with second
language learning, which describes how formal language education helps us learn language
through more conscious processes.
Example
A learner studying in an English-speaking country may have more success due to the
language they acquire in their part-time job than with the language they learn in their class.

In the classroom
Implications for the language classroom include the ideas that the teacher can create
contexts for communication which facilitate acquisition, that there is a natural order of
acquisition of language, that there are affective filters which inhibit acquisition, especially
for adults, and that comprehensible input is very important.

Self-assessment is where learners assess their language proficiency, rather than a teacher
doing it.

Example
Learner portfolios often include a form of self-assessment, such as a checklist that relates to
the completion of the learning aims. For a writing task, this might be a list of questions such
as: Have you included an introduction? Have you got clear paragraphs? Does each
paragraph cover one main idea?

In the classroom
Like all forms of evaluation, self-assessment needs clear criteria in order for it to work.
Learners can be encouraged to participate, by developing assessment criteria together. This
helps them become aware of what they have to work on.

Self-correction is when learners correct themselves instead of a teacher doing it. Teachers
can involve learners in self-correction to different degrees, by giving learners more or less
guidance as to the location and nature of their errors, and examples of good use of
language to compare their own to.

Example
The learner says ‘I feel relax' and then immediately changes this to ‘I feel relaxed'.

In the classroom
Learners can be helped to self-correct with various degrees of help. Using a correction rubric
for written homework involves a lot of guidance, but using a facial expression to indicate
there is a problem when a learner says something involves less. Giving learners enough
time to self-correct in conversation is an effective technique in itself.

Semantics is the study of how meaning is created by words. It is sometimes compared

with syntax, which concerns the rules that dictate how sentences are formed.

Example
Semantic change is when a word changes meaning. It can become wider in meaning or
narrower, or more positive or more negative. An example is the word 'bad', which has
changed meaning from negative to positive in some contexts.

In the classroom
Semantic areas looked at in language learning in addition to the simple study of meaning
include discourse analysis, word groups such as homonyms, synonyms and antonyms,
and compound structures.

To sensitise learners is to make them more sensitive to specific language or ideas before
doing an activity. They are then more likely to notice language and respond to ideas.
Example
Learners are going to watch the balcony scene from 'Romeo and Juliet' and then discuss
how love is expressed in the scene. Before doing this, the teacher sensitizes them to the
ideas by asking them for examples of attitudes to love from their favourite songs.

In the classroom
Sensitising learners also has the function of activating their prior knowledge of related
language and relevant information, making them able to anticipate some of the language
they will see or hear.

In a general way sensory acuity means how good your senses are at doing what they
should do. In the context of NLP, it refers to the ability to use our senses to make accurate
observations about ourselves or other people.

Example
NLP recommends looking at eye movements, changes in skin colour and breathing, and
postures in order to get information about what is happening to other people.

In the classroom
Being able to make accurate observations about what learners are feeling is important.
Teachers can optimise this by thinking about classroom layout, their own position and view
of learners, what they are doing when learners are working, and how much time they spend
talking and listening. Useful data on these things can be gathered by a peer observation, or
by videoing a class.

Sentence stress is the pattern of stressed and unstressed words across a sentence.
Normally this emphasis is on words that carry important information, although this can
change significantly, depending on the specific meaning the speaker wants to communicate.

Example
'She bought a new car' probably has main stress on 'car' and secondary stress on 'bought'.

In the classroom
The way stress moves in order to change the message is an extremely important part of
pronunciation, and many teachers spend a lot of time working on this aspect. For example,
in the sentence above main stress could move onto 'she', 'bought' or 'new' and change the
meaning considerably.

Short vowels are vowel sounds that are pronounced in a short form. In RP English the
short vowel sounds are those in 'pet', 'pot', 'put', 'putt', 'pat' and 'pit', and
the schwa sound. They can be compared with long vowel sounds.

Example
The word 'ship' has a short /i/ sound, whilst the equivalent long sound /i:/ produces the
word 'sheep'.

In the classroom
Learners need practice in discriminating and producing short and long vowels. Learners who
are in contact with different English accents, either in the class or outside, will hear different
vowel sounds to those above, e.g. in Australian and New Zealand English.
The silent period hypothesis is the idea that when a language is learned, there should be
a period in which the learner is not expected to actively produce any language. This is based
on observations of a listening period in infants when they learn a first language.

Example
When learners begin to study a new language, they can go through a silent period where
they are exposed to sufficient comprehensible input to allow them to begin to acquire
language.

In the classroom

Common classroom techniques can address the needs of learners in a silent period, e.g.
listening comprehension and vocabulary input. There are also methodologies which explicitly
incorporate a silent period, such as Total Physical Response and the Natural Approach.

The silent way is a methodology of teaching language based on the idea that teachers
should be as silent as possible during a class but learners should be encouraged to speak as
much as possible. There are three basic principles:

- The learner needs to discover or create

- Learning is made easier by the use of physical objects such as Cuisenaire rods
- Learning is made easier by problem-solving using the target language

Example
The teacher shows the learners a small red Cuisenaire rod and a bigger blue one and says
‘The blue one is bigger than the red one'. The learners repeat this. The teacher then
substitutes the rods to produce other models, and finally encourages the learners to
produce their own comparisons.

In the classroom
Areas of target language where Cuisenaire rods can be useful include word boundaries,
contracted forms, prepositions, word order and word stress. Learners can use the rods to
first represent and then to manipulate language.

Skimming is reading a text quickly to get a general idea of meaning. It can be contrasted
with scanning, which is reading in order to find specific information, e.g. figures or names.

Example
A learner taking a reading exam decides to approach text by looking at the title,
introductions, and any diagrams and sub-headings, then skim reading to get a clear general
idea of what the text is about.

In the classroom
Skimming is a specific reading skill which is common in reading newspapers, messages and
e-mails. It is important that learners understand that there is no need to read every word
when skimming, so often teachers set this as a timed task to encourage speed.

Slips are mistakes caused by temporary factors such as a learner being tired, nervous,
excited or distracted. They can be compared with errors, which are caused by a learner not
knowing something. Some people use the term mistake to describe slips.
Example
A learner asked to speak in front of the group may make slips because she is nervous.

In the classroom
Creating a positive learning environment in the classroom can be done in many ways,
including establishing a good rapport with and between learners, developing a real sense of
autonomy and group decision-making, giving feedback on mistakes sensitively.

Socio-cultural context refers to the idea that language, rather than existing in isolation, is
closely linked to the culture and society in which it is used. This means when language is
learnt, the socio-cultural context in which it is used needs to be taken into consideration as
well.

Example
Learners are looking at the language of advertisements. In order to do this effectively, they
need to understand the culture in which the adverts function.

In the classroom
Activities that can raise awareness of socio-cultural context include using stories, analysing
newspaper headlines, and looking at slang and idiomatic language.

Sociocultural awareness means awareness of the societies and cultures of the target
language, and therefore of the contexts the language is used in. Teachers themselves
transmit information subconsciously about culture and society through their behaviour and
interaction with learners.

Example
Learners read about taboo subjects in British society.

In the classroom
Consideration of sociocultural aspects of language is increasingly important in the context of
ELT, which in the past has tended to be UK, or US centred. Project work, tasks outside the
class in the target society, webquests and inviting outside speakers into the class allow
learners to explore the contexts the target language functions in, and how these contexts
affect linguistic choices.

Stative verbs are verbs that describe a state. They can be compared with action or
dynamic verbs, which describe an action.

Example
'Know' and ‘like' are examples of stative verbs.

In the classroom
The inductive approach is a good way to present stative and dynamic verbs to learners,
especially if they have the opportunity to analyse authentic language. Literature, especially
poetry, can be a rich source of examples.

Stress is emphasis given to certain syllables in words. In English, stress is produced with a
longer, louder and higher pitched sound than unstressed sounds.

Example
The word 'banana' has stress on the second syllable, the word 'photographic' on the third.
In the classroom
Unlike many languages, stress in English is unpredictable, and learners generally need to
memorise individual words. Areas for teachers to focus on include word families, which show
different stress patterns, e.g. 'photo', 'photographer', and 'photographic', and some words
that have different stress in different forms, e.g. 'produce' and 'desert', verb and noun.

The stress pattern of a word is the way all the syllables are stressed in it. There can be
main and secondary stress, or unstressed sounds.

Example
The following are some stress patterns showing main stress and unstressed syllables:
0o e.g. key/board o0 e.g. con/duct (as a verb) o0o e.g. com/pu/ter 0oo
e.g. mi/cro/phone oo0o e.g. ed/u/ca/tion

In the classroom
There are different ways to show the stress pattern of a word. Large and small circles can
be used, as in the examples above. Colours, a line above the main stress, an apostrophe
before the main stressed syllable or underlining are alternatives.

A stress-timed language is a language where the stressed syllables are said at

approximately regular intervals, and unstressed syllables shorten to fit this rhythm. Stress-
timed languages can be compared with syllable-timed ones, where each syllable takes
roughly the same amount of time.

Example
English and German are examples of stress-timed languages, while Spanish and Cantonese
are syllable-timed.

In the classroom
Learners whose first language is syllable-timed often have problems producing the
unstressed sounds in a stress-timed language like English, tending to give them
equal stress.

The language skills of speaking, listening, writing and reading are often divided into
sub-skills, which are specific behaviours that language users do in order to be effective in
each of the skills.

Example
Learners developing the skill of listening need to have the sub-skill of being able to
recognise contracted forms in connected speech.

In the classroom
Learners spend time developing a wide range of sub-skills as they build each of the four
skills. Amongst the sub-skills focussed on are scanning and skimming in reading,
organisational and editing skills in writing, recognition of connected speech and
understanding gist in listening, and pronunciation and intonation in speaking.

A subjective test is evaluated by giving an opinion. It can be compared with an objective

test, which has right or wrong answers and so can be marked objectively. Subjective tests
are more challenging and expensive to prepare, administer and evaluate correctly, but they
can be more valid.
Example
Tests of writing ability are often subjective because they require an examiner to give an
opinion on the level of the writing.

In the classroom
Learners preparing for a subjective writing test, for example a letter of complaint, need to
think about their target audience, since they are being asked to produce a whole text.
Teachers can help them by emphasizing the importance of analysing the question and
identifying the key points of content, register, and format.

A subordinate - or dependent - clause is a clause which adds more information to a

sentence but is incomplete and not a sentence on its own. It functions like a noun, adverb
or adjective.

Example
I just cannot understand why you did that.

In the classroom
Matching parts of a sentence and, in freer practice, sentence completion are two ways to
help learners understand how subordinate clauses work.

A substitution drill is a classroom technique used to practise new language. It involves

the teacher first modelling a word or a sentence and the learners repeating it. The teacher
then substitutes one or more key words, or changes the prompt, and the learners say the
new structure.

Example
The following sequence is an example of a substitution drill:
Teacher: I have a new car Learners: Have you? Teacher: I don't like fish Learners: Don't
you? Teacher: I love coffee Learners: Do you?

In the classroom
Despite a move away from drilling as a classroom technique, many teachers still use it to
provide practice. One way to move a drill away from being teacher-centred is to ask a
learner to lead the activity.

Summative assessment evaluates a learner's progress up to that point and provides a

summary of where they are. It can be compared to formative assessment, which gives the
teacher and learner helpful information for future work.

Example
At the end of the course, the teacher gives a test to see if the learners know and can use
what they have learnt.

In the classroom
One way to make summative assessment more meaningful and helpful to the learner is to
think about how work done previously contributed to the results. Teachers can ask learners
questions such as ‘What did we do in class that helped/didn't help you in this test?' and
‘How did your own way of working help/not help?'

A syllable-timed language is a language whose syllables take approximately equal

amounts of time to pronounce. It can be compared with a stress-timed language, where
there is approximately the same amount of time between stressed syllables. Learners
whose first language can be described as syllable-timed often have problems recognising
and then producing features of English such as contractions, main and secondary stress,
and elision.

Example
French is described as a syllable-timed language, English as a stress-timed one.

In the classroom
Activities which can help learners with recognition of these features of English include
counting the number of words in a spoken sentence, sorting long words according to stress
patterns, and dictation.

A syllabus is a document that describes what the contents of a language course will be and
the order in which they will be taught. The content of a syllabus normally reflects certain
beliefs about language and language learning.

Example
A syllabus might be designed around the order in which grammatical items are introduced.
Starting with 'present simple' then 'past simple', then 'present perfect' etc.

In the classroom
There are many different types of syllabus (although often in language classrooms the
syllabus from the course book is the only document). Syllabus types include
grammatical, lexical and functional, which focus on the building blocks of language, and
task-based and learner-centred, which focus on processes of communication and learning.

Synchronous learning occurs when the learner and the teacher are in the same place at
the same time. It can be compared with asynchronous learning, where learner and teacher
may not be in the same place at the same time. Both terms are often used when talking
about online learning.

Example
In online learning, videoconferencing, chat and VOIP are synchronous learning tools
because the learner and teacher interact in real time.

In the classroom
Synchronous learning tools are often expensive, difficult to set up and limited by
technological constraints. It is a good idea to have an alternative lesson planned or to
incorporate synchronous learning as a stage rather than as an entire lesson, for example
using chat as a pre-lesson activity or videoconferencing as the final event in a project.

Synonyms are words that mean the same or almost the same. Although many words in
English mean similar things, few are true synonyms. Aspects that make words different
include register, connotation and collocation.

Example
Synonyms of ‘thin' include ‘slim', ‘slender' and ‘skinny'.

In the classroom
Practice of synonyms includes activities such as ‘odd one out', gap-fill exercises, mapping
words on spider-grams, and transforming texts from formal to informal register.
Syntax is the study of the rules that control how language is structured first into clauses
and then sentences. It can be compared with semantics, which is the study of how meaning
is created by words.

Example
Variations in syntax in different forms of English are unusual, but do exist. Indian English,
for example, has some different syntactic rules to other Englishes.

In the classroom
Clause structure is an area of syntax which many teachers spend a lot of time looking at
with learners, especially when practising writing skills.

systems

Language is made up of systems and skills. The four systems of language are grammar,
vocabulary, phonology and discourse.

Example
The UCLES English proficiency exams explicitly test the four skills and also two systems,
grammar and vocabulary.

In the classroom
Although most modern methodologies and approaches focus on communication and make
little reference to systems, many course books still have a structure based on the systems
and skills mentioned above. Discourse itself is normally not identified separately, but
included in skills areas.

TPR means Total Physical Response. It is an approach to teaching language based on the
idea that if you have to do something physical in response to language, then learning is
more meaningful, and you learn faster.

Example
The learners are looking at action verbs. The teacher says 'Jump!' and they jump; the
teacher says 'March!' and they march, etc.

In the classroom
Many teachers integrate TPR with other approaches and techniques rather than using it
alone. It is useful, for example, for teaching body vocabulary, prepositions, and language
for directions, and may be particularly suitable for low level learners, learning more concrete
language.

taboo language

In language learning, taboo language or subjects are areas that are regarded as prohibited
by the culture of the learners or the teacher, therefore inappropriate for the classroom.

Example
Some learners in the Middle East regard the subject of same sex relationships as a taboo
subject.

In the classroom
Taboo subjects, if carefully handled, can be a useful way to stimulate a response from
learners, e.g. in a discussion lesson. It may be important to discuss taboos if learners are
studying in a country where they need to understand the target culture.

Tag questions are short questions which speakers use at the end of a statement. If
the intonation of the tag is falling, then the speaker is asking for confirmation of the
statement. If it is rising, then the speaker is unsure and is in fact asking a question. There
are rules to the formation of tag questions.

Example
'Your name is Paul, isn't it?' is formed by using the verb 'to be' and changing the positive
statement to a negative question.

In the classroom
Many learners have problems with the intonation of some tag questions so need practice in
this area.

The target language is the language learners are studying, and also the individual items
of language that they want to learn, or the teacher wants them to learn.

Example
In a PPP lesson, the teacher first presents the target language, learners practise it, and
then there is a production stage where the target language is used in a freer activity.

In the classroom
Lesson aims may be based around target language, e.g. 'Learners will be able to understand
the difference between 'I didn't need to..' and 'I needn't have..'.

A task-based syllabus is based on task-based learning, an approach where learners carry

out tasks such as solving a problem or planning an activity. The language learnt comes out
of the linguistic demands of the activity. A task-based syllabus is structured around a series
of these tasks.

Example
A teacher uses a series of projects on British culture as a syllabus for teenage learners on a
summer course in the UK, and applies the task-based approach to the work the learners do.

In the classroom
Various elements of the task-based approach are applicable to activities in other
methodologies. For example, learners can see a model of the activity they are to do first,
prepare a report of how they completed a task, or a project, and the teacher can record this
report and analyse it for further work.

TBl

Task-based learning is an approach to language learning where learners are given

interactive tasks to complete. In order to do this, they need to communicate. Once the task
is complete, then the teacher discusses the language used.

Example
The learners plan an itinerary for a guest who is coming to stay with their teacher. They
research places to visit and timetables. They prepare a written schedule and a short guide.
Once the task is completed, they discuss some of the language that has been important
with the teacher.
In the classroom
Tasks can provide an organizational structure for a teacher who believes in
the Communicative Approach. Tasks provide meaningful communication and an
opportunity to acquire language through real language use. Task-based learning may
become more appropriate at higher levels.

A teacher-centred approach is one where activity in the class is centred on the teacher.
It can be compared to a learner-centred approach.

Example
A typical Presentation - Practice - Production (PPP) lesson tends to be teacher-centred,
as the teacher leads the activity and provides necessary information, usually in an open-
class arrangement.

In the classroom
Teacher-centred lessons are generally associated with traditional approaches to language
learning, but teacher-centred activity can be useful in a variety of ways in teaching. The
teacher is an effective model of the target language and an important source of
information on how the learners are doing.

A teacher diary is a diary where a teacher records what happens in their classes and their
thoughts about it. Teacher diaries are used as development tools.

Example
After a class that went badly, the teacher makes notes in her diary about what happened,
what she thought the causes were, ideas about how to change them and a short action
plan.

In the classroom
Teacher diaries are a good way to start a course of development; a natural second step
would be peer observation, i.e. getting another teacher to analyse the class in the same
way.

Teacher role refers to the different functions a teacher can have in a class. The role usually
implies the relationship between the teacher and learner, particularly in terms of the
autonomy the learner has over their learning.

Example
Facilitator, assessor, manager and evaluator are all teacher roles.

In the classroom
Teacher roles can be discussed with learners as part of learner training, along with other
aspects of classes. Learners can think about what roles they prefer for their teacher, how
this preference fits in with other aspects of their learning style, and why the teacher
chooses each role.

Teacher Talking Time

The development of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) brought with it a

methodology which emphasised communication in the classroom, pair and group activities
and student involvement in the learning process.
 A consequence of this was the belief that the teacher’s presence in the classroom should be
reduced.

• Why reduce TTT?

• Strategies for reducing TTT

• Positive uses of TTT

• Conclusion

Why reduce TTT?

Many training courses based on CLT insisted that teacher talking time (TTT) was
counterproductive and that teachers should reduce TTT for a number of reasons:

• Excessive TTT limits the amount of STT (student talking time). If the teacher talks for half
the time in a 60 minute lesson with 15 students, each student gets only 2 minutes to speak.

• A large amount of TTT results in long stretches of time in teacher-to-class (T/class) mode
and a monotonous pace. Student under-involvement inevitably leads to loss of
concentration, boredom and reduced learning.

• TTT often means that the teacher is giving the students information that they could be
finding out for themselves, such as grammar rules, the meanings of vocabulary items and
corrections. Teacher explanations alone are often tedious, full of terminology and difficult to
follow. There may be no indication of whether the students have understood.

• If the teacher takes the dominant role in classroom discourse in terms of initiating the topic,
allocating turns and evaluating comments, the student’s role is only that of respondent.
Opportunities for developing the speaking skill are therefore severely limited.

• If the teacher is constantly dominant and controlling, the learners take no responsibility for
their own learning but learn what the teacher decides and when. Student autonomy is thus
limited.

Strategies for reducing TTT

The over-use of TTT is often the product of the under-use of communicative techniques in
the classroom. Many activities do not need to be teacher led – pair work (PW) or group
work (GW) can be used instead. An activity might be set up in T/class mode, demonstrated
in open pairs (students doing the activity across the class), and done in closed pairs (all the
students working at the same time). Some mechanical activities need to be done
individually (IW) but can be checked in pairs. What is most important is that activities and
 interaction patterns (T/class, PW, GW, IW) need to be varied. The amount of time spent in
T/class mode will depend on factors such as the students and how much they know, the
stage of the lesson, the time of day and what is being taught, but a useful guideline is a
limit of 30% of a lesson, and no more than 10 minutes at one time.

Other common strategies for reducing TTT include:

• Using elicitation rather than explanation. If students are presented with clear examples and
guiding questions, they often do not need to be “told”. This kind of guided discovery leads
to better understanding and more successful learning. Organising activities as pair work also
means that all the students have the chance to work on the new language.

• The use of body language, mime, gestures and facial expressions rather than words. The
position of the teacher in the classroom can also indicate to the students what is expected
of them at a particular stage of the lesson.

• Getting students to give feedback on tasks to each other rather than to the teacher. This is
often done in pairs, but answers can also be checked against a key. Student nomination,
whereby one student nominates another to answer a question, is also a useful technique.
Feedback involving the teacher is therefore limited to problematic questions rather than
every question in an exercise.

• Eliminating unnecessary TTT. Grading language is important, but over-simplification can

lead to unnatural models from the teacher. Instructions should be kept simple, while
explanations need to be carefully worded and repeated if necessary rather than
paraphrased. Simple concept questions should be asked to check understanding. If
explanations are clear and concept checking is effective, there should be no need for re-
explanation or interrupting an activity to reteach or re-instruct.

• Tolerating silence. Inexperienced teachers in particular tend to fill silences by unnecessary

talking. Silence is important not only when students are working individually, but also
provides ‘processing time’ between instructions, during explanations, while waiting for a
student to respond, and during monitoring of activities. Prompting, providing clues and
rephrasing the question are often counterproductive when the student merely needs time to
answer.

Positive uses of TTT

In recent years, approaches other than CLT have suggested that TTT may not always be
counterproductive and can be used to good effect. The teacher provides good listening
practice which is not inhibited by the sound quality of a tape or CD player and which is
accompanied by visual clues to aid comprehension. In a monolingual teaching context
overseas, the teacher may provide a valuable source of authentic listening, exposing
 learners to a limited amount of new language, and ‘roughly tuning’ input to assist
comprehension. In some circumstances, the teacher may be the only source of models of
good, natural language. Some forms of TTT are clearly beneficial:

• Personalised presentations. Language should be presented in context, and this can be

provided by the teacher rather than through a reading or listening. Listening to the teacher
talking about real issues is more motivating than listening to or reading about complete
strangers talking about people, places or events which, for the students, have no personal
interest. Students are also more likely to pick up knowledge which is content rather than
language based by listening to the teacher introducing a topic.

• Questioning. Every teacher question asked during a lesson demands a student response.
Questions need not be language related, and are often the basis of ‘brainstorming’ a topic
with the class. Frequent questioning holds students’ attention and increases learner
involvement in the class.

• Natural conversation. Conversations taking place during pair and group work are often
loaded towards certain language items or based on an imposed theme. Natural conversation
initiated by the teacher encourages questioning, asking for clarification, commenting and
changing the subject as well as introducing functional and everyday language which is often
overlooked in course materials. Chats outside the classroom are also valuable and often
more memorable to students than lessons. In these circumstances, teachers should
remember to continue to use graded but natural language rather than to use simplified
language to ensure understanding.

• Anecdotes. These can be the basis of a presentation, but can also be used at the start of a
lesson, rather than using a ‘warmer’ activity, as a natural way of engaging the students.
Anecdotes and jokes may also be used to stimulate interest during a lesson. Anecdotes do
not need to be monologues, and students can be encouraged to interrupt and ask questions.

• Storytelling. This can be the basis of a lesson or an ongoing theme throughout a course and
is as appropriate to adult classes as it is to young learners. There is a whole methodology
surrounding storytelling, which is often a stimulating alternative to the use of a graded
reader in the classroom.

Conclusion
There are advantages and disadvantages to TTT. It is not easy to reduce TTT when talking
to the students is a natural thing to do and when there is inevitably a theatrical side to
language teaching. In certain cultures, there is also a tradition of ‘chalk and talk’ which
influences the expectations and behaviour of both teachers and students. However, bearing
in mind the nature of the communicative classroom, teachers should perhaps be aware of
the quality of their TTT and how it is used rather than trying to reduce it to a bare
minimum.

Further reading
Dellar, H. Rethinking Teacher Talking Time, TESOL Spain Newsletter, 2004.
http://www.tesol-spain.org/newsletter/hughdellar.html Lynch, T. Communication in the
Language Classroom OUP, 1996
Scrivener, J. Learning Teaching (2nd Edition), Macmillan, 2005
Zaro, J. & Salaberri, S. Storytelling, Macmillan, 1995

Written by Steve Darn, Izmir University of Economics, Turkey

Team teaching is when two or more teachers plan to teach a class together for some
reason, for a lesson, or more than a lesson.

Example
A new teacher is having difficulty with a group, and a more experienced teacher works
together on a plan for a class, and teach the class together, allowing the new teacher to
gain confidence planning for the group, and to see the group with another teacher.

In the classroom
As well as the benefits for the teachers, team teaching gives learners an opportunity to be
exposed to different types of language, this including accents, registers and idiomatic
language. It is also an opportunity for them to try various ways of learning, as all teachers
use different tools in the classroom.

A tense of a verb is a past or present form.

Example
Tenses of the verb 'go' include past simple 'I went on Saturday', past perfect 'We had
already gone when he got there', present perfect 'The cat's gone' and present continuous
'We're going to the party tonight'.

In the classroom
Teachers have to establish with learners that tense does not mean time. For example, in
English the present tense is used for the future time, e.g. 'We're leaving next week' and the
past is used for present conditionals, e.g. 'If I had the time, I'd help you'.

Test, teach, test (TTT) is an approach to teaching where learners first complete a task or
activity without help from the teacher. Then, based on the problems seen, the teacher plans
and presents the target language. Then the learners do another task to practise the new
language.

Example
The learners, who have not studied phrasal verbs, are given a text and asked to find
examples. They are able to do this but not to deduce meaning. The teacher plans a lesson
to help learners develop this, and then asks them to do a similar activity.

In the classroom
TTT is a useful approach as it enables teachers to identify the specific needs of learners
concerning a language area and address this need suitably. It can be particularly useful at
intermediate levels and above, where learners may have seen language before, but have
specific problems with it, and also in mixed level classes to help identify objectives for each
individual.

Thinking frames

Mario Rinvolucri uses the term ‘thinking frames' to describe useful ways of thinking about
what he does in the classroom. He compares these to filters or lenses through which we can
see situations differently. Rinvolucri suggests that we can find different ways of learning and
teaching through applying different thinking frames.

Example
Rinvolucri gives the example of the NLP maxim ‘The map is not the territory' as a thinking
frame which he has found useful.

In the classroom
Teachers can encourage learners to find different ways of learning (different ‘thinking
frames' ) through analysing how they learn now and then giving them the opportunity to try
different ways. For example, learners can try different methodologies, activities and tools
that they normally would not exploit in the class.

Time lines are diagrams used to represent the relationship between a verb tense and time,
by showing what time - past, present or future - that tense covers.

Example :
Yesterday, I met Bob.

In the classroom
Time lines are one of many ways to talk about how verb tenses work. They are a visual
representation, so they are useful for some learners with learning styles that respond to
visual information. However, they can be confusing for others.

Tone refers to the pitch changes made to affect the meaning of words and phrases. Pitch is
a voice quality produced by vibrations of the vocal folds.

Example
Many learners have a first language that is tonal, i.e. the same word said in a high pitch
may mean something different from when it is said in a low pitch. Examples of tonal
languages are Mandarin Chinese, Swedish and Scottish Gaelic. English is not a tonal
language i.e. pitch changes in words do not change meanings. Patterns of pitch changes
(intonation patterns) are used in English to indicate attitude.

In the classroom
Helping students to use intonation effectively to convey attitude in English will involve
helping students to make the five tones (falls or rises in pitch): fall, rise, slight rise, fall
followed by a rise, rise followed by a fall, through awareness raising and modelling of the
common intonation patterns in context.

Top-down processing of language happens when someone uses background information

to predict the meaning of language they are going to listen to or read. Rather than relying
first on the actual words or sounds (bottom up), they develop expectations about what
they will hear or read, and confirm or reject these as they listen or read. Top-down
processing is thought to be an effective way of processing language; it makes the most of
what the person brings to the situation.

Example
Asking learners to predict what a newspaper article might be about from the headline or
first sentence will encourage them to use top-down processing on the article.

In the classroom
Learners can be encouraged to use both bottom-up and top-down strategies to help them
understand a text. For example in a reading comprehension learners use their knowledge of
the genre to predict what will be in the text (top down), and their understanding
of affixation to guess meaning (bottom up).

The topic sentence is a sentence in a paragraph which shows what the paragraph is about
and works as a summary of it. It is often the first sentence of the paragraph.

Example
In this paragraph the topic sentence is the first: Motivation is one of the key factors that
determine the rate and success of L2 attainment. It provides the main incentive to initiate
learning a foreign language and later the determination to persevere and sustain the long
and often difficult learning process. Without sufficient motivation, even individuals with the
best of abilities cannot accomplish long-term goals. Teachers working in state schools are
first and foremost supposed to teach the curriculum, but we cannot ignore the fact that this
cannot happen without motivating our learners. In addition, adolescent learners come with
their own emotional and psychological baggage and interests making the task of motivating
them one of the greatest challenges for teachers.

In the classroom
Teaching learners how to identify topic sentences is a good idea, especially for exams.
Learners can be encouraged to highlight the topic sentence in each paragraph as they read.
An effective extension activity is to then use these as the basis for summary writing.

Transactional language is language which is used to make a transaction and which has a
result. It can be compared with interactional language, which is used to maintain
relationships.

Example
Learners in exams are often required to write a transactional letter, which has a clear
objective, e.g. asking for a refund or for information, or making a complaint.

In the classroom
Transactional language is often taught more than interactional language, as it involves
shorter turns, simpler and more predictable language, and can have a measurable result.

A transformation exercise is an exercise where learners are given one sentence and need
to complete a second sentence so that it means the same. The second sentence usually has
a prompt.

Example
The following is an example of a transformation question:

Call me immediately he arrives Call me __________ he arrives (soon)

Answer: Call me as soon as he arrives

In the classroom
Transformation exercises involve learners in consciously manipulating language patterns,
and can raise their awareness of structure. They are a common test item, where they are
used to test discrete items of language, usually structural.

Transitive verbs have an object. They can be contrasted with intransitive verbs, which
do not need an object.

For example:
'I like chocolate', 'What are you looking for?' and 'She's always wanted a little girl' are
examples of transitive verbs.

In the classroom
One area to be careful of when teaching transitive and intransitive is verbs that can be
both. For example:
'We leave on Friday' is intransitive 'Don't forget to leave your keys' is transitive. Some
teachers avoid labelling verbs as transitive or intransitive, preferring to focus on meaning.
This then indicates whether the verb takes an object or not.

Turn-taking

A turn is the time when a speaker is talking and turn-taking is the skill of knowing when to
start and finish a turn in a conversation. It is an important organisational tool in
spoken discourse.

Example
One way that speakers signal a finished turn is to drop the pitch or volume of their voice at
the end of an utterance.

In the classroom
There are many ways that speakers manage turn-taking and they vary in different cultures.
Areas that can be considered in language teaching include pronunciation, e.g. intonation,
grammatical structures, utterances such as 'ah', 'mm' and 'you know', body language and
gestures.

Unvoiced consonants are consonant sounds that are made without vibrating the vocal
chords. They can be compared with voiced consonants.

Example
Unvoiced consonants include:
/p/ as in 'pet' /t/ as in 'top' /k/ as in 'cat'

In the classroom
One way to show learners the difference between voiced and unvoiced consonants is asking
them to say contrasting sounds in minimal pair words, for example 'sip' and 'zip'.

A test's validity refers to how good it is. Validity can be compared with reliability, which
refers to how consistent the results would be if the test were given under the same
conditions to the same learners.
Example
Face validity refers to how good people think the test is, content validity to how good it
actually is in testing what it says it will test.

In the classroom
For a teacher who has to design or choose a formal achievement test for their learners,
asking the question ‘Does the test actually test what it aims to test?' offers an important
point of reflection. To answer this question positively demands that the test covers the
skills, grammar and lexis covered in the course. To offer the learners a test that does not do
this gives an inaccurate picture of students' learning, and is unfair.

Visual aids can be defined in two ways: as a picture or a diagram you show learners to
help their understanding, or in a broader sense as anything you show learners in a
classroom to do this.

Example
The class is learning vocabulary to name parts of the face and the teacher uses photographs
of people as a visual aid.

In the classroom
Teachers can use pictures, video, symbols, gestures and facial expressions as visual aids.

VAK, or Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic, refers to one model of learning styles. The
VAK model is comprised of three different learning styles, or preferred ways of learning. In
some accounts, another style, tactile, is included.

Example
Dunn and Dunn's model of learning styles, which is frequently used in the American school
system, is a VAK model.

In the classroom
Learners can be encouraged to think about their learning style and how it affects their work
by trying a quiz to identify their preferences. If they understand how they prefer to think
then they can learn how to optimise their work in the classroom, and also try alternative
ways.

Visual/spatial intelligence is one of the many types of intelligence described in multiple

intelligence theory. People with strong visual/spatial intelligence often have a strong visual
memory and are artistic.

Example
A student with strong visual/spatial intelligence may respond well to organizing vocabulary
using a mind-map or spidergram.

In the classroom
Teachers interested in developing visual/spatial intelligence try to use colours, pictures,
diagrams and realia in their classes.

A vocabulary bank is a collection of new words and phrases that the learner or class builds
up as they learn.
Example
Some learners carry a collection of small cards with them. Each card has a word on it, with
a definition or translation, and an example.

In the classroom
Vocabulary banks can be kept by individual learners, incorporated into language portfolios,
kept as a class resource in the form of wall charts, recorded in a permanent area on the
whiteboard during a series of classes, or stored on a class blog.

Voiced consonants are consonant sounds that are made by vibrating the vocal chords.
They can be compared with unvoiced consonants.

Example
Voiced consonants include:
/b/ as in 'bed' /d/ as in 'dip' /g/ as in 'good' /ð/ as in 'the'

In the classroom
Voicing is a useful way to show learners the difference between the sounds in some minimal
pairs, for example 'bet' and 'pet'. Teachers ask learners to say 'p' and then 'b' with a hand
on their throat to feel the difference in vibration.

A warmer is an activity at the start of the class to warm up the learners. They tend to be
short, dynamic activities. Warmers can be compared to coolers, which are short activities to
finish the class.

Example
The learners are going to read a text about computers in the lesson. The teacher asks them
to change their seating and sit down in an order based on how much they use a computer.
This requires them to move around and talk to each other.

In the classroom
Warmers and coolers are not isolated activities but can serve to introduce a topic or
to recycle some previously learnt language in an enjoyable way.

Weak forms are syllable sounds that become unstressed in connected speech and are
often then pronounced as a schwa.

Example
In the sentence below the first 'do' is a weak form and the second is stressed.

What do you want to do this evening?

In the classroom
Structural words, such as prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles are often
pronounced in their weak form, since they do not carry the main content, and are therefore
not normally stressed. Learners can find them difficult to hear and this interferes with
understanding. Counting the number of words in a sentence, or sentence dictations can help
raise awareness of weak forms.

Web 2.0 has been described as many things by many people. For some, and
educationalists are usually among them, web 2.0 is defined by the intense social
interactivity now so common in online environments and by the ever expanding network of
sites that focus on collaboration, participation and connection between users. It is this idea
of the web as a new source of social interaction that is at the root of most enthusiastic
teachers' ideas about the importance of web 2.0 for education. Blogs, wikis, podcasting and
multimedia sharing platforms are the services most often pointed to as being typical of web
2.0 and all are being used, adapted and incorporated into ELT to foster social and linguistic
interaction both inside and outside of the classroom.

A webquest is an activity that requires learners to use the Internet in order to complete a
task. Webquests can extend over an entire course, several classes or be integrated into a
single lesson.

Example
The learners are discussing the topic of UFOs. They use a webpage of eyewitness accounts
to answer true or false statements. They then choose one account to explain to other
learners. They finish by writing their own article about UFOs.

In the classroom
Webquests are a useful tool but some teachers are cautious of technology-based resources.
Because of this, webquest lessons are often planned with non-technological, emergency
activities included.

Wh- questions ask for information and start with question words beginning wh-, although
how is also included in this group. Wh- questions can be compared with ‘yes/no' questions,
which ask for confirmation.

Example
Questions starting which, what, who, whom, whose, when, where and why.

In the classroom
Question structure is complex in English. It might be useful to start by focusing on subject
questions, such as ‘Who discovered penicillin?' before structures such as ‘When was it
discovered?' This allows learners to practise wh- questions in authentic communication.

Word classes are categories of word. The categories are defined by what the word does.
Some word classes are open, which means that new words can be added to them, and
others are closed, which means no new words can be added. Nouns and verbs are open
word classes and prepositions and determiners are closed.

Example
Nouns, verbs and prepositions are word classes.

In the classroom
Adding new words to open word classes is enjoyable and motivating for learners. This can
be done as mini-presentations, with learners taking turns to present a word they have
found, or as a class project, or in the form of regular quizzes.

Word formation refers to the creation of new words.

Example
Blending (smog), loan words from other languages (parasol), and acronyms (scuba) are all
examples of ways new words are formed.
In the classroom
As a way of raising awareness of the processes involved in the creation of new words in
English, learners can be encouraged to create new words of their own using blending,
changing the way words are used, e.g. making nouns into new verbs, or borrowing words
from their own languages.

Word stress indicates which syllables are stressed - or emphasised - in a word.

Example
‘Photograph' has word stress Ooo (stress on the first syllable), ‘photographer' has word
stress oOoo (stress on the second syllable).

In the classroom
There are many ways to indicate word stress visually, including the method above, putting a
line above main stress and below secondary stress, and using a board marker to partially
rub out unstressed syllables.