Lighting Fundamentals Handbook

Lighting Fundamentals and Principles for

Utility Personnel

Technical Report
Lighting Fundamentals Handbook
Lighting Fundamentals and Principles for Utility Personnel

TR-101710
Research Project 2285-26

Final Report, December 1992

Prepared by
ELEY ASSOCIATES
142 Minna Street
San Francisco, CA 94105

Principal Investigators
C. Eley
T. Tolen

Subcontractor
LUMINAE SOUTER LIGHTING DESIGN

Principle Investigator
J. R. Benya

Prepared for
Electric Power Research Institute
3412 Hillview Avenue
Palo Alto, California 94304

EPRI Project Manager

K. F. Johnson

Commercial Program
Customer Systems Division
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ELEY ASSOCIATES

INTEREST CATEGORIES
Lighting and appliances
Demand-side planning
Load/energy management and controls

KEYWORDS
Lighting
Lighting controls
Lamps
Luminaires
Energy efficiency
Demand-side management

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Abstract
Lighting accounts for approximately 30% of
overall electricity use and demand in
commercial buildings. This handbook for
utility personnel provides a source of basic
information on lighting principles, lighting
equipment, and other considerations related
to lighting design. The handbook is divided
into three parts. Part One, Physics of Light,
has chapters on light, vision, optics, and
photometry. Part Two, Lighting Equipment
and Technology, focuses on lamps,
luminaires, and lighting controls. Part Three,
Lighting Design Decisions, deals with the
manner in which lighting design decisions are
made and reviews relevant methods and
issues. These include the quantity and
quality of light needed for visual tasks,
calculation methods for verifying that lighting
needs are satisfied, lighting economics and
methods for evaluating investments in
efficient lighting systems, and miscellaneous
design issues including energy codes, power
quality, photobiology, and disposal of lighting
equipment. The handbook contains a
discussion of the role of the utility in
promoting the use of energy-efficient lighting.
The handbook also includes a lighting
glossary and a list of references for additional
information.
This convenient and comprehensive
handbook is designed to enable utility lighting
personnel to assist their customers in
developing high-quality, energy-efficient
lighting systems. The handbook is not
intended to be an up-to-date reference on
lighting products and equipment. Other EPRI
publications serve this function, including the
Advanced Lighting Technologies Applications
Guidelines (TR-101022), the Lighting Retrofit
Handbook, and lighting fact sheets and
brochures.
iii
Acknowledgments

James Robert Benya of Luminae Souter Lighting Design and Charles Eley of Eley Associates
are the principal authors of this handbook. Valuable comments and guidance were provided
by Karl Johnson of EPRI, Jan Borstein of D. J. Borstein & Associates, and Don Aumann and
Larry Ayers of Bevilacqua Knight, Inc. Several members of Eley Associates staff also made
significant contributions. Tom Tolen, Herb Childress, and Miriam Phillips did much of the
technical editing, while Irene Chan was responsible for the graphics and report production.

v
Executive Summary
Background
Lighting accounts for approximately 30% of
overall electricity use and demand in
commercial buildings. In recent years, many
high-efficiency lighting technologies have
been developed that enable significant
energy savings without compromising lighting
quality. In fact, lighting quality can often be
improved by the proper application of new,
energy-efficient lighting technologies.
However, the market penetration of these
technologies has been slow, in part due to
the lack of readily available information. To
assist their customers in using lighting energy
efficiently, utility personnel need to
understand the fundamentals of lighting
principles and technology. In 1986, EPRI
published a basic lighting reference, the
Lighting Handbook for Utilities (EM-4423).
This handbook is intended to serve as an
updated and improved lighting reference for
utility personnel.
Approach
The contractor reviewed the Lighting
Handbook for Utilities (EM-4423) and other
lighting references as the basis for this
revised handbook. This handbook was
written to provide basic information on
lighting principles and technologies at a level
appropriate for utility personnel new to the
lighting field, and to serve as a reference for
those already familiar with lighting
fundamentals.
Results
This handbook provides basic information on
lighting principles, lighting equipment, and
other considerations related to lighting
design. Part One, Physics of Light, has
chapters on light, vision, optics, and
photometry. Part Two, Lighting Equipment
and Technology, focuses on lamps,
luminaires, and lighting controls. Part Three,
Lighting Design Decisions, deals with lighting
design decisions and reviews relevant
methods and issues. These include the
quantity and quality of light needed for visual
tasks, calculation methods for verifying that
lighting needs are satisfied, lighting
economics and methods for evaluating
investments in efficient lighting systems, and
miscellaneous design issues including energy
codes, power quality, photobiology, and
disposal of lighting equipment. The
handbook contains a discussion of the role of
the utility in promoting the use of energy-
efficient lighting. The handbook also includes
a lighting glossary and a list of references for
additional information.
This convenient and comprehensive source
of basic information on lighting principles and
energy-efficient lighting technologies will
enable utility lighting personnel to assist their
customers in developing high-quality, energy-
efficient lighting systems. The handbook is
not intended to be an up-to-date reference
on lighting products and equipment. Other
EPRI publications serve this function,
including the Advanced Lighting
Technologies Applications Guidelines (TR-
101022), the Lighting Retrofit Handbook, and
lighting fact sheets and brochures.
vii
Table of Contents

Introduction and Overview 1

Part One - Physics of Light

ix
Table of Contents

Part Two - Lighting Equipment and Technology

x
Table of Contents

xi
Table of Contents

Part Three - Lighting Design Decisions

xii
Table of Contents

xiii
Table of Contents

xiv
 Table of Contents

List of Tables

xv
Table of Contents

xvi
Table of Contents

xvii
 Table of Contents

List of Examples

xix
Lighting Fundamentals Handbook

Introduction and Overview

Very few single inventions have affected the Electric lighting has become so important
world as much as electric lighting. Invented that, in many ways, our lives now depend on
barely 100 years ago, electric lamps have it.
rapidly replaced gas and oil lamps as the
In the United States, electricity accounts for
primary source of both interior and exterior
about 20% of all energy consumption, and
lighting. From home and school to office and
lighting uses fully a quarter of that. Because
factory, from industrialized nations to third
of its easy recognition, lighting is one of the
world countries, electric light has become an
most apparent end-users of energy, and
essential element of modern life. Light is
significant research has been devoted to the
used to make interior spaces usable without
improvement of lighting efficiency. Over the
windows, to make underground and
last 20 years, energy use for lighting has
undersea work possible, to make the night as
dropped dramatically, the result of both
active and productive as the day, and to
technology improvements and energy code
make our lives generally freer and better.
mandates (see Figure 0-1).
Lighting saves lives, directs traffic, and allows
us to enjoy beauties we would otherwise Energy-efficient lighting equipment usually
never know. Try to imagine the theater or a carries a higher first cost, but is less
music concert without electric illumination. expensive when reduced energy costs and

Figure 0-1 Lighting Efficiency Improvements in Office Buildings Since 1973

1
Lighting Fundamentals Handbook
other operating savings are considered. One
of the main obstacles to the widespread
implementation of efficient lighting systems is
a lack of information and knowledge among
architects, engineers, contractors, building
owners, building managers, and others who
make decisions about lighting equipment and
design. Utility personnel can help bridge this
gap by providing advice and information to
the design and construction industries and
by encouraging building owners and
managers to reduce energy use through
demand-side management programs.
The goal of this handbook is to provide utility
personnel with the basic lighting knowledge
to perform this role. The handbook is
organized in three parts and twelve chapters
(see Table 0-1). Part One, Physics of Light,
has chapters on light, vision, optics, and
photometry. Part Two, Lighting Equipment
and Technology, has chapters on lamps,
luminaires, and controls. Part Three, Lighting
Design Decisions, deals with the manner in
which lighting design decisions are made
and reviews relevant methods and issues.
These include the quantity and quality of light
that is needed for various visual tasks
(Chapter 8), an overview of calculation
2
methods for verifying that lighting needs are
satisfied (Chapter 9), lighting economics and
methods for evaluating potential investments
in efficient lighting systems (Chapter 10), and
miscellaneous design issues ranging from
power quality to disposal of lamps and
ballasts (Chapter 11). Finally, with a
discussion of the role of the utility in Chapter
12, the handbook returns to its principal goal:
providing the knowledge to help utility
personnel promote the use of energy-efficient
lighting.
This handbook is intended to provide a solid
foundation of lighting principles; it is not
intended to be an up-to-date reference on
lighting products and equipment. Other EPRI
publications serve this function, including the
Advanced Lighting Guidelines and the
Lighting Retrofit Handbook. EPRI also
produces the LightCAD software package, a
series of Lighting Technology Fact Sheets, a
lighting newsletter, and bulletins on lighting
technology issues. For further information on
EPRl’s family of lighting technology transfer
tools, see the Reference Section at the end
of this handbook or contact the Lighting
Information Office at (800) 525-8555.
Part One – Physics of Light

1 . Light

Visible light is one of many forms of and is equal to the speed of light divided by
electromagnetic energy, all of which travel at the wavelength. Since the speed of light is
the speed of light. Other such energies are constant, the shorter the wavelength, the
cosmic waves, gamma rays, x-rays, ultra higher the frequency.
violet, infrared, and radio frequencies. These
Sometimes, it is easier to conceptualize light
are all called electromagnetic energy
as particles or photons that are emitted by
because they exhibit measurable electrical
light sources. In this view, a “ray” of light
(static) and magnetic (curving and bending)
consists of a continuous stream of photons
characteristics.
traveling in a linear direction. The photons all
Physics offers two ways to visualize how light vibrate and the rate of vibration is the
works, as shown in Figure 1-1. Wave theory frequency of the light.
conceptualizes light as electromagnetic flux
In truth, the mechanics of light are difficult to
that spreads out from its source in waves.
conceptualize, and thus must be described
The effect is similar to that which is created
through abstraction and metaphor.
by throwing a pebble into a still pond.
Sometimes the wavelength image makes
Wavelength, symbolized by the Greek letter
light easier to understand, and sometimes
lambda (λ), is the distance between these
the image of a stream of particles is more
waves as they radiate from the source of light
useful.
(see Figure 1-2). The number of waves or
cycles per second is called the frequency,

Figure 1-1 Wave Theory vs. Particle Theory

3
Part One – Physics of Light

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

All forms of electromagnetic energy have a Figure 1-2 Wavelength
characteristic wavelength (or frequency).
Visible light, with wavelengths between 380
and 770 nanometers (10-9 meters, or one
one-billionth of a meter), comprises only a
very small portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum (see Figure 1-3). Thermal
radiation, which we can feel as heat, has a
longer wavelength (lower frequency), while
ultraviolet radiation, which creates black light
effects and causes tanning and sunburn, has
a shorter wavelength (higher frequency).
Although they are not visible, both infrared
and ultraviolet radiation are called “light” wavelengths while reflecting or absorbing
because they behave like visible light. Both radiation outside the “selective” range. Such
are present when most forms of visible light coatings are used on lamp bulbs to reflect
are present; both can be focused, reflected, infrared heat back to the filament while
and absorbed, and both can be seen with transmitting visible light. They may also be
special glasses. used on windows to block infrared and
ultraviolet radiation while allowing
Because some wavelengths are shorter than wavelengths within the visible spectrum
the distance between atoms, spectrally (daylight) to pass.
selective coatings may be developed that are
capable of transmitting radiation in specific

Figure 1-3 Electromagnetic Spectrum

4

Energy and Light
Electromagnetic energy is released by many
natural processes such as burning and
phosphorescence. Each of these processes
produces light with a characteristic
wavelength. According to the physical
principle known as Planck’s Law, the energy
level of a photon is proportional to its
frequency; the higher the frequency (or the
shorter the wavelength), the higher the
energy level. This helps explain why X-rays
and nuclear radiation, both of which have
much shorter wavelengths than visible light,
are also much more powerful.
Color Temperature
White light is comprised of all wavelengths
within the visible portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The relative
balance of different wavelengths, each
corresponding to a distinct color, determines
the tint of the light. This tint ranges from red-
rich, “warm”-colored light to blue-rich “cool”-
tinted light. Color temperature is the
measurement used to describe the tint of
white light.
The theoretical concept of a blackbody
radiator is useful in understanding the type
and quality of light produced by heat, and the
relationship between the wavelength of light
and color temperature. To visualize a
blackbody, think of a black iron rod. At
absolute zero (-460° Fahrenheit [F], -273°
Celsius [C], and 0 Kelvin [K]), the rod emits
no energy at any wavelength. Heating the
rod with a torch raises its temperature. At
first, it emits long wave thermal radiation or
heat outside the visible spectrum. At higher
temperatures (about 1000 K)[C1], the rod
begins to glow and produces a dull red light.
Eventually, with increased temperature, the
rod will glow blue-white with heat.
At higher temperatures, a blackbody
produces radiation throughout the entire
visible spectrum, but the temperature
determines the proportion of energy in each
wavelength and thus the color of the light.
The concept of color temperature associates
the light spectrum of a light source with the
temperature of a corresponding blackbody
1. Light
radiator. This enables us to specify the
approximate color characteristics of a light
source. For example, candlelight is
associated with a blackbody at about 1800
K, producing a red-yellow light. Sunlight
under an average noon sun has a color
temperature of about 5500 K and produces a
much bluer color.
Incandescent Light Sources
Human-made sources of light began with fire
- the burning of wood, oil, or gas. Most
terrestrial flames are much cooler than the
sun, so their light has a low color
temperature in the red-yellow range. The
hottest flames, such as that of an acetylene
torch, release energy in the bluish light range.
The process of generating light by heating an
object is called incandescence. The
common incandescent lamp uses electricity
to heat a filament of wire. The filament then
gives off a great deal of heat, and radiates
light almost exactly as would a blackbody
with a color temperature of about 2700 K
(about 2400° C or 4400° F). The distribution
of light from incandescent lamps is very
similar to that of a theoretical blackbody.
Discharge Light Sources
Light sources such as fluorescent lamps,
neon signs, and high intensity discharge
(HID) lamps radiate light by passing an
electric current through a vapor or a gas.
Certain atomic elements emit light when
excited by an energy source such as an
electric arc (see Table 1-1). For example,
argon gas emits light with a pale lavender
color, primarily blue and indigo, with a small
amount of red. Sodium vapor emits a yellow
light. Mercury vapor emits blue, green, and
ultraviolet light. By carefully selecting the
right elements through which to pass an
electric arc, almost any color of light can be
generated. White light can be produced by
mixing green, blue, and red sources
together. The result of the mixture is
perceived by the eye’s color vision system as
white. This process is discussed in more
detail in Chapter 2. Modern lamp
5
Part One – Physics of Light
Figure 1-4 Wavelength Distribution of
Lamp Sources
manufacturers mix a number of elements
together to produce a white light source.
Unlike incandescent or natural blackbody
sources, arc light sources generate very
specific colors of light. Often, these sources
are not evenly spread across the visible
spectrum, but are discontinuous or line
spectra sources. To the eye, discontinuous
sources often appear different from
continuous-spectrum sources. The
differences between blackbody and
discharge spectra are shown in Figure 1-5.
Properties of Daylight
The sun provides a full complement of the
colors in the visible spectrum, as well as
large amounts of infrared and ultraviolet
radiation (see Figure 1-5). The color
temperature of sunlight varies with cloud
Table 1-1 Colors Emitted by Various Elements in Gaseous Form
6
coverage and time of day. Refraction
through the Earth’s atmosphere affects the
relative concentration of blue light and is a
function of solar altitude. Considerably more
blue light results from an overhead sun than
from a sun near the horizon. The density of
the atmosphere’s ozone layer determines the
quantity of ultraviolet radiation received on
the Earth’s surface, while cloud density
affects the amount of infrared received.
As the Earth orbits the sun, the varying tilt
relative to the sun creates seasons that are
most noticeable toward the poles. The
effects are most vivid in places like the arctic
regions of Alaska, where the summers can
be fairly warm but the winters are frigid and
almost sunless. The effects are less
pronounced in the more populated parts of
the world.
The seasons also affect color temperature
due to solar altitude and the angle of
refraction through the atmosphere. Similarly,
air pollution may affect color temperature.
Some typical daylight qualities are shown in
Table 1-2. In general, the lower color
temperatures correspond to winter’s low
solar angles. The color qualities of daylight
are significant to people’s assessment of
outdoor temperature and weather conditions,
time of day, and season. They also have
important biological implications (see the
section on Photobiology in Chapter 11).
Moonlight and starlight are related and similar
to sunlight; other natural light sources are
either chemical luminescence or nuclear in
origin, and are relatively unusable for
illumination.
 1. Light

Figure 1-5 Solar Spectrum

Table 1-2 Variations in Daylight Color Temperature

7
Part One – Physics of Light
2. Vision
Without the presence of light, there could be
no vision. Over 90% of the stimuli to the
brain comes through vision. The processes
of human visual mechanics, chemistry, and
perception are more complex than any
Physiology
There are three primary portions of the
human visual system: the eye, which is the
mechanical regulator and sensor of light; the
optic nerve, which carries electrical impulses
from the eye to the brain; and the brain,
which converts these impulses into visual
information. This handbook primarily focuses
on the optical and mechanical systems of the
Figure 2-1 The Human Eye
computer system yet devised. Since lighting
is essential to vision, a basic understanding
of the visual processes is vital to the study
and practice of lighting fundamentals.
eye; nevertheless, the neurological aspects of
vision cannot be ignored.
Each component of the human eye (as
shown in Figure 2-1) performs a specific
function. The cornea is the frontal portion of
the eye that receives light and begins to
focus it into the eye. About 70% of light
9
Part One – Physics of Light
refraction occurs in the cornea and its tear
layer (which also cleans the surface of the
cornea). The iris is a light-regulating
mechanism that opens (dilates) or closes
(contracts) an aperture known as the pupil
depending on the brightness of the object
being viewed. The crystalline lens focuses
light onto the nerve endings of the inner eye.
The shape of the lens is changed or
accommodated by small ciliary muscles,
which adjust the eye’s focal power.
Inside the eye, the vitreous humour and the
aqueous humour are gel-like fluids that
maintain the shape of the eye and circulate
nutrients. These fluids are transparent and
allow the transmission of light to the retina on
the rear surface of the eye. The retina
consists of millions of individual nerve
receptors called rods and cones. Rods are
Visual Perception
There are two kinds of visual perception due
to the presence of rod and cone receptors.
Cone receptors, clustered near the fovea at
the focal point of the eye, are color-sensitive.
Cones require a relatively high level of light to
function, and for this reason, are relatively
insensitive at night, unless supplemental
illumination is present. Rod receptors, on the
other hand, are more widely scattered across
the retina and are sensitive to black and
white contrast only. Rods are also much
more sensitive than cones to low levels of
light and peripheral movement.
There are three types of cones, distinguished
from one another by their dominant sensitivity
to red, green, and blue light. Figure 2-2
10
more widely dispersed across the retina,
while cones are grouped near a small
depression at the focal point of the eye called
the fovea. (The next section discusses the
differences between the two nerve types.)
The operation of a camera is similar to the
mechanical and optical systems of the eye.
In regulating light quantities, the f-stop or
aperture of a camera performs the same
function & the eye’s pupil and iris. The
focus adjustment on a camera lens regulates
focal distance, as does the lens adjustment
of the eye. The chemical reaction of
photographic film is analogous to the
operation of the retina and its nerve endings.
The constant adjustments and continuous
flow of information, however, make the
operation of the eye far more complex than
any camera.
shows the sensitivity of the three types of
cones to light in the various wavelengths.
Red light entering the eye excites mostly the
red cones, and the result is perception of the
color red. However, yellow light excites both
the red and green cones. The brain receives
the signals from the different cones via the
optic nerve and interprets them into images
and colors. White light, for example, is
technically defined as the presence of all
colors of light, yet it is possible to create
white light by adding pure red, pure green,
and pure blue (the three prime colors of light)
together. The effect of equal stimulation of
red, green, and blue cones is interpreted by
the brain as white.

Figure 2-2 Cone Sensitivity
Figure 2-3 Photopic and Scotopic Vision
2. Vision
All together, the cones are most sensitive to
green-yellow light (about 550 nanometers),
while the rods are most sensitive to light at
about 500 nanometers (see Figure 2-3).
Depending on the level of light, either the
cones or the rods are dominant. Scotopic
vision occurs at low light levels when the rods
are dominant, while photopic vision (or day
vision) takes place at high light levels when
the cones are dominant. Mesopic vision
occurs at medium light levels and is a
combination of rod and cone vision.
The curve describing the relationship
between the sensitivity of the eye and
wavelength of light in photopic vision is
known as V-lambda, or visibility as a function
of lambda (λ) or wavelength. Red and blue
light produce fairly little excitation, while
green and yellow light produce much more.
In an attempt to provide more light in the
wavelengths where the eye is most sensitive,
fluorescent lamps such as the “cool white”
were developed with exaggerated green
output. Theoretically, a predominance of
green-yellow light provides greater visibility at
normal light levels than a pure white light
source.
Images in the peripheral vision area, where
rods dominate, are mostly black and white.
Rods are extremely sensitive to light, and can
detect motion at wide peripheral angles and
at very low light levels. Both of these
functions are an important part of our highly
evolved defensive system, allowing us early
information about possible dangers at night
or in lateral directions.
At outdoor street lighting levels, a large
portion of our vision is provided by the rods;
at moonlight levels, almost all vision is rod
vision. Rods, though not able to perceive
different colors, per se, are in fact very
sensitive to blue light, insensitive to red, and
show some sensitivity to green and yellow.
Blue-rich light sources, such as metal halide
lamps, may make it easier to focus on small
objects in moderate to low light than would
blue-poor light sources, such as low
pressure sodium lamps, which offer almost
completely yellow light.
11
Part One – Physics of Light
Contrast
The perception of visual information results
from contrast between the target and the
background. For example, the words on this
page are comprised of the contrast between
black shapes and a white background.
Absolute contrast is a metric that compares
the difference in reflectance between a visual
target and its immediate background, without
regard to their color. The greater the
absolute contrast between the two, the
easier it is to see the target, as demonstrated
in Figure 2-4.
Figure 2-4 Impact of Contrast on visibility
Accommodation
Accommodation is the process by which the
eye’s crystalline lens is reshaped by the
muscles in the eye. This in turn adjusts the
focal distance of the eye, changing focus
between near and distant objects.
As the muscles around the lens contract,
objects closer to the eye come into focus;
when these muscles relax, more distant
objects are brought into focus. People with
eye muscle problems or with misshapen eyes
may suffer from accommodation difficulties.
Those whose focusing muscles cannot fully
or comfortably focus on close objects are
12
The contrast between colors can be
distinctive as well. For example, a red letter
can be easily identified on a green
background by most color-sighted people,
even though the absolute contrast between
the two colors may be small. Lighting
calculations, however, cannot take color
effects into account, because they are so
dependent on the source of light and the
vision of the individual. Absolute contrast is
used in visibility calculations so that such
calculations are meaningful to color-blind
people as well as the color-sighted.
said to be hypermetropic, hyperopic, or
farsighted. People with the opposite
condition, in which the eye cannot focus on
distant objects, are called myopic or
nearsighted. Corrective lenses can adjust for
either of these conditions.
The focusing problem called astigmatism
results from an imperfection in the curvature
of the eye‘s lens that prevents correct
focusing. Corrective lenses (much more
complex than those for hyperopia or myopia)
can compensate for astigmatism.

Adaptation
The eye’s ability to change its sensitivity to
light levels when moving from space to space
is called transient adaptation. The eye
adapts to brightness within the field of view
through three different adaptation
mechanisms: dilation or contraction of the
iris; neural adaptation; and changes in
photopigments. The first two processes can
occur rather quickly, while the last may take
30 minutes or more.
In order to make quick adjustments to
changes in light levels, the iris dilates or
contracts. This occurs very quickly, but the
degree of adaptation is limited. For example,
the change in iris opening may be sufficient
to make the transition from a lobby to a
brightly-lighted office tolerable, yet not
enough to make the transition from a dark
restaurant to a sunlit parking lot comfortable.
The synaptic interactions of the visual system
within the brain respond rapidly to changes in
light levels through a process called neural
adaptation adjustment. These interactions
allow for a normal range of adaptation
between visual settings, such as the contrast
between a bright window and a normal
interior. However, the range of adaptation is
still not great enough to handle moving from
dim light to sunlight.
Adaptations to large changes in light levels
take several minutes, while the eye’s
sensitivity adjusts with the aid of chemical
changes. The eye’s interior chemicals, called
photopigments, change in quantity
depending how much light enters the eye
from the environment. Complete adaptation
Color Blindness and Aging
The human eye can suffer a number of
maladies with effects ranging from minor
visual problems to complete blindness. For
lighting design purposes, two of these are
most important: color blindness and
presbyopia (aging). Other problems such as
farsightedness, nearsightedness, and
astigmatism can be corrected with eye
2. Vision
from a normally-lighted room to night vision
can take up to 60 minutes.
The common phenomenon of experiencing
momentary blindness when driving into a
tunnel on a sunny day, or when stumbling
down the aisle of a dark theater, is due to the
limitations of the adaptation process.
Lighting designers must take adaptation into
account in such situations by providing
interior lighting in transition areas to prevent
temporary blindness resulting from large and
sudden changes in lighting levels.
The eye can also be desensitized to a color
by being overly exposed to it, and overly
sensitized to other colors if they are lacking.
For example, if one stares at the projection of
a bright red slide, and then the image is
quickly changed to a white slide, an
afterimage of red’s complement color, cyan
(green-blue), will appear and then slowly
diminish. This is caused by the eye
becoming desensitized by the overpowering
color, and compensating by becoming very
sensitive to the lacking opposite or
complement color. After the eye returns to
normal color sensitivity, the cyan tint of the
white light is no longer perceived.
Color sensitivity plays a part in architectural
lighting. As one enters a space lighted with
“cool white” fluorescent lamps, for example,
the first impression is often that the light
appears greenish. After some time in the
space, though, the sensitivity to that
wavelength is diminished and color
perception appears normal.
glasses and do not need to be addressed
through lighting design.
While most people are able to distinguish
between all colors in the visible light
spectrum, color blindness affects about 8%
of the male population. Some of these
individuals may also be affected (positively or
negatively) by discharge lamps containing
13
Part One – Physics of Light
rare earth phosphors (also called
“triphosphor” or “tristimulus” lamps; see
Chapter 5 for a description of lamp
phosphors).
Aging occurs in every eye. Presbyopia is a
lens and focusing malady that sets in at mid-
life for most people, as the youthful
accommodation process begins to
Relative Visual Performance
Visual performance is the primary concern of
lighting design. However, visual performance
can be affected by a variety of factors having
nothing to do with lighting. These include
diseases of the eye, refractive visual
problems, such as myopia and presbyopia,
and general overall physical health. In
addition, the measurement of visual
performance, as a practical matter, involves
individual, subjective impressions of the
person performing the task. As such, lighting
professionals must attempt to eliminate
aspects of individual conditioning and
acculturation from the process of overall
lighting design.
For these reasons, relative visual
performance is the best measurement by
which we can compare, in terms of
productivity, one visual situation to another.
14
deteriorate. More seriously, the aging eye
also becomes less sensitive to contrast, due
to a yellowing of the lens and humours. This
clouding has the added effect of making the
eye more sensitive to glare. For more
information on how aging affects vision, see
Chapter 8.
Relative visual performance takes into
account only the aspects of vision caused by
and varying due to the illumination of
surfaces within the visual field. Important
variables include the location of the light
source, the amount of light, the brightness of
all objects, and the reflective nature of the
task and its background.
Several computer programs have been
developed to assess the relative visual
performance of lighting systems. These
programs are still severely limited in their
ability to account for angles of view,
adaptation levels, color effects, and other
practical conditions. Within these limits,
however, they do allow for the comparative
analysis of two or more lighting systems, to
determine if one is significantly better than
another.
Part One – Physics of Light

3. Optics

Optics is the science of managing the transmission of light are of critical importance
movement of light outside the eye. Although in designing lighting materials and in
many people associate optics with opticians predicting lighting levels in a space. Our
and astronomers, this science is of vital visual responses to reflected light enable us
importance to understanding lighting as well. to perceive contrast, recognize objects, and
Lighting components such as lenses and read text on a page. On the other hand,
reflectors are designed around the principles transmission quantifies the amount of light
of optics. passing through windows, skylights, and light
fixture (luminaire) lenses and diffusers.
When light strikes an object, the object can
absorb the light, reflect the light, and/or
transmit the light (see Figure 3-1). Opaque
surfaces do not transmit light, but they still
have absorptive and reflective properties.
Transmitting surfaces exhibit all three traits.
In lighting design, the reflection and

Figure 3-1 Transmission, Absorption, and Reflection

15
Part One – Physics of Light
Reflection
Opaque materials reflect light by both
specular reflection, which is how a mirror
reflects light, and by diffuse reflection, which
is how wall paint reflects light (see Figure 3-
2). To differing degrees, most materials
reflect light in both ways. Choosing
appropriate reflecting materials is critically
important in lighting, because the type and
shape of a reflector can determine the
direction in which light is dispersed or
focused.
In specular reflection, light rays are reflected
at an angle, relative to the surface, equal to
the angle of incidence. The amount of
reflected light relative to incident light is
expressed as a percentage. For example, a
high-quality clear mirror can have a specular
reflectance of more than 90%. In contrast,
diffuse reflection scatters reflected light in al
directions. Surfaces with highly diffuse
reflection are often referred to as “flat” or
“matte.” Ordinary flat wall paint is an almost
perfectly diffuse reflector. The quantity of
diffuse reflectance of surface materials can
also be expressed as a percentage. For
example, white ceiling paint has about 88%
diffuse reflectance.
Most common building surfaces have both
specular and diffuse characteristics. White
gloss enamel paint, for instance, has a total
reflectance of about 88% - 50% specular
Figure 3-2 Specular and Diffuse Surfaces
16
and 38% diffuse. Black enamel gloss has
about 5% specular and less than 1% diffuse
reflection, while black felt reflects less than
1% in either manner. Even materials that
appear to be perfectly diffuse or specular
have a small percentage of the other
reflectance type.
For simplicity, reflectance is generally
expressed as if it is constant for all
wavelengths or frequencies of light, when in
fact, materials reflect colors differently, and
the color reflected-determines our perception
of the color of the object. Ripe tomatoes
reflect red light; plant leaves reflect green
light. The unreflected portion of the light is
absorbed by the material and converted to
heat energy.
The color of a light source can also affect the
reflectance of materials. The reflectance of
some paint colors can vary as much as three
to four percent when viewed under different
color temperature white light sources. When
highly colored light sources are used in
conjunction with deeply colored objects,
reflectances become relatively meaningless.
A tomato will appear black under pure blue
or green light because there is no red light to
be reflected. Such techniques are often
used in theater lighting design and special
effects.
 3. Optics

Transmission and Refraction

Many materials transmit light. Those that Figure 3-4 Refraction
appear clear are called transparent, and they
allow light to move through in straight paths.
Those that appear milky or hazy are called
translucent (see Figure 3-3). Materials that
transmit light also absorb and reflect some of
the incident light. The amount of light
passing through a material is expressed as a
percentage of the incident light striking its
surface; this percentage is called
transmittance. Transmittance is measured in
a manner very similar to reflectance in that
most materials are both clear and diffuse-
transmissive to varying degrees.

Figure 3-3 Transparent and Translucent

Materials

When light enters glass or any other

transmissive material, it refracts or bends
slightly depending on the angle of incidence
and the physical properties of the refracting
material, as shown in Figure 3-4. Refraction
is an important phenomenon, permitting the
design of lenses that bend light in a planned
way.
Diffuse transmission, such as occurs through
frosted glass, scatters incoming rays of light
in all directions. This can be particularly
useful in concealing light sources and in
dispersing light over a large area. Diffuse
coatings are commonly used on the inside
surfaces of incandescent lamps to evenly
distribute their output.
Reflectance, transmittance, and absorptance
properties of materials vary with the
wavelength of the incident energy (the color
of the light). These properties can be used to
create special products and visual effects.
Theatrical “gels” or colored lens covers are
used to absorb visible light selectively. For
example, red gels absorb blue and green
light, transmitting only the red wavelengths.
Another such product is dichroic film,
designed to be transparent to specific

17
Part One – Physics of Light
wavelengths and reflective to others. In
colored lenses, dichroic coatings minimize
absorption of energy, making color filters last
longer. The most common use of dichroic
technology, however, is in heat rejection:
dichroic heat reflecting coatings are
transparent to visible-spectrum energy, while
reflecting longer-wave infrared heat. When
applied to the inside surface of a lamp, this
coating allows the visible light to be emitted
while keeping much of the heat inside.
These coatings are used in projection lamps
to prevent possible heat damage to slides
and transparencies, and in some “cool
beam” incandescent lamps to minimize
uncomfortable or damaging infrared heat.

Lenses
Lenses use the principles of diffusion and
Figure 3-5 Lens Types
refraction to cause light to travel in a desired
direction. Some of the principal lens types
and shapes are described here and shown in
Figure 3-5.
Refraction can be a function of wavelength.
For example, consider a prism: as white light
strikes a prism, each wavelength (color) is
bent at a slightly different angle. The result is
to separate the wavelengths creating a
rainbow of color.
A concave lens causes light rays to spread,
while a convex lens focuses light.
Combinations of plano (flat), concave, and
convex lenses are used in eyeglasses,
cameras, telescopes, and lighting equipment.

18

Figure 3-6 Fresnel Lens
A fresnel lens can have the same optics as a
concave or convex lens, but is much lighter
because of its unique design. Figure 3-6
shows a fresnel lens and a single convex lens
with the same optics. Simple fresnel lenses
are commonly used in theater lighting
equipment; sophisticated fresnel lenses have
been used for a century or more in
lighthouses.
A prismatic lens is generally flat on the lighted
surface and has a series of conical prisms on
the viewing surface. Prismatic lenses collect
3. Optics
light from a source and bend it into a cone of
light. Prismatic lenses are primarily used in
fluorescent fixtures to capture light from the
tubes and reflectors and distribute it into a
desired pattern.
Diffusing lenses, also known as diffusers, are
generally used to broadly distribute light and
to conceal or soften the intensity of a light
source. Diffusers are often constructed of
materials with naturally diffuse properties
(e.g., white plastic), or with a diffuse finish or
coating, such as sandblasted glass.
19
Part One – Physics of Light

4. Photometry

The word photometry comes from the Greek

words “photos” for light and “metria” for the
process of measurement. Photometry is the
measurement of light quantities.

Historic Definitions
The original terminology of light measurement
is based on candlelight. A candle flame has
a uniform light intensity of one candela or one
candlepower in all directions (except, of
course, straight down). Imagine that the
candle is enclosed within a sphere that has a
radius of one foot. A lumen of light energy is
the amount of light that would pass through a
one square foot opening in the sphere,
assuming that no light is reflected from the
inside surfaces of the sphere. The candle
produces one lumen per square foot or one
footcandle of illumination.
The surface area of the sphere is 4 π r2, or
about 12.57 sq. ft. This means that the
candle produces a total of 12.57 lumens.
Even though candles have long since been
replaced by electric lighting for everyday use,
the terminology of modern photometry has
been carried forward from these historic
definitions because of their usefulness in
helping us visualize the attributes of light.

Figure 4-1 Historic Definition of Lumen

21
Part One – Physics of Light

Modern Definitions
Figure 4-2 Solid Angle Definitions the usable output of electric lamps. This
lumen rating is given in almost all lamp
catalogs.

This section defines the important
photometric terms used in lighting. The
modern definitions of photometric terms are
similar to their historic counterparts, but they
have been adapted to reflect current
knowledge about the generation and
perception of light. Most importantly, the
sensitivity of the human eye to different
wavelengths (V-lambda, described in
Chapter 2) is now taken into account in the
measurement of the lumen output of a light
source.
Lumen
The lumen is the standard measurement of
luminous flux. Lumens are used to quantify
the total amount of light produced by a
source. In the historic context, a candle
produces a total of 12.57 lumens. A modern
48-inch fluorescent lamp produces a total of
about 3,000 lumens. In the modern
definition, lamps deficient in the yellow-green
part of the spectrum, to which humans are
most sensitive, are measured as producing
fewer lumens than lamps of identical energy
output centered more closely on the yellow-
green wavelengths. The most common use
for the lumen in modern photometry is to rate
Candlepower
Candlepower, measured in candelas (cd), is
a measure of luminous intensity, or the
directional intensity of light from a point
source. One candela is equal to one lumen
of light output per steradian. A steradian is a
unit solid angle subtending an area on the
surface of a sphere equal to the square of
the sphere radius (see Figure 4-2). A solid
angle can extend in any direction. If a
candle, located in the center of the sphere in
Figure 4-2, produced a total of 12.57 lumens
uniformly in all directions, the light intensity
through the steradian would be one candela.
Candelas are used to describe the
directionality and intensity of light leaving a
lamp or luminaire, and are extremely
important in lighting design calculations.
Lamp output for reflector lamps, for example,
is commonly given in candelas or
candlepower instead of lumens. Most
photometric data provided for luminaires
show the pattern of light distribution from the
luminaire in candelas.
Illuminance
llluminance is the density of light incident on
a surface measured in lumens per square
foot (footcandles [fc]) or lumens per square
meter (lux [lx]). llluminance does not account
for any of the reflective or transmissive
properties of the surface, but merely the
amount of light the surface receives.
Illumination from point sources behaves
according to the inverse-square law of
illumination - the density of light on a surface
is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance from the source (see Figure 4-3).

22

Figure 4-3 Inverse-Square Law
The angle from which light strikes a surface
also affects its intensity. When this angle is
included, the inverse-square law of
illumination describes the relationship
between illuminance and intensity as:
I x cosine θ
E =
d2
where E is the surface illuminance in
footcandles, l is the intensity of the light
source (in the direction of the surface) in
candelas, θ (theta) is the angle of incidence
(see Figure 3-2), and d is the distance from
the source to that surface. This inverse-
square law is fundamental to photometrics
and lighting calculations. Chapter 9 provides
some examples of lighting calculations that
use the inverse-square law.
Exitance
Exitance measures the total amount of light
that leaves a reflective surface, measured in
lumens/sq. ft. or lumens/sq. meter. (Note: in
the past, exitance was measured in
footlamberts; however, the use of this term
has fallen out of favor.) Generally, exitance is
4. Photometry
determined by multiplying illuminance (in
footcandles) times the reflectance of a
surface. A diffuse rather than a specular
reflection is assumed. Thus 80 fc of
illuminance on a surface of 60% reflectance
would produce an exitance of 48 fc.
Exitance is commonly used for simple relative
brightness calculations because diffuse
reflectance is relatively easy to determine.
Luminance
Luminance is the quantity of light exiting a
surface in a specific direction. Common
units of measurement include candelas per
square meter and candelas per square foot.
Luminance is also referred to as “brightness”
or “photometric brightness.” This
measurement takes into account the
specular reflectance as well as the diffuse
reflectance. Since luminance considers the
angle of view, it is somewhat more accurate
than the measurement of exitance.
However, luminance is seldom used to
describe surface brightness because,
although it is a more exacting description
than exitance, it is difficult to calculate.
23
Part One – Physics of Light
Candlepower Measurements
Figure 4-4 Candlepower Distribution
The light output from a luminaire is usually
measured by automated candlepower
measuring devices. The data generated by
this measurement describe light distribution
from the luminaire in terms of intensity and
direction. Figure 4-4 illustrates a
representative “batwing” distribution diagram.
According to the diagram, this particular
luminaire delivers about 250 candelas in a
45° direction while delivering only about 140
candelas directly down.
Candlepower measurements of this type are
called “far field” measurements because the
measuring equipment is kept at a distance
from the source of at least five times the
luminaire’s largest optical dimension. The
effect of the luminaire is thus made to
approximate that of a point source, allowing
for reasonably accurate calculations.
24
Far field photometric data is applicable to the
conventional lighting calculations presented
in Chapter 9, but it cannot be used for near
field calculations. For example, lighting
calculations for standard fluorescent fixtures
on the ceiling will be reasonably accurate;
however, calculations using the same fixture
as a desk light will not. The ability to perform
lighting calculations in the near field is an
evolving area of lighting science, requiring
special photometric measurements and
computer assistance in calculation.
Photometric data for projector and reflector
type lamps are given in a similar format, but
often presented as a cartesian plot, similar to
Figure 4-5, instead of a polar plot. These
emphasize peak candlepower and “beam
spread.”
 4. Photometry

Figure 4-5 Distribution Diagrams for Two Projector Lamps

25
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology

5. Lamps and Ballasts

Recent advances in lamp technologies have
produced lamps that are significantly more
energy efficient than older products. In many
cases, these lamps also improve lighting
quality. Electric lamps operate according to
one of two principles of science: one type of
lamp gives off light as a by-product of heat;
the other type produces light due to the
electrical excitation of gaseous elements.

Lamp Performance Criteria

Several useful measures of lamp Power
performance can be used to compare
All lamps transform electrical input power into
competing products. These deal not only
visible light. In the process, heat is produced
with light output and power input, but with
as well. Lamp input power is measured in
lamp life, color, lumen depreciation, and
watts. Input power is one component in the
other lamp characteristics as well.
determination of lamp efficacy (see below).
When assessing lamp performance, it is
important to include the effects of different Output
ballast and luminaire combinations on actual
The most obvious measure of lamp
lamp performance. Luminaire-lamp-ballast
performance is light output. For most lamps,
system efficacy is a term that may be used to
output is measured in total lumens or overall
assess the energy efficiency of a lighting
light output. However, for directional light
system. Lamps are rated for lumen output
sources, such as reflector lamps, light output
and lamp life under very restrictive standards
is usually measured in candlepower or in
set by the American National Standards
candelas (cd). Lamp manufacturers usually
Institute (ANSI) and based on specific
provide output figures in either lumens or
combinations of voltage, mounting
candelas for each of the lamps in their
orientation, ballast, and ambient air
catalogs. Generally, these ratings are
temperature. Differences in any of these
determined after lamps have been “burned
conditions may affect both input power and
in” for 100 hours.
light output, which in turn will affect efficacy.
Such differences can dramatically influence
the choices made in luminaires, ballasts, and
Lamp Efficacy
lamps. The section on luminaires and Lamp efficacy is the ratio of lumens of light
lighting systems in the 1992 Advanced output to total watts of input power and is the
Lighting Guidelines, available from EPRI, best measure of a lamp’s energy efficiency.
provides specific tables for this purpose. Efficacy should not be confused with the
term efficiency, a measure which describes
the percentage of total lamp lumens that exit
a luminaire. Different lamp types have

27
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
different efficacies. The standard
incandescent 100-watt A lamp, for instance,
produces 1750 lumens for an efficacy of only
17.5 lumens per watt. On the other hand,
some of the more advanced lamp
technologies, such as high pressure sodium,
may have an efficacy that approaches or
exceeds 100 lumens per watt. In the case of
discharge lamps, efficacy is relatively
meaningless unless additional power
consumed by the ballast is also considered.
Heat
All lamps convert input electrical power into a
combination of light and radiant (infrared),
convected, and conducted heat. The radiant
heat is generally dispersed in the same
direction as the light. It is the radiant heat,
for example, that makes the light from a
projector lamp feel “warm.”
In some cases, the production of heat by a
building’s lighting system may add
significantly to the air conditioning load. For
example, up to 90% of the input power
consumed by most incandescent lamps is
converted to heat. Generally speaking, more
efficacious lamps, such as fluorescents, are
more productive in their transformation of
input power into visible light. As a result, less
input power is needed to produce a required
level of illuminance, and air conditioning
loads may also be reduced.
Lamp Life
Another measure of lamp performance is
lamp life, as measured in hours. Lamp life
ratings are determined under ANSI
conditions: free (open), unmoving air, 25° C
(77° F) at 3 hours per start for most lamps (10
hours per start for high intensity discharge
[HID] lamps). Rated lamp life is a median
value of life expectancy, and refers to the
total operating time at which half of any large
group of initially installed lamps are expected
to remain burning.
Lamp life may be adversely affected by
constant on-off switching. Similarly, lamp life
generally is increased by consistent burning
times of more than three hours per start.
Many lamp manufacturers will provide lamp
life ratings for both three hour and twelve
hour per start burning times.
28
Generally, discharge type lamps, such as
fluorescent and HID, have a much greater
lamp life than incandescent lamps. For
example, while a 100-watt incandescent A
lamp has a rated life of 750 hours, an
equivalent output compact fluorescent lamp
will last 10,000 hours, or more than 13 times
longer. Many full-size fluorescent and HID
lamps are rated at 20,000 hours and longer.
Incandescent lamp life may be extended,
either by dimming, or by under-voltage
operation. However, imposing the same
conditions on discharge lamps may actually
reduce lamp life.
Group relamping should be considered as
part of commercial building maintenance
programs. In a group relamping program, all
lamps are replaced at once, usually at about
70 to 85% of their rated life, depending on
the lamp type and the specific application.
As compared with spot relamping when
lamps burn out, lamp and labor costs can be
reduced and it is easier to maintain uniform
lamp color and brightness. Energy savings
can also be achieved if lumen maintenance
controls are installed (see Chapter 7).
Color Characteristics
Two metrics are used to describe the color of
a lamp’s light and its ability to render the
colors of objects and surfaces it illuminates.
A brief description of these metrics follows.
Chromaticity and Correlated Color
Temperature (CCT)
Chromaticity, expressed by correlated color
temperature (CCT), measures apparent color
of a light source. CCT correlates the
appearance of a light source with the
temperature of a blackbody radiator that has
the same apparent color (see Chapter 1).
This value is measured in units derived from
the Kelvin (K) scale temperature of the
blackbody radiator. Oddly, the higher the
temperature, the “cooler” the light source. A
candle flame has a color temperature of
about 1800 K, an incandescent lamp about
2700 K. A common cool white halophosphor
fluorescent lamp, by contrast, has a color
temperature of 4100 K or greater and
produces a light that appears bluish-white.

Daylight is usually very bluish and “cool,” with
a CCT of 5000 K or higher.
Color Rendering Index (CRI)
Color rendering refers to the effect that a light
source has on the color appearance of an
object. Color rendering index (CRI) is a
metric that describes the degree of color shift
that objects undergo when illuminated by the
light source under consideration, as
compared to their color appearance when
viewed under a reference source with a
similar color temperature. Unless otherwise
specified, the reference source for lamps with
a CCT of less than 5000 K is a blackbody
radiator of the same color temperature. For
light sources with a CCT above 5000 K, the
reference may be any one of a series of
spectral distributions based on daylight. Due
to individual subjectivity in regard to the
perception of color, CRI comparisons
between light sources of differing color
temperatures are relatively meaningless.
For all practical purposes, the CRI scale
ranges between 0 and 100, although an
exceptionally poor color rendering source,
such as low pressure sodium, can actually
have a negative CRI. A light source is scaled
on the basis of its mean comparison with the
reference source across eight separate color
indices. Most incandescent lamps have a
CRI of 100. Standard cool white
halophosphor fluorescent lamps have a CRI
of 62, while higher quality fluorescent lamps
with rare earth phosphors have a CRI in the
70s or 80s.
5. Lamps and Ballasts
Lumen Depreciation
Most lamps deliver more light when they are
new than after they have aged. Lamp lumen
depreciation (LLD) is the natural reduction in
lamp output that occurs with age. It is
caused by bulb wall blackening, phosphor
exhaustion, filament depreciation and other
factors, and is an important component of
the overall light loss factor used in lighting
calculations. This value is expressed as a
percentage of initial lamp output. Lumen
depreciation varies greatly from lamp type to
lamp type. At 70% of rated lamp life,
incandescent lamps depreciate to about 90%
of initial output, while a standard F40T12 cool
white halophosphor lamp may depreciate to
less than 84% of initial output. The IES
Lighting Handbook Reference Volume
provides lamp lumen depreciation figures for
all lamp types at 70% of rated lamp life.
Restrike Time
Lamp restrike time defines how long it takes
to re-energize a lamp that has been
extinguished. Generally, this is a concern
only with high intensity discharge and
cathode cutout fluorescent lamps. When
these lamps are extinguished, they require a
period of time to cool down before the
electric arc can be restruck.
Summary
Many of the advances associated with the
development of energy-efficient lamp
technologies have also produced products
with improved color characteristics. These
products offer an increased range of color
temperature options along with significantly
enhanced color rendering. As a result,
improved lamp technology has increased
lighting quality, while improving energy
efficiency. The following table summarizes
some of the performance characteristics of
various lamps now on the market.
29
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
Heat-Based Lamps
The oldest form of human-controlled light is
fire. When heat is released through
combustion, the gases around the burning
object become heated and radiate light
according to blackbody theory (see Chapter
1 for an explanation of blackbody radiation).
This emission of visible electromagnetic
radiation due to the thermal excitation of
atoms or molecules is called incandescence.
The visible radiation produced by this
process is actually a by-product of heat.
Figure 5-1 The First Electric Lamp
30
Incandescent Lamps
Contemporary incandescent lamps use an
electric current to heat a tungsten filament to
a state of incandescence so that it produces
visible light. The basic technology behind
this phenomenon has not changed much
since the late 19th century, when Thomas
Edison and others discovered that a wire
heated by electric current would produce
significant amounts of visible light. The keys
to commercial viability were the selection of a
filament material that would not vaporize
quickly and the choice of a surrounding
atmosphere that would not allow the filament
to oxidize and burn.
Over the years, these facets of incandescent
lamp design have been refined many times.
The contemporary incandescent lamp uses a
tungsten filament, because it does not melt
at lamp operating temperature. The
atmosphere around the filament is usually
argon, an inert gas similar in atomic weight to
oxygen. Some premium incandescent lamps
use the rarer and more expensive krypton
gas atmosphere. This allows for roughly
double the lamp life of a comparable argon-
filled lamp.
Lamps are designed for a nominal operating
condition, the parameters of which include
voltage, current, wattage, lumen output,
rated life, and color temperature. For
example, a standard l00-watt household
lamp is designed to operate at 120 volts AC
 5. Lamps and Ballasts
or DC, to draw 0.83 amperes, to consume
Figure 5-2 Low-Voltage Lamp Circuit
100 watts, and to generate 1750 lumens at a
color temperature of 2800 K. It has a rated
lamp life of 750 hours.

Voltage Considerations
Operating voltage affects incandescent lamp
operation. As voltage increases, more
current passes through the filament, thereby
increasing lumen output, efficacy, and color
temperature. Lamp life is reduced, however.
designed for use in buildings in conjunction
Conversely, as voltage is reduced, lamp life with a step-down transformer as shown in
increases, while output, efficacy, and color Figure 5-2.
temperature decrease. Many long-life
incandescent lamps are made for 130 volts, There are four primary benefits of using low-
but operated on standard 120-volt power voltage incandescent lamps in buildings:
systems. Devices such as dimming systems, l Low-voltage operation is safer for
buck transformers, and diodes extend lamp
smaller lamps, especially those under
life by reducing lamp voltage below 120 volts.
20 watts.
Some lamps are designed and marketed
expressly for long life, and are labeled in l Low-voltage lamps can be
rated hours rather than design voltage. For manufactured in very compact
instance, a common “long-life” incandescent configurations, making them easier to
lamp rated for 5,000 hours at 120 volts is install in limited spaces such as
actually a 750-hour, 139-volt lamp. Under- cabinets.
voltage operation may result in considerably l At lower voltages, the lamp filament is
longer lamp life, but lumen output, efficacy,
shorter and thicker, making these
and color temperature may be reduced as a
lamps more rugged.
consequence.
l Due to their compact filaments, low-
Because electric power in the United States
voltage lamps behave more like point
is usually provided for use at 120 volts, most
sources of light and offer excellent
common incandescent lamps are designed
optical control in accent lighting
for 120- or 130-volt operation. The most
applications.
common voltage in the rest of the world,
however, is 220 volts. Lamps rated for 240- All of the principles of lamp life, color
volt operation are also available in the U.S. temperature, and lumen output apply to low-
for high wattage applications on 120/240-volt voltage as well as to line-voltage lamps.
residential and small commercial power
systems. Circuits and Switching
Most commercial and industrial buildings in Incandescent lamps are designed to operate
the U.S. also distribute power at 277 volts for on very simple circuits, such as the one
fluorescent or HID lighting systems. There shown in Figure 5-3. Ballasts and other
are a few incandescent lamp products “auxiliaries” are not required. Dimming
manufactured for these applications. devices such as resistors, auto-transformers,
and solid-state dimmers can easily be
incorporated into simple circuits.
Low-Voltage Lighting
Low-voltage lighting systems are common,
both in the United States and in Europe.
Low-voltage incandescent lamps include 6-,
12-, and 24-volt products. Many of these
products are used in automobiles, marine
craft, and airplanes, but some are especially

31
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
Figure 5-3 Incandescent Lamp Circuit
When incandescent lamps are energized,
they experience a thermal shock, as the
filament goes from room temperature to
operating temperature in less than a second.
Consequently, the more often a lamp is
turned on and off, the shorter its life will be.
Recall that lamp life ratings are made on a
basis of three hours per start. Even though
lamps may have to be replaced more often, it
almost always pays to turn off an
unnecessary incandescent light. Common
beliefs about the cost of energy required to
start an incandescent lamp are simply not
true; while the surge of electricity to a cold
lamp is about 13 times normal, it only lasts
for a tenth of a second, so turning on an
incandescent bulb costs the same as
operating it for 1.3 seconds.
Standard Incandescent Lamps
All incandescent lamps have three common
components: bulbs, bases, and filaments.
The different types and combinations of
these three basic elements account for
thousands of different lamp designs.
The glass bulb around the filament contains
the operating atmosphere, and each
enclosure shape has a specific set of
applications. Each lamp type is specified by
32
a classification based on shape (R for
reflector, F for flame, A for arbitrary) and a
number that usually represents its diameter in
eighths of an inch. Thus, an R-40 lamp
would be a reflector shape, five inches (40/8)
in diameter. The most common
incandescent bulb shapes are shown in
Figure 5-4.
Three types of glass can be used in the
manufacturing of lamp bulbs. Most standard
bulbs are made of lead or lime “soft” glass,
while higher-wattage bulbs are often made of
borosilicate “hard” glass or fused “quartz”
glass.
The base of an incandescent lamp holds the
lamp in its socket and provides the electrical
contact to power the lamp. Base sizes and
styles are designed to conduct electricity
without heat failure. Smaller bases allow
smaller enclosures, but may also require
higher temperature materials, such as
ceramic, for the socket. The most common
lamp bases are shown in Figure
5-5.
All modern incandescent filaments are made
of tungsten, a metal which has the most
appropriate temperature, electrical, and
mechanical properties of any filament
material. A wide variety of filament shapes
are used in different lamp types to optimize
light output.
One of the chief advantages of standard
incandescent lamps is that they are available
in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, and
wattages. Other advantages include their
excellent color rendering ability, warm
appearance, and the ability to be easily
dimmed. However, standard incandescent
lamps have very low efficacy, and lamp life is
much shorter than in more advanced lamp
technologies, such as fluorescent
and HID.
 5. Lamps and Ballasts

Figure 5-4 Common Incandescent Lamp Shapes

33
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
Figure 5-5 Incandescent Lamp Bases
(Exact dimensions may vary)
A and PS Lamps
The most common lamps are A lamps,
named for their arbitrary shape. The smallest
common lamp is the A-15 at 15/8 inches
diameter; the largest is the 300-watt A-23
(see Figure 5-4). Most A lamps have a
medium (edison) screw-in base. PS (pear-
shaped) lamps are basically high-wattage A
lamps. PS lamps generally have a large
(mogul) screw-in base. PS and A lamps are
made in a number of varieties, including clear
bulbs for “sparkle,” inside-frosted and diffuse
outside-coated bulbs for general lighting and
softening of filament glare, colored bulbs,
silver bowls for uplighting, and two-filament
3-way lamps for adjustable output. PS
lamps are generally designed for 120- and
130-volt operation. Most A lamps are also
designed for 120/130-volt operation, but
there are a few special low-voltage products.
34
R Lamps
Reflector or R lamps that contain an internal
reflector made of a single bulb of glass are
the most common and least expensive style
of internal reflector lamp. The reflector’s
parabolic shape directs its output in parallel
rays or a beam, usually fairly broad and soft-
edged. The larger bulb sizes of R-30 and
above come in both clear-face, for narrow
spotlight output, and frosted-face, for a more
diffuse floodlight distribution.
The most common R lamp configurations are
R-20, R-30, R-40, and R-60. R lamps are
also made in compact R-12, R-14, and R-16
sizes, as well as R-40 heat lamps, and are
available with colored faces and in modified
shapes. Wattages of R lamps range from 25
to 750 watts. One important variant of the R
lamp is the ER or ellipsoidal reflector lamp, in
which the reflector is shaped to focus the
light rays in front of the lamp face, as shown

in Figure 5-6. ER lamps are designed for use
in track fixtures and black-baffle downlights.
PAR Lamps
Parabolic aluminized reflector or PAR lamps
are two-piece reflector lamps in which an
aluminized reflector back is welded to the
front glass lens. Because of the reflector’s
optical properties, PAR lamps have
considerably better beam control than R
lamps. Standard and computer-optimized
energy-efficient PAR lamps are made in a
variety of configurations, as shown in Figure
5-7 .
Line-voltage PAR lamps are made in PAR-
36, PAR-38, PAR-46, PAR-56, and PAR-64.
Most are available in both spot and flood
distributions and there are numerous wattage
options.
5. Lamps and Ballasts
Figure 5-6 Standard and ER-Type Reflector
Lamps
Low-voltage PAR lamps, originally developed
for autos and aircraft, are popular in
architectural applications. Low-voltage PARs
are available in PAR-36, PAR-46, PAR-56,
and PAR-64. Maximum power is 240 watts.
Most are available in spot or flood
distributions, and some are made in very
narrow spot versions as well.
Many PAR lamps are now available in
tungsten-halogen versions. In general,
tungsten-halogen PAR lamps offer the
advantages of greater energy efficiency and
higher color temperature, but they are
considerably more expensive than their
standard PAR lamp counterparts. (See
discussion of tungsten-halogen lamps
below.)
35
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology

Figure 5-7 PAR and Tungsten-Halogen Lamps

36
 5. Lamps and Ballasts
G Lamps Figure 5-8 Special Low-Voltage Lamps
Globe-shaped G lamps are generally meant
to be exposed so that the bulb shape
becomes part of the visual design. The most
frequent uses are in theater and shopping
center marquees and in dressing room
“Hollywood” light strips. G lamps, sold in 15-
to 200-watt sizes, are available in clear
globes, for visual sparkle, or in frosted
globes, for general diffuse illumination.

Other Incandescent Lamp Shapes

The simplicity of incandescent lamps allows
the manufacture of a wide variety of aesthetic
shapes, such as candle- or flame-shaped
lamps, often used in ornamental chandeliers
and wall sconces. The most common types
are the T or tubular lamp, used in painting
lights and showcase lights, C or candelabra
lamps, such as those generally used for
Christmas tree decoration, F or flame-shaped
lamps for chandeliers, and TB lamps, which
are a variant of the A lamp.
There are many other shapes and sizes;
consult the catalogs of major lamp
manufacturers for additional information.
Special Variations of Incandescent
Lamps
There are many other less common varieties
of incandescent lamps made for special
situations. Some of the most important types
are listed below:
l 130-volt lamps are designed for
operation at 8% over voltage on a 120-
volt system. When operated on a
standard household circuit, these
should provide almost triple the rated
life, with a corresponding drop of about
15% in light output. These are often
used to minimize short lamp life in
situations with poor power regulation.
l Photoflood lamps operate at a very high
color temperature (3400 K) and have a
lamp life ranging from 3 to 25 hours.
These are designed for use in photo
studios.
l Rough-service lamps are designed with
extra-rugged filaments that resist
damage due to vibration.
l Special low-voltage lamps, such as the
festoon and wedge lamps shown in
Figure 5-8, go into modular strip lighting
luminaires. In addition, miniature lamps
of 0.5 to 1 watt are often used in
transparent plastic tubing.
Tungsten-Halogen Lamps
Tungsten-halogen lamps are incandescent
lamps that are specially treated by the
addition of a halogen material (iodine,
chlorine, bromine, or fluorine) to the lamp
atmosphere. The halogen material causes
tungsten that evaporates from the filament
during lamp operation to redeposit on the
filament. This halogen cycle increases lamp
life by decreasing lamp depreciation.
Tungsten-halogen lamps also have a higher
color temperature and efficacy.
The halogen cycle requires very high lamp
temperature inside a fairly small bulb.
Consequently, most tungsten-halogen lamps
use fused quartz glass bulbs that can
withstand high operating temperatures. This
gives rise to the common name “quartz
lamps.” The use of this term is not always
accurate, because some halogen cycle
lamps have hard glass bulbs, and some
lamps with fused quartz envelopes do not
employ the halogen cycle. Tungsten-
halogen lamp configurations are shown in
Figure 5-7.

37
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
Special Operating Considerations
The high operating temperature of tungsten-
halogen lamps requires several precautions.
Special heat-resistant bases must be used,
and the glass envelopes must not be
handled with bare hands as they can explode
or bubble if exposed to human finger oils.
Users must take care to avoid touching the
lamps during operation, as potentially severe
burns can occur from even brief contact.
The halogen cycle requires high lamp
operating temperatures, which are lowered
by prolonged dimming. Consequently,
dimming halogen lamps below 80% of full
output for any extended period of time will
decrease lamp life significantly, as the
evaporated tungsten will not redeposit on the
filament. Instead, it blackens the lamp’s bulb
wall. Operating the lamp at full light output
can reverse this process.
Architectural Tungsten-Halogen Lamps
Higher wattage tungsten-halogen lamps
generally operate at line voltage, usually 120
or 130 volts, with some 240- and 277-volt
versions available. The need for compact,
high-intensity lamps in theatrical lighting, film
and photographic lighting, and projector
lamps was the reason for much of the
development of tungsten-halogen lamps, and
many of the current products are still aimed
at that market. For architectural applications,
two major families of tungsten-halogen
lamps, shown in Figure 5-7, have been
developed:
l Double-ended lamps have electrical
connections on both ends. Typical
uses include outdoor floodlights, indoor
torchieres, and some wall sconces.
Common sizes include 300- to 500-
watt T-3 and 750- to 1500-watt T-6
lamps.
l Single-ended lamps are usually
configured with mini-candelabra or
double-contact bayonet bases. These
lamps are used in downlights, sconces,
pendants, and other decorative
luminaires. The common sizes are 75-,
100-, 250-, and 500-watt T-4 lamps.
38
Halogen PAR Lamps
In the larger PAR lamps, high-wattage
tungsten-halogen lamps are enclosed within
the typical PAR housing, creating a lamp that
offers halogen intensity, color, and life in an
easy-to-handle, ordinary-based lamp for
architectural and studio applications. These
hybrid lamps are usually called “quartz PAR”
or QPAR lamps, and come in 150- and 250-
watt QPAR-38, 500-watt QPAR-56, and
1000-watt QPAR-64 sizes.
Halogen Capsule Lamps
Halogen lamps in very small envelopes of
either borosilicate or quartz can be
manufactured inside traditional incandescent
lamp shapes. These halogen capsule lamps,
like quartz PAR lamps, offer the energy
efficiency, color temperature, and longer life
of halogen lamps in an easy-to-handle
standard enclosure. Halogen capsule lamps
usually have medium screw-in bases and are
designed to be energy-efficient replacements
for existing incandescent lamps in most
standard luminaires. The most common
halogen capsule lamps are shown in Figure
5-7 ..
l PAR-38 lamps of 45, 60, 75, and 90
watts are available in narrow spot, spot,
narrow flood, and flood beam spreads.
These can replace incandescent R or
PAR lamps of up to 150 watts. “Cool
beam” PAR-38 lamp products are
equipped with dichroic-coated
reflectors to reduce heat (IR) on lighted
objects.
l PAR-30 lamps, a new lamp size
specifically developed for halogen
capsule lamps, are available in 50 and
75 watts, with flood, narrow flood, spot,
and narrow spot beam spreads.
l PAR-20 lamps, like PAR-30s, are a new
size for halogen capsule lamps. These
are available in 50-watt narrow flood,
spot, and narrow spot varieties.
l PAR-16 lamps are compact PAR lamps
similar to low-voltage PAR lamps and
are available in 40, 55, 60, and 75
watts, and in spot and narrow flood
beam spreads.

l MB, TB, and T lamps, designed to
replace incandescent A and T lamps,
are available in 42 to 250 watts.
Halogen Infrared-Reflecting Lamps
The halogen infrared-reflecting or HIR lamp is
a proprietary version of the halogen capsule
in which the inside of the capsule is coated
with a dichroic film. This film allows visible
light to pass through, but reflects infrared
energy, as shown in Figure 5-9. The
reheating of the filament caused by the
reflected infrared energy reduces the amount
of electricity required to operate the lamp,
without sacrificing output. For example, a
60-watt HIR capsule produces as much light
as a 90-watt standard halogen capsule lamp.
At present, HIR lamps are available as
standard-voltage 60-and 100-watt PAR-38s
as 50-watt PAR-30 lamps, and as 225-to
350-watt T-3 and 950-watt T-6 lamps.
Figure 5-9 Halogen infrared Reflecting Lamps
5. Lamps and Ballasts
Low-Voltage Tungsten-Halogen Lamps
During the 1970s and 1980s, compact
halogen cycle lamps were developed for low-
voltage operation. Many were designed to
provide energy-efficient alternatives to
existing incandescent lamps, but others,
such as the MR-16, were completely new
products which have truly changed the
lighting industry. The most important types
are listed below:
l Low-voltage halogen PAR lamps were
originally designed for automotive use.
They are available in PAR-36 and
aluminum reflector (AR) models, and
are excellent for display illumination in
gallery and retail settings.
l Low-voltage bipin lamps are available in
sizes from three to 100 watts. They
have borosilicate glass envelopes in
sizes below 50 watts. These very small
but brilliant lamps are used in a wide
variety of compact luminaires. Popular
applications include task lights, path
lights, and landscape lights.
39
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
l Low-voltage multi-mirror reflector or MR
lamps use a glass reflector coated with
an infrared-transmitting, visible-light-
reflecting dichroic film. Originally
developed for slide projectors in the
1960s, these lamps were designed to
disperse heat back toward the cooling
fan and away from the slide. The
ellipsoidal shape reflector corresponds
to the focusing optics of projectors,
consisting of many individual facets,
rather than a continuous curve. In the
mid-1970s, the MR lamp was adapted
for architectural use by installing a low-
voltage (and lower temperature)
halogen capsule of up to 75 watts.
Used for display and accent lighting,
low-voltage MR lamps have become
some of the most popular light sources
on the market today. Versions now
available include: two sizes (MR-11
and MR-16); several wattages between
12 and 75 watts; square and round
shapes; narrow spot, spot, narrow
Discharge Lamps
In discharge lamps, an electric current is
passed through a gas-filled tube, ionizing the
gas so that electrons are released.
Reabsorption of these electrons releases
energy at very specific wavelengths. In some
lamps, this energy is within the visible range,
while in other cases a phosphor coating in
the lamp is energized by the discharged
energy. The phosphors react to the energy
by glowing or fluorescing, thus creating
visible light. Lamp color characteristics
depend on gas type and pressure and on the
properties of the lamp’s phosphor coating.
Discharge lamp technology is commonly
applied to standard room lighting with
fluorescent and metal halide lamps, high-
powered area lighting with mercury vapor
and sodium vapor lamps, and art or
advertising signs with neon and argon lamps.
40
flood, and flood beam spreads; open-
faced, clear-faced, and colored
versions; and cool beam lamps that
transmit infrared energy through the
reflector back.
l Aluminum reflector or AR lamps are
similar in wattage to MR lamps, but
they are configured with parabolic all-
metal reflectors. Often AR lamps are
equipped with filament shields as well,
and they are available in a wide variety
of configurations. These lamps are
labeled in diameter in millimeters rather
than eighths of an inch; sizes include
AR-37, AR-48, AR-58, AR-70, and AR-
111. The AR-111 is essentially a PAR-
36 lamp.
Low-voltage halogen lamps are well suited to
compact, high-intensity lighting situations
involving relatively small areas or requiring
focused output, whereas standard halogen
lighting is generally more efficient for general
illumination.
The electric current that flows through the
gas is called an arc, because it jumps a gap
between electrical contacts or electrodes at
either end of the lamp. The arc must be
maintained at specific voltage and current, or
the gas pressure and temperature could
escalate rapidly and cause the lamp to
explode. As shown in Figure 5-9, a device
called a ballast is placed in the electric circuit
to regulate the arc voltage and current for
optimum lamp operation.
In order to begin the arc, the gas must either
be ionized by passing a very high voltage
across the electrodes, or heated to operating
temperature. This is called"starting'', and
the starting method varies with lamp type.
Figure 5-10 shows a typical electric circuit for
a discharge lamp with a starter.

Figure 5-10 An Arc Lamp Circuit
Figure 5-11 Modern Arc Lamp Circuit with
Starter
Fluorescent Lamps
Fluorescent lamps are by far the most
common type of discharge lamp. They use a
low-pressure, argon-mercury vapor
atmosphere and a fluorescent mineral
phosphor coating on the bulb wall to
produce light. Typical operation is shown in
Figure 5-12. The sheer predominance of
fluorescent lamps in common lighting
applications makes use of energy-efficient
fluorescent lamps a promising area for
energy conservation.
5. Lamps and Ballasts
Figure 5-12 Fluorescent Lamp Operation
Like all discharge lamps, fluorescent lamps
require ballasts to operate. Varying ways to
start and ballast the lamps have given rise to
four distinct families of fluorescent lamps:
cold cathode, hot cathode, rapid start, and
preheat.
Cold Cathode Lamps
Cold cathode lamps employ a thimble-like
electrode in each end of the lamp tube. A
very high-voltage pulse starts the arc. The
lamp can then be regulated through a cold
cathode ballast, or several lamps can be
connected in series to a transformer, as
shown in Figure 5-13. Dimming can be
performed by the use of an electronic
dimmer or an auto-transformer on the
transformer primary. Cold cathode lamps are
generally custom-made T-8 shapes, either
straight or bent, and designed to be operated
at 120 milliamperes (mA). They have a very
long life, up to 40,000 hours, but are costly
and uncommon and should only be selected
with great care.
41
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
Figure 5-13 Cold Cathode Lamp Circuit
Hot Cathode Lamps
Hot cathode or instant start lamps use a
tungsten filament as an electrode at each
end of the lamp tube. This filament gets
much hotter than the cold cathode
electrodes, increasing the lamp’s efficacy,
but shortening its life. Hot cathode lamps are
generally stock T-12 shapes with distinctive
single pin bases (often called “slimline”),
operating at 425 mA, although custom lamps
are available. Hot cathode lamps are most
often regulated by ballasts, but they can be
operated via a transformer in the manner of
cold cathode lamps. Some modern
electronic ballasts operate lamps designed
for rapid start operation (discussed below) as
hot cathode lamps; this is called instant start
operation. Because other fluorescent lamps
consume additional energy in heating
electrodes (see below), instant start operation
of hot cathode or rapid start T-8 lamps is the
most energy-efficient fluorescent technology
available.
Rapid Start Lamps
Rapid start lamp electrodes are heated
throughout the operation of the lamp. This
provides a life of 20,000 hours or more, as
well as high efficacy. Rapid start lamps start
smoothly in about one second, and they are
sensitive to starting and operating
temperatures. Rapid start lamps are the
most common type of full-size and U-bent
fluorescent lamps.
42
Preheat Lamps
Preheat lamps have a tungsten electrode that
is heated by an electric current in a manner
similar to that of the incandescent lamp. As
the filament heats the atmosphere and the
electrodes, a voltage pulse strikes the arc
and begins lamp operation. Filament heating
is then stopped. Lamp starting time is
slightly. longer than for rapid start operation.
Many people are familiar with the old-
fashioned red-and black-button fluorescent
desk and drafting lamps; these use preheat
circuits operated manually by the user.
Modern lamps, including many compact
fluorescents, use automatic or integral
starters. These lamps and circuits are
inexpensive, especially for lamps below 20
watts, where preheat lamps are the most
common type. Some straight-tube T-5, T-6,
T-8 and T-12 lamps can be operated on
preheat circuits, and lamps below 24 inches
generally require preheat circuits.
Fluorescent Lamp Shapes
The majority of fluorescent lamps in current
use are rapid start lamps in straight-tube and
U-bent shapes. The standardized four-foot
unit of measurement in the American building
industry has helped make the 48-inch
straight tube lamp the primary length for
office, commercial, and industrial luminaires.
Fluorescent lamps are designated by
diameter in eighths of an inch; the most
common size, T-12, is 1.5 inches in
diameter.

Figure 5-14 Ends of the T-8, T-10, and
T-12 Rapid Start Lamps
For over three decades, the F40T12
(430 mA) lamp has been the single most
common fluorescent lamp made. However,
in response to the energy crisis of 1973,
lighting manufacturers introduced energy-
efficient T-8 (1 inch diameter, 265 mA) and T-
10 (1.25 inches diameter, 430 mA) lamps,
along with reduced wattage T-12 lamps, to
replace the millions of standard T-12 lamps
in use. These newer lamps are becoming
more and more common, although the
standard T-12 is still the dominant product
because of its low price. More energy-
efficient variations of the standard F40T12
lamp include the following:
l 34-watt F40T12 “energy saving” lamps
reduce both light output and wattage.
l 32-watt F40T12 electrode cutout lamps
are energy saving lamps that save
another two watts per lamp by shutting
off the lamp’s electrode heater once the
lamp reaches normal operating
temperature.
l 32-watt F32T8 lamps employ rare earth
phosphors and are much more
efficacious than standard F40T12
lamps. However, they do not operate
on the same ballasts.
5. Lamps and Ballasts
l 40- and 42-watt “extended output” F40
lamps emit more lumens than standard
F40T12 lamps, while operating on the
same ballasts. These lamps are
available in T-12 and T-10 diameters.
l T-5 twin-tube lamps in several sizes
and wattages offer high lumen output in
a compact package. For example, the
40-watt version of this lamp is only 22½
inches long. Like T-8 lamps, twin tubes
require special ballasts.
For more information on energy-efficient
fluorescent lamp products, see the Full-Size
Fluorescent Lamps section of the Advanced
Lighting Guidelines.
Fluorescent Lamp Color
The color characteristics of light radiated by a
fluorescent lamp are determined by the
phosphor coating on the inside of the tube.
Table 5-2 shows the most popular and
common fluorescent colors available; all fall
into one of these three phosphor types:
l Standard halophosphors include the
common cool white and warm white
lamps that are most often associated
with fluorescent lighting (and which are
the cause of much of the public’s
dissatisfaction with fluorescent lamps).
They are the least expensive type of
fluorescent lamp, but their color
rendition is poor, often with CRls of less
than 60, and they are less energy
efficient than rare earth (triphosphor)
lamps.
l Premium halophosphor lamps, such as
“cool white deluxe,” provide much
higher color rendering than standard
halophosphor lamps. However, lamp
lumen output is reduced as a result.
These lamps produce a CRI of over 90.
l RE (rare earth) lamps, also called
triphosphor or tristimulus lamps, use
rare earth phosphors that generate
specific wavelengths of light, especially
in the prime colors of red, green, and
blue. Rare earth phosphors are
expensive, so these lamps are
sometimes made with a coat of
halophosphor and a second coat of
rare earth phosphors. RE-70
43
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
designated lamps produce a CRI of
between 70 and 79, while RE-80
designated lamps produce CRI ranging
from 80 to 89. Generally, RE lamps
increase efficacy and maintain their
lumen output better than halophosphor
lamps.
In general, standard halophosphors are the
most common and least expensive. RE
phosphor lamps are becoming more
common because of their efficiency, and are
desirable in critical color-rendering situations.
Other Full-Size Fluorescent Lamps
There are several other fluorescent lamps
designed for special operating conditions.
The two most important are:
l High-output (HO) and very high-output
(VHO) rapid start lamps operate at a
much higher power and lumen output.
These are generally T-12 lamps. A
four-foot HO lamp operates at 800 mA
and produces 4500 lumens; a four-foot
VHO lamp operates at 1500 mA and
delivers 6300 lumens. Lamp life tends
to be much shorter than in 430 mA
rapid start lamps. The most common
type of high output lamp is the eight-
foot F96T12HO lamp, used in
commercial interior and exterior lighting.
l Instant start “slimline” lamps are hot
cathode fluorescent lamps and are
primarily designed for environments that
undergo a broad temperature range.
These are generally available in T-6, T-8
and T-12 diameters, and in a limited
range of sizes and wattages. F96T12
slimline lamps are frequently used in
supermarkets and industrial lighting
applications.
44
Compact Fluorescent Lamps
The compact fluorescent lamp, introduced to
the U.S. market in the early 1980s, was
designed to replace standard incandescent
lamps in many common applications. In the
decade since then, every lamp manufacturer
has introduced compact fluorescent lamps,
and this market has become one of the most
important and competitive segments of the
lighting industry. New lamp types are
continually being tested, developed, and
marketed.
Compact fluorescent lamps fall into two
general categories: medium-based, self-
ballasted lamps designed to screw into
existing incandescent sockets; and pin-
based, externally-ballasted lamps designed
to be used in luminaires specifically made for
compact fluorescents.
The medium-based lamps include an
electromagnetic or electronic ballast as part
of the assembly, and most require disposal of
both lamp and ballast at the end of lamp life.
Important products in this category, as
shown in Figure 5-15, are:
l Modular type lamp-ballast combinations
consisting of a removable pin-based
lamp in a medium-based screw-in
ballast assembly (These units allow for
the use of a long-lasting ballast with
replaceable lamps in incandescent
sockets.)
l Integral (non-separable) twin-tube and
quad-tube lamp-ballast assemblies
l Integral lamp-ballast combinations with
globe enclosures suitable for use in
exposed-lamp luminaires
l R-style reflector units with either an
integral or separable ballast

Figure 5-15 Medium-Based Compact Fluorescent Lamps
Compact fluorescent lamps with medium
bases offer the advantage of immediate
replacement of incandescent lamps, but they
are not always the best solution. Much of
the benefit of these lamps can be lost if they
are replaced with incandescent lamps after
failure. In addition, non-dimmable ballasts
can malfunction or fail if used in a dimmed
circuit, most of the electronic ballasts used
produce over 100% harmonic distortion (see
Chapter 11 for a discussion of power quality
issues), and the candlepower and beam
spread of the reflector lamps do not compare
with that of incandescent R lamps or
tungsten-halogen reflector lamps.
Using luminaires specifically designed for
compact fluorescent lamps with pin terminals
solves one of these problems, because no
other lamp type will fit the specific pin socket
in the luminaire. There are four families of
pin-based compact fluorescent lamps:
5. Lamps and Ballasts
l Twin-tube preheat lamps contain an
integral starter and are available from 5
to 13 watts. The starter is located in
the base of the lamp and is replaced
along with the lamp. Twin-tube lamps
operate on simple magnetic reactor
ballasts and cannot be dimmed.
l Quad-tube preheat lamps with integral
starters are similar to higher wattage
versions of the twin-tube. They are
available in wattages from 9 to 27
watts. These lamps require simple
reactor or auto-transformer ballasts,
and are likewise not dimmable.
l Quad-tube rapid start lamps look similar
to quad-tube preheat lamps but have
no starter, and are equipped with four
pins, instead of two. Wattages range
from 10 to 26 watts, and the lamp will
45
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
operate on a rapid start, electronic, or within the lamp envelope. The result is an
electronic dimming ballast. electrodeless lamp, commonly called an “RF”
l Twin-tube, square shaped, “three- or “E” lamp. This lamp offers efficacy of
loop,” “four-finger,” and other multiple more than 50 lumens per watt, full-range
dimming, up to 50,000 hour life, and good
bend-type rapid start lamps are higher
wattage (18-55 watts) lamps with four- color using RE phosphors. Products
pin terminals. These lamps represent rumored to be introduced soon (available in
the latest developments in compact Europe now) include a 1200-lumen low-cost
fluorescent lamp technology. They can lamp and a 3000-lumen high-cost lamp. The
principal limitations of electrodeless lamps
be operated on magnetic or electronic
are the difficulty of containing the short-wave
ballasts and are dimmable using proper
radio field and the relatively high cost.
ballast equipment.
Sub-miniature fluorescent lamps (T-2
Other Fluorescent Lamps diameter, up to 20 inches long) were
introduced in both cold cathode and hot
Two other fluorescent lamps have become
cathode versions in 1990. Originally
available within recent years, and may offer
designed as computer screen lights, the
new developments in fluorescent lighting
architectural versions have RE80 rare earth
technology and design. Fluorescent
phosphors and deliver over 80 lumens per
discharge lamps without electrodes have
watt. Commercial availability is still limited
been conceptualized for many years but
due to slow development of ballasts, but
appear to finally be reaching commercial
practical applications will include under
viability. In these lamps, mercury-argon
cabinet and other small area uses.
vapor at low pressure is ionized by the
creation of a high-power radio-frequency field
Figure 5-16 Twin-Tube Preheat Lamps

Figure 5-17 Quad-Tube Lamps

46

Figure 5-18 The E Lamp
Fluorescent Ballasts
Ballasts are necessary for proper and stable
fluorescent lamp operation. There are
several types of ballasts in common use;
each has specific performance
characteristics unique to its type. Some
areas of comparison between ballasts are:
l Energy Efficiency — All ballasts
consume some energy themselves,
converting it directly to heat, but there is
considerable variation among ballast
types.
l Ballast Factor is the ratio of actual light
output of a specific lamp-ballast
combination compared to the light
output produced by a reference ballast
and the same lamp under ANSI
conditions. It is another value used in
the determination of lighting system
efficiency.
l Ballast Efficacy Factor (BEF) is used to
compare different ballasts operating the
same quantity and type of lamp. It is
equal to the percentage of ANSI-rated
lamp output for the lamp-ballast
combination under consideration,
divided by the measured input power in
watts.
l Operating Frequency — While most
ballasts regulate 60 Hertz (Hz) current
into the lamp, most electronic ballasts
convert the power into high frequencies
of 20 kilohertz (kHz) or higher, causing
5. Lamps and Ballasts
the lamps to produce more light per
watt.
l Crest Factor is related to the shape of
the power wave delivered to the lamp
by the ballast. High crest factors (the
ratio of voltage peak to voltage mean)
can reduce lamp life. Ballasts with
crest factors below 1.7 are considered
good.
l Harmonic Distortion of the 60 Hz
fundamental power wave form is an
ongoing topic of concern and research.
Lamp ballasts having total harmonic
distortion below 20% are preferred;
below 10% is considered excellent.
This matter is discussed in detail in
Chapter 11.
l Ballast Power Factor is the ratio of
watts to volt-amps of a ballast. This
value measures how effectively the
ballast converts input power into actual
usable power. Some ballasts are
equipped with a “HPF” designation,
meaning they are equipped with a
power factor of at least 0.90. A low or
normal power factor (NPF) ballast will
have a power factor of less than 0.90 --
usually between 0.25 and 0.70. Power
factor is discussed in more detail in
Chapter 11.
Ballasts for Full-Sized and U-Bent
Lamps
Most full-size and U-bent lamps are of the
rapid start design, lending themselves to a
variety of ballast options:
l Standard electromagnetic ballasts are
the least expensive and least efficient
ballast. These were the industry
standard for many years, and still
account for a majority of all fluorescent
ballasts in current use. In 1990,
however, standard electromagnetic
ballasts for F40 and F96 lamp systems
were no longer allowed to be sold in the
United States because of their poor
efficiency.
l Standard “energy-saving”
electromagnetic ballasts for F40 and
F96 lamps have about half the power
loss of the older standard
electromagnetic ballasts.
47
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
l Heater-cutout or “hybrid”
electromagnetic ballasts, for use with
rapid start lamps, are energy-efficient
ballasts that turn off the lamp’s
electrode heater once the lamp reaches
operating temperature. These help to
reduce wattage for the lamp-ballast
combination.
l Electromagnetic dimming ballasts,
designed to operate with a wallbox
phase-control dimmer, are relatively
expensive and uncommon; they do not
perform as well as electronic dimming
ballasts and can be quite noisy.
l Electronic fixed-output ballasts operate
lamps at high frequencies through the
use of an electronic rectifier and inverter
circuit. Electronic ballasts tend to have
greater efficiency than electromagnetic
ballasts, but in some cases have high
harmonic distortion, low ballast factors,
and/or high crest factors.
l Electronic multi-level ballasts have a
remote-selectable output option, and
are usually able to switch between off,
50%, and 100% of full light output.
l Electronic adjustable-output dimming
ballasts vary lamp lumen output based
on an input signal level. These allow-for
continuous, full-range dimming.
In 1990, electronic ballasts made up only
about five percent of the ballasts made and
sold in the United States. Principal
impediments to their acceptance so far have
been a perceived lack of reliability and higher
cost. However, modern electronic ballasts
have overcome most of the early
technological problems and are now very
reliable. Early problems with harmonic
distortion, low power factor, and excessive
lamp current crest factor have diminished
considerably. Increased reliability, combined
with rising energy prices, higher material
costs (such as copper windings) for
electromagnetic ballasts, and the falling costs
of electronic ballasts, is expected to shift the
electronic ballast group’s market share to
195% by the year 2000.
Ballasts for Compact Fluorescent
Lamps
Many ballasts for self-ballasted compact
fluorescent lamps are electronic. These
ballasts tend to have excellent efficiency,
good high-frequency operation, and
reasonable operating life. However, most
products have high harmonic distortion,
many over 100%, and may malfunction if
accidentally installed on a solid-state wallbox
dimmer circuit.
Ballasts for the lower-wattage pin-based
lamps are usually simple reactor ballasts.
Both HPF and NPF ballasts are available.
For rapid start type compact lamps, ballasts
are similar or identical to those offered for
full-sized lamps.
In late 1991, the first “standard” encased
electronic ballasts for 4-pin compact
fluorescent lamps were placed on the
market. These ballasts are designed to
operate the 18- and 26-watt quad-tube
lamps. The sub-miniature or T-2 compact
lamps will also be operated on commercial
electronic ballasts, though products are not
yet available. By 1994, electronic ballasts are
expected to be available for all four-pin
compact fluorescent lamps.

Figure 5-19 Block Diagram of Electronic Baliast Operation

48

Figure 5-20 Ballasts for Compact Fluorescent
Lamps
For more information on ballasts, consult
EPRl’s Advanced Lighting Guidelines.
High Intensity Discharge Lamps
The family of architectural light sources with
the highest light output levels is called high
intensity discharge or HID lamps. HID lamps
are the most compact discharge sources,
capable of producing a brightness rivaling
that of the sun.
Like all discharge lamps, HlDs require
ballasts for current regulation and proper
lamp operation. Some important differences
between HID lamps and other discharge
sources include the following:
l HlDs strike quickly when they are cool,
but they have a long warm-up time,
requiring as much as five minutes to
reach full light output.
l When extinguished, HID lamps must
cool before being restarted. This
restrike time, as much as ten to fifteen
minutes, can be very frustrating and
potentially dangerous. Special hot-
restrike HlDs are available, at a
significantly higher price.
l Many HID lamps will exhibit changes in
color characteristic across their life
span. These changes are neither
predictable nor welcome.
l HID lamps are reasonably immune to
the surrounding temperature, and can
be used in extreme environments.
5. Lamps and Ballasts
l HID lamps tend to be very expensive,
but because of their long life and high
efficacy, they are generally quite cost-
effective.
The primary types of HID lamps are mercury
vapor, metal halide, and high pressure
sodium. A similar lamp type, the low
pressure sodium, is slightly different, but for
most purposes, it behaves like an HID lamp.
HID Ballasts
Ballasts regulate the arc current and deliver
the proper voltage to the lamps. Some HID
ballasts also start the lamp with a high-
voltage electronic pulse. However, this is
usually not the case with metal halide lamps,
which are configured with a starting
electrode.
Some electronic ballasts are now available for
HID lamps. Unlike fluorescent lamp
technologies, electronic ballasts for HID
lamps do not, in most cases, increase lamp
efficacy. Instead, the primary benefit is a
more precise management of the lamp’s arc
tube voltage. This enables more consistent
color and longer lamp life.
Mercury Vapor Lamps
Mercury vapor lamps are the least efficient of
the HID lamps, with a maximum efficacy of
50 to 60 lumens per watt. They use mercury
vapor in a high-pressure argon atmosphere
to generate intense green, blue, and
ultraviolet light. The ultraviolet is absorbed by
the glass bulb of the lamp, which is often
coated with phosphors to improve the lamp’s
color. They are available in medium and
mogul bases with type E, ED, and TB
diffusing bulbs, and in one-piece R-type
reflector bulbs.
Mercury vapor lamps are available from 50 to
1000 watts, and can be ballasted with
standard reactor, constant wattage auto-
transformer, and regulating ballasts. These
lamps are very sensitive to input voltage; the
better ballasts provide more consistent
current output relative to input power
variations.
49
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
Figure 5-21 Mercury Vapor Lamps
Mercury vapor lamps provide a very
discontinuous spectrum of light and poor
color quality. Clear mercury vapor lamps
produce red-deficient light with a CRI of
about 9. The most common mercury vapor
lamps are the phosphor-coated “deluxe
white” or “warm deluxe white,” which have
CRls of about 50 at 4100 K and 3400 K,
respectively.
Until the invention of the high pressure
sodium lamp in 1968, mercury lamps were
often used in street lighting and other exterior
applications. They are still used in some
exterior luminaires, but a more efficient and
effective source is usually available. These
lamps last a very long time; however, after
about 20,000 hours, the lumen output
depreciates and in effect, the lamp becomes
useless. A thorough and regular group
relamping maintenance program is necessary
for mercury vapor svstems to be effective.
50
Metal Halide Lamps
Metal halide lamps are similar to mercury
vapor lamps in design, construction, and
operation. The difference is that additional
metal vapors (indium, sodium, dysprosium, or
thallium, depending on the lamp) are added
to the mercury-argon atmosphere to
generate a wider spectrum of white light, with
better color rendering and higher lumen
output. Because of the complex chemistry of
these lamps, they are sensitive to operating
position. Metal halide lamps are often
designed for a specific physical orientation,
and short life or poor output can accompany
misapplication.
Metal halide lamps have a lamp life of 5,000
to 15,000 hours, CRls from 65 to 90, and
efficacies of up to 100 lumens per watt. The
major disadvantages are color difference and
color shift over lamp life, as well as the
longest restrike time (up to 15 minutes) of any
HID lamp.
Standard metal halide lamps generally have
mogul bases and are designed for large,
high-output luminaires such as those used
for street lighting, sports field lighting, and
high-bay industrial lighting. They range in
wattage from 175 to 1650 watts, and most
have E or BT envelopes, which can be clear
or phosphor-coated. “High-output” lamps,
which are designed for a specific optimal
operating position, can deliver approximately
10% more light if operated in the correct
position.
Because they produce significant levels of UV
radiation, most conventional metal halide
lamps should be enclosed in protective
luminaires, equipped with cover glasses. If
they are not cycled on-and-off periodically,
metal halide lamps can rupture and burst at
the end of lamp life. Some lamps have built-
in rupture guards.

Figure 5-22 Standard Metal Halide Lamps
A relatively new metal halide lamp type, the
compact metal halide lamp shown in Figure
5-23, has a medium-based ED-17, PAR 38,
or double-ended tubular envelope. The
medium-based lamps are designed for use in
conventional luminaires such as downlights,
wall washers, exterior lanterns, and globes.
The double-ended lamps are primarily used
in special luminaire designs resembling those
for double-ended tungsten-halogen lamps.
Figure 5-23 Compact Metal Halide Lamps
Medium-based compact metal halide lamps
range from 32 to 250 watts. They can be
clear or phosphor-coated, and tend to have
CRls of 65 to 70 with color temperatures of
3200 K or 4100 K. The double-ended lamps
are always clear, with CRls above 80 and
color temperatures of 3000 K or
4100 K.
5. Lamps and Ballasts
Most compact metal halide lamp ballasts
consist of separate ballast and starting
circuits; a few of them are electronic ballasts
that regulate lamp operation more accurately
and provide more consistent color and lumen
output.
Special metal halide lamp configurations
have been developed for use in uncommon
settings. These include:
l R and PAR lamps for use in situations
requiring the compact optical
advantages of an integral-reflector lamp
l Very compact bipin lamps for
applications where an extremely small
arc can be used in a special-effects
projector or other special luminaire
l PAR lamps using special metal halide
formulas (called CSI or CID) that are
specifically designed for film, sports,
and studio lighting demanding excellent
color rendition
l Special configurations in double-ended,
MR, and other shapes for use in
projection equipment, entertainment
lighting, and similar applications
High Pressure Sodium Lamps
High pressure sodium or HPS lamps are a
family of products that use sodium as the
principal metal vapor in an argon gas
environment. Sodium discharge creates
predominantly yellow light that is close in
wavelength to the peak sensitivity of the
eye’s photopic response. Because of this,
sodium lamps have tremendous efficacy,
delivering up to 140 lumens per watt. Other
advantages of the HPS lamp, including very
long life and minimal lumen depreciation,
make HPS very popular for applications such
as street lighting, industrial lighting, and
general outdoor area lighting. HPS lamps
also provide very consistent color and
performance from lamp to lamp. Compared
to metal halide lamps, HPS lamps have
much shorter warm-up and restrike times.
Unlike metal halide lamps, they fail passively,
with an obvious on-off cycling process that
indicates the end of lamp life. However, the
color characteristics of most HPS lamps are
not nearly as desirable as those of metal
halide lamps. Virtually lacking in blue and
51
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology

Figure 5-24 Standard HPS Lamps Figure 5-25 White Sodium Lamps

yellow light. At present, 35-watt white

sodium lamps can be operated on standard
HPS electromagnetic ballasts, but most of
the 50-watt lamps and all of the larger lamps
must be operated on the manufacturer’s
proprietary electronic ballast. All of the white
sodium lamps are manufactured in T-10 or
ED-17 envelopes, with either medium bases
green light, they have very poor color or bipin pre-focus bases.
rendering qualities. Lower wattage lamps
have CRls of 9 at 2000 K, and higher Low Pressure Sodium Lamps
wattage lamps have CRls of 22 at 2100 K.
Low pressure sodium lamps have the
Standard HPS lamps are mostly mogul- poorest color characteristics of any discharge
based lamps of 150 watts and greater, with light source. However, they offer extremely
some medium-based compact lamps of 35 high efficacy (up to 200 lumens per watt).
to 150 watts, and a few double-ended lamps Lamp life ranges between 14,000 and
also available. A special double-arc version 18,000 hours, and wattages of 18 to 185
of the HPS street lamp doubles lamp life, and watts are available. Although they provide
has the fastest possible restrike time. the lowest operating cost of any commercial
A few high pressure sodium lamps are light source, they are unpopular, due to the
available that operate on standard HPS harsh yellow light they emit. They are most
ballasts, have slightly higher color often used in street lighting luminaires,
temperatures (2200 K), and much better security lighting, and other exterior
color rendering capability (CRI about 65). applications.
These lamps are known as “HPS Deluxe,”
and they are available in 70-watt ED-17 and
PAR-38 medium-based lamps, and in 150-
and 250-watt BT-28 mogul-based lamps.
The primary disadvantage of the HPS Deluxe
is color life and color stability; near the end of
color life at about 10,000 hours, these lamps
shift quickly to very poor color quality.
Because deluxe HPS lamps are fairly difficult
to produce, relatively few products are
available.
Specially-designed “white sodium” lamps
have even better color temperatures (2500 K
to 2800 K) and CRls (over 80), making them
appear nearly indistinguishable from
incandescent light. These lamps have an
approximate color life of 10,000 hours before
they shift noticeably to a very poor quality

52

Other Light Sources
Although most architectural lighting designs
use incandescent, tungsten-halogen,
fluorescent, or HID sources, several other
light sources are used in special situations.
Neon Lighting
Neon is a custom-made, low-pressure
discharge tube lighting, closely related to
cold cathode fluorescent. Neon allows for
special bending, shaping and color
variations, with atmospheres of neon gas for
red light or mercury/argon gas for blue light.
Standard tube diameters are 9, 12, 15, and
18 millimeters, and the tubing can be clear,
tinted, or phosphor-coated. Neon lamps use
a cold cathode and are usually operated from
a specially-designed high-voltage transformer
that can include flashing and dimming
capabilities. The primary application for neon
is, of course, sign lighting, as well as other
decorative effects.
Neon lamps usually operate at currents of
30, 60, and 90 mA and draw about 4 watts
per foot at 30 mA, delivering 150 to 200
lumens per foot (warm white). The lamps are
usually ended in open-wire terminations or
PK housings, and are supported by standoff
insulators.
Cold Cathode Lighting
Cold cathode lighting is similar to neon, and
generally is built to order, as well, but it differs
from neon in that:
l The lamp terminals are straight or right-
angle brass connectors capable of
supporting the lamps
l The cathodes are more rugged,
designed to operate at 120 to 200
milliampere current
l The lamps use larger 26 millimeter or T-
8 tubing, draw about 7 watts per foot,
and generate 400 to 500 lumens per
foot (warm white)
5. Lamps and Ballasts
l The lamps are available in special
types, such as reflector and aperture
lamps
l The lamps are usually made in a lamp
factory rather than in a local shop
Cold cathode lighting is superior to neon for
general illumination, but not as good for
color, brilliance, or special effect.
Light Emitting Diodes
Light emitting diodes or LEDs are compact
devices that radiate a small but potentially
brilliant light. The light is most often red,
although yellow and green LEDs are
common as well. They are used in computer
displays, electronic indicator lights, and
dynamic or message signs. The primary
architectural applications for LEDs are control
panel indicator lights and exit signs.
Carbon Arc Lamps
Carbon arc lamps are extremely high-output
point sources of brilliant light. Once used for
searchlights and lighthouses, carbon arc
lamps are rarely used now because of very
high maintenance requirements.
Xenon and Other Short-Arc Lamps
Short-arc lamps of xenon, mercury, or
krypton are used to create brilliant point
source lamps that have the same effect as
carbon arc lamps, while operating cleanly
and requiring relatively little maintenance.
Short-arc lamps are used in searchlights and
other limited applications.
Photochemical Light Sources
Luminescent chemical sources use chemical
interactions to create light. Fireflies are a
natural example of this process. The most
common human-made example is “light-
sticks” that have two chemical solutions in
separate chambers. When the stick is
snapped, the separation between the
chambers is broken, the chemicals mix, and
light is emitted. Although interesting and
53
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
potentially useful in emergency situations
where no power is available, photochemical
lighting is currently far from practical.
Electroluminescent Panels
Electroluminescent panels generate a soft
green-white light when powered by an
electric field. These are useful in low-level
exit signs and path lights because of long
lamp life and very low power consumption.
Nuclear Light Sources
Nuclear or radioactive panels use sealed,
phosphor-coated tritium tubes to generate
light. Nuclear panels use no electric power,
and can be easily installed. They are most
frequently used in signs, where their life is
seven years or longer.
Photoluminescent Panels
Photoluminescent films absorb light energy,
store it, and glow visibly in low light. Unlike
nuclear sources, they are not radioactive.
Typical uses are for exit illumination and path
marking. Life is 10 to 20 years.

54
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
6. Luminaires
The word “luminaire” is the correct term to
describe what is more commonly known as a
“lighting fixture.” (The word “fixture” has legal
implications associated with permanently
Luminaire Components
A luminaire is a complete lighting unit
consisting of one or more lamps together
with some or all of the following components:
Lamp holders and sockets to position
the lamps and connect them to the
power supply
Ballasts to start and operate the lamps
Reflectors to direct the light in the
desired direction
Diffusing/shielding components, such
as lenses, diffusers, and louvers, to
distribute the light evenly and reduce
glare
Housings to encase the above
components along with wiring
connections and other electrical
equipment
Types of Luminaires
Luminaires can be classified or grouped
according to one or more characteristics,
including light distribution, mounting type,
installed building equipment.) Well over
100,000 types and styles of luminaires are
made worldwide. The most important and
widely used are described in this chapter.
Luminaire components work together to
determine luminaire performance. Two
metrics are used to assess luminaire
performance. First, luminaire efficiency
measures the percentage of lamp lumens
that exit a luminaire, as compared with the
total rated lamp lumens. Thus, an open
luminaire will generally have a higher
efficiency than will the same luminaire
equipped with a lens, as the lens will absorb
some light. Second, a luminaire’s coefficient
of utilization is used in lighting calculations to
describe the percentage of lamp lumens that
reach the work surface. This figure depends
on room dimensions, as well as on luminaire
type, and tables of values are printed in
luminaire manufacturers’ catalogs (see
Chapter 9).
specific function, distinctive shape or form,
reflector or lens type, and traditional design
name.
55
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology

Figure 6- 1 Lamp Distribution Types

Classification by Light
Distribution
One of the most important characteristics of
a luminaire is its distribution pattern. The
most common distribution patterns, as
shown in Figure 6-1, are:
l Direct light, with the luminaire mounted
above the area to be lighted and its
output directed downward
l Indirect light, in which the luminaire
directs all of its light toward the ceiling
or a wall, relying on the illuminated
surface to reflect the light toward the
work area
l Mostly direct, in which the light is
primarily directed toward the workplace,
but which has some indirect distribution
as well
l Mostly indirect, in which the indirect
distribution is the largest percentage of
the output
l Direct/indirect, in which the two
distribution amounts are approximately
equal
l Diffuse, in which the luminaire radiates
light more or less equally in all
directions
l Directional, in which the output is aimed
in a specific direction
l Asymmetric, in which the output is
directed more strongly to one side than
another

Classification by Mounting Type l Pendant-mounted luminaires are

The manner in which a luminaire is mounted
or connected is also a common classifying
feature. The most common mountings, as
shown in Figure 6-2, are listed below.
l Recessed luminaires are set into a wall
or ceiling. A semi-recessed luminaire is
only partially set into the surface, with
the remainder visible in the room.
l Surface-mounted luminaires are often
described as “wall-mounts” or “ceiling-
mounts.” These luminaires are entirely
visible in the room.
suspended at the end of a ceiling-
mounted cord, tube, or chain that also
carries the electrical wiring to the lamp.
These are sometimes called suspended
luminaires, especially when more than
one suspension member is required.
l Wall-brackets are mounted to the wall
with a bracket that is often part of the
architectural design of the overall
luminaire.
l Post-top luminaires are designed to be
mounted atop an outdoor pole.
l Under cabinet luminaires illuminate
countertops.

56

l Track luminaires mount to an electrified
track or trolley.
l Furniture-integrated luminaires are
permanently mounted to moveable
office partitions or are part of
workstation systems.
l Portable luminaires can be easily
moved and connected to standard
electric outlets.
Figure 6-2 Lamp Mounting Types
6. Luminaires
Classification by Function or
Traditional Name
Many luminaires have simple descriptive
names related to their function. These
include downlights, wall washers, step lights,
desk lamps, accent lights, and chalkboard
lights. It should be remembered, though,
that the actual uses of a luminaire are not
limited-to those suggested by its name.
57
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
Figure 6-3 Recognizable Luminaire Shapes
Other luminaires are of traditional or historic
design, or are modern luminaires used in a
familiar or traditional manner. Common
examples include the chandelier, the sconce,
and the lantern.
Classification by Shape or Form
It is common to refer to a luminaire by its
shape or form, especially if the design is
visually evocative, such as those listed below
and shown in Figure 6-3.
The “shoe box” shape of modern
sharp-cutoff roadway luminaires
The “cobra head” shape of
conventional street lighting refractor
luminaires
The “lollipop shape” of globe-style post-
top luminaires
The “wall slot” appearance of a
continuous luminaire running parallel to
a wall
The “metal troffer” or reflecting pan or
tub used in most recessed fluorescent
ceiling luminaires
58
Figure 6-4 Component Named Luminaires
The “top hat” shape of recessed
downlights
Classification by Component
Type
In many cases, the name of a luminaire will
include a description of a specific component
that makes the luminaire noteworthy.
Common examples, as shown in Figure 6-4,
are:
Parabolics, used for fluorescent troffers
equipped with louvers designed to cut
off extraneous light and shield the
lamps from direct view
Prismatic or lensed troffers, so named
for the diffusing lens over the troffer
face
Fresnels, named after the lens type
used in soft-focus, variable-beam
theatrical lamps
Ellipsoidal, named after the ellipsoidal
reflectors found in many small-aperture
recessed downlights
Wraparounds, used for fluorescent
luminaires with wrap-around prismatic
lenses or diffusers.
 6. Luminaires

Generic Lighting System Types and Styles

There are literally thousands of different

Figure 6-5 Downlights
luminaire types and lighting systems currently
in use, but they can be divided into several
general categories, including architectural
lighting, general office and commercial
lighting, industrial and work lighting, display
lighting, decorative or ornamental lighting,
portable lighting, specialty interior lighting,
and outdoor lighting for building and
landscape enhancement and security.

Architectural Lighting
Architectural lighting refers to lighting
equipment that is concealed from sight or
integrated into the building design, creating
lighting effects without an obviously apparent
source. Architectural lighting equipment is
widely used in all types of buildings, and is
especially common in contemporary building
styles.
Figure 6-6 Cut-Off Angle
Downlighting
Downlights, also called “cans” or “top hats,”
are used in many residential and commercial
situations. Downlights are usually recessed,
direct luminaires that are principally used to
illuminate high-quality contemporary space,
such as hotel lobbies and residential living
rooms. They can be equipped with
incandescent, tungsten-halogen, HID or low above the ceiling, desired beam spread, and
wattage fluorescent lamps. There are several cost. Cut-off angle, the angle from which the
specific types of downlights, as shown in light source is visible, is an especially
Figure 6-5: important criterion for downlights; the higher
Baffles for use with reflector or PAR the ceiling, the smaller the cut-off angle
lamps should be to prevent glare problems.

Parabolic cones for use with standard
incandescent and some compact
fluorescent lamps
Ellipsoidal cones for use with standard
incandescent, HID, or tungsten-halogen
lamps
Low-voltage downlights, sometimes
called pin spots, for small aperture
accent lighting
Wall Washers and Wall Slots
Wall washers and wall slots are luminaires
designed to broadly illuminate the walls of a
room. Wall washers are designed to light
walls fairly evenly from ceiling to floor; wall
slots are designed to graze the wall, creating
a “texturing” effect on irregular wall surfaces,
such as brick or stone. Grazing can also
make the ceiling appear to “float” above the

Downlights are selected on the basis of

aperture size, amount of available space

59
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
wails. Important types include the following:
Recessed eyelid wall washers “scoop”
light onto a wall while shielding the
room side from view of the light source.
Downlight/wall washers are designed to
disperse light across a wall surface to
one side while appearing as a standard
downlight to the room side.
Semi-recessed and surface wall
washers, including track luminaires,
usually have a lens to help diffuse the
light evenly across the wall.
Open wall slots usually consist of a
fluorescent lamp mounted in a trough
and concealed from view only by the
depth of the channel. Recessed track
lighting systems of this type are also
available.
Louvered wall slots use a louver or
baffle to conceal the light source inside
the trough.
The choice between wall washing and wall
grazing depends upon the desired effect.
For walls with artwork, where light should be
evenly dispersed, wall washers are usually
better. Wall slots are superior for bringing out
the texture of a vertical surface, or for
simulating a “floating” ceiling or daylighting
effects.
Accent Lighting
Accent lights are similar to downlights in
operation, but are designed to project beams
of light onto display objects, such as artwork
or merchandise, or to highlight architectural
details or other special features. The
principal types of accent lights are shown in
Figure 6-8.
Recessed adjustable accent lights
typically use a PAR, R, or low-voltage
light source; the aiming adjustment is
made within the luminaire.
Recessed framing projectors employ
lenses, shutters, and/or pattern
projectors for special effects.
Semi-recessed or “eyeball” luminaires
have an adjustable ball visible below the
ceiling line, and are easy to adjust.
Pull down luminaires employ adjustable
can housings which are yoke-mounted,
so that they can be pulled down and
aimed.

Figure 6-7 Wall Washers

60

Figure 6-8 Accent Lights
Cove and Valance Lighting
Cove lighting is used to uplight room ceilings
from a concealed source. Cove lighting
usually requires a linear light source, such as
fluorescent tubes or low-voltage
incandescent strips concealed in an
architectural cove. New, specially designed
cove lighting luminaires have recently been
introduced.
Valance lighting consists of concealed light
sources designed to illuminate walls, retail
shelving, racks, and similar wall displays.
Like cove lighting, valance lighting usually
employs linear sources, such as fluorescent
or incandescent strip lights.
Figure 6-9 Cove and Valance Lighting
6. Luminaires
Step Lights
Step lights are compact luminaires designed
to be recessed into walls for the illumination
of stairways. A fairly new luminaire uses an
incandescent low-voltage strip recessed into
the undersides of the stair bullnoses; each
strip lights the single adjacent tread and riser.
These strips may also be mounted to the
underside of handrails. Another common
type of step light recesses into the wall
beside and above the stair. These luminaires
are available in standard incandescent, low-
voltage, and compact fluorescent versions.
General Office and Commercial
Lighting
General office and commercial lighting
systems are designed to illuminate large
areas to relatively uniform levels. Most
installations are integrated within suspended
ceiling systems, with each luminaire taking
the place of one panel in the ceiling grid.
Troffers
Troffers are box-type luminaires that are
usually placed in a suspended ceiling so that
the body of the luminaire is in the plenum
above the ceiling, and the face of the
luminaire is flush with the ceiling plane. The
lamps, most often fluorescent, are located
within the housing, and light enters the space
through the open or lensed face.
Troffers are designed to fit the grid sizes of
many popular suspended ceiling systems;
common sizes are 1 by 4 ft, 2 by 4 ft, and 2
by 2 ft, though many other configurations are
also used. The housing of the troffer itself is
slightly smaller than the grid size, and is
supported by a flange around the perimeter
that rests on the suspended ceiling rails.
Troffers are usually named for the method
employed for distributing light, as shown in
Figure 6-10.
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Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology

The prismatic lens uses a flat plastic Figure 6-11 Suspended Luminaires
lens formed with small prism-like
triangles on the outer surface to insure
broad, even distribution.
The diffuser lens uses a translucent flat
plastic lens to diffuse the light and
shield the light source.
The parabolic louver is an open-faced
troffer with parabolic-shaped louvers to
focus light distribution downward and
shield the lamps from view.
The egg crate louver is another open-
faced troffer that uses a finer set of flat-
bladed louvers to shield the light source
from view and limit light distribution to a
very narrow zone. Commercial Luminaires
The fluorescent troffer is by far the most Commercial luminaires are a broad range of
common type of office, school, and fluorescent luminaires designed for general
commercial space lighting. Since the work commercial lighting. These luminaires are
performed in these spaces is continuously usually either surface-mounted or suspended
changing, up-to-date troffer design is a by chains or stems, and are inexpensive,
constant concern for luminaire cost-effective sources for workplace
manufacturers. The past few years have illumination. There are several types:
seen substantial improvements in troffer
Surface-mounted luminaires are
components, including improved reflectors
essentially troffers with four finished
and reflector systems, and more efficient
sides. They are available with lensed or
lenses and louvers. A special and relatively
louvered openings.
new area in troffer development has been the
design of lighting systems intended for use in Wrap arounds are luminaires with
computer-intensive workplaces with video lenses or diffusers that completely
display terminals (VDTs). (See the section on surround the fluorescent lamps.
VDTs in Chapter 8).
Strip lights are luminaires with an
Figure 6-10 Troffers exposed chassis and visible lamps.
Louvered open-fluorescent luminaires
have painted metal sides and a
louvered opening.

Suspended Lighting Systems

Although most commercial luminaires can be
used as suspended fixtures, there is a
special class of higher-quality, well-finished
luminaires designed for use in office, school,
and retail settings. Most of these products
have some indirect distribution, and several
are designed specifically for the VDT
workplace. See Figure 6-11.

62

General Industrial and Work
Lighting
Shop and industrial lighting usually employs
rugged luminaires designed for durability,
efficiency, and modest cost. Many of these
luminaires are available in special versions for
corrosive or explosive environments. There
are several types of industrial luminaires:
Industrial fluorescents are exposed
fluorescent lamps with a shallow white
reflector. Standard options and
accessories include wire-cage lamp
protectors, uplight slits, and corrosion-
resistant housings.
Traditional stem Iuminaires for
incandescent, compact fluorescent,
and HID lamps are often called “RLMs”
or “factory lights.”
Box-mounted glass-globe luminaires
are intended for HIDs, compact
fluorescent, and incandescent lamps.
They are often called “jelly jars.”
Industrial HID Iuminaires using high-
efficiency reflectors (either direct or
mostly direct) are designed for specific
mounting-height applications, such as
broad-distribution units for low-bay
spaces or narrow-distribution units for
high-bay spaces.
Figure 6-12 lndustrial Luminaires
6. Luminaires
Special purpose luminaires are
designed for specific settings, such as
loading dock lights, warehouse aisle
lights, and manufacturing inspection
lights.
Display Lighting
Display lighting equipment is designed for the
illumination of art or merchandise. Although
almost any lighting type can be used for
display purposes, there are several lighting
systems designed specifically for display
functions.
Track and Wire Lighting Systems
Track lighting consists of an extruded
aluminum strip with internal plastic insulation
and electric conductors. Luminaires called
track heads or track lights are supported by
and take their power from the strip. These
track heads can be removed and
repositioned anywhere along the track’s
length allowing for a tremendously flexible
system. Most track lighting operates at 120
volts, and can have from one to four separate
power circuits for tailored dimming or to
regulate power.
Open-wire lighting uses bare wires or tubes
powered at low voltage to support and power
the lighting. Like track lighting, it is easy to
install and very flexible. Both track and
open-wire lighting are very common in retail
settings.
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Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
Figure 6-13 Track and Open Wire Lighting
Systems
Semi-Theatrical Lighting
For display and special-effects lighting, it is
often desirable to use true theater
instruments or semi-theatrical instruments.
The most widely-used equipment types are
described below.
Low-voltage pin spots are usually
equipped with 6-volt or 12-volt PAR
lamps.
Ellipsoidals use lenses, shutters, irises,
and/or color filters to produce projected
patterns and other special effects.
Fresnels employ a lens and a variable
beam to produce an intense, soft-
edged distribution especially
appropriate for art display.
In addition to these theatrically-based
luminaires, many common track heads can
be mounted individually to an outlet box and
fitted with lenses. These are called mono
points, and often use low-voltage PAR or MR
directional lamps.
Figure 6-14 Semi-Theatrical Luminaire
64
Showcase Lighting
A special problem of display lighting involves
showcases. The need for very small linear
lighting sources has led to special showcase
lighting equipment. Because of the close
proximity of the lamps and display objects in
most showcases, the infrared and UV
radiation of the lighting system can be critical
factors. Most modern showcase lighting
systems are designed to minimize heat.
Incandescent line-voltage T-lamps are
the oldest and least expensive display
lighting technology. However, they also
put out the most heat and are the least
efficient.
Low-voltage incandescent and halogen
strip lighting systems have a smaller
diameter and produce slightly less heat
than T-lamps.
Remote-source fiber optic systems are
the most expensive – and most
dramatic – type of showcase lighting.
Fluorescent tube systems are fairly
large in diameter. However, they are
generally inexpensive and produce
relatively little heat.
Decorative and Ornamental
Lighting
Lighting has evolved from candle, oil, and
gas illumination. Many of the traditional
ornamental candleholders and lamps have
been carried into the electric-lighting era with
fairly few design changes and are still popular
in their classical forms.
Chandeliers are elaborate and formal
suspended luminaires. Originally
designed for candles, these were fitted
with electric lamps early in the history of
electric lighting.
Wall sconces are wall-mounted
luminaires that originally held candles.
These are most often used for diffuse
lighting of the adjacent wall and ceiling.
Lanterns are decorative luminaires
traditionally used for exterior door and
path lighting.

The rise of Modernism in architecture
brought with it the use of modern materials
and technologies. Two common luminaires
stem from this tradition:
Pendants are decorative glass or metal
luminaires suspended at the end of a
stem or chain. These luminaires are
often modern interpretations of
chandeliers.
Wall brackets are modern versions of
wall sconces.
Figure 6-15 Traditional and Ornamental
Luminaires
Portable Lighting
Portable lighting is defined as lighting
equipment that can be easily moved into a
desired location and plugged into a standard
electrical outlet. Most residential lighting is
portable, as is some workplace
6. Luminaires
lighting. Some of the most common portable
luminaires are described below.
Table and floor lamps are traditional
luminaire styles used in homes and
home-like settings (e.g. hotel rooms)
for local task and general illumination.
Torchieres are higher-powered floor
lamps designed for uplighting. They
provide ceiling-reflected general
lighting.
Desk or task lamps are generally
designed for desktop use. There are
many important designs, such as the
classic architect’s lamp, the green glass
banker’s light, and the adjustable
fluorescent lamps used by
draftspersons and engineers.
Portable accent lights are used to
highlight individual objects. Examples
include plant-pot lamps, clip-on spot
lamps, and painting-frame lights.
Specialty Interior Lighting
Systems
There are numerous other decorative and
creative styles of interior lighting – most
created in the last 20 years of accelerated
interest in lighting technology and design.
Many of these luminaires defy easy
classification, as they are unique products.
Modular low-voltage systems employ
many small lamps (less than five watts
each) to create a sparkling linear
lighting effect used in theater aisles and
under cabinets.
Furniture-integrated systems
incorporate built-in luminaires into office
workplace and partition systems for
task lighting and/or ambient uplighting.
Integrated-function systems incorporate
lighting into a single housing with one or
more other electrical applications, such
as loudspeakers, fans, and smoke
detectors.
Fiber optic systems focus light from an
illuminator unit through light-carrying
plastic or glass fibers. Fiber optics are
also used outdoors, with the illuminator
in a remote, dry location and the fibers
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Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
carrying the light to its desired
destination.
Outdoor Area Lighting
One of the earliest uses of electric lighting
was to replace gas lamps as the source of
illumination for streets, sidewalks, parks, and
lots. Traditional gas lighting equipment
provided the basis for the visual design of
many luminaires, but contemporary style
luminaires are unabashedly electrical in
nature and design.
Pole Lights
Pole-mounted lights are used to light large
exterior spaces, such as roadways and
parking lots. Most street lighting poles are
between 12 and 40 feet tall. Large areas
require taller poles and more powerful lamps.
Pole lights over 40 feet high are known as
high mast lights, while luminaires mounted at
less than 12 feet are called pedestrian height
luminaires. Typical luminaires for pole
mounting include:
Decorative luminaires, such as globes,
cubes, “acorns,” and lanterns
High mast roadway luminaires, such as
cobra heads and shoe boxes
Floodlights and security lights
Special function luminaires, such as car
lot and airport runway luminaires
Figure 6-16 Outdoor Pole Luminaires
66
Wallpacks
Wallpacks are relatively low-cost, broad
distribution luminaires designed to be
surface-mounted to an exterior wall.
Wallpacks typically employ an HID or
fluorescent lamp and an integral ballast
inside a vandal-resistant housing. These
luminaires provide very low-cost security
lighting.
Floodlights
Floodlights are luminaires that can be
mounted on the ground, atop a building or
other structure, or on a pole. Floodlights can
be used to light yards, buildings and secure
areas, or any other broad exterior area.
Outdoor Architectural Lighting
The growing importance of lighting in exterior
architecture has led to the development of
several important luminaire types:
Bollards are short pathway and
driveway luminaires designed especially
for low-height path and driveway
illumination.
Ornamental poles and luminaires are
often pedestrian-height equipment.
However taller ornamental street lighting
poles play a significant role in the
daytime and nighttime appearance of
plazas, parks and street scapes.
Brackets and lanterns are often used
near building entries, and generally are
of a style complimentary to the
architecture of the building. In fact,
many architects design lanterns
specifically to reflect a building’s design
elements.
Facade lights are luminaires specifically
designed to light the facades and
silhouettes of buildings at night.

Figure 6-17 Architectural Exterior Lighting
Landscape Lighting
Lighting to accentuate the landscaping itself,
and not just the architecture, has become an
important lighting design application. Special
equipment has been designed for the wet
and sometimes harsh conditions of
landscape lighting, and includes a whole
family of lighting types.
Ground Lighting
Ground lighting generally lights upward to
illuminate the plantings and surrounding
buildings. Several types are used:
In-ground uplighting and wall washing
includes well lights, and sealed, direct
burial luminaires.
Junction box-mounted uplights include
“bullets,” wall washers, and step lights.
Stake-mounted lights include
adjustable uplights, step lights, and wall
washers.
6. Luminaires
Figure 6-18 Garden and Path Lights
Garden and Path Lighting
Garden and path lights include many
different styles, usually mounted on short
stems (less than 42 inches). They distribute
light downward to illuminate trees, flower
beds, walkways and grassy areas. Some
common styles include the flower bed light,
the tulip light, and the pagoda light.
Aerial Lighting
Aerial lights are generally mounted high on
buildings or in trees to shine downward. One
type of aerial light is designed to simulate
moonlight by shining down through the
branches of a tree.
Underwater Lighting
Underwater lighting is usually employed in
swimming and wading pools, but variations
are used to create interesting effects in
fountains, waterfalls, rock gardens, fish
ponds, and other water features.
Other Outdoor Lighting
As with interior lighting, there are many
special types of outdoor lighting, including
some very special types designed for
particular applications. Some of these
include:
Sports lights, designed especially for
illuminating playing fields and stadiums
Marine lighting equipment, designed to
withstand the corrosive effects of
saltwater
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Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology

Aviation lighting, including taxi way,

runway, and obstruction lighting
equipment
Soffit and eave lighting for building and
filling station canopies
Wall lights, step lights, and illuminated
handrails for exterior stair lighting

68
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
7. Lighting Control
High-efficiency lighting components save
energy by using advanced technologies to
reduce power consumption. However,
energy efficiency in lighting does not end with
the installation of efficacious lamps and
luminaires. Lighting control offers as much
or more potential for energy savings.
Conservative estimates suggest that a
comprehensive strategy of lighting control
can save 30% of the lighting energy a
commercial building consumes.
Control Strategies
The field of lighting controls has changed
dramatically in the past 25 years because of
the increased interest in energy-efficiency
and the development of solid-state
electronics. Higher energy costs and the
availability of affordable and reliable electronic
equipment have spurred many innovations in
lighting control systems. Today’s lighting
control equipment includes many compact
and effective self-contained devices, as well
as comprehensive systems using powerful
central computers and integrated energy-
management functions. Even in this
technological age, however, devices as
simple as the ordinary wall switch, if properly
located and used, can make a significant
contribution to energy conservation efforts.
There are six basic lighting control strategies
for reducing building energy consumption
and peak demand.
Lighting energy cost can be calculated as:
Annual Energy Cost = Lighting Power x
Time of Use x Average Cost of Electricity
Efficient luminaires and lamps can reduce the
quantity of power needed for lighting.
Lighting controls, on the other hand, can
reduce time of use for lighting, as well as
lighting power. Through peak load shaving,
controls can even affect the average cost of
electricity.
Scheduling
Scheduling strategies turn lights on only
when needed, and turn them off when not
needed. Scheduling can be manual, as in a
wall switch, or may employ automatic
devices such as time clocks and occupancy
sensors.
Daylighting
Electric lighting can be dimmed or turned off
entirely when windows or skylights provide
sufficient light. Daylighting controls generally
require some form of photosensor to signal
the lighting control system. Daylighting is
often combined with lumen maintenance as
a lighting control strategy, since both
techniques focus on reducing illuminance in
spaces that are slightly overlighted.
Lumen Maintenance
Most lighting calculations are designed to
produce “maintained” illuminance levels,
which account for the depreciation over time
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Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
of lamps and luminaires. As a result, most
lighting systems generally produce an excess
of illuminance until they reach the design
illuminance level. Automatic lumen
maintenance controls employ photocells to
monitor illuminance levels and increase the
power delivered to the lamps over their life
cycle. In this way, new, bright lamps are
operated at partial power, and older,
deteriorated lamps are operated at full
power. llluminance levels remain consistent
over the life of the lamp, and total electric
usage is reduced.
Tuning
Tuning strategies dim lights to the lowest
level that does not impair performance. This
strategy is effective because some lighting
systems are designed to provide more light
than is actually necessary.
Adaptation Compensation
Adaptation compensation lighting control
strategies are aimed at reducing illuminance
variance within the field of view. Performing
visual tasks in areas when there is a high
degree of illuminance variance between the
task and the background can cause
eyestrain and reduce visual performance. If
the illuminances of the two areas are not as
widely varied, the adaptation between the
Potential for Energy Savings
The benefits of automatic lighting controls
such as occupancy sensors, daylighting
controls, automatic time clocks, and lumen
maintenance can be approximated by a
method called “lighting power adjustment.”
Even though automatic controls such as time
clocks actually reduce the hours of lighting
operation, a corresponding reduction in
lighting power can be estimated. Lighting
power adjustments are commonly used in
many energy efficiency codes and standards,
such as ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-1989,
to give credit to certain types of automatic
controls.
Table 7-1 gives power adjustment factors
that may be used to approximate the benefit
of a number of common automatic lighting
controls and combinations of controls. For
instance the power adjustment factor for
70
two is much easier. In many situations,
particularly in spaces with windows, lighting
systems are designed to provide high levels
of illuminance during bright sunny days.
Conversely, on cloudy days and at night, the
illuminance levels are lowered through
dimming systems. Although the primary
intent of adaptation compensation is to
increase visibility of the visual task, it usually
has the added benefit of reducing energy
consumption.
Peak Demand Limiting
Studies have shown that small lighting
variations produce only very small changes in
visual performance. At the time of peak
electrical demand, generally in the afternoon,
most buildings reach maximum energy use
from the combination of process loads,
HVAC, lighting, and other major loads, such
as elevators. Peak demand limiting is a
technique that detects a building’s peak
energy draw and slowly reduces power to
lighting systems. (Power to other significant
loads may be reduced as well.) Reducing
lighting power slowly through dimming, rather
than by a sudden “load shedding,” has a
minimal impact on occupants. With gradual
dimming, most people never notice the
change in light output. Peak demand limiting
can strip 5% to 10% off a building’s peak.
occupancy sensors is 0.30. This means that
if 1,000 watts of lighting is controlled by an
occupancy sensor, an estimated reduction in
lighting power may be determined by
subtracting 300 watts (0.30 x 1,000 watts)
from the connected lighting load controlled
by the sensor. Power adjustment factors for
other types of lighting controls may be
determined in a similar manner. Adjusted
lighting power is a term that is commonly
used to refer to the lighting power after
adjustments have been made for automatic
lighting controls.
 7. Lighting Control

Table 7-1 Power Adjustment Factors for Automatic Lighting Controls

Circuits
Electric circuits are loops that must be closed Figure 7-1 An Electric Circuit
or complete in order for electric current to
flow, as shown in Figure 7-1. Usually there
are at least two devices that open or interrupt
the current: a control device to switch the
circuit on and off; and an overcurrent
protection device, such as a fuse, to open
the circuit if too many amps are flowing
through the loop. Circuit breakers combine
both the switching and overcurrent protection
functions.

Light Switches
The simplest way to improve lighting energy
efficiency is to turn lights off when they are
not needed. Light-switching devices can be
as simple as manual on/off wall switches, or
as complex as full-building digital control
systems tied into building security and HVAC
systems in addition to lighting.
Switching is the basis of any scheduling
strategy. It may also be used for simple
on/off daylighting and adaptation
compensation schemes. More complex
daylighting schemes, as well as the other
lighting control strategies discussed
previously, generally require dimming
capabilities. The following sections discuss
manual and automatic switching devices,
while dimming technologies are discussed
later in this chapter.
Manual Switches
The simplest and least expensive scheduling
control device is the manual wall switch.
Although many lighting control strategies are
based on sophisticated control components,
manually-controlled lighting equipment
accounts for most installations, and manual
controls are fundamental in efforts to
conserve energy. The relatively low cost and
high reliability of these devices make them
fast payback technologies for almost any
building. Many energy codes require
occupant-accessible switches or switching
occupancy sensors in all areas enclosed by
partitions. In the simplest case, this means
that each room of a building must have its
own switching.

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Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
Figure 7-2 Switch Diagrams
Most permanently installed lighting has an
on-off switch installed near the door of the
room where the lighting is installed. Rooms
with two or more entrances can have two or
more switches controlling the same circuit. A
portable luminaire will most often have a
switch built into the luminaire or on its cord.
Standard switch heights are 40, 44, and 54
inches; the lowest is accessible to wheelchair
users and small children. The standard dark, illuminated locator switches have an
switch types for lighting are shown
internal light that is usually off when the
diagrammatically in Figure 7-2.
lighting circuit is on. In pilot light switches,
Single-pole, single-throw (SPST) toggle the pilot light is lit when the controlled circuit
or rocker switches control one circuit is on. These switches are often used when
and allow manual on-off operation, with controlling remote loads, and allow the user
the up position generally being on and to know the status of a circuit even if the light
the down position off. source is not visible.
Double-pole, single-throw (DPST)
Contactor Switching
toggle or rocker switches allow
common operation of two circuits. For large, centralized lighting loads, such as
These are generally used when the whole panels, “contactors” are designed to
electric load operated by one switch switch all of the lights at once. For example,
exceeds 20 amps and must be divided a single contactor can control all of the lights
into two circuits. in a stadium sports-lighting tower.
Contactors are most frequently used with
Three-way or single-pole, double-throw groups of very large exterior lighting loads.
(SPDT) switches are connected in pairs
and allow the reversal of either switch
to change the on-off status of the lights.
Note that with three-way switches, the
up position does not necessarily mean Figure 7-3 Switch Styles
that the lights are on.
Four-way or double-pole, double-throw
switches can be installed on a circuit
between three-way switches to allow
more points of control. Note in the
circuit diagram in Figure 7-2 that
changing the position of any switch in
the circuit reverses the status of the
lights.

Wall Switch Styles

Common electric switches are generally
found in standard toggle and modern
“Decora” styles, as shown in Figure 7-3.
There are several other less common styles
designed for specific markets. These include
oversized switches for children’s rooms and
double switches for tight installations. Two
important indicator-type wall switch variations
are illuminated locator switches and pilot light
switches. To aid in finding the switch in the

72
 7. Lighting Control
Solid-State Switches been observed with solid-state switching
devices is that many lighting loads will
Some control devices, especially electronic
continue to draw some residual power, even
“touch” switches, use triacs as solid-state
when the switch is in an off position. This
switching devices. When off, a small trickle
can lead to reduced lamp life, in some cases,
of current still flows and can pose a shock
and may cause unacceptable interactions
hazard to electricians. For this reason,
with efficient lighting equipment. For
devices that use solid-state switches or solid-
example, most solid state switches are not
state relays must employ an air-gap safety
compatible with fluorescent or HID loads.
switch, as well. Another problem that has

Automatic Control Components

Automatic control components include Electronic time switches employ an

occupancy sensors, simple time clocks, electronic clock-calendar with keypad-
photocells, and other devices. Control input time switch points. With the
components may be linked together in power of the microchip, more precise
comprehensive building automation systems functions such as astronomical
able to integrate several types of lighting adjustment and 365-day calendars can
control strategies while controlling large be programmed into fairly low-cost
numbers of luminaires. devices. Low-cost controllers often
have an internal relay to control power
Time Clocks to one circuit; other devices can control
two or more low-voltage relays having
The most basic form of automatic time
the same or different time schedules.
scheduling is the unit timer, usually called a
Electronic time switches usually employ
time clock. In its simplest operation, a unit
battery circuits to maintain operation if
timer is programmed to turn the lights on at a
power is interrupted.
specific time and off at another time.
Inexpensive time clocks are particularly
Occupancy Sensors
popular as components in outdoor landscape
lighting systems, where a timer is combined Occupancy sensors are automatic
with a 12- or 24-volt transformer to power a scheduling devices that detect motion and
series of luminaires. Other time clocks are turn lights on and/or off accordingly. Most
quite sophisticated and allow for 365 day devices can be calibrated for sensitivity and
calendars with astronomical adjustments to for the length-of-time delay between the last
compensate for the seasons. detected occupancy and extinguishing of the
lights. The most energy-efficient occupancy
There are two major types of time clocks, as
sensors require that the user manually switch
shown in Figure 7-4.
Mechanical time switches employ an
electrically-driven clock, the movement Figure 7-4 Mechanical and Electronic Timers
of which mechanically operates a
switch. Mechanical time systems are
sold in 24-hour and 7-day versions.
Some of them have “astronomical”
adjustments to compensate for
seasonal changes in the length of night
and day. Many versions also employ a
spring-loaded clock mechanism that
keeps the clock on time, even if the
power supply is interrupted.

73
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
on the lights when entering a controlled zone
(the “lights off” function is still automatic).
Occupancy sensing lighting controls
represent a refinement of the motion
detection technology developed in the early
1970s to detect intruders for residential and
commercial security applications. There are
three techniques used to detect motion (see
Figure 7-5):
Passive infrared sensors perceive and
respond to the heat patterns of motion.
The body heat patterns of animals in
the infrared range can be detected fairly
easily relative to other forms of heat.
This same technology is used in most
residential and commercial security
systems.
Ultrasonic detectors radiate an
ultrasonic field, then detect changes in
room echoes caused by motion.
Microwave detectors radiate a
microwave radar field, then detect
changes in room echoes caused by
motion. At this point in time, their use is
generally limited to security
applications.
Figure 7-5 Ultrasonic and Passive IR Occupancy Sensors
74
Occupancy sensors are generally located in
one of two primary locations:
Ceiling-mounted sensors can be
located for optimum coverage.
Different detection patterns, as shown
in Figure 7-6, are designed for
particular locations on the ceiling.
Omnidirectional or center room sensors
are used in typical rectangular spaces
such as classrooms and offices.
Unidirectional or corner and wall
sensors are generally used in large
offices and meeting rooms.
Bidirectional or aisle-way sensors are
used for corridors, libraries, and
warehouses.
Wallbox sensors can be mounted in
place of standard wall switches, as
shown in Figure 7-7. These sensors
are especially appropriate for building
retrofits. The better wallbox sensors
include a user-accessible manual
override. Some sensors also
incorporate a photosensor to prevent
the lights from being turned on when
there is sufficient ambient daylight
available. Photocell-equipped
occupancy sensors have been
criticized, however, because they do
not detect light levels at the task
location.

Figure 7-6 Ceiling-Mounted Sensor Detection Patterns
In general, occupancy sensors are especially
effective scheduling devices in private offices,
classrooms, airport holding rooms and
baggage claim areas, or in any other
sporadically occupied spaces that are likely
to have their lights left on when unoccupied.
For further information, consult the Advanced
Lighting Guidelines, or EPRl’s fact sheet on
occupancy sensors.
Photocells
A photocell or photosensor monitors the
illuminance level in a controlled space and
Figure 7-7 Wallbox Occupancy Sensors
7. Lighting Control
generates a signal that is processed by a
control unit. Based on that signal, the
control unit then sends a command signal to
a switching or dimming component, which
adjusts the light level accordingly. Photocells
are often programmed with “dead zones” to
prevent them from rapid on-off cycling. The
location of a photocell is critical to its proper
functioning. The designer must determine
whether to monitor illuminance at the task
location (lumen maintenance), or at the
source of natural light (daylighting and
adaptation compensation).
75
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
Self-Contained Automatic
Controls
An automatic control device such as an
occupancy sensor or a time clock can be
connected to a single switching device,
usually a relay, contained in a single unit.
These are the easiest controls to install and
use, since they often replace manual
switches.
Building Automation Systems
Many buildings employ building automation
systems (BAS), also called energy
management systems (EMS). These are
sophisticated automated time-scheduling
systems using a central computer to regulate
building operations. Some EMS systems can
utilize a combination of occupancy sensors,
photocell control, and time clocks to choose
the most effective technique for lighting
energy management. Although building
automation systems are particularly effective
devices for controlling lighting systems, their
primary emphasis is on scheduling control of
all building loads, not just lighting.
Sweeping
One type of scheduling strategy made
possible by building automation systems is
called sweeping. Sweeping turns off the
lights throughout an entire building at a
preset time or times, and requires a manual
override to turn lights on. Sweeping is
especially useful for large office buildings with
shift workers and cleaning crews.
There are two types of BAS systems that
control lighting: low-voltage relay systems
and power line carrier (PLC) systems.
Low-Voltage Relay Switching Systems
Low-voltage relay systems can be useful in
assembling a control system, one piece at a
time. These relays can be used as principal
switching elements that connect to BAS/EMS
76
computers, electronic time controls, manual
switches, and a host of other devices. Some
systems employ telephone interface to allow
remote management of lighting through a
building’s telephone system.
In standard line-voltage control systems, a
standard switch is provided for every zone or
circuit of lights. The mechanical action of the
switch lever closes and opens the electrical
circuit to the lights. Two switches may be
provided to allow for multiple light level
switching. In low-voltage control systems, on
the other hand, a compact switch sends
circuit pulses using low-voltage power,
usually 24 volts, to a relay. Relays are
electro-mechanical devices that latch into the
on or off position depending on whether an
on pulse or an off pulse is sent. As such, a
relay converts the low-voltage input pulses
into mechanical surges that open or close
the line-voltage circuit. Control pulses can
originate from low-voltage switches,
computerized energy-management systems,
occupancy sensors, and other sources.
Figure 7-8 shows the difference between
line-voltage and low-voltage switching.
Low-voltage relays are usually grouped into
panels adjacent to electrical power panels.
In some unusual systems, however,
individual relays are located above ceilings or
in other locations. A 24-volt AC or DC
current is run between the panel and
switches or other devices, minimizing the
amount of 120-volt wiring.
Figure 7-8 Line-Voltage and Low-Voltage
Switching Systems

Figure 7-9 Low-Voltage Relay Circuit
Low-voltage relay systems have several
advantages. They can easily be connected
to a variety of automatic control systems and
devices such as building automation
computers, occupancy sensors,
programmable timers, and photocells. These
flexible systems can easily be reconfigured if
interior building partitions and zone layouts
change, or to accommodate future
technology updates. In addition, the control
system allows for simple local manual
override of the control switching. The local
switches can easily be installed in portable
partitions. The major disadvantage of low-
voltage systems is the increased initial cost of
both equipment and branch circuit wiring.
There are two common types of low-voltage
relay systems:
Central cabinet relay systems have
been used for many years and are still
offered by major manufacturers. A
central cabinet holds banks of relays,
one per lighting zone or circuit. The
advantage of this system is easy
change and reconfiguration of separate
lighting zones. However, a
disadvantage is the initial cost of
independently hardwiring each zone or
room back to the main panel.
Local relay systems have been
introduced in which the low-voltage
relay is located near the load, allowing
7. Lighting Control
for conventional branch-circuit wiring.
A disadvantage is that each relay must
be “smart” enough to communicate
with the main computer, usually
through digital twisted-pair wiring.
Power Line Carrier (PLC) Systems
PLC systems use a building’s power wiring
for digital communications. Vast systems
can be installed without rewiring. Relays, as
well as dimmers and other devices, can
simply be plugged into an outlet. Control
activation can come from computers,
photocells, manual switches, and other
devices. A major advantage of PLC systems
is their relatively low cost, due to ease of
installation. However the practical problems
of clean signal communications have
prevented PLC systems from being totally
reliable.
PLC systems transmit control signals over
power wires by encoding digital information
in an imposed radio frequency signal.
Common codes allow each transmitter to
signal every receiver having the same code.
The most common system allows 16 house
codes to isolate neighboring systems, with
16 channels per house code. Commercial
systems can access all 16 house codes and
all 16 channels of each house code for a
total of 256 channels for control. A channel
is simply a circuit that provides power to a
group of lamps.
PLC systems are easy to install. Receivers
usually either plug into or replace receptacles
and wall switches, and transmitters plug in
anywhere in the building. No rewiring is
required. Combination time clock
transmitters allow automatic programming of
on-off functions, and special transmitters
hook up directly to personal computers for
creative automatic control. PLC controls are
used in many “smart home” control systems
and by a range of commercial energy-saving
applications.
PLC systems are inexpensive and powerful.
However, their effectiveness can be
compromised by “noisy” power lines and
long signal-path distances. Because of
these inherent weaknesses, PLCs may not
always operate perfectly. Also, because PLC
77
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
dimmers are not rated as low voltage, a local transmitters. PLC systems may also be
dimmer must be wired in series with a PLC incompatible with some electronic ballasts.
switch in order to be controlled from remote

Dimming Technology
Dimmers operate by reducing the power remainder of the wave. A thyristor cannot be
delivered to a lamp, thereby reducing its turned off until the polarity of the wave
lumen output. Often used to create “moods” reverses itself. Thus, the wave form is no
or lighting effects, dimming also has longer a pure sine wave, but rather a
particular relevance in energy-saving modified wave form consisting of the 60 Hz
applications. As an energy-management fundamental frequency and harmonics
tool, dimming can reduce illuminance in a caused by the on-off cycling.
control zone to the minimum level actually
Wave form modification is the most
needed. In some cases the illuminance level
commonly used type of dimming. There are
is automatically adjusted according to the
several distinct versions:
availability of daylight or other ambient light.
Dimming can have a significant effect on the For standard dimming of incandescent
performance of some lamps, and is therefore lamps, wallbox dimmers use triacs to
not practical under all circumstances. control the power. These inexpensive
devices sell for a few dollars and can
Many years ago, variable resistance
control up to 600 watts of incandescent
dimmers, often referred to as “rheostats,”
lighting.
were used to place electrical resistance in
series with lamps. This reduced lamp power, Dimming of low-voltage lighting
but it also dissipated large amounts of energy systems using magnetic transformers is
in the form of heat. Resistance dimmers performed by a special type of triac
were crude and wasteful and have not been dimmer called a low-voltage
used for a long time. Many people still transformer dimmer or an inductive load
incorrectly use the term rheostat (the dimmer. These dimmers connect to
electrical term for a variable resistor) and the primary or line-voltage side of the
assume that dimming creates some sort of transformer, and differ from standard
resistance. In fact, there are several types of dimmers by having additional circuits to
dimming devices and techniques in common ensure symmetrical switching on both
use, none of which are resistive. the positive and negative half-cycles of
the AC wave. Non-low-voltage
Wave Form Modification dimmers may create an asymmetric
Dimming wave form which in turn may introduce
a DC component into the wave that can
Most modem dimmers use solid-state
devices such as thyristors or other power
semiconductors to modify the flow of power Figure 7-10 Solid-State Dimming
into lighting equipment. These dimmers
operate by turning the lights on and off 120
times a second. The proportion of on-time
determines the wattage and the apparent
brightness.
There are two types of thyristors used for
dimming: triacs and silicon-controlled
rectifiers (SCRs). Two SCRs are needed to
conduct an AC wave; one triac is essentially
two SCRs in a single package. Thyristors
turn power off during the first part of the AC
wave and conduct electricity for the

78
 7. Lighting Control
quickly burn out a low-voltage perform well below 40% of full light
transformer. Low-voltage transformer output.
dimmers can also be used with ordinary
Some manufacturers have introduced
incandescent lamps or with a mixture of “universal” dimmers, which operate
low-voltage transformers and
reasonably well with standard incandescent
incandescent lamps.
lamps, magnetic low-voltage transformers,
Dimming of low-voltage lighting magnetic fluorescent “dimming” ballasts, and
systems using “solid-state neon/cold cathode transformers. This
transformers” or power packs is technology is common in higher-priced
performed by a special type of dimmer wallbox and multiscene preset products.
that uses solid-state devices such as
FETs (field effect transistors), silicon- Auto-Transformer Dimming
controlled switches, or BJTs (bipolar
Auto-transformers are devices that produce a
junction transistors) to turn power on in
variable pure sine wave AC output voltage.
the first part of the wave and then off.
Smaller auto-transformers have knobs or
Although not as efficient as triac and
dials for control; larger ones have motor
SCR dimmers, these circuits prevent drives. The major advantage of auto-
buzz in the solid-state transformers.
transformer dimmers is that a clean sine
These dimmers can also be used with wave is delivered to the lamp. This limits or
standard incandescent lamps and eliminates lamp “sing” or lamp and
mixtures of solid-state transformers and
transformer buzz, and does not introduce
standard incandescent lamps, but they
harmonic distortion. However, auto-
cannot produce the wave form
transformers are larger than most other
symmetry that is required by magnetic
dimming options and are not easily
transformers.
connected to automatic controls such as
Magnetic dimming ballasts for photocells or energy management systems.
fluorescent lamps use a special triac The most common use for auto-transformers
inductive dimmer with two outputs: one is controlling voltage to very large areas of
is dimmed and connected to the arc fluorescent or incandescent lighting where
lead; the other is a simple on-off voltage reduction of 0 to 50% can be used
connected to the cathode heater lead. for power reduction.
Typically, this enables dimming down to
about 20% of full output. Electronic Ballast Dimming
Dimming of neon and cold cathode The power delivered to a fluorescent lamp by
transformers is done with a special an electronic ballast is determined by the
dimmer similar to the magnetic circuit design of the ballast. Ballasts can be
transformer dimmer, but which designed to deliver a variable power level to a
operates on a different dimming curve lamp through circuits within the ballast itself.
(different dial setting relative to power
percentage).
Dimming of HID lamps is done with
Figure 7-11 Auto-Transformer Circuit
thyristors in combination with special
dimming ballasts as a packaged
system.
Dimming of standard or “non-dimming”
fluorescent ballasts can be performed
either by thyristor dimmers or by
dimmers using other types of power
semiconductors, but the range of
dimming is usually quite limited, and
most products of this type do not

79
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
Figure 7-12 Electronic Ballast Dimming
Circuit
Electronic ballasts designed for this purpose
accept some form of control signal, either
low-voltage analog or digital, and adjust lamp
output accordingly. Since the power wave
form into the ballast is not modified, any
device capable of sending the low-voltage
signal can control the ballast. For example, a
photocell can send a signal to the ballast,
and the ballast can then adjust light output in
response to the ambient light detected by the
photocell. There are two types of electronic
ballasts for dimming:
Products designed primarily for energy
management, with a minimum lighting
level of about 10% of maximum
Premium dimming products, with a
minimum lighting level of 0.5 to 2% of
maximum
The difference between the two is the
complexity of the ballast circuit and its
associated control devices; the greater the
Dimming Applications
Manual dimming, like switching, can be a
relatively simple and inexpensive means of
lighting control, or dimming may be used in
expensive and sophisticated centralized
control strategies using building automation
systems. Unlike switching, however,
dimming also allows for the lighting control
strategy of tuning. The simple wallbox
dimmer is really nothing more than an
adjustable on/off device, which allows a user
to tune or adjust the level of illuminance
produced by the lighting system.
80
dimming potential, the more complex and
expensive the circuits.
Although dimming technology may be
applied to a number of different lamp types,
dimming may introduce problems in some
situations.
Most solid-state dimming systems can
cause some lamp or other component
noise. Special provisions such as
debuzzing inductors can be used to
reduce or eliminate the noise.
Evolving technology in the area of
dimming for compact fluorescent lamps
generally favors special ballasts
designed especially for this purpose.
Most compact fluorescents cannot be
dimmed with existing technology.
Dimming fluorescent lamps with
standard magnetic ballasts can cause
potential problems such as short lamp
life, lamp flicker, and harmonic
distortion. Products that do exist are
specially designed to maintain lamps
and ballasts within narrow parameters
to minimize problems.
Dimming tungsten-halogen lamps
below 35% of full output for extended
periods of time lowers lamp operating
temperature, which disrupts the
halogen cycle and can significantly
reduce lamp life (see Chapter 5).
Manual dimmers are commonly used for
permanently installed incandescent, low-
voltage, neon, and cold cathode loads. At
times, dimmers are used to control one-half
of a split-duplex outlet. In the better designs,
an unusual receptacle-plug combination
such as NEMA 6-15R can identify the
dimmed circuit (see Figure 7-13). Of course,
matching plugs must be used on all portable
lamps that might be used there. Switches
should be used to control outlets for lamps
with integral dimmers.

Figure 7-13 Unusual Receptacle Types
Low-voltage-rated incandescent dimmers
should be the standard choice unless the
load type is - and will always be - line
voltage. Although low-voltage dimmers are
more expensive, standard dimmers can burn
up the integral low-voltage transformer found
in many of the new portable luminaires.
Multiple-Point Switching and
Dimming
Conventional three-way and four-way
switching, when the same light circuit is
controlled from more than one location, can
have one conventional dimmer in the switch
leg, using special versions of standard
dimmers that have three-way switches built
in. Two or more dimmers in series are
usually not recommended.
Multi-location Dimming
Multi-location dimmers and touch switches
have been developed with modern
electronics. For multi-location electronic
switching, the power-switching triac is in a
master unit, and remote units send on-off
signals to the master. Multi-location dimming
generally also involves a master and several
remote units. The actual dimming device is a
triac in the master unit that receives signals
Figure 7-14 Three-Way Switches
7. Lighting Control
from the other units. Most multilocation
devices use conventional three-way wiring
techniques to avoid specialized low-voltage
wiring. Although much more expensive than
single-point dimming systems, these devices
offer a tremendous advantage in small multi-
use spaces such as meeting and conference
rooms.
Preset Dimming Systems
Preset programmable dimming systems, a
relatively recent innovation in lighting
controls, allow the user to control several
dimmed lighting circuits simultaneously.
Each combination of dimmer settings is
known as a mood or scene and may be
called up at the touch of a button. These
devices are valuable in multifunction spaces,
such as conference rooms and ballrooms,
and they are becoming quite popular in high-
end residential applications.
Single-scene preset dimmers turn on a
previously-adjusted setting at the touch of a
button or switch. Multiscene preset dimmers
can link several dimmers to create one of a
number of preset lighting combinations.
Some systems store the combinations in a
computerized digital memory, while others
use groups of conventional analog
potentiometers switched in banks. Digital
memories are less costly, but the settings are
wiped out if the power fails, unless the units
are equipped with a battery back-up.
Until recently, multiscene preset dimmers
were expensive. Single-scene presets were
easily made by switching a group of
conventional wallbox dimmers, but
multiscene presets involved complete
dimming systems with electronics in a remote
dimmer cabinet, and a low-voltage push
button station in the room. Now, a
multichannel, four-scene system can control
up to 6000 watts from a self-contained
wallbox dimming station for about one-fourth
the cost of its predecessors. These wallbox
preset systems are available with infrared
remote controls, allowing the complete
interface of dimming and audiovisual
functions on programmable master infrared
remotes.
81
Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology
Figure 7-15 Multiscene Programming Pad
Central Dimming Systems
Central dimming systems are the most
expensive and powerful of all the group
dimming options. Like theatrical dimming
systems, they have one or more central
dimming cabinets. The dimmers themselves
are simply dumb power-handling devices.
The “brains” are in the electronic front-end
controls, which can include computers and
all forms of low-voltage manual and
automatic controls.
Local single-room systems are the oldest
form of central dimming. They typically
consist of modular dimmers and non-
dimming switches, and they usually handle
large amounts of power or channels. The
dimmable wattage is limited only by the
number of modules a dimmer cabinet can
hold, and additional cabinets can be added.
These systems are also easily customized,
offering unconventional combinations of
manual, preset, assigned, and time clock
control. They can incorporate occupancy
sensors, photocells, and emergency power
functions. Some systems even allow wireless
remote control and standard audiovisual
systems interface.
Integration of Lighting Control Strategies
As discussed above, lighting controls reduce
both lighting power and hours of operation.
This section examines how lighting
components are integrated into lighting
control strategies.
Zoning for Lighting Control
Systems
The sizing of lighting control zones is of
critical importance. In general, a zone should
82
Assignment systems allow several single-
room systems to be patched together
through a flexible master control. Hotel
ballrooms and convention center meeting
rooms are the most common applications.
By selecting the master control station and
assigning it to separate rooms, single-point
control of any open space can be
established, leaving additional spaces
isolated with their own control stations.
Whole-house systems represent the pinnacle
of dimming products for the residential
market. Using many small modular dimmers,
a central computer, and small, finely detailed
control stations, these systems offer virtually
every feature needed for lighting and other
building system controls. They can be
programmed with adjustable fade rates and
multiscene presets for any load type. In
residential applications, whole-house presets
of “globals” can be used for emergencies, as
burglar alarms, or simply as “welcome home”
settings. Local preset capabilities are nearly
limitless, allowing up to 12 dimmers per
preset and as many presets per room as
desired. These systems can operate
anything electric, such as motorized curtains
or Jacuzzi pumps, and they interface easily
with burglar alarms, smart- home systems,
and other electrical controls.
Whole-house systems are hardwired and
have high-quality inductive load dimmers,
making them superior to PLC systems in
offering complete building control. These
systems are much more expensive, however,
and their wiring technique makes them better
suited for new installations than for retrofits.
not exceed the boundaries of a single room.
The formerly widespread practice of
switching lighting by panel board relays or
large blocks (such as entire building floors) is
very wasteful. On the other hand, the largest
possible zone is often the most cost effective.
Therefore, in order to design the best
possible zone pattern, the occupancy and
use patterns of the building must be known.
If the building operates on a very fixed

Figure 7-16 Energy Use Pattern in a Small
Office
schedule, including maintenance and
cleaning crews, then fixed lighting schedules
and large control zones make sense.
However, smaller zones with local overrides
are probably a better choice if the building
contains many different occupancy and use
patterns.
Figures 7-16 and 7-17 contrast the
differences in lighting energy savings
between a hypothetical small private office
and a large office area in the same building.
Note that for the large office area, energy
savings are not as high, because so many
more people work there, reducing the
possibility for “down-time.” The private office,
as a smaller zone, could have more tailored
lighting controls so as to more closely match
actual need.
Manual Control Application
Concerns
Manual controls are fundamental lighting
control devices used in familiar day-to-day
building applications. Their effectiveness,
Figure 7-17 Energy Use Pattern in a Large
Office
7. Lighting Control
however, depends on the conscientiousness
of the individual user, and studies show that
manual controls must be operationally simple
and convenient if they are to be effective in
conserving lighting energy. Creating a simple
and convenient control system can be one of
the more difficult tasks in the lighting
process.
Effective manual lighting control strategies
are designed to insure that occupants of
lighting control zones will actually use the
control devices. To that end, manual
strategies attempt to keep controls both
convenient and functional by using the
following rules of thumb:
Controls should be in a familiar location
and easy to use. Residential systems
can be somewhat “gimmicky”
depending on the interests of the
owner, but commercial systems should
be simple and well-labeled to
accommodate first-time users.
The quantity of switches should be
minimized. The user may not even use
the device if there are too many
confusing choices.
User-accessible dimming controls, like
manual switches, present energy-
conservation opportunities, but their
effectiveness depends upon how easily they
can be used. If many control channels are
necessary, consider preset dimming
systems, where pushing one button can
control several lighting zones. Switches and
dimmers should match each other. In
general, this will mean ganging switches and
dimmers together, and possibly other
electrical devices as well. Most dimmer
manufacturers make matching switches; their
use will help keep control panels uncluttered
and easy to use.
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Part Two – Lighting Equipment and Technology

Daylighting Figure 7-18 Daylighting Controls Energy

Savings
Daylighting strategies control electric lights to
reduce lighting power as daylighting
increases, and raise electric illuminance
levels as available daylight diminishes.
A photocell monitors the illuminance level in a
controlled space and generates a signal that
is processed by a control unit. Based on the
nature of that signal, the control unit then
sends a command signal to a dimming or
switching component. Electric illuminance
levels are changed either by stepped
switching of luminaires and/or lamps, or by
continuous dimming. Continuous dimming is
preferable in most cases. The potential for
daylighting strategies is occupancy
energy savings through daylighting is
distraction caused by repeated on-off
demonstrated in Figure 7-18.
cycling of the lights. This problem is
There are three types of daylighting control eased somewhat by programming a
strategies: “deadband” into the photocell control
loop. A deadband creates different
Large-zone continuous-dimming
setpoint levels for on and off switching.
daylighting systems use expensive
For example, while the lights may
heavy-duty light-level controllers, a type
switch off when an illuminance level of
of dimmer designed to dim fluorescent
700 lux (70 fc) is detected, they will not
lamps with standard non-dimming
switch back on until illuminance drops
ballasts over a range from full (100%)
to a much lower level of 350 lux (35 fc).
output down to as low as 15%. A
This reduces or eliminates the potential
photocell in the controlled space for constant on-off cycling of the
monitors ambient illuminance and the
lighting system. Despite the potential
control hardware attempts to maintain a
problems inherent in stepped
predetermined minimum light level
daylighting strategies, they remain
based on input from that photocell. To
useful because of their relatively low
be cost effective, these systems should
cost.
control up to about 2000 square feet of
uniformly daylighted space per circuit.
Lumen Maintenance
Small-zone continuous-dimming
Lumen maintenance systems use equipment
daylighting systems use either a single,
similar to continuous daylighting systems. A
smaller light-level controller for each
photocell monitors the illuminance in a
room, or a photocell-driven bank of
space. When the light drops below a
electronic dimming ballasts to control
specified level, the photocell signals the
the electric illuminance level in the
control unit to increase output until the
space. These systems are likely to
desired level of illuminance is reached.
reduce lighting power substantially, due
Because of the similarity of lumen
to the small size of the control zone.
maintenance control approaches to those
Stepped daylighting is the most cost used for daylighting, it is sometimes practical
effective of all daylighting systems. A to link the two strategies. Depending on
simple application is to manually switch building use, lumen maintenance can save
lamps or luminaires near the window about 15% of the lighting energy for any
separately from lights near the inner prudently designed and maintained lighting
wall. More sophisticated solutions system, as shown in Figure 7-19. The best
include the use of multilevel ballasts. A candidates for lumen maintenance are large
potential problem with stepped areas, such as assembly and shop areas,

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 7. Lighting Control
Figure 7-19 Lumen Maintenance Energy Figure 7-20 Adaptation Compensation
Savings Energy Savings

Peak Demand Limiting

Peak demand limiting uses continuous
dimming equipment to adjust lighting levels.
The control signal is provided by a computer
or power sensor placed on the building’s
incoming power meter circuit. When a
predetermined power level is approached,
the lighting is slowly dimmed by 10 to 20%
so as to reduce the building’s peak demand.
Figure 7-21 Peak Demand Limiting Energy
Savings

that have a highly depreciating lighting

system with a final light loss factor below
0.70 (see Chapter 9 for a discussion of light
loss factors).

Adaptation Compensation
Adaptation compensation systems employ
dimming or switching devices in combination
with automatic timers. Typically, the system
is programmed to provide average or high
illuminance levels during daylight hours, and
very low levels at night. In some applications,
such as 24-hour markets, adaptation
compensation controls may be used to
reduce lighting power by as much as 80% for
a period of 10 to 12 hours each day.
Savings in other applications are shown in
Figure 7-20.

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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
8. Lighting Needs
Lighting is much more than light and color,
more than footcandles and lumens
Because lighting affects how people function,
it is important to understand how light, color,
and illumination create both physiological and
psychological responses in individuals
subjected to that light.
As stated in Chapter 2, vision provides over
90% of all sensory stimulation to sighted
humans. An important goal of lighting is to
facilitate the performance of visual tasks – the attraction device for wayfinding, advertising,
things we specifically ask our eyes to do.
Visual tasks include reading, driving,
cleaning, sewing, assembling, and every
other activity with some visual component.
The field of illuminating engineering studies
and attempts to optimize lighting to meet the design by using combinations of task,
needs of specific visual tasks.
Another goal of lighting is to provide
ambiance or mood to interior and nighttime
exterior environments. Only recently have the
psychological and perceptual effects of
Lighting, Visibility, and Human Performance
Human visual performance varies according
to individual visual health and lighting
conditions, and how these two variables
interact with the visual task. The visual task
is the sum total of all the things that are seen
in a given moment. As such, the visual task
is constantly changing.
Visibility Factors
Visual tasks vary greatly in relative difficulty.
Even tasks that may appear similar can be
significantly different from one another when
lighting been studied, but artistic lighting
effects have been used for centuries in the
theater and other special places. Mood
lighting employs these psychological or
evocative qualities of light to help define the
mood or feeling of a space.
A third goal of lighting is accent lighting.
Most creatures are attracted to light, and the
human eye naturally turns toward light
sources. Light has been used as an
and special events since the invention of the
controlled flame. Architectural applications of
this principle include feature and display
lighting.
A lighting designer often “layers” a lighting
ambient, and accent lighting. In doing so,
considerations of lighting quantity and lighting
quality are taken into account, and priorities
can be more carefully weighed.
studied carefully. For example, consider the
difference between reading a list written on a
yellow legal pad in #3 pencil, and reading the
same list written in black ink on white paper.
For many people, #3 pencil is difficult to read,
even under strong light. Ink, on the other
hand, is much easier to read, even in
reduced light.
To help assess the difficulty of different visual
tasks, it is important to realize that all visual
tasks are comprised of four important
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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
components. These components are also
known as the four factors of seeing:
Contrast, as explained in Chapter 2, is
the relationship between the reflectance
of an object and its background. The
greater the contrast, the easier it is to
perform the visual task. This is why
black ink on white paper is more visible
than #3 pencil on a legal pad.
Object Size is one of the most
important factors in seeing. Generally,
at a given distance, the larger an object
is, the more easily it can be seen. This
is why textbook type is usually easier to
read than the fine print in a legal
document.
Object Speed is another critical element
in seeing because there is a time lag in
the retina’s photochemical reactions as
the eye processes visual information.
Consequently, the time available to
perform a visual task affects visibility,
and fast-moving objects are more
difficult to see than stationary or slow-
moving objects. This explains why
candlelight may be sufficient to leisurely
read a restaurant menu, and why a
Nolan Ryan fast ball is so difficult to hit.
Luminance, loosely defined as the
measured brightness of an object, is
the most critical determinant of the
visibility of a visual task. The luminance
of a visual task depends on the
proportion of incident light that it
reflects in the direction of the eye. The
visual task can be made brighter by
increasing illuminance. Thus, while the
contrast, size, and object speed
associated with a given task may be
fixed, luminance can be changed
through the appropriate selection and
placement of lamps and luminaires,
thereby improving the visibility of the
task.
Age and the Visual Task
With increasing age, changes to the eye and
visual system occur. These changes
adversely affect vision and visual acuity.
Among these changes are:
Decreased ability to focus on close
objects
88
Decreased ability to adapt between light
and dark surroundings
Decreased sensitivity to light, especially
at low levels, due to increased opacity
in the lens
Decreased color sensitivity, due to a
yellowing of the lens
Increased scattering of light within the
eye
Overall, the vision changes produced by
aging effectively decrease the visibility of a
given visual task.
llluminance Levels and the
Visual Task
To address the issue of determining
appropriate lighting levels for the modern
workplace, the Illuminating Engineering
Society of North America (IESNA, or IES) has
established a series of recommended
illuminance quantities for a wide variety of
visual tasks. Each of these values,
determined by a consensus of lighting
experts, establishes the illuminance
standards required for an average sighted
person to perform a given visual task without
impairment. Providing the minimum
recommended illuminance levels is an
essential element in any lighting design as
substandard illuminance levels generally
reduce human visual performance and
decrease worker productivity.
The IES illuminance standards allow for
flexibility in the determination of illuminance
levels, enabling a lighting designer to tailor
lighting levels to the specific needs of the end
user. To determine the appropriate
illuminance level for the visual task, the
nature of the task itself must first be
examined. This analysis considers the
contrast, size, and speed of the task, so as
to assess the overall difficulty in seeing it.
The IES has established nine ranges of
illuminances, or illuminance categories,
designated “A” through “I” and ranging from
2 to 2000 footcandles (20 to 20,000 lux), for
various types of visual tasks (see Table 8-1).
Furthermore, the IES Lighting Handbook
1987 Application Volume lists appropriate
illuminance categories for hundreds of visual
tasks. For example, the IES recommends
illuminance category C for general lighting in

Table 8-1 llluminance Categories and Illuminance Values for Generic Types of Activities in
Interiors
hotel lobbies, category D for pen and ink
reading tasks, and category E for reading #3
pencil or third generation xerography.
As shown in Table 8-1, the IES illuminance
standards provide a range of recommended
levels for each task category. Each range
contains a high, medium, and minimum
recommended illuminance level. To
determine the proper level, three variables,
commonly referred to as weighting factors,
are considered.
The age of the observers: in general,
the older eye will need more light to
perform some tasks as well as the
younger eye.
The importance of speed and/or
accuracy for visual performance: this
assessment distinguishes between
casual, important, and critical seeing
needs.
8. Lighting Needs
The reflectance of the task in relation to
its background surroundings: large
differences in reflectances between the
task and its immediate background may
reduce contrast and visual performance
and/or cause visual discomfort.
Based on the criteria indicated in Table 8-2,
the weighting factors are determined and
added together. A value of +2 or +3
indicates that the highest illuminance within
the range should be used, a -2 or -3
indicates the lowest illuminance, and any
other value corresponds to the middle value.
Once the appropriate target illuminance level
for the task has been determined, lighting
calculations are used to design a lighting
system that provides that illuminance level.
Lighting calculation procedures are
discussed in Chapter 9.
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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions

Table 8-2 Weighting Factors to be Considered in Selecting Specific llluminances Within

Ranges of Values for Each llluminance Category

Lighting Quality and the Visual
Environment
The IES recommended illuminance levels are
extremely useful in determining appropriate
overall illuminance levels for specific visual
tasks. However, there are several other
factors that also affect visual performance.
Veiling Reflections
Veiling reflections are a form of disability
glare, meaning they cause decreased visual
performance and visibility, and may be
accompanied by discomfort as well. Veiling
reflections result when a light source or other
bright area is reflected on or near the visual
task itself. This has an effect similar to
pulling a “veil” over the task. Veiling
reflections can cause substantial loss of task
contrast, thereby reducing the visibility of the
task. Common veiling glare situations
include reflections on glossy materials and on
handwriting, as well as on printing and typing
on matte-finish paper.
Generally, veiling reflections are caused by
the location of the visual task in relation to an
electric light source or other source of light,
such as a window or skylight. Loss of
contrast due to veiling reflections can be
avoided by positioning luminaires (or task
areas) so that light reaches the task area
primarily from the sides and over the
shoulders of the workers.
A relatively recent area of research among
lighting engineers is the increased use of
video display terminals in the modern office
place and the lighting problems associated
with their use. VDTs are particularly
susceptible to “imaging” produced by
luminaires and other bright surfaces. The IES
recently published a document, VDT
Lighting: IES Recommended Practice for
Lighting Offices Containing Computer Visual
Display Terminals (RP-24-1989), which
addresses lighting in the VDT-intensive
environment. This issue is addressed in
more detail later in his chapter.
Visual Comfort
Visual comfort means the absence of
distracting or discomfort glare. Discomfort
glare may not necessarily cause a drop in
visual performance, but it can be
bothersome, cause fatigue, and adversely
affect a worker’s productivity. Discomfort
glare usually takes one of two forms:
Direct glare is caused by a light source
within the normal field of view. It
causes a general sensation of too much
light in a space, often expressed as a
complaint of “too much light.” Despite
the perception of excessive illuminance,
direct glare is usually a problem of
lighting quality, not quantity, as it is
caused by misdirected light that

90
 8. Lighting Needs
reaches the eyes. The source is usually due to the adaptation of his or her vision to
excessively bright or improperly normal daylight outside the tunnel.
shielded luminaires or windows. Like
Providing the appropriate amount of light and
veiling reflections, direct glare is best
avoiding glare or adaptation problems are
avoided through the use of the
essential to visual task lighting quality. In
appropriate lighting equipment and
some cases, potential conflicts arise between
proper siting of work areas in relation to
energy-efficient design practices and the
light sources (including windows).
resolution of these problems:
Reflected glare refers to reflections in
The provision of minimum task lighting
any specular (shiny) surfaces that
levels for demanding tasks may cause
create distraction or discomfort within
unnecessary excessive illuminance in
the visual field. It is easily avoided by
adjacent, non-visual task related areas.
the use of matte (non-specular)
surfaces on desks and work stations. Less efficient lighting equipment and/or
techniques are often used to minimize
Other Lighting Quality Issues direct glare or veiling reflections. For
example, inefficient, low-light-output
Another lighting quality issue concerns the
small cube parabolic troffers are often
problem of transient adaptation. Transient
used in VDT intensive environments to
adaptation problems occur when the eye
reduce veiling reflections, when a well-
cannot properly adjust to a large and sudden
conceived task-ambient lighting design
change in overall lighting levels when moving
would achieve the same goals with
from space to space. This causes a
lower energy use.
temporary reduction in visual performance.
With effects ranging from mild disorientation Some spaces may be overlighted
to almost complete temporary blindness, this (relative to their visual tasks) to avoid
phenomenon is potentially quite dangerous. transient adaptation problems.
Consider, for instance, the experience of
The designer’s job in determining lighting for
driving a car from the brightness of a summer
visual tasks is to find the most energy-
day, into a dark tunnel. Unless the tunnel is
efficient lighting system that meets minimum
properly lighted (high illumination at the entry
criteria for illuminance levels and lighting
and exit, less toward the middle), the driver
quality.
can be nearly blind after entering the tunnel,

Lighting Ambiance
While lighting for the visual task addresses to the mood-influencing quality of electric
the issues of human physiological responses light sources within a particular space.
to light, mood lighting is more directed at the
The ambiance created by lighting depends
psychological effects of lighting. Lighting
on psychological and cultural factors –
contributes considerably to the mood and
interrelationships that are only beginning to
feeling of a room. For example, candlelight
be widely studied. It is difficult to generalize
can create a dramatic and romantic mood for
about the psychological considerations of
elegant dining, while fluorescent strip lights
lighting, and measurements in lighting
can provide a businesslike and efficient
psychology are nearly impossible to quantify.
atmosphere in a shop or discount store. The
As such, the choice of appropriate mood
lighting designer can use these evocative
lighting is more art than science. The
properties of light to enhance settings in a
following are some considerations
subtle yet often very powerful way.
traditionally used in the selection of mood
The term ambient lighting is used to describe lighting.
the overall general illuminance in a given
space. By contrast, lighting ambiance refers

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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
Mood Lighting Effects
Mood lighting effects may be produced by
using any combination of contrast, color,
and/or luminaire selection.
Contrast
High-contrast lighting schemes with bright
focal areas in an otherwise low-light
environment can produce dramatic effects.
Dramatic lighting, which makes highlighted
areas or objects stand out distinctly from the
background, is commonly used for
museums, theaters, expensive shops, and
exclusive restaurants. In Western cultures,
dramatic lighting can often symbolize quality
or importance. It heightens and intensifies
emotional responses to a place, and has the
added practical virtue of concealing the faults
and flaws of the underlighted areas.
On the other hand, using low-contrast
lighting to achieve a uniform overall
illuminance can make a place feel cheery,
active, and businesslike. Uniform lighting is
appropriate for most workplaces and for
many retail shopping environments. In
addition, low-contrast lighting makes for
visually comfortable environments, requiring
less frequent and less pronounced
adaptation from light to dark.
Another contrast effect is the subtle use of
glare, or bright spots created by directly
visible light sources. Although glare is
generally (and in most cases properly)
thought of as something to avoid, it has its
uses in modern lighting design. The brightly
lighted interior of a retail store can act as a
cue, when viewed from outside, that the
store is open and visitors are welcome.
Bright street or parking lot lights can increase
feelings of security by reinforcing the
perception that the area is well-lighted. In
general, low levels of glare are associated
with higher-quality places, but there are times
when the direct sight of a light source is
desirable to attract attention or to act as a
reassurance.
A third use of contrast in lighting is to provide
wayfinding cues, in which a lighting system
can serve to define a path or illuminate a
proper direction. Since the eye tends to
connect nearby points into a line, the lighting
designer can suggest a path by placing a few
92
well-chosen lights along its course. The use
of lamps hung next to entry doors can call
out the correct entryway into a building and
act as a universally understood welcoming
sign.
The contrast effects of drama, glare, and
wayfinding can be used together at different
levels to create unique and memorable
places. Of course, contrast effects of all
three types lie along a continuum from
complete uniformity to high drama, and
lighting designers seldom use either extreme
or create spaces of consistent contrast level.
Color
Lighting designers generally speak of color in
terms of temperature: “cooler” or blue-rich
light, and “warmer” or red-rich light. The
choice of appropriate color temperature can
have important aesthetic impacts. In general,
warmer light seems more natural and
appropriate for social situations with lower
lighting levels, and in lighting designs with
higher contrast. Cooler colors seem more
appropriate for busy, brightly-lighted work
and business spaces. These common color
choices can be reversed to create
unexpected or surreal effects.
Color rendering can also have an effect on
aesthetic perception. Poor color rendering
light sources, such as low pressure sodium
and mercury vapor lamps, can make the
visual environment appear cloudy and dim,
while more accurate color rendering sources,
such as tungsten-halogen lamps and
daylight, make objects and surfaces seem
sharp and crisp.
The specific spectrum of a light source
should be considered as well. For instance,
paint samples that seem complimentary
when viewed under one light source may be
terrible mismatches when seen under
another source. Similarly, the greenish tint
cast by cool white fluorescent lamps may
make food seem extremely unappealing.
Luminaire Selection
The shape and style or “motif” of luminaires
often correspond to predominant themes in
the architecture or interior design of a given
space, thereby contributing to that space’s
overall ambiance.

Architecturally positive luminaires are so
designated because they add definition to
architectural spaces. Luminaires of this type,
such as lamps, chandeliers, and sconces,
play an important role in the overall form-
and-shape aesthetic of a space.
Architecturally neutral luminaires, such as
small aperture recessed downlights, do not
require such careful visual integration. One
purpose of using neutral luminaires is to
provide light without an apparent source, an
effect often highly desired by architects and
designers of lavish or elegant interiors.
As one first enters a space, architecturally
positive luminaires will command visual
attention because they are the brightest
objects in view. Their perceived quality may
trigger an immediate psychological reaction
Accent Lighting
Accent lighting (sometimes referred to as
highlighting) emphasizes objects or calls
attention to important areas in the field of
view. Accent lighting is defined as
illuminance of a much higher intensity than
that of the surrounding general or ambient
lighting. For example, in houses of worship,
the IES recommends that accent illuminance
be three times higher than the general design
illuminance level.
There are two major types of accent lighting.
Display lighting calls attention to signs, sales
displays, artwork, or other objects of visual
importance. Generally, display lighting is of a
much higher illuminance than the general
lighting in the space. Often, the source of
light is concealed. Examples include retail
8. Lighting Needs
to the space. For example, strip fluorescent
lights may remind us of hardware stores and
discount centers, while crystal chandeliers
may evoke hotel ballrooms, elegant dining
rooms, or other luxurious spaces.
Certain types of lighting can also call
attention to the function of a room, and some
rooms may need appropriate luminaires to
appear complete. For instance, in western
culture, a chandelier often signifies formality,
and many people expect to see a chandelier
hanging over a dining room table. Another
classical cue of this type is the placement of
wayfinding lamps or lanterns beside entry
doors.
See Chapter 6 for a more complete
discussion of Iuminaires.
store track lighting, theatrical lighting, and
roadway sign lighting. In sparkle lighting, the
source of light is the display or feature.
Examples include neon signs, fiber optic
strand lights, some types of decorative
lighting, and self-illuminated works of art.
Accent lighting equipment is by definition
separate from general lighting systems
present in the same space. Task lighting and
accent lighting are usually separate as well.
For example, in a restaurant, lights over
tables are task lights, while lights that
highlight artwork are accent lights.
Sometimes, however, accent lighting also
serves as task lighting, as in a museum or
gallery.
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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
Table 8-3 Types of Lighting
Video Display Terminals (VDTs)
Lighting in the VDT workplace has become
one of the most popular areas of research
and discussion in the lighting community. As
the use of personal computers in the modern
workplace increases, concerns associated
with computers and lighting and their effect
on human health and worker productivity
have become ever more important. Because
VDTs use television technology, screen
brightness is limited. Also, most screens
have flat or curved glass faces that can
reflect light. Until a future generation of
computer equipment includes screens that
are less sensitive to ambient light, VDTs and
lighting will remain a topic of concern.
The most common problem with computer
work is related to visual health. Without
properly-corrected vision, enabled by regular
eye examinations, visual tasks are difficult to
perform for any extended period of time.
Uncorrected vision may cause a worker to
suffer from fatigue, headaches, or other
ailments, which may be magnified by the
VDT environment.
Problems involving lighting and daylighting
are another major issue. Common lighting
problems in the VDT-intensive environment
may include any of the following:
94
An image of poorly shielded electric
lights or windows may be reflected in
the VDT screen – a form of veiling
reflection. The reflected image is seen
by the human eye and causes the eye
to repeatedly refocus between the
reflected image and the task on the
computer screen. Constant
accommodation of the eye increases
the difficulty of the visual task and
contributes to fatigue.
Bright windows, skylights, or overhead
electric lights can cause extremes in
space illumination and contrast. In
particular, the worker will often find the
background illuminance to be much
brighter than that of the task on the
screen. This creates a very distinct
sensation of discomfort glare.
Bright lights or windows in front of the
worker when facing the computer
workstation cause the eye to adapt
constantly between the luminance of
the light source and that of the
computer screen. This form of disability
glare reduces the visibility of the task on
the screen in the same way that glare
created by oncoming automobile
headlights reduces road visibility.

Figure 8-1 Lighting Considerations for VDT Workplaces
Some new VDT screens are less subject to
lighting and vision problems. Flat screens,
for example, reflect a smaller angle of
environmental light. Screen overlays or
special coatings on screens can also be
used to reduce glare. Some screen overlays
use dark louvered meshes while others use
polarization. Without detailed technical
evaluations, the best way to determine the
effectiveness of a screen treatment is to try
one or several. Some will work better than
others in a given workspace. Nevertheless,
screen treatments are no substitute for well-
designed lighting and daylighting.
Competent lighting designers take both
natural lighting and electric lighting into
account when designing lighting for
computer work environments. The need for
special lighting equipment and design
techniques varies according to the task
requirements of the space.
Computer work in offices is generally
performed in conjunction with paperwork and
other ordinary office tasks. Therefore, the
design of electric lighting systems and the
shading of natural light must result in
reasonably normal office lighting levels while
simultaneously addressing the special
considerations of VDT use.
Well-shielded direct lighting fixtures (usually
using parabolic louvers) or a combination of
indirect lighting and localized task lighting are
the most common lighting systems for VDT
8. Lighting Needs
workspaces. Windows and skylights should
have reduced transmission, either by using
window coverings, or by using tinted or
reflective-coated glazing.
Offices in which most or all work is done on
the computer screen require more
sophisticated lighting. Typical situations
include accounting and billing departments,
telephone operator workstations, trading
rooms, control rooms, and software
development laboratories. Here, good
lighting design should be given precedence
over cost or conventional interior design.
Very well-shielded direct lighting fixtures are
often used in these types of spaces, with
fixtures designed expressly for computer
room applications. Another very good design
employs a type of fixture having a
combination of uplight and downlight so that
all room surfaces, including lighting fixtures,
are about the same brightness. A third
solution is the use of indirect general lighting
with localized task lights. The primary
difference between these lighting systems
and the more general office systems is that
computer room systems are more carefully
designed and integrated into the building,
and are thus usually more expensive.
Daylighting can pose a serious problem for
computer-intensive spaces. Designers must
pay special attention to windows and
skylights and employ window treatments that
reduce exterior daylight brightness to a
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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
minimum. Many computer-intensive work
spaces are located well away from windows
and skylights for this reason.
The most demanding computer screen
environments are those in which highly
detailed work is done on the screen. Typical
situations include CADD and CAD/CAM work
environments, air traffic control centers,
architectural design workstations, and some engineers are concerned that these
types of software and firmware laboratories.
In these spaces, the presence of daylight is
generally undesirable, and electric lighting
must be designed to meet exacting
requirements. The lighting systems must be
looked upon as part of the computer
equipment investment.
In high-resolution VDT workspaces, ceilings
and upper walls must appear very dark.
Indirect lighting should be avoided, and these care rooms, laboratories, and some military
spaces must not have windows or skylights.
Lighting systems with extremely sharp cutoff equipment.
and good localization of light are usually
preferred. Dimming is highly desirable.
Some of the best designs use halogen
spotlights over task surfaces with no other
lighting in the room.
96
Another lighting-VDT interface problem may
arise from the use of the conventional
electromagnetic 60 Hz fluorescent ballasts,
which exhibit a low-level stroboscopic effect
(flicker) at a different frequency than
computer screen rasters. The resulting beat
frequencies can be visually annoying, at the
very least. Most high-frequency electronic
ballasts eliminate this problem, but some
electronic ballasts will radiate signals that
might interfere with computer operations.
FCC regulations restrict electronic ballast
radiation, and there have been no
documented cases of equipment produced
under these regulations causing any
computer interference. Caution in applying
electronic ballasts may nonetheless be
advisable in rooms such as hospital intensive
facilities that have very sensitive electronic
For an extensive discussion of computers
and lighting, obtain VDT Lighting: IES
Recommended Practice for Lighting Offices
Containing Computer Visual Display
Terminals (IES publication number
RP-24-89).
Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
9. Lighting Calculations
Lighting calculations help determine whether
a proposed design will provide appropriate
illuminance. It is customary to use
illuminance (in lux or footcandles) as the
principal design criterion because of the
relative ease of illuminance calculations, and
Point Source Calculations
Point source calculations are primarily used
for determining the effect of one or more
luminaires in an outdoor setting. Calculations
are based on the inverse-square law of
illumination discussed in Chapter 4. The
inverse-square law says that the illuminance
on a surface is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the light source
to the target. The illuminance is also
dependent on the incident angle at which
light strikes the surface. These relationships
are shown in the following equation.
E is the illuminance on the surface in
footcandles (lux), I is the candlepower, in
candelas, of the light source in the direction
of the target, theta (θ) is the angle of
incidence, relative to normal (perpendicular),
and d is the distance from the source to the
because of the availability of standard
illuminance meters. More complex
calculations, usually requiring a computer,
are necessary in order to calculate luminance
or relative visual performance.
surface. When the angle of incidence is zero
(light is striking the target head on), the
cosine of theta is 1.0 and the equation is
reduced to the following.
The main difficulty in applying the inverse-
square law is the trigonometry required to
determine the distance from the light source
to the target and the angle of incidence. The
candlepower of the luminaire or lamp is
usually available from manufacturers’
literature.
When calculating the illumination from a
number of sources, the total illuminance at
the reference point is the sum of the
illuminance from each luminaire. Computer
programs are available to ease the effort of
calculating illumination from multiple sources.
97
Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions

Figure 9-1 Angle of Incidence

Figure 9-2 Terms in Inverse-Square Law

Many outdoor luminaire manufacturers Figure 9-3 Isofootcandle Diagram

provide isolux or isofootcandle diagrams,
such as shown in Figure 9-3, which may be
used to calculate illumination levels. These
diagrams can be overlaid on a site plan to
show the illumination at any point on the site.
With multiple luminaires, diagrams are laid on
top of each other. The isofootcandle
diagrams are for a specific luminaire
mounting height. If the luminaire is mounted
at a different height, all the values on the
chart are multiplied by appropriate correction
factors, also provided by the manufacturer.
An advantage of using isofootcandle charts is
that they account for the candlepower
distribution of the luminaire in all directions.

98

Vertical illuminance calculations are very
useful in determining the illuminance of
upright objects, such as pedestrians, signs,
or building entrances. One common use for
this calculation is determining the illuminance
necessary for a parking lot closed-circuit
television security system. The vertical
calculation is essentially the same as for the
horizontal plane except that the process of
determining the angle of incidence and the
distance (d) is more complicated.
9. Lighting Calculations
The inverse-square law works directly for
point sources of illumination. It may also be
used with linear sources or with area
sources, but these calculations are
somewhat more complex, as they require a
calculation of exitance. For further
information on linear source or area
calculations, consult Chapter 9 of the IES
Lighting Handbook Reference Volume.

Example 9-1 Horizontal llluminance at a Point

Determine the horizontal illuminance on a driveway from a pair of 90-watt halogen PAR38
spot lamps aimed directly at the point of interest. The lamps are on either side of an 18 foot-
wide driveway and mounted at a height of 8 feet above the driveway. The point is 20 feet
down the driveway along its centerline.

To use the inverse-square law it is necessary to know the distance (d) from each source to
the target. First, use the Pythagorean theorem to calculate the diagonal distance (G) on the
driveway surface from the point to the base of each light.

Once the diagonal distance (G) is known, the Pythagorean theorem may be used again to
obtain the distance (d) as shown below.

The angle of incidence (θ) has a cosine of the height (H) divided by the distance (d), or 0.34.
The peak candlepower of the lamp is determined from the catalog as about 13,000 candela
for the spot lamp. Using these values the illumination at the target may be calculated as
shown below.

The illumination from both lamps is simply double the illumination from one lamp or 16.35
footcandles.

99
Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions

Example 9-2 Vertical llluminance at a Point

Using the same dimensions and the same lamp types as the previous example, determine the
vetical illumination at a point five feet above the surface on a vertical plane perpendicular to
the centerline and facing the lights.
The horizontal distance (G) does not change. However, the height (H) will be equal to 8 - 5 =
3 feet. Thus, the distance (d) from the lamps to the target may be calculated as shown
below.

In this case, the cosine of the angle of incidence is equal to 21.93 divided by 22.13, or 0.991.
Using these values, the vertical illuminance from one of the lamps is calculated as shown
below.

The vertical illumination from both lamps is simply double this value or 52.62 footcandles.

The Lumen Method

The lumen method, also called the zonal

cavity method, is the most widely used
method for calculating interior illumination
levels or determining the number of
Of course the room surfaces absorb some of
luminaires necessary to achieve a design the light and some is lost in the luminaire so
illumination level. Lumen method
an adjustment is made. This adjustment is
calculations assume a uniform distribution of the coefficient of utilization (CU). The CU is
luminaires and diffuse surface reflectances
based on the size and shape of the room,
for the walls, ceiling, and floor of the space.
the surface reflectances, and the design of
The lumen method is based on average
the luminaire. Manufacturers publish tables
illuminance at the workplane and does not of CUs with their product literature. Other
provide information on the distribution of light
adjustments are made as well, to account for
within the space or the brightness of the depreciation of light output over time, the
surrounding surfaces. Generally, lumen accumulation of dirt on the luminaires and
method calculations are limited to rectangular
the room surfaces, and differences between
rooms, but with some modification, they can
rated and actual lamp lumens. These other
be used with L-shaped and round rooms.
adjustments are collectively referred to as the
Consider a theoretical room, with 100% light loss factor (LLF). The basic equation for
diffuse reflection from all the surfaces, and the lumen method then becomes:
illuminated by luminaires capable of
delivering all the lamp lumens to the work
surface. The illuminance in lumens/sq. ft.(fc)
at the workplane would be the sum of all the
lamp lumens divided by the area of the
workplane. This is the underlying basis of the
lumen method and can be expressed in the
following equation.

100
 9. Lighting Calculations

Lighting designers are usually more
interested in how many luminaires are
needed to deliver a specified level of
illumination. For this purpose, the equation
can be rearranged as shown below.
fact that CU values are influenced by the size
and shape of the room. For rectangular
rooms the RCR can be calculated by the
following equation, where H is the room
cavity height, L is the room length, and W is
the room width

Room cavity height is the distance from the

bottom of the luminaires to the workplane.
(see Figure 9-4). It should not be confused
Coefficient of Utilization (CU) with the ceiling height. For recessed
Coefficients of utilization are published by luminaires, the room cavity height is the
luminaire manufacturers in tabular form ceiling height less the height of the workplane
similar to Table 9-1. A separate table for (usually 2.5 ft). Large open offices typically
each luminaire design gives CU values based have an RCR of about 1.0, while private
on the floor, ceiling, and wall reflectances, offices have an RCR of about 5.0. The larger
and the room cavity ratio (see Table 9-1). the RCR, the more difficult it is to light the
Typical surface reflectances are 80/50/20 for room, by virtue of its size and shape.
the ceiling, wall, and floor respectively.
For “L” shaped, round, or other odd-shaped
rooms the RCR equation may be generalized
Room Cavity Ratio by substituting the perimeter (P) for (L + W)
The room cavity ratio (RCR) accounts for the and room area (A) for L x W.

Figure 9-4 Room Cavity Ratio

101
 Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
This form of the equation is given as follows:
For pendant mounted luminaires, including
indirect and direct/indirect luminaires, the
ceiling cavity (the space between the
luminaires and the ceiling) as well as the
room cavity must be considered in
determining the ceiling reflectance. This and
many other issues are discussed in detail in
the IES Reference Volume.
Light Loss Factor
Light Loss Factor (LLF) is a fractional
multiplier with a value between zero and one
that adjusts the rated lamp lumens for
depreciation of light output over time, as well
as light loss due to environmental and
equipment factors. Light loss factors may be
recoverable or non-recoverable.
Most recoverable light losses result from
lamp lumen depreciation and the
accumulation of dirt on luminaire
components and room surfaces. These
losses are recoverable through relamping
and cleaning. Lumen method lighting
calculations generally account for recoverable
light losses by designing for a “maintained”
illuminance level. This means that at the
beginning of luminaire maintenance periods,
there is an excess of light, unless special
controls are employed (see lumen
maintenance lighting controls in Chapter 7).
The design level of illuminance is reached
only after lamp lumens have depreciated and
dirt has accumulated.
Non-recoverable light loss factors are created
through the interactions inherent in luminaire-
lamp-ballast systems. They affect lumen
output throughout the life of the luminaire.
The most significant examples of non-
recoverable light loss factors include the
ballast factor and application thermal factor.
The overall LLF is calculated by multiplying
the individuals light loss factors together. A
more complete description of individual light
loss factors follows.
102
Lamp Lumen Depreciation
Lamp Lumen Depreciation (LLD) is the
reduction of lumen output produced by bulb
wall blackening, phosphor exhaustion,
filament depreciation, and other factors
related to the aging of lamps. Metal halide
and mercury vapor lamps depreciate the
most; high pressure sodium and tungsten-
halogen the least. This is a recoverable
factor, meaning that lumen output increases
every time new lamps are installed.
Common depreciation values are about 0.88
(12% loss) for RE-type fluorescent lamps and
about 0.84 for standard halophosphor
fluorescent lamps (see Chapter 5 for
information on fluorescent lamps phosphors).
If a group relamping and maintainance
program is planned, a higher LLD can be
assumed, and fewer lamps or luminaires may
be required to provide the necessary light
levels.
Luminaire Dirt Depreciation
Luminaire Dirt Depreciation (LDD) is the
natural accumulation of dirt on lamps, lenses,
and reflecting surfaces. Obviously, the
greatest reductions occur in dirty or dusty
environments. This is also a recoverable
factor, and more frequent cleaning will
minimize the effect.
Room Surface Dirt Depreciation
Room Surface Dirt Depreciation (RSDD),
another recoverable factor, is the natural
accumulation of dirt on ceilings and walls.
This reduces room reflectances, which in
turn lowers a luminaire’s CU value. This
factor is usually insignificant unless indirect
lighting is used; a common value for direct
lighting in offices is 0.98, or two percent loss.
Typical values for indirect luminaires range
from .60 to .90 at RCR values of 1 or less.
Ballast Factor
Ballast Factor (BF) accounts for the
relationship between lamps and ballasts,
especially for fluorescent lighting. Ballasts
are usually designed so that lamps produce
slightly less than their rated output. Ballast
factor is a non-recoverable light loss. For
standard “energy-saving” magnetic ballasts,
the factor averages about 0.925 for standard
F40T12 lamps and 0.87 for 34-watt energy

saving lamps. For 32-watt T-8 lamps with
instant start electronic ballasts, 0.95 is a
typical ballast factor.
Application Thermal Factor
Application Thermal Factor (ATF) accounts
for the fact that lamp lumen output is very
sensitive to the lamp’s bulb wall temperature.
Lamp lumen ratings are made under very
specific ANSI operating conditions: in free,
unmoving air at a temperature of 25° C (77°
F). A lamp’s bulb wall temperature can be
significantly higher inside a luminaire. For
example, in a magnetically-ballasted static,
lensed troffer, lumen output of 40-watt
F40T12 lamps will be reduced by about 6%
due to the elevated temperature.
ATF varies depending on luminaire, lamp,
and ballast type. Lamps operated by
electronic ballasts, for instance, are
somewhat less sensitive to variations in bulb
wall temperature. Photometric data by
luminaire manufacturers partially accounts for
non-ANSI operating conditions. The
Advanced Lighting Guidelines provide
luminaire tables that account for the effects
9. Lighting Calculations
of both the ATF and the ballast factor on
lamp lumen output. See the Luminaires and
Lighting Equipment chapter of that document
for details.
Furniture Factor
Furniture Factor (FF) accounts for light loss
due to open-office furniture systems and
other tall partitions. In traditional office
spaces without vertical partitions, the factor is
1.00 (no loss); for 60-inch tall partition
systems, the factor is 0.70. This factor is
non-recoverable, unless the partitions are
removed.
Spacing Criteria
The lumen method gives only average
illumination and offers little information about
the uniformity of illumination. To overcome
this limitation, luminaire manufacturers
usually provide recommendations on
spacing-to-mounting height ratios to help
insure acceptable uniformity of illumination in
the space. This value is usually given along
with the data contained in CU tables.

Example 9-3 Lumen Method Calculations

A lighting designer is asked to design a lighting system for an office space measuring 20 ft by
40 ft with a 9-ft ceiling. The ceiling has a reflectance of 80%, the wall 70%, and the floor
20%. Due to the nature of the visual tasks that will take place in this office, the designer
determines that a uniform illuminance level of 50 fc is required on the workplane (30 inches off
the floor). The designer has selected a recessed magnetically-ballasted 2 x 4 three-lamp
parabolic troffer, furnished with F40T12/RE70 lamps. The CU table for this luminaire is shown
in Table 9-1. How many luminaires are required, and how should they be spaced to produce
50 fc of uniform illuminance on the workplane?
The room cavity ratio is 2.4 as determined below.

Based on the 80/70/20 reflectances and a RCR of 2.4, the CU for the example, as listed in
Table 9-1, would be between 63% and 67%. Through interpolation, a value of 65% may be
used. This means that for this particular luminaire in a room of these dimensions, 65% of the
lumens produced by the lamps would be delivered to the work surface.

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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions

Example 9-3 Lumen Method Calculations (continued)

The next step is to determine how light loss factors will reduce initial lamp lumens. Assuming
a lamp lumen depreciation factor of 0.88, a dirt depreciation factor of .88, a room surface dirt
depreciation factor of 0.98, a ballast factor of .925, an application thermal factor of 0.95, and
a furniture factor of 1.00, the total light loss factor (LLF) is calculated as shown below.
LLF = 0.88 x 0.88 x 0.98 x 0.925 x 0.95 x 1.00 = 0.67
This LLF indicates a light loss of about 33%. Initial Iamp lumen outputs are available from
lamp manufacturer catalogs. The F40T12/RE70 lamps intended for this application produce
3250 initial lumens each, for a total of 9750 lumens for each 3-lamp luminaire. The design
illuminance is 50 fc, and the area of the space is equal to 20 X 40 = 800 sq. ft. With this
information, the number of luminaires necessary can be calculated as:

As a practical matter, the quantity of 9.4 would be rounded off so that an acceptable layout
can be achieved. Ten luminaires would provide a reasonable pattern as shown below.

The lumen method equation can be used to see what illuminance level would be achieved
with this arrangement.

In the example above, the luminaire manufacturer recommends that the spacing-to-mounting
height ratio be no greater than 1.2. Since the luminaire height above the work plane is 6.5 ft,
a spacing-to-mounting height ratio of 1.2 corresponds to a value of about 8 ft. This means
that the luminaires should be mounted not farther than 8 ft apart, on center, if optimum
uniformity of illuminance is to be achieved.

104

Computer Applications
Interior and exterior lighting calculation
software for personal computers is widely
available. Most software is based on
methods recommended by the IESNA. Many
programs allow for input of graphics and
interface with CADD programs. EPRI’s
LightCAD program, for instance, operates
within an AUTOCAD environment to perform
lumen method type calculations and lighting
design analysis, among other tasks.
Interior Lighting Programs
Lighting software for the accurate prediction
of illumination levels at specified points within
a room are presently available for MS DOS-
based personal computers and UNIX-based
computer systems. Point calculation
computer programs are much more precise
than lumen method calculations, but they
require more extensive and detailed input.
These programs use advanced mathematics
to take room geometry and inter-reflectances
of room surfaces into account. Some
programs also offer other features such as
graphic input-output, CADD interface, and
rendered perspectives or “synthetic
photographs” of the illuminated room.
Most point calculation computer lighting
programs can take the reflectance
characteristics of the task into account so
that veiling reflections and other aspects of
task/luminaire geometry can be investigated.
For example, some programs can compute
equivalent sphere illumination (ESI), a
complicated metric that compares the
illuminance of a given task with that which
would fall on that task were it to be
illuminated by a source providing equal
illuminance in all directions. Point calculation
programs can also compute relative visual
performance (RVP), which calculates the
probability of successful performance of a
visual task under the design lighting
condition.
9. Lighting Calculations
Exterior Lighting Programs
Exterior lighting software also offers point
calculations of illuminance on both the
horizontal and vertical planes. Typical inputs
include lighting site plan dimensions,
luminaire locations, luminaire and lamp
photometry, and light loss factors. Output is
usually provided in the form of a grid of
illuminance levels and/or isolux
(isofootcandle) plots.
The biggest differences between interior and
exterior lighting software is that interior
programs have a limited ability to “aim”
luminaires, while the exterior programs are
based on individually aimed luminaires.
Exterior programs also account for the
shading effects caused by buildings and
other large objects.
Exterior lighting calculations and
recommended practices are rapidly
changing. Previously, design practice has
been based on illuminance (footcandles) on
the pavement. Logic dictates that there are
objects other than pavement, such as
moving autos and pedestrians, that are a
major consideration for outdoor lighting.
New methods that take visibility into account
will be required to assess exterior lighting
systems properly. (For more information,
obtain the IESNA Recommended Practice
Roadway Lighting RP-8-83.)
Daylighting Programs
A third class of lighting software is designed
specifically for determining the effects of
daylight on interior spaces. These programs
usually determine average illuminance from a
specific daylight source such as skylights,
clerestories, or side windows. Data are
based on a specific set of atmospheric,
seasonal, and time-of-day values (IES
publication number RP-8-83). Some of the
most powerful computer programs combine
the illuminance produced by both natural and
electric light sources.
105
Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
Economic Analysis
Many of the lighting programs include
capabilities for economic analysis of design
alternatives. These programs use the
methods of engineering economics to
determine measures of economic
performance such as return on investment,
life-cycle cost, net present value, or payback
period (see Chapter 10).
Other Sources of Information
A more complete description of computer-
aided lighting practices may be found in
EPRl’s Advanced Lighting Guidelines. This
106
publication describes computer programs for
both lumen method and point calculation
methods and lists available software.
Each year IES performs a survey of lighting
software in the monthly Lighting Design +
Application publication. Products are
surveyed across the board, from hardware
requirements, to user features, to price. This
annual review is the most current and
complete source of information for lighting
software. In addition LD + A often features a
column that focuses on lighting software and
computer-aided lighting design.
Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
10. Economics
Efficient lighting equipment and controls use
less energy and require a smaller annual
operating budget, but initial construction
costs are usually higher, or retrofit costs must
be incurred. The efficient initial lighting
design may also require less frequent lamp
replacement, resulting in reduced
maintenance cost. How are all the costs and
benefits (some occurring in the future)
compared to each other? Are the energy
savings and lower maintenance costs worth
Estimating Energy Costs
An essential task in evaluating whether an
efficient lighting system is worth the
additional cost is to estimate the annual
energy use of alternative designs. With
lighting systems, the energy used is simply
the connected lighting power multiplied times
the annual hours of operation. More
sophisticated estimates will also account for
the cooling energy savings and other indirect
benefits.
In evaluating an existing lighting system, the
connected watts of lighting power can be
determined through an audit (going through
the building, counting the luminaires of each
type, and determining their power usage).
The hours of operation can be reasonably
estimated by interviewing the store owner or
building manager. Billing history can also be
useful in this regard, especially if the lighting
system is sub-metered. Instrumentation can
be used for more accurate estimates of the
energy used by existing lighting systems.
the extra expense? This chapter on lighting
economics shows how to estimate the
energy savings that can be expected to result
from efficient lighting systems and how to
calculate the reductions in annual operating
costs. It also shows how to consider
different schedules of maintenance or lamp
replacement. It then presents several
measures of economic performance that take
all costs into account and enable decision
makers to compare alternatives.
Lighting Power
Lighting power is determined by summing
the input wattage for all the luminaires in the
building. The luminaire input watts value is
unique for specific lamp-ballast-luminaire
combinations and is influenced by lamp type,
ballast type (electronic vs. magnetic vs.
hybrid), and luminaire type (open vs. closed,
static vs. air-handling, recessed vs. surface
mounted).
Raising the operating temperature of a
fluorescent luminaire above the ANSI test
condition of 25 ° C (77 ° F) reduces both the
lumen output of the lamps and the input
wattage. Since luminaire power input ratings
based on ANSI conditions often differ
substantially from actual operating
conditions, an adjustment needs to be made.
Otherwise, lighting power is overestimated.
For example, a typical 4-lamp enclosed
troffer draws 160 watts in input power under
average operating conditions. However, the
ANSI rating for the lamps is 176 watts. The
1992 Advanced Lighting Guidelines,
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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
published by EPRI, provide tables that give
input watts for a variety of fluorescent lamp-
ballast-luminaire combinations and operating
conditions. These tables are valuable for
determining the input wattage for many
common luminaires used in commercial
applications.
Time of Operation
In existing buildings annual lighting hours can
be estimated through interviews with the
building manager or building owner, by
projections from short-term measurements,
or through an analysis of the utility billing
history. Estimating lighting hours in new
construction is more difficult since there is no
history upon which to base the estimate, and
sometimes the tenant for the space is not yet
known. Hours of lighting operation are very
dependent on the building type. For
instance, buildings that are always open,
such as hospitals, will operate their lighting
systems for more hours than an average
office building, which is only open during the
day. A 1986 study by the U.S. Department
of Energy found that the lighting systems in
the average non-residential building operate
for 3,500 hours per year, but that the hours
vary considerably with building type.
Estimates by building type are summarized in
Table 10-1 and these values may be used in
calculations when better data are not
available.
Table 10-1 Typical Annual Hours of Lighting
Operation
* Based on 50 weeks per year operation
From Lighting in Commercial Buildings, published by
the Energy lnformation Administration, U.S.
Department of Energy
108
Modern building-monitoring and verification
techniques have dramatically improved the
ability to estimate operating hours for lighting
systems. For instance, a pocket-sized,
battery operated “lighting timer” activated by
a photocell or heat sensor can be placed
inside an existing fixture to count the hours of
operation. By measuring a typical week, an
annual schedule can be projected.
Automatic Lighting Controls
The benefits of automatic lighting controls
such as occupancy sensors, daylighting
controls, automatic time clocks, and lumen
maintenance can be approximated by
making an adjustment to the lighting power
in the building. Typical adjustments are
discussed in Chapter 7. When appropriate,
these adjustments should be made in
evaluating design alternatives, especially
alternatives that have automatic controls.
Adjustments for Air
Conditioning Energy
Lighting systems add heat to buildings that
must be removed by the air conditioner.
Therefore, efficient lighting systems have the
added benefit of reducing air conditioning
load. Depending on the efficiency of the air
conditioner, the building type, and the
climate, reduced cooling energy provides an
additional savings equivalent to 10 to 30% of
the lighting energy savings. The air
conditioning benefit is shown in Table 10-2
for a number of cities. The additional cooling
energy savings for a particular city are
determined by multiplying the estimated
lighting energy savings by the “air
conditioning benefit” factor taken from Table
10-2. For example, if an efficient lighting
system saves 8,000 kWh in lighting energy
for a building in Little Rock, the additional air
conditioning savings would be 1,600 watts
(0.20 x 8,000) for a total savings of 9,600
kWh.
 10. Economics

Source: Mendelsohn, Cary and R. A. Rundquist, The Domino Effect: Lighting/Air Conditioning/Energy/Environment,
Strategic Planning for Energy and the Environment, 700 Indian Trail, Lilburn, CA 30247.

The values in Table 10-2 may be used for
rough estimates only. They are based on
typical commercial building operation and
mechanical equipment having a total
coefficient of performance (COP) of 2.7. An
air economizer is also assumed in all cases.
During the cooling season, it is assumed that
90% of the heat from the lights must be
removed by the air conditioner. If any of
these assumptions are significantly different,
more detailed calculations may be required.
A method is contained in Mendelsohn (see
footnote to Table 10-2) for making a more
accurate estimate if the length of the cooling
season is known for a particular building.
Otherwise computer simulation programs
such as EPRl’s micro-AXCESS or DOE-2
may be used to evaluate the air conditioning
benefit associated with lighting
improvements.
Electric Rate Schedules
For some electric rates, estimating the annual per kWh can still be used, however, to make
operating costs is a simple matter of
multiplying the estimated kWh of energy use Lighting systems in most commercial
by the cost per kWh of electricity. Most
electric rate schedules for commercial
buildings are more complex, however, and
require more detailed calculations to obtain
an estimate of annual operating cost.
Electric rate schedules can have three
components: a service charge (usually
monthly), an energy charge, and a demand
charge. The energy charge can vary with the
quantity of consumption (energy blocks), the
season of the year, the day of the week, and
the time of day. The demand charge can
vary with the season or the time period of
demand. In addition, some rates include
“ratchets” that consider the demand history
of previous months in calculating billing
demand.
Computer programs such as EPRI’s
COMTECH 3.0 will calculate the building
operating cost with complex rate structures.
Most hourly energy analysis programs, such
as DOE-2, micro-AXCESS, TRACE, and
others, have economic modules that may
also be used to calculate operating costs
with complex rate structures. Average costs
rough estimates of operating costs.
buildings operate during the peak period, so
a kW of reduced lighting power is also a kW
of peak demand reduction. Since air

109
Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions

Example 10-1 Estimating Energy Cost Savings with a Demand Charge

Two lighting systems are being considered for the corridors, toilets, and other support spaces
in a 500 room hotel located in Los Angeles. The base case lighting system consists of 500
luminaires lamped with 75-watt R-30 lamps. The alternative system consists of 500
luminaires lamped with 25-watt (including ballast) compact fluorescent lamps. Since they are
located in interior corridors, the lamps are assumed to operate continuously. If the energy
cost is a flat $0.10 per kWh and the demand charge is $8.00 per kW for six summer months
and $4.00 per kW for the other six months, what is the estimated savings in annual energy
cost for the compact fluorescent design alternative. The monthly service charge can be
ignored in the comparison.
The reduction in load is 25 kW (500 luminaires times 50 watts saved per luminaire). The
reduction in energy is 219,000 kWh (25 kW times 8,760 hours per year). The total savings in
operating cost are $23,700 as calculated below.

These estimates do not consider the beneficial impact of reduced air conditioning energy use
and demand. For Los Angeles, the additional air conditioning energy savings are 0.21 (from
Table 10-2) times the lighting savings or $4,600. The reduced air conditioning demand can
be added to the demand reductions directly attributable to the lighting system improvements.
If the air conditioning system is assumed to have a total COP of 2.7, the additional savings
would be 37% (1 divided by 2.7) of the lighting demand savings, or $667 (0.37 X $1800). The
total savings with the air conditioning benefit would be $28,967.
There are also significant differences in maintenance costs for the two alternatives which do
not show up in these estimates. These are considered in the next example.

conditioners also generally operate in the With time-of-use rates, it is necessary to

peak period, and a more efficient lighting
system reduces air conditioner load,
additional demand reduction is realized. The
additional reduction will depend on the
efficiency of the air conditioner but will range
between 30% and 50%1 of the lighting
demand reduction. For electric rates with a
demand charge, the monetary savings from
an efficient lighting system are the sum of the
energy savings and the savings due to
demand reduction. Consideration of peak
demand charges, when applicable, increases
the savings from efficient lighting systems.
1
The additional savings are the reciprocal of
the air conditioning coefficient of
performance, including all fans and
auxiliaries. For an air conditioning system
with a total COP of 3.0, the additional
demand reduction is 1/3.0 or 33% of the
lighting demand reduction.
divide the annual energy use into separate
bins. For instance if the utility charges a
different rate for electricity used between
noon and 6:00 p.m., then the estimate of
annual hours is divided between those hours
that occur between noon and 6:00 p.m. and
all other hours. Energy use is separately
calculated for each time period and the
applicable rate is applied.
Other Operating Costs
In comparing alternative lighting designs,
other operating costs, such as lamp and
ballast replacement costs and maintenance,
should also be considered. Estimates of
maintenance and replacement costs can be
obtained from maintenance contractors and
lamp manufacturers. The most critical factor
is usually the estimated lamp life. This can
range from 750 hours for some standard
incandescent lamps to more than 20,000
hours for some high intensity discharge

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 10. Economics

Example 10-2 Estimating Maintenance Costs

In the previous example, the incandescent lamps in the base case lighting system have a
rated lamp life of 2,000 hours. The alternative fluorescent lamps have a rated lamp life of
10,000 hours. Replacement costs (including labor) are $5 per luminaire for the base case
system and $10 per luminaire for the alternative system.
The incandescent lamps would have to be replaced about 4.38 times each year (8,760 /
2000). The compact fluorescent lamps would have to be replaced only 0.876 times each
year (8760 / 10,000). Since the time period of replacement is different, it is useful to calculate
the average annual maintenance cost. The annual replacement cost for the incandescent
lamps in the base case is $10,950 (500 luminaires times $5 per luminaire times 4.38 times per
year). The annual replacement cost for the alternative compact fluorescent system is $4,380
(500 luminaires times $10 per luminaire times 0.876 times per year). The reduced annual
maintenance cost is then $6,570.
Note that these calculations use a rated lamp life based on three hours per start. Since the
lamps will operate continuously, the compact fluorescents may last considerably longer than
the rated lamp life of 10,000 hours. As result, the actual maintenance savings could be
significantly higher.

lamps. Compact fluorescent lamps usually
have a life of about 10,000 hours. Lamp life
data are provided by manufacturers based
on three hours per start for most lamps (ten
hours per start for HID lamps).
Group relamping should be considered in all
maintenance programs. Not only can labor
costs be reduced, but it is easier to maintain
uniform lamp color and brightness. In
addition, lamp replacement costs may be
lower because lamps can be purchased in
volume at a discount. Group relamping can
also save energy if lumen maintenance
controls are installed (see Chapter 7). Group
relamping can usually be performed in
conjunction with fixture cleaning and
maintenance, and can be scheduled at times
when the building is not in use to prevent
disruption of normal operations.

Measures of Economic Performance

Once an estimate has been made of the
annual energy savings, maintenance costs,
and first costs, there are several ways to
evaluate the potential investment. These are
described in this section.
Payback Period
The most common measure of economic
performance is the payback period – the
period of time it takes for the savings to equal
the initial investment. Payback period is
based on the construction cost difference
between two competing lighting systems and
the resulting savings due to the more efficient
system. As result, it can only be used to
compare two competing alternatives. If
multiple alternatives are to be evaluated, they
must all be compared to a single base case.
While easy to understand, payback period is
inadequate in comparing many design
alternatives, in particular, systems with
different lives or maintenance costs.
Consider for instance two retrofit options:
one with a cost of $10,000 and annual
savings of $2,000 per year and a second
with a cost of $5,000 and annual savings of
$1,000 per year. Both have a payback
period of 5 years, but which is the better
investment? The inadequacies of payback
period are further exposed if the two retrofit
options have different lives and varying
maintenance or replacement costs. While
the payback calculation can be adjusted to
consider utility rebates and annualized
maintenance costs, more detailed economic
analysis based on net present value or

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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions

Example 10-3 Calculation of Payback Period

In the previous example, the compact fluorescent lighting system is expected to add $15,000
to the construction cost of the building. This is based on an installed cost of $65 per
luminaire for the compact fluorescent system and $35 per luminaire for the incandescent
system. The estimated reduction in operating cost is $23,700 with no cooling benefit and
$28,967 when cooling benefits are included (see Example 10-2). This results in a payback
period of 6.2 months ($15,000 ¸ $28,967/year X 12 months/year, with the cooling benefits).
If the maintenance cost differences are included (see Example 10-2), the annual savings are
increased to $35,536 and the payback period is reduced to 5.1 months.
Suppose the local utility offers a rebate of $10 per luminaire for hard-wired compact
fluorescent fixtures. This would reduce the construction cost premium by $5,000 (500
luminaires times $10 per luminaire). The adjusted construction cost premium would be
$10,000 and the adjusted payback period would be 3.4 months.

internal rate of return is recommended for
more complex cases.
Net Present Value (Life-Cycle
Cost)
Net present value is the sum of the initial
costs and all future benefits and costs over
the life of the system, discounted to present
value. Benefits are generally assigned a
positive value while costs are assigned a
negative value. In comparing alternatives,
the one with the highest net present value is
the best investment. Net present value can
be used to compare several different systems
and is especially useful in comparing design
alternatives with different or irregular cash
flows, or design alternatives with different
lives.
Expenses or costs that occur in the future
have a smaller value in current dollars. The
rate at which future expenses or costs are
discounted is the discount rate. It is the
percent reduction in future benefits or costs
for each year in the future. An understanding
of discount rate is necessary in order to
understand other measures of economic
performance such as net present value,
annualized cost, benefit to cost ratio, or
internal rate of return.
The discount rate can be “real” or “nominal.”
The real discount rate is the rate at which
future benefits or costs are discounted
without consideration for inflation. If future
expenses and costs are quantified in current
dollars, a real discount rate is used. It is
generally easier to quantify future benefits
and costs in current dollars, so a real
discount rate is commonly used in economic
analysis. If future expenses and costs are
quantified in inflated dollars, then a nominal
discount rate should be used. The nominal
discount rate is the real discount rate plus
the inflation rate.
The discount rate is the rate of return that an
investor typically makes or expects to make
from other investment opportunities with a
similar risk. It also indicates whether an
investor has a short term or long term
perspective. Investors with a short-term
perspective generally have a higher discount
rate, while investors with a long-term
perspective have a lower discount rate. Risk
must also be considered in selecting a
discount rate. Since investments in efficient
lighting involve little risk, the discount rate
should be based on consideration of other
low risk investments such as government
securities. Using this logic, if the return on
investment for government securities is 8%
and the general inflation rate is 5%, then an
appropriate real discount rate is 3%.
A discount rate may be used to calculate the
present value of future costs. The present
value of a cost occurring “n” years in the
future with a discount rate of “i” is obtained
by multiplying the cost by a present worth
factor.

112

The present worth factor or PWF is given by
the following equation:
Tables of present worth factors may be
calculated for a variety of discount rates and
years into the future so that the above
equation does not have to be evaluated for
every case. Such a table is included as
Table 10-3. To calculate the present worth
of a future benefit or cost, select a value from
the table based on the discount rate and the
number of years into the future and multiply
the selected value times the future cost or
benefit. Keep in mind that if the future cost
Table 10-3 Present Worth Factors
10. Economics
or benefit is quantified in today’s dollars, a
real discount rate should be used. Otherwise,
a nominal discount rate should be used.
Energy costs or savings (like maintenance
costs) also occur in the future and may need
to be discounted to present value. The
values in Table 10-3 could be used to
discount each annual energy cost, but there
are easier ways. If a cost or benefit occurs
as a time series, that is, the same cost or
benefit occurs each year for some period of
time, then the net present value of this series
of costs or benefits can be determined by
multiplying the first year cost times a series
present worth factor (SPWF).
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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
Table 10-4 Series Present Worth Factors
The SPWF for “n” years or periods and a
discount rate of “i,” can be calculated with
the following equation.
114
Table 10-4 contains precalculated series
present worth factors for a variety of discount
rates and years into the future. To calculate
the net present value of a time series of
future benefits or costs, select a value from
the table based on the discount rate and the
number of years into the future and multiply
the selected value times the first year cost or
benefit.
 10. Economics

Example 10-4 Net Present Value Calculations

What is the net present value (NPV) of the design alternatives used in the previous examples?
Assume a building life of 20 years and a real discount rate of 3%. Ignore the utility rebates for
these calculations.
From Table 10-3, the series present worth factor (SPWF) for a 20 year life and a 3% discount
rate is 14.88. This value is multiplied times the annual savings to obtain the present value of
the savings. The initial cost premium of $15,000 is subtracted from this amount to obtain the
net present value of the investment in the alternative lighting system.

Because this is such a good investment, net present value calculations would probably not be
necessary in order to make a decision. It should also be noted that the average annual
expenses are an approximation. For projects with significant differences in expenses from
year to year, a detailed projection of cash flow should be made and future benefits and costs
should be discounted separately for each year. During the 20 year assumed life for the
building (the period of analysis), the fluorescent lamp ballasts would likely have to be replaced
and this was not accounted for in the approximate annual maintenance costs. A more
detailed cash flow analysis is given in Example 10-6.

Benefit-to-Cost Ratio Internal Rate of Return

Benefit-to-cost ratio is another way of
evaluating investments. This is the ratio of
the net present value of all benefits to the net
present value of all costs. All investments
with a ratio greater than one may be
considered cost effective. In comparing
multiple investment alternatives, all would
have to be compared to a base case. The
one with the highest benefit-to-cost ratio is
the best investment opportunity.
Example 10-5 Benefit-to-Cost Ratio
Calculations
What is the benefit-to-cost ratio of an
investment in the alternative lighting system
in the previous example? From the Example
10-4, the present value of the benefits is
$528,790, while the present value of the
costs is $15,000 (the same as the initial cost
premium). The B/C ratio is then 35.3 or
$528,790 divided by $15,000.
The internal rate of return (IRR) is the
discount rate at which the present value of
future benefits in energy savings and
maintenance cost savings is equal to the
initial cost premium. Put another way, it is
the return on investment with all future costs
and savings considered. The IRR of an
investment can be viewed as the amount of
annual interest (in percent) paid on the
investment over the life of the project. The
internal rate of return must be calculated
through a process of iteration, but many
spreadsheet programs have built in functions
that are capable of calculating the IRR. For
the example used in this chapter, the IRR is
about 250%.
Annualized Cost
Annualized cost is a useful method of
comparing lighting alternatives. The initial
costs and periodic maintenance costs are
converted to an equivalent annual payment
and added to the annual energy costs. The
design alternative with the lowest annual cost
is the one that is most cost-effective.

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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
Annualized cost is especially useful when
initial costs are financed. Like IRR,
annualized cost can be calculated with
spreadsheet programs.

Other Economic Issues

Inflation and Energy Cost
Escalation Rates
The price of all goods and services increases
over time at the general inflation rate. As
long as all future costs increase at the same
rate, inflation may be ignored in evaluating
the economic performance of investments in
energy efficiency. With this approach,
commonly used in economic analysis, all
future costs are quantified in current dollars
and discounted at a real discount rate.
If there is reason to believe that energy costs
will increase at a rate different from the
general inflation rate, each future energy cost
should be quantified in inflated dollars and
discounted to present value using a nominal
discount rate.
Tax Considerations
Investments in energy efficiency have tax
implications that need to be considered in
detailed economic analysis. Energy costs are
an expense, so when energy costs are
reduced, taxable income is increased and
potentially some of the energy savings are
paid to the government as additional taxes.
On the other hand, investments in energy
efficiency can be depreciated over the life of
the equipment, offering a tax benefit. For
many businesses, these offset each other,
but they must be considered on a case-by-
case basis.
Utility Rebates
Utilities often offer rebates to customers who
install more energy-efficient lighting
equipment. These rebates are part of
demand-side management programs and
are intended to encourage customers to
reduce their use of lighting energy. DSM
programs are reviewed in the Chapter 12,
but it is important to note here that they
figure greatly in decisions regarding the
installation of lighting equipment, in that they
can greatly reduce initial cost and positively
affect the measures of economic
performance.

Example 10-6 Detailed Cash Flow Analysis

The owner of a office building is considering a lighting retrofit. The existing lighting system
consists of 200 2x4 troffers with four F40T12 lamps and magnetic energy-efficient ballasts. If
the retrofit is completed, the luminaires would be maintained but upgraded with F32T8 lamps
and electronic ballasts. The owner plans to keep the building for at least 20 years so future
costs and benefits will be considered for that period. The analysis is to be performed for a
3% real discount rate.
The existing system costs $14,720 per year in energy costs. With the retrofit, annual energy
costs would be reduced to $10,212 for an annual savings of $4,508. These estimates
include associated air conditioning energy. This is based on 160 watts/luminaire for the base
case and 111 watts/luminaire for the retrofit; 4,000 hours per year of lighting operation;
additional air conditioning savings of 15%; and an average electricity cost of $0.10 per kWh.

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 10. Economics

Example 10-6 Detailed Cash Flow Analysis (continued)

The cost of the retrofit is estimated to be $20,600. This is based on a cost of $85/luminaire to
replace the ballast (including disposal of the old ballasts), $14/luminaire for the new lamps,
and $4/luminaire for cleaning and general maintenance. The luminaires would be cleaned
every two years beginning in year two and the lamps would be replaced every four years
beginning in year four. The electronic ballasts are rated for 15 years, so a replacement is
scheduled for year 16 in conjunction with the relamping and cleaning. These cash flows are
shown in the following table for the retrofit system.
A similar maintenance program is required for the existing lighting system. Lamps will be
replaced every four years and the luminares cleaned every two years. The lamp replacement
costs for the existing system are $12/luminaire. The cleaning costs are the same as for the
retrofit option. The existing lamps will need to be replaced in year two if the existing system is
maintained. It is also estimated that the existing ballasts will need to be replaced in year 8 at
a cost of $65/luminaire (including the cost of disposing of the old ballast).
A cash flow table for the two options is shown below. The first three columns are the annual
costs to maintain and operate the existing system. The next three columns are the annual
costs to maintain and operate the retrofit system. The last column shows the net differences
in the operating and maintenance costs.

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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions

Example 10-6 Detailed Cash Flow Analysis (continued)

Payback Period. The cost for the retrofit is $20,600 and the annual energy savings are
$4,508 so the simple payback period is 4.6 years (20,600 / 4,508).
Net Present Value. The net present value is the sum of each future expense discounted to
present value at a 3% rate. The present value of all operating and maintenance costs for the
existing system is $244,176, while the NPV of the future operating and maintenance costs
for the retrofit system is $178,343 for a difference of 65,833. The retrofit investment has a
NPV of $45,233, or $65,833 less the investment of $20,600.
Benefit-to-Cost Ratio. The benefit-to-cost ratio is 3.2, which is the NPV of future benefits
($65,833) divided by the investment of $20,600.
Internal Rate of Return. The internal rate of return is 24%. This is determined through
iterations and represents the discount rate at which the NPV of future benefits equals the
cost of the retrofit.
Annualized Cost. The annualized cost for the existing system is $16,412, while the
annualized cost for the retrofit is $13,372. The difference in annualized costs is $3,040.
These calculations show that even though the investment has a relatively long simple
payback, the benefit-to-cost ratio and IRR make the project financially attractive. Very few
investments as safe as this will return 24% real value, have a benefit-to-cost ratio greater
than 3, and have a lower annualized cost.

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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
11. Issues
Providing the right quantity and quality of
illumination is of critical importance (see
Chapter 8 on lighting needs), but there are
other issues that influence decisions about
Energy Codes
Many states have adopted energy codes that
require lighting systems and/or lighting
components to perform at a minimum level of
energy efficiency. The primary justification for
energy codes is that many building
developers are primarily concerned with first
costs and therefore do not always make
economically rational decisions. Most of the
codes are based on cost-effectiveness and
do not require the building owner to install
equipment that will not pay for itself.
Energy codes affect the choice of lighting
equipment as well as overall lighting design.
There are two major types of energy codes
for lighting: component efficiency standards
and lighting system performance standards.
In addition, many codes have a procedure for
making whole-building tradeoffs. For
instance, a code may permit a less efficient
HVAC system if the lighting system exceeds
a particular level of energy efficiency.
A component efficiency standard is a code
that establishes minimum performance
requirements for lighting components such
as lamps, ballasts, and/or luminaires. For
example, in 1991, the federal ballast efficacy
standard established minimum requirements
for F40T12 and F96T12 fluorescent lamp
ballasts. State codes requiring component
efficiency have been developed in
Massachusetts and New York, and work is
lighting design and the selection of lighting
equipment. Some of these issues include
energy codes, power quality, photobiology,
and disposal of lamps and ballasts.
underway to implement a federal standard as
well. These codes, which set minimum
efficiency standards to be met by the most
commonly-used equipment, are based on
the theory that the easiest and most effective
time to assure energy-efficient lighting is at
the product’s point of sale.
Component efficiency standards do not
address overall lighting design, and therefore,
do not guarantee energy-efficient buildings.
For example, using efficient lighting products
in excessive quantities will still be wasteful.
Such standards do ensure at least a
minimum conservation effort, however, and
reduce the time required for permit plan
checking and follow-up inspections.
Lighting system performance standards
usually address lighting power density (LPD)
levels. Such codes limit lighting power
wattage according to a building’s overall area
and/or use. These codes are generally more
effective than component efficiency
standards, because they are targeted at
lighting design. The two most important
system performance standards are the
ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 and California’s
Title 24. Similar but less complex codes are
used in Minnesota, Washington, Oregon,
Florida, and Hawaii, and in a few cities, most
notably Austin, Texas.
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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
Simple LPD standards allow a prescribed
lighting power consumption in watts per
square foot. The allowed LPD varies by
building type. For example, California’s Title
24 currently allows 1.5 watts/sq. ft. for office
buildings and 2.0 watts/sq. ft. for retail
buildings.
More complex LPD standards involve space-
by-space calculations. Both ASHRAE/IES
Standard 90.1 and Title 24 allow the option
of determining allowed LPD by multiplying
each room’s square footage times an
allowed watts/sq. ft. figure, based on the
specific tasks that would commonly occur
there. For example, in a typical private office,
ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 allows 3.7
watts/sq. ft. for up to 50% of the square
footage (the “task area”). The balance of the
space, called “non-task,” is allowed 1/3 of
the task-area wattage (1.2 watts/sq. ft.). A
less complex standard of this type is
employed by California’s Title 24, where
different lighting power values are assigned
to specific areas according to use. Space-
by-space LPD standards can accommodate
buildings where the complex range of visual
tasks requires more light than would be
provided by a general prescriptive approach.
The whole-building tradeoff procedure does
not specifically restrict lighting wattage.
Whole- building performance compliance
allows for computer programs such as
micro-AXCESS or DOE 2.1 to compare a
building’s overall proposed energy use (or
operating cost) against a “budget.” This is a
holistic type of approach that takes into
account all of the building components that
consume energy. Generally, the whole-
building performance compliance method
allows the architect to reduce efficiency in
one aspect of a building’s energy use by
increasing efficiency in another. For
example, the lighting energy savings
produced by a building’s daylighting design
and controls may offset the lower HVAC
energy efficiency due to large areas of
windows and skylights.
For any LPD standard to be effective, it must
include checking the electrical plans and the
energy code compliance calculations before
granting any permits for electrical work. This
places an extra workload on the municipal
inspection department, and some
municipalities contract with private firms to
provide the energy code checking.
Many energy efficiency standards provide
additional credit for the use of energy-saving
controls, such as daylighting or occupancy
sensors (see Chapter 7). Although most
controls save energy by reducing the time
period of power consumption, rather than the
actual wattage, credit is nonetheless given in
terms of equivalent wattage reduction. For
example, under ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1,
rooms under 250 sq. ft. equipped with
occupancy sensors are allowed a 30%

Table 11-1 Energy Code Terms

Component Efficiency Standard Requires minimum efficiencies of components.
Includes lamp efficacy (lumens/watt), ballast efficiency (as a factor compared to a standard),
and/or fixture efficiency (percent of total lamp lumens emitted).
Prescriptive Lighting Power Density Prescribes a fixed maximum watts per square foot
based on building or occupancy type. Also known as Complete Building Power Density.
Area Category Power Density Different lighting power limits are assigned to each major
area type of the building (offices, corridors, etc.).
Tailored Lighting Power Density Lighting power limit is calculated based on space-by-
space task requirements.
Whole-Building Performance Lighting energy use is combined with all other energy uses
in a computerized model of the building simulating a year’s energy use. The maximum total
energy use is regulated. Lighting has no specific limit.
Power Adjustment Factors These are used to offer controls credits for qualifying
automatic controls such as occupancy sensors or time clocks.

120

reduction from connected lighting wattage in
the control zone.
Some cities require energy code compliance
upon sale or transfer of title. For example, a
San Francisco ordinance requires that a
Power Quality
Historically, the quality of electric power has
been determined by certain fundamental
characteristics. For example, voltage and
voltage regulation are important determinants
of power quality, because high or low
voltages can bum out motors, lamps, and
electronic devices. Frequency regulation is
also very important because the operation of
motors and other devices employing iron
cores (mainly transformers and ballasts) can
be adversely affected.
Today, the quality of electric power
generation, transmission, and distribution
systems is very high. With the exception of
conditions associated with brown-outs, most
utilities deliver well-regulated power to all but
the most extremely remote customers.
Power sags and surges are the greatest
concern, largely because of the potential
impact for electronics damage and
interference with computer operations.
An evolving area of concern among members
of the lighting community is that of lighting
power quality. Power quality issues first
gained prominence in the early 1980s with
the first large-scale use of electronic ballasts
for fluorescent lamps. Power quality issues
most relevant to lighting are power factor and
harmonic distortion.
Power Factor
Power factor, the ratio of watts consumed by
an electrical component to the RMS volt-
amps delivered to it, is an important
characteristic of any electric device or
equipment. Power factor affects current,
which in turn affects the overall efficiency of
the generation, transmission, and distribution
of power from plant to customer. In lighting,
power factor problems are usually associated
with the ballasts used on fluorescent and HID
lamps. Traditional electromagnetic ballasts
require internal power factor correction so
11. Issues
building be brought to within 4/3 of the
applicable Title 24 energy consumption limits
prior to sale or transfer (up to an expense of
$150,000).
that the total load (ballast and lamp) has a
power factor of 0.9 to 1.0. Normal power
factor or “NPF” ballasts, commonly found on
compact fluorescent and low-wattage HPS
lamps, traditionally have had power factors of
0.2 to 0.45 without correction. This means
that a significant percentage of the current
being drawn by the ballast is unused, as
opposed to being used by the lamps or lost
in the ballast. For example, although a 13-
watt twin-tube lamp-ballast combination uses
only 17 watts, it actually draws 34 VA if it has
a power factor of .50. The utility must deliver
this amount of apparent power, regardless of
how much of it is used to light the lamp.
Buildings with low power factors require
electrical distribution systems that are able to
handle larger currents. Branch circuiting and
overcurrent protection must be sized
accordingly. Furthermore, low power factor
can cause voltage drop, and in extreme
cases, voltage sag. This may cause lights to
dim, fuses to blow, and computers to crash.
Fortunately, a growing awareness on the part
of the lighting community of the desirability of
higher power factors has encouraged
luminaire manufacturers to make available
high power factor (HPF) ballasts for most of
their compact fluorescent and HID
equipment. HPF ballasts are sometimes
offered as standard luminaire components.
More often, however, they are available only
as an option and must be specified.
High power factor generally is the rule, rather
than the exception, for incandescent lamps
and for magnetically-ballasted full-size
fluorescent and HID lamp-ballast systems.
However, electronic ballasts for full-size
fluorescent lamps often have low power
factor, and may also generate high levels of
current harmonic distortion (see the following
section). Compact fluorescent lamp-ballast
systems are also associated with low power
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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
factors. This is particularly true of the self-
ballasted electronic products. Dimming
systems and dimmable electronic ballasts
can also reduce power factors due to line
harmonics created by dimming.
Engineers can avoid power factor problems
by minimizing the use of low power factor
loads (a small portion of a building load can
be low power factor without concern). In
addition, they should carefully evaluate the
power quality and harmonics impact (see
below) of high-power control systems, such
as very large solid-state dimming systems,
variable speed drives for mechanical HVAC
systems, mainframe computers, and other
high-power devices employing switching
devices in power supplies or controls.
Harmonic Distortion
Harmonic frequencies are higher multiples of
the fundamental frequency (60 Hz in 120VAC
systems) superimposed on the sinusoidal
wave form. For example, frequencies
generated at 180 Hz are referred to as “third”
harmonics. The sum of these multiple
frequencies is referred to as total harmonic
distortion.
Total harmonic distortion (THD) caused by
electronic fluorescent lighting ballasts has
evolved into a major concern among
members of the lighting community.
Electronic ballasts increase lamp efficacy by
converting 60 Hz power into high-frequency
(20 to 40 kHz) alternating current.
Table 11-2 THD of Electronic Devices
Device
Lighting Equipment
Magnetic energy saving ballast, 2-F40
Magnetic energy saving ballast, 2-F96
Screw-in electronic ballast compact fluorescent
Industry standard electronic ballast, 2-FO32
Low harmonic electronic ballast, 2-FO32
Dimming magnetic ballast
Solid-state dimming of magnetic standard ballast
Solid-state dimming of incandescent lamps
Diode operation of incandescent lamps
Non-Lighting Equipment
Personal computers and peripherals
Variable speed drives (3 phase 50 hp)
Note 1 - If a parallel lamp with opposite diode polarity is used, the THD drops to 0%
Source: Power Quality Laboratory, Niagara Mohawk Lighting Research Laboratories, Rennsalaer Polytechnic Institute.
122
Unfortunately, this action can introduce
harmonic distortion in a building’s power line.
It seems unfair, perhaps, that electronic
ballasts have been singled out for so much
attention during current debates on the
harmonics issue. Similar harmonic distortion
can be introduced by any electronic rectifying
system or high-speed switching device (see
Table 11-2). THD is also produced by
magnetic, ballasts.
THD is significant because when any
combination of harmonics-generating
devices comprises a significant portion of a
building or system load, the following
undesirable effects may occur:
Imbalance and/or overloading of
transformers and neutrals in three-
phase distribution systems, caused by
additive triplen (3rd, 9th, etc.) currents
Power surges and spikes due to circuit
resonance
Interference with electrical
communications
Distortion of input voltage at service
location, also resulting in reduced
power factor
Reduced power factor
In an office building, for example, fluorescent
lighting can constitute 35 to 50% of the
electric load in the building. If all fluorescent
lighting had electronic ballasts with 40%
THD, the whole building’s power would likely
exhibit voltage harmonic distortion (VHD) of
Typical THD
15-20%
25-30%
125-175%
20% or less
10% or less
40% maximum over dimming range
100% maximum, or greater over dimming range
100% maximum over dimming range
100% (see note 1)
100-150%
over 100%

5% to 8%. Power factor would be reduced,
and problems with computers and other
systems could result. In extreme conditions,
high neutral currents caused by additive
triplet currents could cause transformer
damage and overheating in neutral
conductors.
THD and Power Factor
A primary concern with utilities is that there is
a positive correlation between THD and
power factor. Harmonic currents generated
by electronic ballasts, and other electronic
devices, reduce power factor by distorting
the sinusoidal wave shape of the current. By
contrast, the electric current distortion
produced by other devices such as magnetic
ballasts and motors can introduce a phase
shift between the voltage and current – also
leading to reduced power factor. However,
as long as there are no voltage-current phase
shift contributions to the power factor, the
THD of a given electronic ballast may be as
high as 48% and still maintain a power factor
greater than 0.90.
Photobiology
Photobiology is the field of science relating
life and light. There is no doubt that light
affects human life and health. However,
many questions remain regarding the extent
to which lighting relates to health. Since the
mid-1960s, researchers throughout the world
have examined daylight and electric light
quality to determine whether there could be
any correlation between light and health.
Although some of the findings are
controversial, the lighting and medical
communities have reached a consensus on
many questions.
Daylight
Natural daylight provides a complete
spectrum of visible and invisible light (see
Chapter 1). The visible portion of natural
daylight is white light consisting of all colors
of the rainbow, while the invisible portions
include infrared light (radiant heat) and
ultraviolet light.
11. Issues
THD In Current Electronic Ballast
Products
In order to minimize THD in electronic
ballasts to generally acceptable levels, the
National Electrical Manufacturer’s
Association (NEMA) and the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) have
proposed limits of 33% for total harmonic
distortion and 27% for triplens. Some utilities
have independently established lower THD
limits that electronic ballasts must meet in
order to be eligible for rebate programs. The
general consensus of the lighting industry is
that by 1993, all electronic ballasts for full-
size fluorescent lamps will have less than
20% THD.
Using current technology, electronic ballasts
have been designed with less than 10%
THD. These products have been costly in
the past, but increased competition among
manufacturers has contributed to lower
prices. Current electronic ballast products
include models with THD as low as 5% with
little or no cost increase over competing 20%
THD products.
Most electric lights produce whitish-colored
light. For the average person, who
experiences daily exposure to natural
daylight, the importance of matching daylight
with electric lights is minimal. However,
research suggests that persons who are
deprived of natural daylight for long periods
of time may require daylight-simulating
electrical light for general physical and
psychological well-being. This may be the
case for personnel in submarines or miners.
Ultraviolet Light
Daylight also includes ultraviolet light, which
is broken into three different types. UV-A has
a minimal effect on humans but creates
black light phosphorescent effects on certain
minerals. UV-B, however, bleaches
pigments, causes skin cancer, and can
damage the interior of the eye. UV-C is even
more dangerous, and is often used to kill
bacteria.
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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
The Earth’s ozone layer removes most of the
UV from natural daylight. However, the
human body appears to use some UV to
produce vitamin D. Thus, full-spectrum
lamps that radiate UV in similar proportions to
noon sunlight are useful in applications
where humans are totally deprived of natural
light. But aside from these extreme cases of
natural light deprivation, electric lamps that
emit high levels of UV should be avoided.
Recent reports in the popular media have
tried to establish a link between human
health and UV emitted by tungsten-halogen
lamps. Tungsten-halogen lamps emit very
small amounts of UV light, however, and no
relationship has been established between
halogen light and human health.
Furthermore UL-approved halogen luminaires
are supplied with safety glasses beneath the
lamps that block most UV. Because
prolonged exposure to UV light can fade
colors in artwork and fabrics, more
comprehensive filters, manufactured for art
lighting applications, are available in many
luminaires to screen out virtually all UV
emitted by these lamps.
Metal halide and mercury lamps emit
relatively high levels of short-wave UV
radiation. Most of these lamps are required
to be enclosed in luminaires with protective
UV filter glass lenses. Others are available
with a double lamp envelope. Enclosed
lamps should not be operated if the
protective lens is missing or damaged.
Double envelope lamps should not be
operated if the outer bulb is damaged in any
way.
124
Light As Therapy
Although several research teams have tried
to link electric lights with the cause or
treatment of diseases, at this time, research
has shown no relationship. However, electric
light can be used to treat Seasonal Affective
Disorder (SAD), sometimes called winter
depression, which is caused by the short
daylight cycle of polar climates. By
introducing bright lights in the early morning,
the body is stimulated into releasing enzymes
and hormones that overcome the
depression; research shows that ordinary
fluorescent lighting can be used. Ultraviolet
light is often used to treat psoriasis and other
skin disorders, and electric light has also
been used in the treatment of neo-natal
jaundice.
Flicker
At best, flickering light is an annoyance; at
worst, it can cause physiological and
psychological problems. Fluorescent and
HID lamps flicker at 120 Hz under normal
North American power conditions. In
extreme cases, flicker has been blamed for
headaches and dizziness, particularly in
situations involving several high pressure
sodium lamps in the same room on a single
AC power phase. Less dramatic problems
attributed to flickering light include the
possibility of fatigue and headache from
some types of fluorescent lamps and
ballasts. Both of these situations can be
prevented through proper design techniques.
Plants and Electric Light
Lighting also has health effects on plants,
which require varying periods and amounts
of light as a primary nutrient. Natural
daylight, fluorescent “grow lights,” and metal
halide lamps are good for most common
plant growth lighting. For more information
on plant lighting, see the Application Volume
of the IES Lighting Handbook, Chapter 19.

Disposal of Lighting Equipment
Electric lighting generally is clean and safe.
There are only a few special considerations
for electric lighting in the environment. These
consideration center around the disposal of
older lighting components. Several of these
components contain materials, such as
mercury and PCBs, that are considered
hazardous or toxic by federal, state and/or
local environmental agencies.
Disposal of lighting equipment is usually
regulated by state law. On a national level,
the Environmental Protection Agency’s Green
Lights program has been formulating
methods to assess the disposal of lamps and
ballasts. However, as of 1992, the EPA had
no specific regulations on the disposal of
lamps or sealed (non-leaking) ballasts.
Ballasts
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) were used
as a capacitor component in lamp ballasts
until 1979, when they were found to be
carcinogenic and were subsequently
banned. Ballasts containing PCBs should be
identified and replaced as soon as possible
to prevent burnout or other failure releasing
PCBs into the environment. Contacting the
ballast manufacturer with the ballast make
and number is the best way of identifying
these ballasts.
Disposal of electric ballasts may be regulated
on either a regional, state, or local level. The
EPA runs a hotline for information on ballast
11. Issues
disposal: (202) 554-1404. Disposal of PCB
ballasts should be through a contractor
licensed to dispose of electric PCB
equipment.
Lamps
Fluorescent and some HID lamps contain
minute amounts of mercury. In addition,
fluorescent lamps placed in service prior to
1988 will likely contain cadmium. Both
mercury and cadmium are considered by the
EPA to be toxic substances. As a result,
many states have regulations and/or limits on
the disposal of fluorescent and/or HID lamps.
For example, in California, there is a 25 lamp
per day limit per disposer on the quantity of
fluorescent lamps that may be discarded.
Large quantities of used lamps should be
disposed of through a contractor licensed to
dispose of fluorescent lamps or mercury
products. Recycling is possible with some
fluorescent lamp components, but is
generally not economically self-sustaining.
The disposal of sodium from high pressure
and low pressure sodium lamps can create a
hazard, as sodium is dangerously reactive
with water. Sodium lamps should be
disposed of by operators familiar with sodium
product disposal.
For further information on the disposal of
lighting components, see the Advanced
Lighting Guidelines or contact the EPA’s
Toxic Substances Control Act hotline at (202)
554-1404.
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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions

12. Role of the Utility

Utilities often have a significant influence on
lighting design decisions through their
programs and policies. The lighting
information provided in this handbook can be
used by utilities to serve their customers and
to develop programs and policies that
effectively meet utility objectives. However,
this document cannot recommend lighting
policies and programs for utilities. Specific
utility programs are developed based on the
particular needs and opportunities of each
utility and its customers, and must match
available resources. This chapter attempts
only to review some of the main
programmatic areas and to make a link to
information presented in other chapters.
Many utility programs and policies must be
reviewed and approved by a public utility
commission or other regulating agency as
part of the utility company’s rate case.
Utilities with considerable excess capacity will
likely offer fewer programs than utilities
operating at nearly full capacity. For
example, EPRI’s 1991 Survey of
Commercial-Sector Demand-Side
Management Programs (TR-100329) found
that utilities in the northeastern U.S. had the
country’s highest level of rebates for energy-
efficient equipment and designs. Most
utilities in that region of the country are
operating at or near capacity, and need to
manage the demand for electricity. In such

Demand-Side Management — A Lighting Issue for the 1990s

Utilities apply DSM programs to manage (or assist in managing) the customer’s use of
electricity. This requires capital investment by the utility in equipment and programs that
influence the customer’s use of electricity, as opposed to investment in new generating
equipment to respond to growing unmanaged demand.
Lighting’s Role in DSM
Lighting accounts for approximately 20 to 25% of the total electric load in the United
States.
Commercial and industrial lighting comprises approximately 35% of the on-peak
demand load in the U.S.
A 20% reduction in existing lighting load, combined with energy-efficient new design
practices, can result in zero growth in electric demand.
Underlying Concepts in DSM Programs
Utilities provide customer assistance in choosing lighting.
Utilities provide educational facilities and demonstration projects for public use.
Utilities subsidize energy-efficient lighting improvements through rebates, grants, and/or
financing.

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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
cases, lighting efficiency improvements are
among the most reliable and economical
ways to achieve demand reduction goals.
Customer Assistance
The public widely regards utilities as the most
accessible advisors on lighting. Often,
customers who are seeking information on
lighting are confronted with a bewildering
selection of products and services from a
variety of engineers, consultants, contractors,
and vendors. Consumer confusion may be
magnified by the fact that the lighting industry
currently has no nationally accepted licensing
or certification programs to assure the public
of an individual’s or company’s credentials or
competence. Fortunately, utilities provide a
wide range of services to assist customers
with lighting and other energy issues. These
services may include some or all of the
following:
Predictions of energy prices and costs
for making accurate projections of
energy savings
Recommendations of consultants,
engineers, and contractors in the
service area who are known to be
qualified
Assessment of energy-efficient lighting
programs proposed by a customer’s
engineers, consultants, and/or
contractors
Endorsement of general lighting
programs, equipment, and technologies
known to be straightforward and
effective
Accurate predictions of energy use and cost
and the effects of efficiency improvements
are essential in determining the true
economic benefits of proposed lighting
improvements. Utilities are often the best
and most accurate source of information
about electric use patterns and forecasting.
128
Programs include customer assistance,
education, and incentive programs.
Assessing Existing Lighting
Systems
Utilities can also assist customers in
assessing the efficacy and quality of existing
and proposed lighting systems. Professional
lighting consultants and engineers often
perform this service, but utilities may
augment professional services with in-house
experts, or by retaining consultants to be
available on an as-needed basis to assist
customers with common problems or to
perform energy audits on existing equipment.
Quite often, a commercial customer will
simply want an energy audit to determine the
potential for lighting energy savings. Many
facilities, especially offices designed before
1980, are overlighted and/or lighted with
inefficient equipment. Straightforward audits
and analyses can be performed by trained
utility representatives who are not necessarily
lighting experts. Many utility companies have
instituted in-house training programs to teach
personnel how to do basic lighting
measurements, calculations, and energy
savings assessments.
Design Assistance
Some customers require design assistance
for new or existing buildings. The types of
projects usually brought to the utility include:
Smaller projects in which the contractor
and/or electrical distributor has the
principal responsibility for designing the
lighting system – in these cases, the
customer requires assistance in making
sensible decisions about energy-
efficient lighting equipment
Medium and large scale projects in
which architects and engineers require
assistance both in lighting design and in
selecting efficient equipment, especially
in order to take advantage of rebate
incentive programs

Special projects, such as those with
architectural, historic, or energy-
demonstration importance
Referrals
On occasion, customers will request more
complex audits and inspections. Buildings of
historic or architectural significance, buildings
with unusual lighting systems, and special-
use buildings such as hotels and restaurants
cannot be audited as easily as most
residential or commercial building types. Too
often, simple numeric recommendations
result in gloomy, underlighted spaces. In
these special situations, utilities may
encourage the customer to employ a
recognized lighting professional.
Energy engineers and lighting
consultants provide audits and design
services for a fee. Professional
consultants generally offer more
creative solutions and are more likely to
consider aesthetics and ambiance.
Private consultants usually have no
conflicts of interest that might prevent
choosing any worthwhile product or
technique. The major disadvantage to
the customer in using a professional
consultant or engineer is that,
regardless of outcome, fees must be
paid.
Energy service companies (ESCOs) can
provide facility owners with a complete
package of energy auditing, analysis,
design, installation, and financing of
lighting energy programs. ESCOs
attract clients by handling all aspects of
an energy project. Their profits
generally come from a share of overall
energy savings for a fixed period of
time. In providing financing from
energy-cognizant investors, design by
12. Role of the Utility
experienced engineers, and installation
by skilled contractors, ESCOS can
often achieve an appropriate rate of
return to make a project attractive to all
parties. Some utility companies own or
participate with ESCOs, while
independent ESCOs know about and
exploit utility DSM rebate programs
effectively. The principal disadvantage
of ESCOs is that their fees are taken
from any energy savings and rebates.
Lighting contractors specializing in
energy are also effective users of utility
DSM rebate programs. In fact, the
lighting maintenance industry has
changed completely since 1980 in
order to provide the skills and
knowledge to address utility rebate
programs as a primary marketing tool.
Lighting maintenance contractors often
provide the most cost-effective
installations and services available; their
primary disadvantage is that they are
less likely to resolve aesthetic issues.
Some lighting sales representatives,
distributors, and showrooms are well
equipped to provide advice and design
services. While these companies
usually do not charge a design fee, they
will generally steer the client toward
purchasing lighting equipment from
them. Hence, these companies may
suffer from conflicts of interest in
making design choices. Using lighting
sales and showroom assistance can
produce the greatest return on
investment to a building owner if the
owner’s personnel are savvy enough to
take advantage of this low cost or free
service. Many sales personnel are
skilled designers and deal effectively
with aesthetic and ambiance concerns.
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Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
Education
Utilities are a valuable source of general
information and education services to both
the lighting and architectural communities, as
well as to the public at large. In its 1986
Conservation Report, the California Energy
Commission stated:
“Energy Conservation could be improved in
lighting through the use of advanced lighting
technologies presently on the market.
However, the primary obstacle to their
general use is the lack of knowledge about
these products and their application..."
The public need for information can be
addressed in a number of different ways.
Utilities can provide substantial education
about lighting through participation in and/or
sponsorship of professional and trade group
programs, classes, demonstration facilities,
and lighting centers. Customer assistance
and education can also be provided through
initiation and support of local programs in
schools, colleges, and other community
institutions and organizations. These are
discussed in more detail below.
Lighting Classes
Utilities may disseminate information about
energy-efficient lighting by teaching lighting
classes aimed at contractors, architects,
engineers, salespersons, and others who
may be involved in lighting decisions. Utilities
may also encourage lighting education by
sponsoring and allowing access to utility
company facilities to organizations who
conduct lighting seminars or classes. These
groups include the Illuminating Engineering
Society (IES), Designers Lighting Forum
(DLF), International Association of Lighting
Designers (IALD), American Institute of
Architects (AIA), American Society of Interior
Designers (ASID), National Association of
Electrical Distributors (NAED), and others.
130
Lighting Centers
Utility-operated lighting centers have become
a popular way of increasing public access to
lighting information. Lighting centers offer
displays of modern, state-of-the-art
equipment and design techniques and
provide qualified staff for walk-in consulting.
Lighting professionals are attracted by up-to-
date libraries on lighting equipment and by
computer analysis facilities. Lighting centers
often contain classrooms for lighting classes
and demonstrations. Successful lighting
centers offering a variety of services include:
Customer Technology Application
Center, sponsored by Southern
California Edison
Lighting Concepts Center, sponsored
by Massachusetts Gas & Electric
Lighting Design Laboratory, sponsored
by Bonneville Power Administration,
Puget Power, and many others
Pacific Energy Center, sponsored by
Pacific Gas & Electric
Demonstration Projects
Utilities often finance and build (or retrofit)
energy-efficient demonstration buildings
which include efficient lighting products.
Projects may include residences, retail
stores, office buildings, health care facilities,
and other buildings. Buildings are often
occupied after construction or retrofitting has
been completed. These projects
demonstrate that energy-efficient lighting can
be pleasing as well as functional. The
Lighting Research Center at Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute is an example of a
lighting demonstration project, sponsored in
part by a utility (Niagara Mohawk Power
Corporation).

Regional Education and Support
Utilities serving areas outside of metropolitan
centers may provide traveling display and
educational programs for remote customers.
Incentive Programs
Utility incentive programs lie at the heart of
many demand-side management programs.
While educational programs can enlighten
customers regarding the desirability of saving
energy, this may not, by itself, achieve
acceptable levels of energy efficiency. Utility
incentive programs can make investments in
energy efficiency more attractive.
Efficient lighting equipment is generally more
expensive than standard lighting. The
primary incentive for customer investment in
energy-efficient lighting comes through
energy cost savings. Many popular lighting
improvements in both new construction and
retrofit applications provide adequate savings
to pay back the investment after an
acceptable period.
Utility rebate programs, in essence, subsidize
the purchase and installation of energy-
efficient electrical equipment. Rebates for
lighting equipment are especially popular,
and both new and retrofit rebate programs
are available. The rebates act as an incentive
to customers by reducing the initial purchase
price of the equipment and shortening
payback periods. For example, if it costs a
customer $150 to install a ceiling-mounted
occupancy sensor that saves $50/year in
energy costs, the simple payback period is
three years. However, if the customer’s utility
offers a rebate of $80, reducing the installed
12. Role of the Utility
Often, regional and remote utility offices may
be furnished with educational materials and
state-of-the-art demonstration equipment.
cost of the sensor to $70, the customer’s
payback period becomes less than 1.5 years.
Most companies would find this to be a very
acceptable payback period.
Many rebate programs link rebate eligibility to
other conditions of energy efficiency or
system performance. For example, retrofit
rebates may require improvements over
original building design, and new
construction rebates may be linked to over-
compliance with state and/or local energy
codes. Similarly, rebates for specific lighting
components may impose restrictions on the
equipment. For instance, rebates for
electronic high-frequency ballasts may
require that the ballast have a ballast factor
greater than 0.87 and total harmonic
distortion less than 20% of the fundamental.
Rebate programs are not limited strictly to
commercial power customers, although this
group does constitute a majority of
customers who take advantage of these
incentives. Residential rebate programs exist
as well, as it is in this area that customers are
most resistant to changing to energy-efficient
lighting equipment.
Table 12-1 lists some of the rebates given for
energy-efficient lighting products in one
utility’s lighting retrofit program.
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 Part Three – Lighting Design Decisions
Table 12-1 Rebates for Lighting Retrofits
In addition to direct rebates, utility DSM
programs may employ a variety of other
financial incentives. For example, the utility
may offer grants or low-interest loans to
customers for the installation of efficient
equipment. In direct installation programs,
utilities pay for and install the improved
lighting equipment. With leasing programs,
the customer pays a monthly charge while
the utility is responsible for equipment
installation and maintenance. Utilities may
offer direct incentives to distributors and
other trade allies to encourage the promotion
and sale of energy-efficient lighting products.
Utility personnel are part of a community
team effort. In major metropolitan areas,
132
utility DSM programs are most successful
when utilities work in cooperation with
consultants, distributors, contractors, and
other members of the lighting community. In
more remote locations, utility personnel often
are the local lighting experts, which requires
greater participation. The actual degree of
involvement in particular design decisions will
vary by location, situation, and utility staff
abilities.
For further information on utility DSM
programs, see the 1991 Survey of
Commercial-Sector Demand-Side
Management Programs (TR100329),
available from EPRI.
Lighting Handbook for Utilities

Glossary

absolute contrast The difference in reflectance between a visual target and its immediate
background, without regard to color of target or background.
absorption The dissipation of incident flux within a surface or medium.
accent lighting (highlighting) Light that emphasizes a particular object or objects, or that draws
attention to a specific area within the field of view.
accommodation The process by which the eye changes its focus from one distance to
another.
adaptation The process by which the eye becomes accustomed to varying
quantities of light or to light of a different color than it was exposed to
during an immediately preceding period. Results in a change in the
eye’s sensitivity to light.
adaptation compensation A lighting control strategy aimed at matching illuminance to the
adaptation level of the eyes of persons entering the space.
ambiance Mood or feeling in a space, as evoked by that room’s lighting system.
ambient lighting Electric and/or natural lighting throughout a space that produces
uniform general illumination.
angle of incidence The angle between the normal to a surface and the path of light striking
the surface.
ANSI The American National Standards Institute.
ANSI conditions The conditions under which most lamps and ballasts are tested for light
output, lamp life, etc. Generally means open (a non-enclosed
luminaire) conditions, in non-moving air, at 25 ° C (77 ° F).
application thermal factor (ATF) A measurement used in lighting calculations to account for the effects
of a lamp’s bulb wall temperature on lumen output. ATF varies
depending on luminaire, lamp, and ballast type.
arc discharge A transfer of electricity across two electrodes (anode and cathode),
characterized by high electrode current densities and a low voltage
drop at the electrode.
architecturally neutral luminaire A luminaire whose design and/or mounting characteristics allow it to be
easily integrated into architectural and interior design schemes.
architecturally positive luminaire A luminaire designed to attract attention to a space and evoke an
emotional response; an ornamental or decorative luminaire.

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Lighting Handbook for Utilities
asymmetric distribution
baffle
ballast
ballast efficacy factor (BEF)
ballast factor (BF)
beam spread
blackbody radiator
brightness
bulb
bulb wall temperature
candela (cd)
candlepower (cp)
candlepower distribution curve
cathodes
ceiling cavity height
chromaticity
coefficient of beam utilization
coefficient of utilization (CU)
134
A light distribution pattern in which lumen output is directed more
strongly toward one side than another.
A lamp shielding device that absorbs unwanted light or shields a light
source from direct view.
A magnetic or electronic device used to control the starting and
operation of discharge lamps.
A measure of energy efficiency used to establish minimum ballast
performance parameters for component efficiency standards. The
figure is determined by dividing the ballast factor by input power.
Current federal and state BEFs are in effect for F40T12 and F96T12
ballasts.
The ratio of lamp lumen output on a particular ballast as compared to
that lamp’s (lamps’) rated lumen output on a reference ballast under
ANSI test conditions (free, unmoving air at 25 ° C).
A measure used for directional type lamps. The angle between two
directions in any plane in which light intensity (in candlepower) is equal
to a stated percentage of the maximum beam intensity. Generally, the
percentage is 10% for flood lamps and 50% for photographic lamps.
A theoretical temperature radiator of uniform temperature whose
radiation in all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum is the maximum
obtainable from any temperature radiator at the same temperature. A
blackbody radiator is used to determine the color characteristics of light
sources.
The subjective intensity, as determined by an individual’s perceptive
processes, of the sensation that results from viewing a light source or a
surface or space which directs light into the eyes. Is often used
incorrectly in place of the terms “illuminance” and “luminance.”
The glass outer envelope component of a lamp.
The temperature at the bulb wall of a lamp, which effects lumen output
and input wattage and that is important in lighting calculations. See
application thermal factor.
A unit of luminous intensity in a given direction, equal to one lumen per
steradian.
The luminous intensity of a light source, as expressed in candelas.
A curve that represents the varying distribution of luminous intensity of a
lamp or luminaire.
See electrodes.
In lighting calculations, the distance between the ceiling and the plane
of the luminaires in a given space.
The measurement of a color that includes its dominant wavelength and
purity.
The ratio of lumens reaching a specified surface directly from a
floodlight or projector to the total quantity of lumens emitted: used
principally as a measurement in exterior applications.
The ratio of lumens from a luminaire received on the work plane to the
total quantity of lumens emitted by the lamps of that luminaire.
 Glossary

color rendering A general expression for the effect of a light source on color
appearance of objects in comparison with their appearance under a
reference light source.
color rendering index (CRI) A measurement of the amount of color shift that objects undergo when
lighted by a light source as compared with the color of those same
objects when seen under a reference light source of comparable color
temperature. CRI values generally range from 0 to 100.
color temperature The absolute temperature of a blackbody radiator having a chromaticity
equal to that of the light source (see correlated color temperature).
component efficiency standards Energy efficiency codes that address the performance of lighting
equipment, including lamps, ballasts, and luminaires.
cones Photoreceptor cells located in the fovea of the retina and responsible
for color (photopic) vision.
continuous spectrum light A light source that radiates at all visible wavelengths of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
contrast The ratio of the luminance of an object to that of its immediate
background.
cornea The front portion of the eye that receives light and begins the focusing
of light into the eye.
correlated color temperature (CCT) A specification of the color appearance of a light source, relating its
color to that of a blackbody radiator, as measured in Kelvins (K). CCT
is a general measure of a lamp’s “coolness” or “warmness.”
cut-off angle (of a luminaire) The angle between the vertical axis of a luminaire and the first line of
sight at which the light source is no longer visible.
daylighting A lighting control strategy that focuses on architectural design practice
and electrical lighting controls to distribute and control natural
illumination and reduce electrical energy use.
demand Refers to the demand for electricity measured as the rate of energy
consumption, usually in kilowatts. See peak demand.
demand-side management (DSM) A series of strategies employed by utilities to manage demand/total load
by encouraging customers to reduce energy use through more energy-
efficient equipment and practices.
depreciation See lamp lumen depreciation.
dichroic film A coating applied to glass that reflects light of a specific wavelength
while allowing other wavelengths (usually infrared) to be transmitted.
diffuse reflection The redirection or “scattering” of incident flux over a range of angles.
diffuser A device that redirects or scatters the flux it receives from a light
source.
diffusion See diffuse reflection.
direct glare Glare resulting from insufficiently-shielded light sources or areas of
excessive luminance within the field of view.
direct lighting The use of luminaires that distribute a high percentage of emitted light
in the general direction of the surface to be illuminated. This usually
refers to light emitted downward.

135
Lighting Handbook for Utilities

directional lighting Light provided at the illuminated surface predominantly from a preferred
direction. Common accent lighting technique.
disability glare Glare that produces a degradation in visual performance and visibility.
It may be accompanied by discomfort glare.
discharge lamp A lamp that produces light by discharging an electric arc through a
mixture of gases and gaseous metals.
discomfort glare Glare that distracts or produces visual discomfort, but which does not
necessarily reduce visibility or visual performance.
discount rate (nominal) The rate at which future benefits or costs are discounted to present
value with consideration of inflation. When a nominal discount rate is
used future benefits and costs must be quantified in inflated dollars.
discount rate (real) The rate at which future benefits or costs are discounted to present
value without consideration of inflation.
display lighting An accent lighting technique that is intended to emphasize artwork or
merchandise. Also refers to specialized lighting equipment that
accomplishes this task.
efficacy A measurement of the ratio of light produced by a light source to the
electrical power used to produce that quantity of light, expressed in
lumens per watt. Efficacy is an important determinant of energy
efficiency in lighting equipment.
efficiency See luminaire efficiency.
electrodes Filaments located at either end of a discharge lamp that maintain an
electrical arc between them. See arc discharge.
electromagnetic spectrum A linear representation of all wavelengths of electric and magnetic
radiation.
ellipsoidal reflector A luminaire or lamp reflecting device in the shape of an ellipse which
redirects light to produce a variable-edged, clearly defined beam.
energy use The total energy consumed over a specific period of time, measured in
kilowatt hours (kWh).
equivalent sphere illumination (ESI) A metric comparing the illumination on a task with that which would fall
on the same task if it were illuminated by a source providing equal
luminance in all directions, such as that which would be provided by an
illuminated sphere with the task in the center.
exitance The density of light reflecting from a surface at a point, measured in
lumens per square foot (formerly “footlamberts”). It is determined by
multiplying the footcandles striking a diffuse reflecting surface times the
reflectance of that surface.
floor cavity height In lighting calculations, the distance between the workplane and the
floor in a given space.
fluorescent lamp A discharge lamp in which a phosphor coating transforms ultraviolet
energy into visible light.
footcandle (fc) A standard measurement of illuminance, representing the amount of
illuminance on a surface one foot square on which there is a uniformly
distributed flux of one lumen.
 Glossary

footlambert(fl) A measurement of exitance, equal to lumens per square foot. The use
of this term is no longer popular; exitance should be used instead. See
exitance.
fovea A region of intense visual sensitivity in the center of the eye’s retina,
containing only cone type photoreceptors.
frequency The number of waves or cycles of electromagnetic radiation per
second, usually measured in Hertz (Hz).
fresnel lens A lens that produces a smooth, soft-edged, clearly defined beam of
light.
furniture factor In lighting calculations, a light loss factor that accounts for open-office
furniture systems and other tall partitions.
general lighting Lighting designed to provide a uniform level of intensity throughout a
space. See also ambient lighting.
glare See direct glare, disability glare, discomfort glare, reflected glare.
halogen cycle The process in which a halogen gas combines with tungsten molecules
that evaporate from the filament during lamp operation and deposits the
molecules back on the filament. The halogen cycle, used in tungsten-
halogen lamps, reduces lamp lumen depreciation and increases lamp
life.
harmonic distortion A corruption of electrical power system characteristics created primarily
by electronic rectifying circuits and high-speed switching systems.
highlighting See accent lighting.
IES/IESNA The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America – a lighting
technical organization devoted to lighting information and education, as
well as the development of national standards.
illuminance The density of incident luminous flux on a surface; illuminance is the
standard metric for lighting levels, and is measured in lux (lx) or
footcandles (fc).
illuminance categories An IES recommended series of illuminance categories for a wide variety
of visual tasks; used in lighting calculations to determine illuminance
levels.
illumination The act of illuminating or state of being illuminated. This term is often
used incorrectly in place of the term illuminance to denote the density
of luminous flux on a surface.
incandescence The emission of visible electromagnetic radiation due to the thermal
excitation of atoms or molecules.
incandescent lamp A lamp in which a filament is heated to incandescence by an electric
current, producing visible light.
indirect lighting Lighting strategy in which a large percentage of the light emitted by
luminaires is directed toward a surface (usually upward), to be reflected
into the space to be illuminated.
infrared (IR) radiation Invisible electromagnetic energy within the wavelength range of 770-
6
10 nanometers; may be experienced as radiant heat.
input power The maximum amount of power consumed at any one time by a
luminaire-lamp-ballast combination; usually measured in watts.
Lighting Handbook for Utilities
instant start operation
internal rate of return
inverse-square law
isofootcandle (isolux) line
kilowatt (kW)
kilowatt hour (kWh)
lamp
lamp current crest factor
lamp efficacy
lamp efficacy standard
lamp life
lamp lumen depreciation (LLD)
lamp starting
lens
light loss factor (LLF)
light trespass
lighting energy
lighting power density (LPD)
lighting power density standards
A mode of starting fluorescent lamps by applying a high voltage to the
lamps without preheating the electrodes.
A measure of economic performance representing the percentage of
the initial investment that is returned each year for the life of the
investment through energy savings or other benefits.
The law of illuminance that states that the illuminance (E) at a point on a
surface varies directly with the intensity (I) of a point source and
inversely as the square of the distance (d) between the point and the
source. At nadir, this relationship may be expressed as: E = I÷d 2.
A group of lines plotted on a set of coordinates to show all points on a
surface where equal illuminances occur.
A unit of electric power usage, equal to 1000 watts.
A measurement of electric energy. A kilowatt hour is equal to 1000
watts of power used over a period of one hour.
An electrically energized source of light, commonly called a bulb or
tube.
A ballast measure that determines the ratio of the peak lamp current to
the root mean square lamp current. High lamp current crest factors
reduce lamp life.
Ratio of lumens emitted by a lamp to its input power, measured in
lumens per watt.
An energy efficiency standard, basing compliance on minimum lamp
lumens per watt.
A measure of lamp performance, as measured in median hours of
burning time under ANSI test conditions.
The decrease over time of lamp lumen output, caused by bulb wall
blackening, phosphor exhaustion, filament depreciation and other
factors.
Generic term used to describe a discharge lamp’s starting
characteristics in terms of time to come to full output, flicker, etc.
A glass or plastic luminaire component used to control the direction
and distribution of emitted light.
A multiplier used in lighting calculations to account for degradation of
ANSI-rated lamp lumens. Accounts for temperature and voltage
variations, various depreciation factors, and environmental operating
conditions.
The distribution of light into unwanted areas due to a lack of shielding
or beam control, or because of poor lighting design.
The quantity of electricity used for lighting, measured by multiplying
connected lighting load times time of operation.
A metric of interior lighting power use, usually measured in watts per
square foot; a popular measurement in the determination of lighting
energy efficiency for codes and standards.
Energy efficiency standards that base lighting compliance on
connected lighting load in watts per square foot.
 Glossary

line spectra light source A light source consisting of a very limited section of the visible
electromagnetic spectrum, resulting in a light in which one color is
dominant.
louver A light source shielding device consisting of a geometrically patterned
series of baffles, designed to shield or absorb unwanted light that is
visible from certain angles.
lumen The quantity of luminous flux emitted within a unit solid angle (one
steradian) by a point source with one candela intensity in all directions.
lumen maintenance A lighting control strategy that uses a photocell to detect illuminance
levels in a space and maintain the lighting levels at the design
illuminance level throughout the life of the lamps. Generally, this means
that lamps are operated at a dimmed level when new. Over time, as
lamps age and depreciation occurs, power to the lamps is gradually
increased.
lumen method An interior application lighting design procedure used to determine the
relationship between the number and types of lamps and luminaires,
the room characteristics, and the average illuminance on the
workplane. Accounts for both direct and reflected light. Sometimes
known as zonal cavity computation.
luminaire A complete lighting unit, consisting of a lamp or lamps together with the
components required to distribute the light, position the lamps, and
connect the lamps to a power supply. Often referred to as a “fixture.”
luminaire dirt depreciation (LDD) A multiplier used in lighting calculations to account for the reduction in
illuminance produced by the accumulation of dirt on a luminaire.
luminaire efficiency The ratio of lumens exiting a luminaire to the total lumens emitted by
that luminaire’s lamps; expressed as a percentage.
luminance The luminous intensity of a surface in a given direction per unit area of
that surface as viewed from that direction; often incorrectly referred to
as “brightness.”
luminance ratio The ratio between the luminances of any two areas in the visual field.
lux (lx) A standard unit of illuminance. One lux is equal to one lumen per
square meter.
net present value The sum of the initial costs and all future costs and benefits, discounted
to present value.
neural adaptation adjustment Changes in the brain that occur when the visual system is exposed to
different light levels.
non-recoverable light loss factors Losses in luminaire lumen output that are not due to depreciation
factors. Non-recoverable factors include ballast and thermal factors.
occupancy sensing A lighting control strategy that switches lighting systems on or off based
on the presence or absence of persons in a controlled space.
off-peak energy use Energy consumption during off-peak hours; usually during the late
evening and early morning hours.
on-peak energy use Energy consumption during the period of peak demand; usually defined
as early afternoon to early evening during the summer months.
Lighting Handbook for Utilities

parabolic reflector A lighting distribution control device that is designed to redirect a

luminaire’s light in a specific direction. A parabolic reflector may be a
component in either a lamp or a luminaire. In most applications, the
parabolic device directs light down and away from the direct glare
zone. In fluorescent luminaires, parabolic reflectors are often combined
with louvers to minimize glare and redistribute light. With more direct
light sources, such as incandescent A lamps, the reflector usually
accomplishes these actions without the use of louvers.
particle theory The conceptualization of electromagnetic energy as a stream of
particles or “photons” traveling in a linear direction.
peak demand A utility customer’s maximum load. For purposes of calculating utility
cost, peak demand is generally based on the maximum monthly
demand, where demand is measured as an average over a time
interval, usually 15 or 30 minutes. See demand.
peak demand limiting A lighting control strategy that focuses on the gradual dimming of
electric lights during times of on-peak energy use, typically from early
afternoon to early evening during warm weather months. This strategy
has the added benefit of reducing air-conditioning loads during these
hours.
phosphorescence Light emitted due to the absorption of radiation and resultant excitation;
this luminescence continues for a period of time after excitation.
photocelI/photosensor A device that measures the amount of incident light present in a space.
photometry The measurement of light quantities.
photon A particle of electromagnetic radiation.
photopic vision Vision produced by the cone receptors in the retina. Responsible for
color vision.
photopigments Chemicals within the eye whose quantities change with the amount of
light entering the eye at any one time.
point source A light source with dimensions that are small enough, in relation to the
distance between the light source and the lighted surface, that the
dimensions of the source may be excluded from calculations. Refers,
in most cases, to compact incandescent or HID light sources used in
applications requiring a high degree of control over the beam spread of
the light source.
power adjustment factor An assumed reduction in lighting power to account for the effect of
automatic lighting controls. Power adjustment factors are specified in
many energy efficiency standards.
power draw See input power.
power factor A measurement that determines how effectively input power is
converted into actual usable power by an electric component such as a
ballast. In AC circuits, some of the current drawn by an electrical
device is wasted. Power factor is determined by computing the ratio of
input watts to root mean square of the volt-amps of the electrical
component. Utilities may elect to penalize customers whose electric
load has a low power factor (usually less than 0.90).
prime colors of light The three colors -- red, green and blue -- that produce white light when
added together in equal proportions.

140
 Glossary

prism A device that bends light through the principle of refraction.

prismatic lens A lens that uses refraction to redirect light rays.
pupil The adjustable aperture in the cornea of the eye that regulates the
quantity of light admitted into the eye.
rapid start operation A method of starting fluorescent lamps in which the ballast provides a
separate winding for the constant heating of the lamp’s electrodes.
Rapid start ballasts enable starting without the need for a starter switch
or the application of high voltage.
reactor ballast A ballasting device used primarily with low-wattage lamps or in high
power (non-120-volt) industrial applications. These simple inductor
devices consist of a choke coil and starter, wired in series with the
lamp. Some are available with power-factor-correcting capacitors. The
primary advantage to using reactor ballasts is that they are inexpensive.
However they regulate lamp power poorly.
recoverable light loss factors Losses in luminaire light output that can be regained through relamping
and maintenance.
reflectance The ratio of reflected flux to incident flux.
reflected glare Glare resulting from specular reflections of high luminance in polished
or glossy surface within the visual field.
reflection The process by which incident flux leaves a surface from the incident
side without a change in frequency.
reflector A device used to direct the light from a source through the process of
reflection.
refraction The process by which the direction of a ray of light changes as it
passes from one medium to another, due to a change in its speed.
relative visual performance (RVP) A complex measurement that determines the probability (percent) of
successfully performing a particular visual task under a very specific set
of conditions. RVP is especially useful for assessing task visibility under
conditions where speed and accuracy are important to successful
visual performance.
restrike time A delay in lamp starting that occurs after a momentary power
interruption; applicable to all high intensity discharge lamps, as well as
to cathode cutout fluorescent lamps.
retina The cell lining at the back of the eye containing photoreceptors (rods &
cones) and nerve cells that link to the optic nerve.
rods Photoreceptor cells located in the retina and very responsive to low
levels of light.
room cavity height In lighting calculations, the distance from the workplane to the plane of
the luminaires.
room cavity ratio (RCR) In lighting calculations, a measure of room proportion as determined by
dimensions of length, width, and height.
room surface dirt depreciation (RSDD) A light loss factor produced by the accumulation of dirt on room
surfaces.
scheduling The controlling of electric light through the use of manual or automatic
switching.

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Lighting Handbook for Utilities

scotopic vision Vision produced by the eye’s rod receptors. Enables the eye to discern
black and white contrast – also referred to as night vision.
shielding The blocking of a light source from direct visibility.
simple payback A measure of economic performance representing the number of years
required for the monetary value of the energy savings to equal the
investment. Simple payback may be adjusted to consider other annual
savings and costs such as maintenance expenses.
spacing to mounting height ratio The ratio of the distance between luminaires in a common space to
their mounting height above the workplane. Used to help achieve
uniformity of illuminance.
sparkle Iighting A lighting design technique using point sources of light whereby the
light source itself becomes the display or attraction.
specular reflection The redirection of incident light without diffusion at an angle that is
equal to and in the same plane as the angle of incidence.
steradian A unit solid angle on the surface of a sphere equal to the square of the
sphere’s radius.
sweeping The automatic switching off of lights throughout an entire building at a
preset time or times.
task lighting Lighting that is directed to a specific surface or area to provide
illumination for visual tasks.
task-ambient lighting A combination of task and ambient lighting designed so that the level of
ambient light is less than and complementary to the task lighting.
time of use, time of operation A time measure that is multiplied by the measure of connected power
to quantify energy use.
transient adaptation The process by which the eye adjusts to different levels of illuminance
while moving from space to space.
transmission The process whereby incident flux passes through a surface or medium
to emerge on another side – a characteristic of transparent or
translucent materials, such as glass and plastic.
transmittance The ratio of transmitted flux to incident flux.
troffer A common recessed luminaire type, usually installed with the opening
flush with the ceiling.
tuning The control of electric light through the use of dimming equipment.
ultraviolet (UV) radiation Invisible electromagnetic radiation within the wavelength range of 10 to
380 nanometers.
veiling luminance A luminance superimposed on the retinal image which reduces its
contrast, resulting in decreased visibility and visual performance;
produced by areas of increased intensity in the visual field.
veiling reflection A reflection on the visual task that obscures visibility by reducing
contrast (see veiling luminance).
vertical footcandles A measurement of illuminance intensity on a vertical surface, such as a
wall or billboard.
visible light Electromagnetic radiation within the wavelength range of 380-770
nanometers.

142
 Glossary

visual comfort The absence of discomfort glare within the visual field.
visual comfort probability (VCP) A lighting system rating metric that determines the probable percentage
of people who would find the lighting to be free of discomfort glare,
when viewed from a specified location and in a specified direction.
visual field The location of objects or points in space that can be perceived when
the head and eyes are kept stationary.
visual performance An assessment of the ability to perform a visual task, taking speed and
accuracy in account.
visual surroundings All portions of the visual field with the exception of the visual task.
visual task The details and objects that must be seen for the performance of a
given activity; this includes the immediate background of the details or
objects.
watt (W) A unit used to measure electric power. One watt equals one joule/sec.
wave theory The conceptualization of electromagnetic energy moving from a source
of origin in the shape of a wave.
wavelength The distance between two successive points of a periodic wave, in
which the oscillation has the same phase; for electromagnetic radiation,
the distance is generally measured in micrometers or nanometers.
wayfinding The placement of luminaires so as to define the location of pathways,
doors, etc.
workplane The plane at which work is usually performed and on which illuminance
is calculated and specified; generally assumed to be a horizontal plane
at desk height (0.76 meters [30”]).

143
 References for
Further Reading

Electric Power Research Institute Publications

General Information Commercial DSM Survey (Including Utility

Lighting Programs), Report TR-100329, 1/92
Lighting Bulletins
Advanced Lighting Guidelines, TR-101022,
The Value of Lighting System Maintenance, September 1992
Ml-101838, 9/92
Videotapes
Visual Display Terminal Lighting,
MI-101855, 3/93 Office Lighting Design, EM.86-05, 5/86
Lighting Quality, Ml-101857, 3/93 Brochures
It Pays To Turn Off The Lights, Retrofit Lighting Technologies,
Ml-101856, 4/93 CU.3040R, 7/91
Lighting Systems Performance, High Intensity Discharge Lighting,
Ml-102565, 4/94 BR-101739, 5/93
Calculating Lighting and HVAC Interactions Fact Sheets
for Commercial Off ices, Ml-103646, 4/94
Compact Fluorescent Lamps,
Retrofitting Four-Lamp Troffers,
CU.2042R, 7/91
Ml-105193, 4/95
Specular Retrofit Reflectors, CU.2046, 10/91
How Many Footcandles Do I Really Need?
Ml-105223, 8/95 Occupancy Sensors, BR-100323, 4/92
Lighting the Commercial World, EPRI Journal Electronic Ballasts, BR-101886, 5/95
Reprint, 12/89
Software
Commercial Lighting Efficiency Resource
Book, CU.7427, 9/91 LightCAD
Survey and Forecast of Marketplace Supply LREP
and Demand for Energy-Efficient Lighting
Products, TR-100288, December 1992 LightPAD

Applications BEEM

Photoelectric Control of Daylight-Following (Available from Electric Power

Lighting Systems, Report CU.6243, 3/89 Software Center (800) 763-3772)

145
References
Illuminating Engineering Society Publications

General Information
IES Handbook
IES Lighting Education:
Lighting Education Fundamentals, ED-100
Intermediate Level Lighting Course, ED-150
Lighting Mathematics, ED-200.1-88

Recommended Practices
Office Lighting (Incorporates RP-24
Recommendations; ANSI Approved),
RP-1-93
VDT Lighting: IES Recommended Practice
for Lighting Offices Containing Computer
Visual Display Terminals,
RP-24-1989
Educational Facilities Lighting, RP-3-88

Light Energy Management

Design Considerations for Effective Building
Lighting Energy Utilization,
LEM-3-87

Monthly Periodicals

146
Sources of Information on
Lighting

The following list identifies selected sources for obtaining further information about lighting.
Utility marketing representatives will likely be familiar with many additional sources, including
local ones.

Associations, Societies, and Institutes

American Consulting Engineers Council (ACEC)
1015 15th Street, N.W., Suite 802, Washington, DC 20005
American Institute of Architects (AIA)
1735 New York Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20006
American Institute of Plant Engineers (AIPE)
8180 Corporate Park Drive, Suite 305, Cincinati, OH 45242
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
11 West 42nd Street, New York, NY 10036
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration,
and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE)
1971 Tullie Circle, N.E., Atlanta, GA 30329
Association of Energy Engineers (AEE)
4025 Pleasantdale Road, Suite 420, Atlanta, GA 30340
Building Owners and Managers Association International (BOMA)
1250 I Street N.W., Suite 200, Washington, DC 20005
Certified Ballast Manufacturers Association (CBM)
1422 Euclid Avenue, Suite 402, Cleveland, OH 44115
Edison Electric Institute (EEI)
701 Pennsylvanie Avenue N.W., Washington, DC 20004
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, CA 94304
EPRI Lighting Information Off ice (LIO)
501 Fourteenth Street, Suite 200, Oakland, CA 94612

147
Sources

Energy Management and Controls Society

1925 North Lynn Street, Arlington, VA 22209
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA)
120 Wall St. 17th Floor, New York, NY 10005-4001
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE)
345 East 47th Street, New York, NY 10017
Institute of Environment Sciences
940 E. Northwest Highway, Mt. Prospect, IL 60056
Institute of Industrial Engineers
25 Technology Park/Atlanta, Norcross, GA 30092
Instrument Society of America (ISA)
P. O. Box 12277, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD)
1133 Broadway, Suite 520, New York, NY 10010
InterNational Association of Lighting Management Companies (NALMCO)
34-C Washington Road, Princeton Junction, NJ 08550-1028
Manufacturers of Illuminating Products
158-11 Harvey Van Arsdale, Jr. Avenue, Room 307, Flushing, NY 11365
National Association of Electric Distributors (NAED)
45 Danbury Road, Wilton, CT 06897
National Electric Contractors Association, Inc. (NECA)
3 Bethesda Metro Cort, Suite 1100, Bethesda, MD 20814
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
2101 L Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20037
National Institute of Building Science (NIBS)
1201 L Street, N.W., Suite 400, Washington, DC 20005
National Lighting Bureau (NLB)
2101 L Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20037
National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE)
1420 King Street, Alexandria, VA 22314-2794
The Electrification Council (TEC)
701 Pennsylvania Avenue N.W., Washington, DC 20004

148
 Sources

Local Sources
Societies, Associations, and Institutes
Chambers of Commerce
Construction Industry Organizations
Building Code Authorities
Libraries
Architects
Engineers
Contractors
Suppliers
Dealers

U.S. Government Sources

U.S. Department of Energy, Assistant Secretary
for Conservation and Renewables
1000 independence Avenue, Washington, DC 20585
National institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
Building 226
Gaithersburg, MD 20899

149
 About EPRI

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