ELECTRICAL DESIGN

AND PROTECTION

SEMESTER 2, 2015

LECTURE 5
BACKUP SUPPLY
 LECTURE 5 – BACKUP SUPPLY ELECTRICAL DESIGN
AND PROTECTION

Generators

Generators are required in buildings where the main supply is unreliable or the building needs to
continue operating if the mains supply fails. In some cases generators are installed to provide a
cheaper source of electricity during high main supply prices or to avoid reaching peak monthly
demands and paying high penalties (peak lopping).

A generator converts rotating mechanical energy into electrical energy.

http://www.cumminspowerdocs.com/powersystems/. This is a link to the Cummins website where

you can view a generator room and all of the different components of the generators and room.

Open Generator Set

Enclosed Generator Set

Relevant Standards

AS/NZS 3010: Electrical Installation Generator Sets

BS 4999: 1987: Rotating Electrical Machines

BS 5000 Part 3 1985: Generator to be driven by reciprocating internal combustion engines.

BS 5514: Reciprocating internal combustion engines Performance.

AS/NZS 3000:2007 Wiring Rules

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ISO 8528: Generating sets

HASNO: Fuel system

ISO 3046: Engine (Prime mover)

Main Components of a Generator

Prime mover (Engine)

This is just like a normal diesel truck engine which acts as the prime mover and rotates the
rotor shaft of the alternator which is fitted to the front of the engine. The size of the engine
needs to be determined based on the maximum power output required to supply the
connected load. Different type of fuel can be used such as diesel or natural gas. Diesel is the
typical fuel used in New Zealand however, if the site is close to a natural gas supply then that
is an option.

Alternator

The alternator produces the electrical energy and is made up of a stator and a rotor or
armature. The stator is the stationary part which contains coils of electrical conductors
wound around an iron core. The rotor rotates inside of the stator.

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Typical Alternator

Cross section through an alternator

Exciter

The exciter provides a DC current to the field windings of the rotor which creates a voltage
in the stator windings when the rotor is turning.

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Automatic voltage regulator

The voltage regulator sensors the generator output voltage and frequency, compares them
to the reference values and then supplies a regulated DC output to the exciter field windings

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Types of Generator Ratings

Standby

Output available with varying loads for the duration of the interruption of the normal
supply. Usually no longer than 500hrs per year. Can only be run continuously for 300hrs.
.

Typical load factor ≤ 60%.

Typical peak demand is normally around 80% of standby rating with 100% of the rating for
the duration of an outage

Typical application = Building services standby

Prime Data Center hospital .

Output is available with varying loads for an unlimited period.

Typical load factor is around 60- 70%

Typical peak demand of 100% of the Prime rating used occasionally.

Typical application = industrial, pumping, construction, peak lopping or cogeneration

Continuous

Output available without varying load for an unlimited time

Typical load factor 70-100%

Typical peak demand of 100% of continuous rating used 100% of the time

Typical application = base load, utility, cogeneration, parallel operation

Load Factor

Load factor of a generator is one of the items used in determining the type of rating of a generator.

It is calculated as follows;

% of time X % of load

% of time = time at a specific load/Total operating time

% of load = Specific load/rated load

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Example

A generator rated at 550KW runs for 2 hrs per week.

During that time the peak load is 400KW for 90min.

Therefore the load factor would be

% of time = 90/120 = 0.75

% of load = 400/550 = 0.73

Load factor = 0.75x 0.73 = 54.75%

Thus this would indicate that it could be rated for a standby set as the load factor is less than 60%

Check

Runs 2hrs/week but only loaded for 1.5hrs/week thus total annual running time = 1.5 x 52 = 78hrs

Generator Mapping Limits and Power Factor of Load

All three phase generators are rated at 0.8 lagging power factor, however they can run at lower
power factor for short periods, for example when starting motors.

Generators as a whole do not like to run at a leading power factor because reactive loads can if high
enough provide excitation to the alternator causing the voltage to rise uncontrollably which will
ultimately result in damage to the alternator or loads or trip protective devices, resulting in no
backup/standby capability.

The most common causes of leading power factor are lightly loaded UPS units with input filters and
power factor correction units.

Note that it is good practice to load a generator with a certain amount of inductive loads (lagging
power factor) prior to any leading power factor loads such as UPS units as this will generally improve
the stability of the generator.

Do not design a generator to run at more than 0.9 leading power factor.

The drawing below indicates the range of limits that a generator alternator is typically comfortable
with.

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• The green area is the normal operating range of a typical synchronous machine

• The yellow area is abnormal but not damaging

• The red area will cause damage or failure of operation

kW Rating of a Generator 08 Pt .
look VA = 80kW

Running a generator under light load can lead to engine damage and reduced reliability.

It is recommended that a generator load should not be less than 30 – 40% of rated load. (If there are
.

times that the load may be low you should consider some sort of dummy load)

Determine the required maximum allowable voltage dip and frequency dip. (The lower the allowable
and smaller
Volt frequency dip bigger
voltage dip the bigger the generator.) Max dip generate
, =

Consider the altitude and temperature. (Increase in altitude or temperature will increase the size of
Increased
=
bigger generator
the generator set)

Identify load types to be connected to the generator supply. (Nonlinear loads will tend to increase
the size of the generator) Non linear bigger generator
.
=
.

It is important to have a reasonably accurate load estimate as soon as possible especially for budget
purposes. (If information is not available early on then you should make some educated
assumptions. This can be updated when information is available).

Specific loads that need close attention are;

Large motors (Starting currents, voltage dips)

UPS units (over heating of alternator windings due to harmonics)
Variable frequency drives (Voltage distortion and harmonics)

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Fire pumps (Starting currents, voltage dips)

Medical imaging equipment (Voltage dips)
Lifts (Regenerative Loads) (Over speed and shut down or damage)
Welding machines (Voltage dips)

Arrange the loads in sensible steps, such that the full load is not brought on line at once. (Block
loading) and remember to apply diversities.

Voltage Dips (Transient Response)

This depends on the type of loads connected to the generator as mentioned previously. Most
generator suppliers recommend that a voltage dip should not exceed 30%

When a load is applied to, or removed from a generator the speed and frequency will change
temporarily from the steady state condition. This is commonly known as a transient response. When
a large load is applied to the generator the engine speed will reduce temporarily and this is called a
voltage or frequency dip.

The time taken for the generator to return to steady state speed is referred to as recovery time.

Remember the smaller the voltage dip allowed the larger the generator. Typical equipment which
falls into tighter voltage dip ranges are UPS units, variable speed drives and medical imaging
equipment. These all have an impact on the correct sizing of the generator.

Load Profiles

This is generally creating a graph which will represent the typical loads experienced during a day
week month or year. An example of this is indicated below.

This is not easy to determine for an installation that is not already constructed and in use. Some
research will be required into similar installations to get an approximate load profile type.

These are very useful when installing a generator in an existing building. By installing a recorder for a
period of time a profile can be established which would greatly assist in the selection of a generator.

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Load Steps

Load steps refer to the amount of load applied on a generator at one time. A generator may accept
load in one step or in several steps (Preferable).

You need to discuss with the Client as to the need for prioritizing of load steps.

The smaller the steps are the smaller the transients will be, so the smoother the transition.

When starting a generator without a prioritised sequence, it is good practice to start with the largest
load first as this will result in the least effect on the rest of the installation. (Remember what has
been said about connecting a UPS to the generator).

Consideration should be taken into account as to loads that can be shed during periods of high
demand.

Diversity Factor

This will have a big influence on the correct sizing of the generator thus the diversity factor should
be as accurate as possible.

Diversity factor is a ratio of the individual maximum demands and the system maximum demand.

Diversity Factor = the sum of all the individual maximum demands

The total maximum demand of the system

Therefore the diversity will always be greater than 1

Example

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The connected load is 900 kVA however with the demand factor taken into account the individual
loads amount to 690kVA.

With a diversity of 1 the next available generator size above 690kVA would be required. If the
diversity factor was 1.4 then the max demand would be around 492kVA thus a 500kVA generator
would satisfy the load.

Types of Insulation for Temperature Rise

The rise of temperature within an alternator is caused by the flow of current in the windings and the
losses that occur. Because of this the windings are to have a suitable insulation to withstand the
temperature rise.

There are two classes of insulation associated with alternators;

Type F and type H (NEMA: National Electricity Manufacturers Association)

Type H insulation is designed to resist higher temperatures than that of the type F insulation.

Alternator ratings are thus referred to in terms of temperature rise.

A typical standard is to specify type H insulation.

Control Panel

Until a few years ago relay based control systems were used on most generators, however in today’s
modern world mainly Electronic (Microprocessor) based control panels are used due to demands
enhanced functionality, control of sophisticated systems and network interfaces.

Generator suppliers/manufacturers normally have their preference as to the type of control panel
used. It is important to understand the functioning of the control panel offered in order to
determine that it is suitable for the functions required by the Client.

Noise Control

Noise can be defined as all unwanted sounds. (Music to some is great and to others it is just noise).

Noise treatment if required needs to be considered early in preliminary design. Generally noise
treatment methods add big cost and have an impact on the size of the room required.

A generator is a big noise source and includes, cooling fan noise, engine noise and exhaust noise all
of which will require some sort of treatment to reduce the noise level.

Because noise is directional, consideration is to be given to the location and orientation of the set
especially residential boundaries. It is important to refer to the district plan in order to determine
the allowable noise levels in the area the generator is to be installed. Discuss this with a planner.

Noise is either airborne or structure borne.

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Airborne noise

Transmitted through air and is fairly easy to control. Recommend that the Client appoint an Acoustic
Engineer for this.

Mechanical noise

This could be vibration, fans, air flow through ducts and the generator engine. Methods of reducing
mechanical noise are anti-vibration technique by isolation, reducing fan speeds, reducing air flow
through ducts.

The diagram below indicates approximate sound level reductions using various methods.

Exhaust noise

Exhaust noise attenuation is commonly achieved by the installation of silencers. (Residential,

commercial or industrial grade).

The silencer must be sized to accommodate the specified volume of flow through the silencer
without causing excessive back pressure. Talk to a Mechanical Engineer about this if you are not
sure. Normally this would be done by the supplier/installer of the generator system

Structure borne noise

This is the vibration transmitted through the structure. It is important that the Structural Engineer is
aware of any generator set being installed within a building as this will have a bearing on the design
of floor slabs etc.

In order to assist with vibration through the floor the generator should be mounted on vibration
mounts in the form of steel springs as these isolate over 96% of the vibrations to the foundation or
mounting service. Rubber isolators can also be used but they only isolate around 90% of the
vibration. Refer to diagram below for a typical vibration isolator

There are specific standards to which torsional and linear vibrations should comply.

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Vibration Mount

Space Requirements and Considerations

Out Door Location/Installation

Location to buildings and site boundaries. Free Movement .

Generator size (Canopy set)

Consideration of additional generator
Fuel tanks/storage
Security Fence
Location to coast. (Canopy materials).

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Access for maintenance (Crain access, service vehicles and fuel tanks)
Distance from main switchboard

In Door Location/Installation

Distance from main switchboard

Generator size
Consideration of additional generator
Fuel tanks/storage
Access for maintenance (Crane access, service vehicles and fuel tanks)
Location to buildings and site boundaries
Room size allowing for acoustic treatment, fire treatment and attenuation requirements.
Height of room. Exhaust
Space around generator and switchboard/control panel/auto change over switch etc.
Minimum of 1m clearance around or between sets
Floor loadings.
Bunding requirements.
Air flow requirements should be considered such that the air flow is over the generator.
(Flow of air from the rear of the set toward the radiator).
Possible connection access for a load bank for testing purposes.
Fuel storage/tanks and piping to be certified by a Test Certifier in accordance with ERMA and
HASNO

Exhaust Systems and Mufflers

Two primary elements drive exhaust and muffler system choices, noise level and accommodating
the relative movement between the exhaust system and the generator set.

The choice also depends on whether the set is located indoors or outdoors.

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Muffler options are rated as residential, industrial or critical depending on their attenuation.

A key element regarding the overall exhaust system is that the generator set vibrates and moves,
therefore a flexible piece of exhaust pipe or tube is required at the generator set exhaust outlet.

Exhaust systems collect gases from the engine cylinders and discharge them as quickly and silently as
possible.

A primary design consideration of the exhaust system is to minimize backpressure. The back
pressure will indirectly raise the temperature of the exhaust which ultimately reduces the life
expectancy of the exhaust valve and turbo charger and cause performance losses.
Exhaust system
and muffles .

Ventilation

Six to ten percent of the fuel consumed by the engine is lost as heat radiated to the surrounding air.
Heat from the generator inefficiencies and exhaust piping can easily equal the engine radiated heat.
Components of the generator and switchgear can be damaged by the heat buildup in the room, thus
ventilation is an important part of a generator installation.

Correct air flow is vital for a good ventilation system Cool dry air should flow around the switchgear,
through the rear of the generator, across the engine and discharge at the radiator.

Fresh air should enter the room as far from the heat source as practically possible generally through
attenuators in the side of the opposite wall. Air intakes should be as low as possible and the air
should be discharged by exhaust fans at a high level.

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You should ensure the Mechanical Engineer has all of the relevant information when designing the
ventilation system.

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Transfer Switches

Transfer switches are used to transfer the supply from one source to another based on a loss of
mains supply, a poor power supply (over/under voltage or frequency dips) or other control
requirements such as peak lopping.

There are a number of transfer switches available ranging from manually operated to fully
automatic.

Types

There are two main types of transfer switches, these are open and closed transition.

Open-transition transfer device

This opens the connected source before closing the new source. This is typical for most installations
as the client does not want the generator connected to the mains due to potential issues with
synchronisation.

Fast closed-transition transfer device

This operates like an open-transition transfer switch when a source has failed, but will parallel the
two sources for 100ms or less and then disconnect the generator when both sources are available; a
total interruption of power is avoided when returning to mains.

Soft closed-transition device

This operates like an open transition transfer switch when a source has failed, but when transferring
between live sources will actively synchronize the sources, then connect them together and ramp
load to the new source. This results in a transfer that provides the minimum disturbance to the
loads.

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Sub-cycle transfer device

This opens and the re-closes on the new source in less than one-quarter of an electrical cycle. The
resultant interruption is so short that most load devices aren’t affected by it. They are used primarily
in UPS systems and only occasionally with a generator set. These devices are very expensive in
relation to mechanical switches and are typically protected with fuses.

The equipment that can be used to create transfer switches are as follows:

* Manual control via MCCB’s or ACB’s

* Automatic control via contactors or motorised MCCB’s or ACB’s. This would be way of a
control system such as a Deep Sea controller or Woodward controller and would generally
interact with the generator control. (cheaper than an ASCO option but more complicated
and currently not approved by Vector to synchronise with mains)
* Specifically manufactured transfer switches such as the ASCO range from Emerson. (more
expensive if looking at closed transfer ~ $100,000 but a simpler operation than other
automatic control systems)

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Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

A UPS is a device that provides a secondary source of power that automatically switches in when the
primary supply fails or falls outside of acceptable tolerances. The transfer between the primary and
secondary source of power is generally considered to be seamless, though, depending on the
technology, there can be a small break. The duration of this break can affect some connected loads.

Types of UPS

Static UPS
o Standby
o Line interactive
o On line (double conversion)
Rotary Hybrid
Rotary diesel
Battery-less (alternate energy storage)

Standby UPS

A standby UPS includes a transfer switch that switches the load to the battery with an inverter,
should the primary AC power source fail. The typical transfer time is between 2ms and 10ms
depending on the amount of time it takes to detect the lost utility voltage and turn on the DC-AC
inverter.

During this time the power to the load is momentarily interrupted. The equipment’s power supply
should have a larger hold up (“ride through”) time than the UPS transfer to avoid data loss. For
reference, PCs use Switch Mode Power Supplies (SMPS) that are required to have at least 16ms hold-
up time at the rated load.

Since the inverter operates in standby mode and starts up only when the input power fails, the
standby UPS has the highest efficiency (95-97%) and reliability. Because it is also the cheapest UPS, it
is the most common backup type used for PCs. Note, in some older systems the inverter generated
square-wave type output rather than sinusoidal, which could cause problems to some sensitive
equipment.

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Line Interactive UPS

A line interactive UPS under normal conditions smooth’s and to some degree regulates the AC
Voltage by a filter and a tap-changing transformer. The bi-directional inverter/charger is always
connected to the output of the UPS and uses a portion of AC power to keep the battery charged.
When the input power fails, the transfer switch disconnects AC input and the battery/inverter
provides output power. The typical efficiency is 90-96%. This type is currently the most common
design in the 0.5 to 5kVA power range.

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On Line (Double Conversion)

An On line, double conversion, UPS is the type that most building services engineers will come
across, as most static UPS’s are of this type.

Double conversion refers to firstly converting the AC input voltage to DC via a rectifier, then
converting it back to AC via an inverter. The batteries are connected to the DC point. Therefore
when mains power is available it is supplying the load and charging the batteries. When the mains is
lost the batteries supply the inverter and hence the load. Therefore a true uninterruptible supply.

Static bypass switches are usually included into this type of UPS. These “seamlessly” bypass the UPS
device and supply the load from the mains. The static bypass is used on start-up, shutdown and
during fault conditions.

Types:

6-pulse rectification. This is old technology and unlikely to be seen. The rectification
process creates very high Total Harmonic Distortion, THD, in the region of 30%, particularly
the 5th & 7th harmonics.
12-pulse rectification. Still used in new UPS modules, particularly larger capacity units. This
is now considered old technology. Less THD than 6-pulse but still in the region of 12%,
particularly on the 11th and 13th harmonics.
Transformerless. These use IGBT technology (Insulated Gate Bi-polar Transistor) and are the
current technology. Latest units use IGBT on both the input (rectifier) and output (inverter)
converters. These types of UPS have much lower THD (generally < 4%) and higher

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efficiencies (up to around 95%) and can handle a wider band of load types without de-rating
(e.g. leading power factor).

Rotary Hybrid UPS

When the main supply quality (voltage and frequency) falls within an acceptable range, then the
motor component of the rotary UPS is driven directly from the mains supply. That motor then
provides mechanical power to the generator component of the motor-generator to support the
critical load with clean power.

When main supply voltage and frequency parameters fall outside of pre-set limits, then the rectifier
/ inverter unit begins to provide controlled power to the motor which is coupled directly to the
generator to support the critical load. When a blackout occurs, the battery bank provides necessary
power via the inverter to the motor-generator to support the load. The stored energy within the
batteries provides sufficient ride-through to sustain the load until the standby generator (outside of
the UPS) comes up to full operating speed.

This provides very high reliability, high fault clearance capability and true AC waveform on the
output however; it is a very expensive option and is not well supported in New Zealand.

Diesel Rotary UPS (DRUPS)

These comprise of an alternator, normally driven by an electric motor, close-coupled to a diesel

engine. The alternator provides the AC supply to the load. When the mains fails the diesel engine
starts and connects to the alternator to drive it.

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An energy storage device is also included to maintain constant alternator output whilst the diesel
engine starts and connects. This is normally a rotating mass that spins rapidly. The kinetic energy
provided by the rotating mass is used to maintain the alternator output for several seconds.

For an animated video and detailed description visit the following link:

http://www.euro-diesel.com/english/operation-description/94/2

Alternative Energy Storage

An alternative energy storage device is a battery-less UPS that uses rotating mass devices to store
energy that is used to support the load between a power outage and generator start-up

These devices have “frictionless” bearings (electromagnetic) to minimise losses and rotate at high
speed to store kinetic energy

Modules can be combined to provide greater power or longer autonomy

Typical modules can available can provide around 100kW of power for 25 seconds. Piller claim up to
1.65MW for 10s, with a maximum of 19MW!

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Pros and Cons

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Important Things to Note:

Check the manufacturer’s claims to capacity, i.e. they often use kVA but the small print will show the
kW and power factor:

E.g. if a data sheet states a UPS is 625kVA at 0.8pf then the power is 500kW @ 0.8pf but also 500kW
at a unity pf.

This means the kW rating is the limiting factor above the rated power factor of the UPS. Therefore
you need to beware of de-rating the UPS due to the loads power factor.

If using a single module, take an additional supply to the UPS for static bypass e.g. mains 1 (rectifier
input) and mains 2 (static bypass input).

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UPS modules can be paralleled to provide additional capacity and redundancy – this needs careful
consideration during design

Location of the static bypass can vary from one per module to a common bypass for a stream of
paralleled UPS modules – make sure you know what you want and are getting.

Try to always provide an external bypass in addition to internal static and maintenance bypasses.
External bypasses need to be very carefully interlocked between the UPS and output switchboard

Be aware of the size of the input supply:

Input = capacity + losses (5-10%) + charging current (10-15%)

Beware of heat output, therefore cooling requirements

Choose batteries carefully:

Autonomy should be end of life (therefore to get 15 minutes after 5 years life the batteries
really need to provide 18-20 minutes when new)
Consider splitting the batteries into different strings with separate isolators to provide easier
maintenance and redundancy
Keep battery rooms at optimum temperature for battery life (normally 20oC)
Vent battery rooms properly

Test UPS’s fully, included battery discharge tests at full load.

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Space Planning

Space planning is one of the most important processes in concept design. This locates where all of
your equipment will be in a building allowing you to choose the most efficient routes and prime
locations. This also makes sure that there is enough room for your equipment and that the Architect
allows for this.

Process:

Estimate total load on W/m2 basis

Produce basic single line diagram
Produce location block diagram
Produce room and cupboard layouts

Work on the principle of allowing for 100% of your requirements that are 80% correct.

Allow for the Following:

0 H.V Switchgear

:
Transformers
Main Switchboards
0 MCC Switchboards
0 Gensets

:
UPS Equipment
Emergency Lighting UPS Units
Risers
0 Cable Trays, Cable Ladder, Bus-Duct
Sub-main feeds for Tenant DB’s, House DB’s, Emergency Lighting, MCC’s
Main feeds for Lifts, Fire Pumps, High Voltage
Tap off Boxes for Bus Duct and Cable Risers
0 Distribution Boards
Tenants (Essential and Non-Essential)
House (Essential and Non-Essential)
Emergency Lighting
Metering Panel
Communications
Telephones
Data
MATV
Sound/Evac
Security

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Approximate Sizes:

During Developed Design more accurate sizes should be obtained from manufacturers catalogues

Width (mm) Depth (mm) Height (mm)

HV Switchgear

ACB 800 up to 2000 up to 2500

Isolator 600 800 up to 1500

Fuse Switch 600 800 up to 1500

Transformer

Dry Type

300kVA 1400 600 1600

500 kVA 1500 700 1700

1000 kVA 1800 800 2000

1600 kVA 2000 1000 2000

2000 kVA 2400 1000 2000

Oil Type

Sizes will depend on location of HV and LV terminations and number of oil cooling fins.

Typically add to dry type, 300mm to width and depth dimensions but reduce height by 300mm.

Main Switchboards

Length

Method 1. Allow 200 kVA for 1 metre length of board (high load)

Or 300 kVA for 1 metre length of board (medium load)

Method 2. Build up board from manufacturer data (e.g. Bremca, Logstrup)

Typical 1000 2400

Power Factor Gear 800 1000 2400

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Width (mm) Depth (mm) Height (mm)

Gensets up to 2500 up to 6000 up to 3000

Refer to Caterpillar Catalogues

UPS

Batteries 30 kVA/m 1000 2000

Inverter 1000 800 2000

Distribution Board 600 200 up to 800

Meter Board 200each meter 150each meter 250each meter

Tap-Off Box 400 200 400

Cables – for Tray sizes

Allow 100mm for each known submain + approximately 50%

Access Space: (mm)

Sides (mm) Back (mm) Front (mm)

HV Switchgear 600 800 2000

Transformers 600 600 1200

Main Switchboards 1000 800 2000

Distribution Boards - - 1200

General Equipment 500 500 1500

Refer also to AS/NZS 3000:2007 for more detailed requirements

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Adequate alternative emergency exit paths are also required where a switchboard:

Has a Ipsc of not less than 15kA; or

Is supplied by a circuit with a nominal capacity of not less than 800A per phase; or
Is more than three metres in length

Segregation

Keep HV segregated from LV.

Keep LV segregated from communications.

Keep underground electrical services segregated from other underground services.

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