1: Structural Requirements for Buildings

Structures & Fabric, Mitchell’s, part 1, chapter 3

1.1 Introduction

There is a children’s rhyme that says ‘London Bridge is failing down’ and the answer
to this historic structural problem is to ‘build it up with wood and clay’. Unfortunately
the rhyme soon rejects this answer by saying ‘wood and clay will wash away’. The
rhyme then suggests that the contractors for the rebuilding of London Bridge should
try Iron and Steel, but then rejects this solution by pointing out that ‘Iron and steel will
bend and bow’. The final answer was to ‘build it up with stone so strong’. Although
this is only a child’s rhyme it does illustrate the eternal problem facing designers and
constructors of any building - that of ensuring that the completed structure will stand-
up.

In this chapter we shall be examining the basic principles that must be followed to
ensure that structures remain sound throughout their construction and also
throughout their intended life period. Today’s structural engineering students require
3 or 4 years of study to gain a working understanding of structures. We however
have only a few hours, and to gain a similar knowledge would be impossible.
However by concentrating only on the basic principles of structures, by undertaking
no design work and doing no calculations, we shall attempt, like the builders of our
Norman and Gothic cathedrals, to develop an intuitive understanding of structures.

The aim of the chapter is to highlight the main structural concepts that are commonly
found in building, so that as practising services engineers you will appreciate the
structural engineers' designs and avoid unacceptable mismatches between structure
and services.

1.2 The theory of structures

In this short section we shall discuss some of the basic terminologies and principles
that are used by today’s structural engineers. In no way can this be considered a
thorough examination of the principles involved and those requiring a deeper
knowledge should read one of the recommended texts.

1.3 Strength and stability

A building structure can be defined as a body or fabrication that is at rest or is static,

as opposed to a machine that will have moving parts. To remain static the building
must be capable of withstanding all loads applied to it. A load can be defined as any
force acting on the structure. If a structure is to stand up to all forces applied, it must
have the following basic structural properties:

a) The materials used in its construction must have adequate strength to carry
all applied loads.
b) the forces applied must be balanced i.e. the structure must have stability.

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1.4 Strength

Strength is the ability of the materials, of which the building is constructed, to

withstand all the loads or forces that are applied to it. There are two categories of
load - live and dead.

Dead load is the self weight of the structure itself, i.e. the weight of the components
used to build the structure. This will include walls, floors, beams, columns, roofs, etc.
It will also include the weight of the services. For pipes, wiring, lighting, etc. these
loads are negligible. Normally the weight of ventilation ducts can also be ignored.
However the weight of storage tanks, boilers, air conditioning plant, etc. is usually
sufficiently high to be included in structural design calculations.

Live load is the load applied to the structure in use, i.e. people, machines, furniture,
etc. Live loads are not always static and thus the live load a structure has to
withstand can change. Indeed the live loads applied to a building need not be internal
loads but can be applied externally as in the case of wind loading. Wind loading
poses an interesting problem for the structural engineer in that it need not be always
positive but can be negative, i.e. suction. Often roofs are not so much blown off
buildings as sucked off, in which situation the structure fails because it cannot sustain
negative loading.

To ensure that a building has enough strength to sustain all loads applied to it, we
must examine the nature of those forces. When any material is subjected to a load it
will deform. When this deformation takes place internal forces in the material resist it.
These internal forces are known as stresses, all of which must be carried by the
structure and the materials from which it has been constructed. The three types of
stresses that the building will be subjected to are tensile, compressive and shear.

1.5 Tensile stress

When the stresses pull on the material, the stress is known as tensile stress. In figure
1.1 we see a simple example of tensile stress. A bar of uniform cross- sectional area
A is fixed or held at its upper end and carries an axial load W at its lower end. To
support this load an internal force F is required, which is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to W. The intensity of the tensile stress ft is FIA. However it is
more common to measure this tensile stress as W/A.

Tensile stress is of particular importance when considering beams. Figure 1.15

shows a beam supporting a load. This load is causing the beam to bend resulting in
tensile stress along the bottom of the beam.

The two main structural materials used in construction are steel and concrete. Steel
has good tensile properties thus elements with small cross sectional areas can carry
considerable tensile loads. However the same element when exposed to
compressive loads may buckle. Concrete on the other hand has very good
compressive properties but limited tensile properties. The structural limitations of
concrete are overcome by the insertion of steel reinforcing bars where tensile
stresses occur. Thus in figure 1.15, if the beam was being constructed in concrete,
steel reinforcement would be placed near the bottom edge of the beam.

In this situation it is crucial that the ability of the beam to counteract this tensile

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loading is not reduced. It is therefore important that services do not pass through this
section of the beam as this would reduce the tensile strength of the beam.

Figure 1.1 Tensile stress Figure 1.2 Compressive stress

1.6 Compressive stress

When the forces squeeze the material it is known as compressive stress. In figure
1.2 a column subjected to an axial load W applied to the top of the column with its
foot resting on a firm base. To support this load an internal force F is required. The
intensity of this compressive stress fc is WIA.

In both these examples the weight of the bar or column was ignored. In practice
unless this load or weight W is large, this omission will cause an insignificant error.
However as structures become more complex the self weight of the material may be
included in the calculation.

With reference to figure 1.15, problems can also occur if services are taken through
the upper section of a beam. Here the compressive strength of the beam will be
diminished and this could cause structural failure.

1.7 Shear stress

A third and more complex stress that structural material have to withstand is shear
stress. In figure 1.3 two examples of shear are shown.

A simple cantilevered beam is supporting a load W. The beam, if insufficiently

designed, could shear at the wall support.

In the second example the bolt must be capable of withstanding the equal and
opposite tensile forces.

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Figure 1.3 Shear stress

1.8 Strain

The total change in length of a structural member under a given tensile or

compressive stress will vary according to the length of the member, the load applied
and stiffness of the material.

The relationship between stress and strain is proportional within certain loading
limits. Thus STRESS/STRAIN = E. E is known as Young’s Modulus or Modulus of
Elasticity, and is a measure of the stiffness of a material.

1.9 Stability

To establish a sound structure it is not only essential that the materials used have
adequate strength, but that the complete structure is stable. Stability is the ability of
the structure to resist overall movement such as overturning or buckling.

1.10 Moments

In certain circumstances a force can cause a structure to turn or rotate. In mechanics

the word moment is used to describe this turning effect and as can be seen from
figures 1.4 and 1.5 a small applied force can overturn a large load due to what is
known as leverage. It can thus clearly be seen that if such an overturning force is
applied to a structure and it is unable to withstand it then the structure will be
unstable and collapse will result. These overturning moments can either be clockwise
(+) or anti-clockwise (-). To gain stability the clockwise moments must equal the anti-
clockwise moments. If not the rotation will occur.

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Figure 1.4 Moment = force x perpendicular distance force

Figure 1.5 Failure by sliding and overturning

1.11 Buckling

Another basic stability problem is that of buckling. Buckling is normally associated

with columns and walls. It is the product of the relationship between height and
thickness (figure 1.6). The ratio of height, h/t, is termed the slenderness ratio. The
greater this ratio the more slender is the wall or column and the greater the tendency
to buckle.

Figure 1.6 Buckling of column can be in any direction

1.12 The effect of forces on buildings

For a building to stand as an effective structure it must carry all applied loads without:

a) Moving (apart from that permitted in its design).

b) Deforming.

Generally speaking the resistance to movement is accommodated by good design of

the main structural elements while the material, from which those elements are
made, resists deformation.

1.13 Movement

Buildings are subjected to many different types of forces that will cause it to move. In
each case a small amount of movement is acceptable. Indeed it is often essential
that a building structure allows some movement to occur. Most medium and large
size structures require expansion to take place and in heavy winds if the building did

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not move slightly severe structural defects would result.

However to overcome non-acceptable levels of movement we must examine the

different types of forces being applied.

1.14 Vertical forces

The main source of downward vertical forces in buildings is the dead weight of the
building itself. This total weight of the building tends to force the building into the
ground on which it stands. It is for this reason that buildings have foundations (figures
1.7 and 1.8). The function of a foundation being to transmit the total weight of the
building to the ground in such a way that the ground is not overstressed. Different
types of soils have different capacities for taking loads. This is known as the bearing
capacity of the soil. The bearing capacity of the soil, normally expressed in kN/m2, is
usually less than the weight of the building, so the load needs to be spread over a
greater area to prevent the building sinking into the soil. Foundations will be
discussed in greater detail in the Unit 3.

Figure 1.7 Load from structure transmitted to the soil via a foundation

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Figure 1.8 The result of inadequate foundations
Above the foundations each element of the building structure must be designed to
sustain the vertical load placed on it. Columns and walls will be required to carry the
load of floors and roofs. Obviously the nearer to the roof, the smaller the loads the
structure has to carry.

Vertical loads need not always be downward. The action of the wind flowing over the
roof of a building can cause a vortex effect, which will result in negative pressure on
the roof, in other words an upward vertical force (figure 1.9). Occasionally in
waterlogged ground, vertical upward pressure is exerted on a building. In such
cases, if the building is lightweight, the building needs to be tied down in a similar
way to a tent.

Figure 1.9 Wind loading resulting in uplift

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Figure 1.10 Shape and weight of foundation counteracting force of soil

1.15 Horizontal forces

Vertical forces are normally easy to accommodate in a design. Horizontal forces

resulting from wind, water or soil pressure are however a little more complex.

As can be seen from figure 1.5 these forces can produce two types of failure in
buildings:

a) By sliding, the building is pushed sideways.

b) By overturning, the building tips over.
These two basic problems can be overcome by the shape of the foundation (figure
1.10) and by buttressing (figure 1.11).

In figure 1.10 a foundation for a retaining wall is shown. The toe stops the wall
slipping while the extended heel counterbalances the overturning forces.

Figure 1.11 Wall with buttresses or piers

In figure 1.11 we see a brick pier built into a wall. While piers like this are often used
to support beams they are also used to give large areas of wall strength to overcome
horizontal forces.

1.16 Oblique forces

Oblique forces have a similar effect as horizontal forces but are more often exerted
by one part of the building, usually the roof, on another part of the building, normally

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the walls or columns. If these inclined forces are not restrained the structural collapse
will result (figure 1.12 and 1.13).

Figure 1.12 Oblique forces causing structural collapse

Figure 1.13 Unstable and stable structures

Figure 1.14 The Gothic church structure

Perhaps one of the most elegant ways of overcoming oblique forces can be seen in
some of our famous Gothic churches (figure 1.14). Here the inclined forces produced
by the vaulted roof must find their way to the ground. The use of strong buttressing
and flying buttresses overcomes this problem. It is important that the resultant loads

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are transmitted within the middle third of the column otherwise the structure will be
unstable. This is known as the ‘middle third rule’.

1.17 Deformation

As already stated it is also essential that the materials used in construction do not
deform when loaded. Those same vertical, horizontal and oblique forces that could
cause a structure to move, can also cause its structural elements to deform. Time
does not permit us to look at each in detail but we should consider in particular the
deformation of a beam when exposed to a load. In figure 1.15 the load is applied to
the centre of a beam. This causes the beam to go into compression on its top edge
and tension along its bottom edge. Building materials such as concrete, steel, timber
and masonry having differing characteristics as regards tensile and compressive
strength. E.g. concrete is good in compression, but weaker in tension. It is therefore
essential that we know which part of a structural element is in compression and
which is in tension.

If the beam in figure 1.15 was constructed of concrete we would need to reinforce it
along its bottom axis with steel, because concrete is poor in tension. If however the
beam was a cantilever as in figure 1.16 the reinforcement would need to be at the
top, which is now the area in tension. This basic principle is critical when we need to
pierce such structural elements as beams. The best place to do so is along the
central or neutral axis where no forces are being exerted.

Figure 1.15 Load on centre of beam resulting in deflection

Figure 1.16 Tension and compression in cantilevered beam

1.18 Conclusions

It is generally the responsibility of the structural engineer to ensure the structural

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integrity of a building. It is important that all consultants have an understanding of the
relationship between all the forces the building needs to withstand. The installation of
services can have an influence on the structural design, not only on the additional
load applied but also on the potential to reduce the strength of the structure by
housing services components within structural elements.

 Walk round the building you are currently in. Attempt to work out what are the
main structural members. Sketch the structure of the building, showing what are the
structural roles of the walls, floors, columns and beams.

 If structural elements in a building must be cut to accommodate services, what

precautions must be taken to ensure the structural integrity of the building?

1.19 Additional reading

The following books are available on the info4education web site.

• Tony Hunt’s Structures Handbook: Tony Hunt: Architectural

Press/Butterworth (relatively easy to read)
• Structural Design for Architecture: Angus Macdonald: Architectural Press
(comprehensive and quite complex)

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