SYLLOGISMS & PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

PART-I: NOTES ON CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS

1. A deductive argument is one whose premises are claimed to provide conclusive grounds for the truth of its conclusion.
A categorical syllogism is a deductive argument that consists of three categorical propositions, with two premises
followed by a conclusion.
The four standard-form categorical propositions:-
a) A : All S is P. (Universal Affirmative)
All students are diligent.
b) E : No S is P. (Universal Negative)
No students are diligent.
c) I : Some S is P. (Particular Affirmative)
Some students are diligent.
d) O : Some S is not P. (Particular Negative)
Some students are not diligent.
(Note: S refers to the subject, and P to the predicate of the proposition.)
2. The Traditional Square of Opposition: provides certain truth relations between any two categorical propositions.

THE SQUARE OF OPPOSITION

(All S is P.) A CONTRARIES E (No S is P.)

Superaltern (BOTH CANNOT BE TRUE) Superaltern

SUBALTERNATION
a) Truth of the superaltern implies truth of the subaltern.
b) Falsehood of the subaltern implies falsehood of the superaltern.

CONTRADICTORIES
(BOTH CANNOT BE TRUE OR FALSE)

(Some S is P.) I SUBCONTRARIES O (Some S is not P.)

Subaltern (BOTH CANNOT BE FALSE) Subaltern

a) Contradictories: Two propositions are contradictories if one is the denial or negation of the other, that is, if
they cannot both be true and they cannot both be false at the same time. (A and O are contradictories; and E
and I are contradictories.)
b) Contraries: Two propositions are said to be contraries if they cannot both be true at the same time, that is, if the
truth of either one entails that the other is false. (A and E are contraries.)
c) Subcontraries: Two propositions are said to be subcontraries if they cannot both be false at the same time,
although they may both by true. (I and O are subcontraries.)

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 d) Subalternation: is the relation between a universal proposition (superaltern) and its corresponding particular
(subaltern), whereby the truth of the universal proposition implies the truth of its corresponding particular; and
the falsehood of the particular proposition implies the falsehood of its corresponding universal. (A and I are
related through subalternation; and so are E and O.)

3. Truth Table for Immediate Inference: The immediate inferences based on the traditional square of apposition are
summarised in the truth table given below:

A E I O
(All S is P.) (No S is P.) (Some S is P.) (Some S is not P.)

T F T F

F T F T

U F T U

F U U T

F U U T

U F T U

F T F T

T F T F

a) Circled letter indicates that the proposition is given as TRUE or FALSE.

b) T denotes TRUE;
c) F denotes FALSE; and
d) U denotes UNDETERMINED (that is, either TRUE or FALSE).

4. TABLE-I: IMMEDIATE INFERENCE

Categorical Premise Conclusion Negation Distributed Terms

Proposition (If True) (MUST be true) (CANNOT be true)

Universal Affirmative All S is P. Some S is P. (Subaltern) Some S is not P. S is distributed.

Some P is S. (Converse) (Contradictory) P is undistributed.
Universal Negative No S is P. No P is S. (Converse) Some S is P. Both S and P are
Some S is not P. (Subaltern) (Contradictory) distributed.
Some P is not S. (Subaltern)
Particular Affirmative Some S is P. Some P is S. (Converse) No S is P. None is distributed.
(At least one S is P.) (Contradictory)
Particular Negative Some S is not P. Nil All S is P. P is distributed.
(At least one S is not P.) (Contradictory) S is undistributed.

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5. TABLE-II: IMMEDIATE INFERENCE

Categorical Converse Obverse Contrapositive

Proposition (interchange S and P) (replace P with non-P) (replace S with non-P & P with non-S)
All S is P. Some P is S. No S is non-P. All non-P is non-S.
(by limitation)
No S is P. No P is S. All S is non-P. Some non-P is not non-S.
(by limitation)
Some S is P. Some P is S. Some S is not non-P. (Contraposition not valid)

Some S is not P. (Conversion not valid) Some S is non-P. Some non-P is not non-S.

6. RULES OF MEDIATE INFERENCE (For Determining Validity or Invalidity of a Categorical Syllogism)

Rule-1 In a valid syllogism, the middle term should be distributed in at least one of the premises.
Rule-2 In a valid syllogism, if a term is distributed in the premises, it should be distributed in the conclusion. Similarly,
if a term is undistributed in the premises, it should be undistributed in the conclusion.
Rule-3 Two negative premises do not lead to a valid conclusion.
Rule-4 In a valid syllogism, if one of the premises is negative, the conclusion should be negative.
Rule-5 Two particular premises do not lead to a valid conclusion.
Rule-6 In a valid syllogism, if one of the premises is particular, the conclusion should be particular.
Rule-7 In a valid syllogism, two universal premises cannot lead to a particular conclusion.
(This rule is not prescribed in traditional logic, and not application to CSAT & other competitive exams.)

7. EQUIVALENTS IN ORDINARY LANGUAGE

Standard-Form Equivalents In Everyday/Ordinary Language

All S is P. S is P. ; An S is P. ; The S is P. ; Ss are Ps. ; Every S is P. ; Any S is P.

Only P is S. ; None but P is S. ; None except P is S.
If S, then P. ; Only if P, then S. ; Whenever S, then P.
No S is P. All S is not P. ; Every S is not P.
If S, then Not P. ; S and P not possible.
Some S is P. Few S are P. ; Many S are P. ; Most S are P.
Some S is not P. Not all S is P. ; Not every S is P.

PART-II: NOTES ON PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

1. LOGICAL CONSISTENCY/DEDUCTION
A. Hypothetical/Conditional Propositions
Standard Form: If P, then Q. ≡ P implies Q.
If the main statement “If P, then Q.” is true, then:
Premise (If True) Conclusion (MUST be True) Remarks
P Q VALID. It is not possible that some P are Not Q.
Q P INVALID. It is possible that some Q are Not P.
Not P Not Q INVALID. It is possible that some Not P are Q.
Not Q Not P VALID. It is not possible that some Not Q are P.

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 B. Disjunctive Propositions
Standard Form: Either P or Q. ≡ P or Q or both.
≡ at least one (Inclusive ‘OR’)
If the main statement “Either P or Q.” is true, then:
Premise (If True) Conclusion (MUST be True) Remarks
Not P Q VALID. At least one, so if Not P then Q.
Not Q P VALID. At least one, so if Not Q then P.
P Not Q INVALID. It is possible that some P are Q.
Q Not P INVALID. It is possible that some Q are P.

C. Conjunctive Propositions
Standard Form: P and Q.
Premise-1 (If True) Premise-2 (If True) Conclusion (MUST be True)
P Q P and Q.
P Not Q No Conclusion.
Not P Q No Conclusion.

2. LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE

Basic Proposition Equivalent

(If True) (then True & vice versa)
If P then Q. P implies Q. ; P is a sufficient condition for Q. ; P entails Q. ; Whenever P, then Q.
P is the cause of Q. ; P, hence Q. ; Since P, Q. ; Because P, Q. ; P results in Q. ; P leads to Q.
Only if Q, then P. ; Q is a necessary condition for P. ; Q provided that P. ; Q on condition that P.
If Not Q, then Not P. ; Unless Q, Not P. ; Without Q, P not possible.
(P and Not Q) not possible. ; Either Not P or Q.
Either P or Q. If Not P, then Q. ; At least one, so if Not P, then Q.
If Not Q, then P. ; At least one, so if Not Q, then P.

3. LOGICAL CONTRADICTION/NEGATION

Basic Proposition CONTRADICTION CONTRADICTION

(If True) (then False & vice versa) (then False & vice versa)
If P, then Q. (P and Not Q) P is possible without Q.
Either P or Q. Not P and Not Q. Neither P nor Q.
P and Q. Either Not P or Not Q. Coexistence of P and Q not possible.
All S is P. Some S is not P.
No S is P. Some S is P.

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