THE 10th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ADVANCED TOPICS IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

March 23-25, 2017

Bucharest, Romania

Development of a Wireless Battery Charger for

Dacia Electron EV
Andrei Marinescu1,2, SM IEEE, Adrian Vintila3, Danut Gabriel Marinescu4, Viorel Nicolae4
1
ACER, România
2
ASTR, România
3
ICMET, Craiova, România
4
University of Piteşti, România
emc@rdslink.ro, adrian_vintila@icmet.ro, danut_gabriel_marinescu@yahoo.com, v.nicolae@upit.ro

Abstract- Wireless charging of electric or hybrid vehicles is a
modern technology based on power electronics with high
prospects of extension both due to the advantages it offers
against the plug-in charging and as an integral part of the
technology for achieving autonomous vehicles, a highly topical
issue. Although the theory of these wireless systems is well
known, at practical achievement one should take into account
the conditions of use, where at least two elements with variable
character intervene: the battery charging state and the vehicle
ground clearance. Because transferred powers between 3 and 20
kW are involved, the efficiency of this conversion is essential. In
this paper there is described the wireless charger used for Dacia
Electron EV achieved on the structure of a Dacia Sandero series
vehicle.
Keywords: Wireless battery charger, Inductive power transfer,
Medium frequency inverter, Test bench, Efficiency, Application.
when driverless technology will become a reality.
Wireless charging does not lead to a substantial change of
the topology used for modern plug-in charging.
With the same main components (inverter and rectifier),
the insulating, closed core transformer from plug – in charger
is replaced by an inductive coupler (open core transformer)
with separable coils achieved with resonant circuits and
magnetic flux concentrators to improve the coupling factor
approaching it in a certain measure to the original transformer
thus obtaining a wireless charging system as in Fig. 1. As a
result the energy transfer efficiency of the two systems can
become comparable by an appropriate design.

I. INTRODUCTION
EV and HEV have storage batteries which can be charged
by plugging-in a rectifier to the public low voltage power
supply.
The charger can be separated from the EV or it can be on
board. It always includes an insulating transformer for
isolation to the power grid. The solution for direct
rectification of power supply voltage (50 Hz) leads to low
efficiency, generates harmonics, is heavy and has presently
been abandoned. In order to increase efficiency and reduce
the weight of the charger, its topology has become similar to
a SMPS (Switching Mode Power Supply) based on power
electronics which also includes an insulating transformer,
only it now has reduced dimensions and weight since it
operates at high switching frequency of the inverter.
However, the plug-in method, in both versions, raises a
number of issues, the most important of which being the
impossibility of integral automation of the recharging process
(the starting and the ending of this process require manual
operation by connection to an AC socket, regardless of the
environmental conditions - rain or snow) but also the danger
not to be neglected for electric shock in case of damage to the
power cable or vandalism [1, 2]. The transition from the
plug-in to plug-free (wireless) charging through a contactless
Inductive Power Transfer (IPT), working in magnetic
near-field, besides eliminating the above drawbacks, is
considered as the only solution to apply in the near future
Fig. 1. Block diagram for a wireless IPT charger highlighting the
components involved in efficient power transfer.
If efficiency of primary inverter and secondary rectifier are
similar to those of plug-in chargers, the inductive coupler and
compensation circuits involved now form a critical area with
a significant share in the overall efficiency in the absence of
careful design of their parameters (working frequency but
also its variation depending on the distance and mutual
position of the coils) [3], specific arrangements applying this
technology to EVs.
The paper presents the development and implementation of
the wireless charger with a power at least 3 kW for Dacia
Electron, a full electric car developed by CCIA (Research
Centre for cars engineering) at the University of Pitesti on the
frame of series car Sandero done by Dacia company that
serves both for current exploitation of this system but also for
staff training for all university level in EV operation of such
systems.
There are described the choosing topology of the inductive
resonant coupler, issues of standardization, efficiency and
interoperability, building and operation of the medium

978-1-5090-5160-1/17/$31.00 ©2017 IEEE

241
frequency inverter with variable load to charge batteries,
experimental verification system both on the test bench fitted
with the necessary electrical/electronic facilities and on the
car in question.
II. DESIGN OF THE INDUCTIVE COUPLER
The inductive coupler is a two-port circuit like in Fig. 2,
made of two planar nonpolarized circular coils located on the
ground and at the bottom of the vehicle so that the ground
clearance thereof would not be reduced. In the most general
case, the coils may be coaxial, parallel or inclined, and the
distance (h) between coils may be variable (axis z), but their
offset on the axes x or y is not excluded. For increasing the
natural coupling factor k, one appeals to ferrite flux
concentrators as in Fig. 3 [4]. To increase the power factor,
the leakage inductances of the inductive coupler from the
primary (Tx) and secondary (Rx) are compensated by
capacitors connected series or parallel by one of the four
simple known topologies: SS, SP, PS and PP [5]. The
solution applied by us is the SP topology (Fig. 4) with a series
resonance in primary for increasing the voltage applied to the
coupler and a parallel resonance in secondary to get a current
generator better adapted to achieve a battery charger. The
S - P topology ensures satisfactory power transmission
efficiency and improves the energy coupling to the secondary
side.
Fig. 2. Equivalent diagram of an inductive coupler.
The sizes of the transmitter (Tx) and receiver (Rx) coils
used in this inductive coupler are able to transmit a power of
minimum 3 kW under steady-state regime at a maximal
temperature of 70 ˚C degrees and up to 5 kW under
short-time duty (5 minutes). The coils are made of Litz wire
with a square cross section equivalent to 4.1 x 4.1 mm2 with
300 strands of 0.2 mm.
Fig. 3. Planar transmitter coil (Tx) used in our inductive coupler.
D/d = 250/60 mm with 18 turns; under the coil, the flux concentrators made
of cross mounted 50 x 150 mm ferrite bars. The second coil (Rx) is smaller
D/d = 170/60 mm with 13 turns to improve the misalignment behavior.
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Fig. 4. Equivalent diagram of a SP resonant system for a battery charger.
A method of measurement based on voltage ratio method
using a Vector Network Analyzer (VNA) described at length
in [6] using the parameters defined above was developed for
fast determination of inductive coupler parameters in the
laboratory but also in real assembling conditions. Fig. 5
illustrates the experimental measurement conditions and
Fig. 6 shows the test bench (frame dimension 1.5x1.5x1.0 m)
used to simulate the working conditions in operation.
Rx
Tx
VNA
Spacers, h = 120 mm
Fig. 5. Laboratory experimental set-up.
Fig. 6. Test bench (1.5 x 1.5 x 1.0 m) which provides the coil movement
on three axes.
III. INDUCTIVE COUPLER OPTIMIZATION
The optimization of an inductive coupler design consists in
the maximization of kQ figure of merit, where k is the
coupling factor and Q is the overall quality factor of the
coupler
k = M/(L1L2)1/2 (1)
where M is the mutual inductance of the two coils with L1
and L2 inductances and R1 and R2, AC resistances at the
operating frequency of the coupler.
Starting from the relation (1), by simple calculations it can
be shown that if the two quality factors of the two coils are
considered, one gets:
k = ωM/(Q1Q2Re1Re2)1/2 (2)
where Re1, Re2 are the equivalent resistances of the two
coupled circuits formed by the AC resistances of the two coils
(R1, R2) to which the resistances of other circuit elements
(internal resistance of power supply, load resistance a.s.o.) are
added.
 Relation (2) can be further transformed if the geometric
means of the two quality factors and of the two resistances
are noted by Q and R, respectively; one obtains:
k = ωM/QR (3)
or
FOM = kQ = ωM/R (4)
the last relation representing the so called “figure of
merit”(FOM) of the coupler [7] which takes into account the
effect of all dissipative elements from the circuit. So, the kQ
product determines the power transfer efficiency (PTE) [8]:
PTE ≈ (kQ)2/{1 + [1 + (kQ)2] 1/2} (5)
relation that could by simplified
PTE ≈ 1 – (2/kQ) (6)
for kQ > 10
PTE is different from the power delivered to load (PDL)
defined as:
PDL = U22/RL (7)
The maximum of the two quantities does not coincide [9],
so as in practice a compromise is achieved.
The losses can be expressed as a loss factor:
λ = Ploss/PTE (8)
The losses related to the transferred power result in a
minimum loss factor, which can be achieved by a given
wireless power system if generator and load are proper
matched [7]:
λmin = 2/(kQ)2{1 + [1 + (kQ)2]1/2} (9)
It is noticeable that k has low values (below 0.15)
especially if one uses IPT at cars with ground clearance
between 100 and 350 mm (in ascending order, from sport cars
up to off road cars) and Dacia Electron which will be treated
in this paper has a ground clearance of 160 mm. Therefore, in
practice, the figure of merit can be raised only by increasing
the quality factor of coils and also by increasing to a certain
extent the operating frequency of a given coupler, because
there is an optimum related to the increase of the losses in
coupler and electronic supply circuits of the charger with the
increase of frequency.
At present, in the lack of standards in force and for using
some usual power switching components, one uses operating
frequencies between 10 and 50 kHz (in our case the chosen
resonance frequency is about 42 kHz) but, in the future, SAE
[10] proposes the use of some higher frequencies, 85 kHz, in
the very limited range (81.39–90 kHz) which, besides the
decrease of the component sizes, provides also the
interoperability of systems coming from different
manufacturers, crucial action for the success of this
technology. All operating frequencies from above are agreed
at present, although they are not within the frequency range
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reserved to ISM (Industrial, Scientific, Medical) equipment
[11] but the chances of interfering with radio -
communication services are minimal.
IV. EV BATTERY AS LOAD FOR WIRELESS CHARGER
The load represented in Fig. 1 is a variable load for the
charger and inductive coupler (R3 in Fig. 4), depending on the
state of charging (SOC) condition of the battery fitted on the
EV of a particular client. So, the correct sizing of the system
requires knowledge of the charging parameter specific for the
type and capacity of the battery used [12]. One of the most
used models for the storage battery is proposed by Randles in
1947 [13] given in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. Basic Randles model, ESR - equivalent series resistance, ESL -
equivalent series inductance, Rleakage - leakage resistance, Ce - ideal battery
capacitance.
ESR is a function of the battery cells mechanical
construction and ESL is a function of cells connections
inductance which has an important value only in the case of
EV HV batteries.
The battery in fact is represented by an electrochemical
capacitor Ce whose capacitance (a very high value of tens of
F) is a function both of the battery capacity (Ah) and of the
battery state of charge (SOC) as simple relationship:
Ce [F] = 2W/(Umax2 - Umin2) (8)
where Umax and Umin represent battery end of charge
maximum voltage respectively accepted for discharge
minimum voltage or depth of discharge (DOD) and W is the
battery energy:
W [Ws] = 3600 x (Ah) x UN = 0.5 x Ce x UN2
A typical Li-Ion charge cycle [13] consists of a constant
current (CC) regulation mode and a constant voltage (CV)
regulation mode so that the output characteristic of a battery
charger is a combination of constant current charging and
constant voltage charging. Most energy is transferred during
the CC mode, so higher CC current will reduce charge time.
This charge duty for Li-ion battery is given in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8. The main characteristic quantities at a battery charging.
Constant current charging is completed when the battery
voltage reaches the cut-off-voltage [1] and is still maintained
almost constant until the end of the charging process, during
which the charging output power decreases 5-10 times. This
type of characteristic must be taken into consideration for
dimensioning the charging system with voltage and current
sensors included in the control loop.
The battery used in this stage on Dacia Electron (Fig. 9) is
the LPF type (LiFePO4) [14] which utilizes a nanoscale
LiFePO4 material as a cathode. LFP batteries have lower
energy density than other Lithium batteries but they have
longer lifetimes, better power density and are inherently safer
[13]. The main characteristics of the battery are shown in
Table I.
A battery management system (BMS) is tightly integrated
with the battery. It monitors the operating parameters:
voltage, current and temperature and controls the charging
rate to provide the required constant current / constant voltage
(CC/CV) charging profile and it triggers the protection
circuits if the battery's operating limits are exceeded, isolating
the battery if needed [1]. The maximum usable charge current
in CC mode and the cut-off voltage determine the charger's
rated power.
TABLE I
LPF BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS USED ON DACIA ELECTRON
Type: LYP 60 AHA Max charge current: 180 A
Capacity per cell: 60 Ah Optimal charge current: < 30A
Rated voltage: 205V (3.2V/cell) End of charge voltage: 256 V (4.0V/cell)
Connection: series Range: 100 km
Cell number: 64 Efficiency: 0.123 kWh/km
Energy: 12.3 kWh Weight: 160 kg
Fig. 9. LiFePO4 Battery during charging.
An important parameter for all batteries but especially for
use in automotive is the C-Rate, which represents the rate of
battery charge/discharge, by definition the numerical value of
the ratio (A/Ah) between current in A and battery capacity in
Ah. 1C means battery charge/discharge within 60 minutes.
For Li batteries, the maximum value of C-Rate is currently
2C [13]; this means that the 60 Ah battery could be charged
by 120 A in 30 minutes time! This charging condition is
known as “very fast charging” which can be necessary for
special applications but it is usually avoided because it leads
244
to excessive heating of the battery and the reduction of
battery life due to a decrease in the number of
charge/discharge cycles. There are three levels for charging
[1] in the range of 0.15C to 1C. For example, level 1, namely
0.15 C is reached for a current of 10 A and a reasonable 6
hours charging time, using only 2.56 kW from our Mode 2
charger [10], developed for Dacia Electron.
V. THE WIRELESS IPT CHARGER
Starting from the block diagram in Fig. 1, Fig. 10 describes
the developed system based on a medium frequency inverter
with improved 3/5 kW output power and the following
features: single-phase full bridge MOSFET resonant voltage
source AC/DC with ZVS [15], phase shifted regulated
topology; an automatic frequency control between 30 and
60 kHz compensates the output power variation from
coupling factor k change with distance and misalignment [4,
6] of the coupler coils but does not overlook the variation of
the internal resistance of the battery during the charging
process (see Fig. 8) that can change the system splitting
resonance frequencies. Circuits are provided for open - and
short-circuit protection. In addition to these protections, it
controls the temperature of the coupler coils and of the
MOSFET switches.
Fig. 10. Complete diagram of the wireless charger.
The connection with the S-P inductive coupler is achieved
through a matching transformer fitted with taps for tuning to
the load represented by the EV battery which is charged by a
Schottky diodes full bridge rectifier with capacitive filter
located in the EV separately from the Tx pad on the EV
floorpan. Using the described voltage control systems, the DC
output voltage can vary between 20-300 V. The
communication between the inverter and the battery state of
charge (SoC) is wireless. The power supply from the 230 V
single phase AC source is achieved through an EMI filter to
reduce the disturbance transmitted in the AC network. In
addition to the conducted disturbances, the operation of IPT
systems is accompanied by radiated disturbances resulting
from switching of power electronic circuits and by the stray
magnetic field of the inductive coupler [16], all these
disturbances would have to be within the limits stipulated by
ICNIRP regulation [17].
In Fig. 11 it can be seen the inverter during laboratory tests
for determining the functional parameters and transfer
efficiency.
 Fig. 13. The Wireless IPT implementation on the Dacia Electron.

The electric propulsion system called AMBRA (Amber =

Fig. 11. Control board and power board under tests in laboratory.
Our wireless inductive charger has been optimized for use
in Dacia Electron with ground clearance of 160 mm and
mounting pick-up Rx coil in an area of the floorpan where the
distance from the ground is 195 mm in order that in any
traffic situation it can not be damaged. As it will be shown,
the distance Tx - Rx will be between 84 and 110 mm.
U2 (V) 400
350
300
250
200
150
Electron in Greek) is built according to the current standards
of components (connectors, cables, etc.) similar to those used
by Duster ZERO (Zero Emission ROmanian concept) [18]
and the electrical system ELECTRA that was used in
different concepts of electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles:
Dacia Electra - 2009 [19], Grand Hamster – 2011 [20].
The AMBRA electric powertrain (Fig. 14) is mounted in
the car front side and includes the following components:
interconnection box, charger, traction inverter module,
electric motor & gearbox, vacuum pump, and AC
compressor. The liquid cooled electric motor provides a
constant 18 kW power and has a peak output power of 31
kW. It generates a constant torque of 90 Nm @ 2850 rpm or a
peak of 160 Nm @ 1400 rpm. The control of the electric
P2 (W)
4000
motor mounted above motor-reducer assembly is a vector
3500 control AC motor drive. The Traction Battery System
3000
includes the battery pack discussed in details above mounted
in the place of the fuel tank, a Battery Management System
2500
and a Battery Monitor System placed in the dashboard
2000 display [21].
1500

U2 P2
100 1000

50 500

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
U1 (V)

Fig. 12. U2, P2 = f (U1) for a distance h = 110 mm.

Figure 12 shows the characteristics of voltage U2 and

power P2 to the charger's DC output in function of the U1,
RMS value of Tx coil accepted for a maximum distance of
h = 110 mm and a load resistance RL of 28 Ω that simulates
the EV battery charged with a current min. 10 A. At the
minimum distance of 84 mm power increases by 23 % to
3.7 kW. To note that the voltage U1 reaches a relatively high Fig. 14. AMBRA powertrain compartment.
value of 1600 V which is not dangerous because it represents
only 90 V/ turn. General scheme of inductive charging system shown in
Fig. 13 includes three parts: the mechanical assembly and
VI. DACIA ELECTRON EV WITH WIRELESS BATTERY alignment guidance coils, the ground transmission unit
CHARGING
assembly with the Tx transmitter pad and their lift-type
The new Dacia Electron on which the IPT system was system and the vehicle receiver unit with the pick-up Rx pad.
mounted is derived from the well known Dacia Sandero Prior to charging, an integrated electric motor in the Tx
model, by the CCIA (Automotive Engineering Research floor pad raises the Tx coil to improve the power transfer.
Centre) from University of Pitesti using the same mechanical The driver can interrupt the charging process. Also, the
platform (Fig. 13). charging stops automatically when the traction battery is full.

245
 As it was shown in the previous paragraph, the wireless
charger transmits 3 to 3.7 kW at distances between 110 and
84 mm by the two pads shown in Figure 15 including
resonant capacitors.
Fig. 15. Stationary Tx pad (380 mm x 270 mm x 40 mm) and pick-up Rx
pad (340 mm x 260 mm x 40 mm) ready to be used.
In Fig. 16 it is shown the mounting of pick-up Rx pad in a
protected floorpan area on Dacia Electron.
Rx
Fig.16 Location of Rx pad on Dacia Electron.
Limiting variation interval of working distance Tx - Rx
given above using lift - type system for Tx pad is an
important measure for efficiency increasing, mitigation
interference with other EV electronic devices and limiting the
stray magnetic fields according to ICNIRP [17] but to note
that all these disturbances appear only when the EV is over
the charging pad.
VII. COMPARISON BETWEEN THE EFFICIENCY OF PLUG-IN
AND WIRELESS CHARGERS
In order to determine the energy transfer efficiency for an
IPT system, the following elements must be taken into
consideration: topology of resonant circuits, resonant
frequency, ratio of transmit (Tx) to receive (Rx) coil
dimensions, coupling factor k (x, y, z or angular separation of
the coils), coil impedance, skin effect, parasitic elements of
the coils a.s.o.
246
Most of these elements are optimized during the design
stage of the IPT system, however, when used for charging EV
batteries, the ground clearance and imperfect mutual set-up of
the inductive coupler coils remain variable, both leading to
the modification of the optimal coupling factor and the
transfer efficiency. For this reason the operating frequency
must to be modified in a certain range to compensate for a
possible change in the efficiency; this action is basically
carried out in an automatic control loop.
At present, the existing data in the literature [22] show that
the overall efficiency of plug-in charging stations based on
the SMPS (Fig. 1) is on average 85 - 90%. Wireless systems
based on the same principle which using common electronic
components as shown in this paper, currently have an
approximately 10% lower efficiency, that is of 75 - 80%,
especially due to losses in the inductive coupler itself.
VIII. CONCLUSIONS
The paper describes the first wireless charging system for
an EV developed in Romania. Wireless IPT is reliable,
comfortable, efficient, fast, with low maintenance cost.
Now, Romania has a laboratory and road infrastructure for
wireless charging development.
The Dacia Electron EV is used to carry out the first
wireless charging station at the “Automotive Engineering
Research Centre” of the University of Pitesti which will be
used for all level staff training in EV technology.
The research and development for these systems will
continue on the following topics:
- design of high power planar coils with Litz wire windings
with focus on factor of merit ;
- shielding and packaging of transmitter/receiver units;
- efficiency improvement of resonant inverters using SiC
power semiconductors;
- development of advanced parking guidance;
- EMC analysis and design complying with ICNIRP
Regulation.
Finally, the large scale introduction of wireless charging
after international standardization is strongly connected to the
driverless technology.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Sandero Electron EV was achieved with support from
RENAULT TECHNOLOGIE ROUMANIE, LEAR
ROMANIA, SCHNEIDER ELECTRIC ROMANIA to whom
we express our gratitude.
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