Power Electronics

DriveAutomation
Technologies
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Electronic
Power Devices
05_Power Electronics page 1 © Siemens Industry 2013 - subject to modification
DriveAutomation
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Table of Contents
Content Page
Resistor ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Resistors in Meshed Systems...................................................................................................... 4
Capacitor..................................................................................................................................... 5
Film Capacitor............................................................................................................................. 6
Dielectric Absorption.................................................................................................................... 7
Electrolytic Capacitor................................................................................................................... 8
Re-Forming................................................................................................................................. 9
Capacitors in DC- and AC-Circuits.............................................................................................. 10
Capacitors “in Series” and “in Parallel”........................................................................................ 11
Circuits with Resistors and Capacitors........................................................................................ 12
Inductor....................................................................................................................................... 13
Inductors in DC- and AC-Circuits / Application............................................................................ 14
Application of Inductors............................................................................................................... 15
Phase Angle between Voltage and Current in R-, C-, L-Circuits................................................. 16
Diode.......................................................................................................................................... 17
Application of Diodes in VFDs (Power Section).......................................................................... 18
SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)............................................................................................... 19
Bipolar Transistor, Field Effect Transistor................................................................................... 20
IGBT........................................................................................................................................... 21
IGCT........................................................................................................................................... 22
Replacement of Power Devices.................................................................................................. 23
Diagnosing Power Cells.............................................................................................................. 24
Application of Thermal Joint Compound..................................................................................... 25
Fixing Semiconductor Modules................................................................................................... 26

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Resistor
A
A resistor
resistor is
is aa device
device which
which limits
limits the
the current
current ifif voltage
voltage is
is applied
applied across
across it.
it.
The larger the resistance, the smaller the current for a given voltage.
The physical quantity to specify the value of a resistor is called “Ohm”; the relation of resistance,
voltage and current is defined by “Ohm’s Law”:
R=v/i or rearranged i=v/R , v=i*R
Depending on the applied standard, different symbols are used for the resistor, different letters for the voltage.
US standard SI standard
voltage v [ V ] voltage u [ V ]
current i [ A ] resistor R current i [ A ] resistor R

[Ω] [Ω]
Current flow through a resistor results in electrical power which generates heat; the electrical
power is proportional to the product of voltage and current:
P=v*i or redefined using Ohm’s Law P = i2 * R , P = v 2 / R
Properties of resistors in circuits are same both for DC and for AC (high frequency excepted).
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Resistors in Meshed Systems
Although resistors are mostly used in networks combined with other power devices they can also be found “by
themselves” either arranged “in series” or “in parallel”.
Connection “in series” Connection “in parallel”

The voltage applied on the series network is split The current fed to a parallel network is split in inverse
in same proportion as the resistor values; if both proportion to the resistor values; if both resistors have
resistors have same resistance, the voltage is same resistance, the current is
balanced symmetrically: split symmetrically:
v1 / R1 = v2 / R2 v1 / v2 = R1 / R2 i1 * R1 = i2 * R2 i1 / i2 = R2 / R1
overall resistance: Rseries = R1 + R2 overall resistance: Rparallel = (R1 * R2) / (R1 + R2)
in general: Rseries = R1 + R2 + …. + Rn in general: 1 / Rparallel = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + …. + 1 / Rn
i i
i1 i2
R1 v1
v v R1 R2
i=0
R2 v2
Rule: the sum of all voltages in a closed mesh Rule: the sum of all currents on a “current knot” ( )
reads “zero”; e.g. v – v2 – v1 = 0 v = v1 + v2 reads “zero”; e.g. i – i1 – i2 = 0 i = i1 + i2

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Capacitor
A
A capacitor
capacitor is
is aa device
device which
which stores
stores an
an electric
electric charge.
charge.
For
For aa given
given capacity,
capacity, the
the electric
electric charge
charge is
is directly
directly proportional
proportional to
to the
the voltage.
voltage.
The larger the capacitor, the more electric charge is stored for a given voltage.
The physical quantity to specify the value of a capacitor is called “Farad”; the relation of capacity,
voltage and electric charge [Q] is defined by:
Q=C*v
Depending on the applied standard, different symbols are used for the capacitor, different letters for the voltage.
film capacitor C film capacitor C
[F] [F]
current i voltage v [ V ] current i voltage u [ V ]

[A] [A]
electrolytic electrolytic
capacitor C capacitor C
[F] [F]
Properties of capacitors in circuits are different for DC and for AC.
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Film Capacitor
The construction of a film capacitor is very

close to the ideal two plate model. A dielectric
(isolating material) separates two conductive
plates. For any dielectric with the dielectric
constant ε the capacitance is given by the area
A of the plates and the distance d (thickness of
the dielectric):
C = ε * A/d
Dielectric material and mechanical design will

depend on the application (voltage, pulse current,
temperature, high frequency losses etc.).
Typical dielectrics are for example:
Polystyrene (20 MV/m),
Polyethylene (22 MV/m),
waxed paper (60 MV/m),
PTFE or Teflon® (170 MV/m)
Polyester
Polycarbonate
Polyimide or Kapton ®
Maintenance: none
http://en.wikipedia.org

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Dielectric Absorption
Dielectric absorption or relaxation describes the reappearance of voltage after the capacitor has been
discharged.
It is caused by polarization of the dielectric due to the external field. When discharged, this polarization
will take a much longer time to be neutralized (often days to weeks).
In consequence, capacitors must be short-circuited for transport and storage!
Polarization Dielectric absorption
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_absorption
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Electrolytic Capacitor
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors contain two foils and a liquid electrolyte. The dielectric is the aluminum
oxide on the anode foil, the electrolyte acts as a connector to the dielectric and thus to the cathode foil.
Anode foil for high-voltage

capacitors (magnification 400x)
The aluminum oxide layer (Al2O3) is

formed with a leakage current in two
steps to about 1.2 nm/V, reaching
much less than 1µm thickness for 500V.
The electrolyte contains borax to prevent the aluminum oxide layer
to be reduced to aluminum hydroxide when no voltage is applied.
Maintenance:
Look for bulged cans, leaked (yellow) or dried up electrolyte (white salt).
http://en.wikipedia.org

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Re-Forming
Nevertheless, during longer shelf periods and for higher storage temperatures, the layer of Al2O3 is
partially converted into aluminum hydroxide by the water in the electrolyte, reducing the isolation
resistance and thus the breakdown voltage. Without a leakage current present, however, the
isolation layer cannot be regenerated.
Storage periods of up to 2 years are not affecting the reliability of the electrolytic aluminum capacitor.
After storage for more than 2 years, the capacitor should be connected in no-load conditions to rated
DC voltage for 1 hour to regenerate the dielectric.
After much longer storage, the leakage current
during forming should be limited by a series resistor
(e.g. 2 Ω/V) to prevent overheating.
100%
Alternatively, the voltage may be applied in 4 steps

using a variac and a rectifier with each step being
applied for 1 hour per year of shelf life.
Another possibility is to rotate the capacitors from shelf to the operating equipment once a year.
Requirements and procedures as stated above equally apply for modules or VFDs containing
electrolytic capacitors (e.g. power cells, power blocks, etc.).
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Capacitors in DC- and AC-Circuits
Essentially a capacitor consists of two conductive plates separated from

i one another by a dielectric (non-conductive sheet in film capacitors,
non-conductive aluminum dioxide in electrolytic capacitors).
…MΩ
Ω
To save space, these plates are commonly arranged in a coil.

v C1
The non-conductive dielectric has a very high resistance but still it
results in an internal resistance of tens of MΩ acting in parallel to the
capacity.
Like resistors, capacitors are also used both in DC- and in AC-circuits; their properties, however, depend on the
frequency of the voltage applied (DC = 0Hz, AC = 50/60 Hz but also …kHz, …MHz).
DC-circuit The capacitor does not allow a permanent flow of current (unless through the “internal resistance”);
current flow is temporary only (di/dt) if the voltage applied on the capacitor changes versus the voltage
already inherent on it (“internal voltage”).
AC-circuit The current flow depends on the capacity, on the voltage across the capacitor and on the frequency of
this voltage. For a capacitor the “capacitance” respectively the “apparent resistance” acts like the
frequency-independent resistance of the resistor:
capacitance XC = 1 / ( 2π * f * C ) capacitance, X [ Ω ] / frequency, f [ Hz ] / capacity, C [ F ]
According to this equation the capacitance is infinite in DC-circuits; this is true only for the charged state of the capacitor.

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Capacitors “in Series” and “in Parallel”
In DC-circuits a completely discharged capacitor (“internal voltage” = 0) acts like a “short circuit” the first instance when voltage
is applied (the initial peak-current is limited by the acting series resistance of the circuit only). With the current flow into the
capacitor ( iC / dt) a charge builds up resulting in an “internal voltage” uC. As this “internal voltage” increases, the difference to
the applied voltage gets less and the current smaller. Once fully charged, “internal voltage” and applied voltage are identical,
the current reads “zero” (except for the very small discharge current through the internal resistance).
Whether “by themselves” or combined with other power devices (typically resistors), capacitors can be arranged “in
series” or “in parallel”; in drive applications they typically have identical capacities.
Connection “in series” 1 / Cseries = 1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + …. + 1 / Cn

Connecting capacitors in series reduces the overall capacity and in
i consequence its ability to “maintain its voltage level” if current is withdrawn.
…kΩ
Ω
…MΩ
Ω
C v = v/2 None the less a series connection is commonly found at the output of the
converter to split the overall voltage over several capacitors
v (thus capacitors of smaller voltage rating can be used).
C v = v/2 Since the internal resistance of even identical capacitors differs too much, a
series network of external resistors is paralleled to achieve a symmetrical
splitting of voltage on all capacitors in series.
Connection “in parallel” Cparallel = C1 + C2 + …. + Cn

The larger overall capacity resulting in a parallel setup of capacitors
i i1 i2 allows more current to be withdrawn with only little effect on the level
of voltage.
v v C v
C At the output of converters a combination of “series” and “parallel” networks
of capacitors is commonly found to achieve both of these effects.
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Circuits with Resistors and Capacitors
resistor in series to capacitors to limit

the initial current peak of the charging
current when switching on the MV
(SCR initially in blocking state)
transformer
6-pulse
converter
resistors in parallel to caps to

- split the voltage evenly
- act as “fast” discharge
capacitors in series to
- allow a smaller voltage rating
series network of resistors series network of resistors capacitors in parallel to
as voltage attenuator to and capacitors acting as - allow for a larger current drain
measure the line voltage high frequency filter (increased overall capacity)

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Inductor
An
An inductor
inductor is
is aa device
device which
which impedes
impedes the
the flow
flow of
of current.
current.
It opposes a change of current (it limits the current gradient di/dt).
The larger the inductor, the more effective it resists to a change of current.
The physical quantity to specify the value of an inductor is called “Henry”; the relation of inductivity,
voltage and current gradient (change of current) is defined by:
v = L * di/dt
Depending on the applied standard, different symbols are used for the inductor, different letters for the voltage.
voltage v [ V ] voltage u [ V ]
current i [ A ] inductor L current i [ A ] inductor L

[H] [H]
Properties of inductors in circuits are different for DC and for AC.
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Inductors in DC- and AC-Circuits / Application
DC-circuit If the DC-current is constant the inductor has no function; if the DC voltage across an inductor is changed
the change of current is “slowed down” in respect to the change of voltage.
E.g.: voltage is stepped up current ramps up; i = (1 / L) u * dt.
AC-circuit If a constant AC voltage is applied, the current flow depends on the inductivity, on the voltage across the
inductor and on the frequency of this voltage. For an inductor the “reactance” respectively the “apparent
resistance” is defined by:
reactance XL = 2π * f * L reactance, X [ Ω ] / frequency, f [ Hz ] / inductivity, L [ H ]
For many drive-applications inductors are primarily not used to limit the current in general, but to limit the gradient of
the current (to “slow down” the rate of change of current from one steady state value to another).
One such application is found at the input of converters with diodes (or in circuits with SCRs or IGCTs).
Inductors to limit the current peaks

caused by the commutation 6-pulse
converter
When current commutes from one phase to the
next a temporary phase-to-phase short circuit
DIODES
occurs; the rise of current is limited and the
impact on the line voltage reduced. or
In some applications these inductors are not transformer inductor SCR / IGCT
specifically found as their function is taken over
by the inductivity of the feeding transformer.

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Application of Inductors
Inductor to limit the continuous charging /

discharging current in very long motor cables “long lead length”
Very long motor cables (>30 000 ft / >9 km) represent VFD M
a considerable capacity; inductors compensate the
effect of the cable capacity with continuous charging
and discharging processes.
Inductors to limit transient currents

VFD 1
occurring if VFDs are connected in parallel
The output voltage of the two drives is not
inductors
absolutely identical at any given instance; the
resulting voltage difference creates transient
currents which have to be limited by inductors. VFD 2
motor with two winding systems
Inductor to limit transient currents in VFD-

applications with “Synchronous Transfer”
If the VFD is not feeding the motor exclusively but
(temporarily) to run it up to line frequency (Up- VFD M
Transfer) or to pick it up from line frequency and C1
run it down to standstill (Down-Transfer), the
inevitable difference of instantaneous voltage at
the moment of transfer would result in current
peaks. To limit this current, an inductor with 5% of C2
the rated impedance of the VFD has to be used.
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Phase Angle between Voltage and Current in R-, C-, L-Circuits
In the previous slides only the quantitative relation of voltage and current as valid for resistors, capacitors and inductors has been
studied.
For specific calculations or to support basic understanding (of e.g. Motor Theory) the phase shift between voltage and current on
these elements should be familiar.
Resistor Inductor Capacitor Power factor

current and voltage are in phase current lags voltage by 900 current leads voltage by 900 e.g. induction motor operation
v(t)
full load
v(t) v(t)
i(t) current
i(t)
full load
cos ϕ = 0.95
i(t) v(t) (power factor)
ϕ (ϕ = 180)
i(t)
v(t) minimum
i(t) load current
v(t) i(t)

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Diode
A
A diode
diode is
is aa device
device that
that passes
passes current
current in
in one
one direction,
direction,
but blocks current in the reverse direction.
but blocks current in the reverse direction.
i.conduct / A
15
10 i
cathode
v.block / kV 5
1.5 1.0 0.5
1 v
anode 1 v.conduct / V i
2
i.block / mA
A diode will conduct current if the anode is positive with respect to the cathode (regardless of voltage level or sign;
e.g. “anode” = -50 V, “cathode” = -70 V current is passed)
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Application of Diodes in VFDs (Power Section)
In the power section of VFDs the dominating application of diodes is that of converter (converting the three phase AC
line voltage into the DC-link voltage by means of the rectifier function of a diode network).
Commonly six diodes will be used for that purpose; this network is called a “full bridge 6-pulse rectifier” (B6-bridge).
L13 L23 L21 L31
i1 i3 i5
D1 D3 D5
fuse F1
L1 i1
iL1
L2 i2
fuse F3
L3 i3
D4 D6 D2
i4
i4 i6 i2 iL1
Following the fact that a diode will conduct current if the anode is positive with respect to the cathode shows that the
current commutates from diode to diode as indicated in the diagram. The line current (iL1 = i1 – i4) results in a “block-
shaped” current (fundamental frequency = line frequency, higher frequency “harmonics” superposed).

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SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)
A
A SCR
SCR is
is aa device
device with
with essentially
essentially the
the same
same properties
properties as
as the
the diode,
diode,
but
but requiring
requiring aa gate-signal
gate-signal to
to become
become conductive.
conductive.
15
i.conduct / A
10 with
gate gate i
cathode signal i
5 α = 300
v.block / kV
1.5 1.0 0.5
u
anode 0.5 1.0 1.5
1 v.block / kV
2 i
i.block / mA
α = 900
3
The time of applying the gate
4 signal α is defined in degrees;
00 is defined as the time when
a diode becomes conductive.
A SCR will conduct current if the anode is positive with respect to the cathode AND if a gate signal is applied.
Once conductive, an SCR will not shut off (even with the gate signal removed) unless the voltage across it reaches
the blocking state (anode negative versus cathode) or unless the current through it is below a type-specific limit.
If SCRs are used instead of diodes in a converter, the DC-voltage can be controlled in value (not used in PH-drives).
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Bipolar Transistor, Field Effect Transistor
A
A Bipolar
Bipolar Transistor
Transistor is
is aa device
device with
with essentially
essentially the
the same
same properties
properties as
as the
the diode,
diode, but
but
requiring a base-signal to become conductive and allowing to be switched off any
requiring a base-signal to become conductive and allowing to be switched off any time. time.
The use of a transistor as amplifier will be disregarded since this mode of operation is not found in drives applications.
Collector A Bipolar Transistor will conduct current if
C the Collector is positive with respect to the Base AND
free wheeling diode
the Emitter is negative with respect to the Base AND

Base current is fed to the Base as control signal.
B
A Bipolar Transistor will only remain conductive as long as all
E these conditions are satisfied
(e.g. base signal removed transistor shuts off).
Emitter
A
A Field
Field Effect
Effect Transistor
Transistor is is aa device
device with
with similar
similar properties
properties asas the
the Bipolar
Bipolar Transistor,
Transistor,
but
but requires
requires voltage
voltage at
at its
its gate
gate to to become
become conductive;
conductive; itit can
can be
be switched
switched off
off any
any time.
time.
Drain
Field Effect Transistors (MOSFET) are
D controlled by voltage at the Gate
they can carry a current of up to 30 A and
tolerate a voltage of up to 1 kV
Gate
G with switching frequencies up to 1 MHz
S in IGBTs they are used as an integrated
“input stage” to the “Bipolar Transistor”
Source

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IGBT
An
An IGBT
IGBT is
is aa device
device with
with essentially
essentially the
the same
same properties
properties as
as the
the Bipolar
Bipolar Transistor,
Transistor,
but
but requiring
requiring aa gate-signal
gate-signal (voltage,
(voltage, near
near zero
zero current)
current) to
to become
become conductive.
conductive.
An I G B T (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) is a combination of a Field Effect Transistor

(controlled by voltage at its Gate) which fires a Bipolar Transistor (controlled by current at its Base).
IGBTs are used both in Medium Voltage VFDs and in Low Voltage VFDs
an individual IGBT can conduct current up to 2000 A and tolerate a voltage of up to 6 kV (MV IGBT)
IGBTs are virtually short-circuit proof (if switched off within 10 µs)
a switching frequency of up to 20 kHz is possible ( sequence of switching on and off)
Collector An IGBT will conduct current if

the Collector is positive with respect to the Gate AND
C
free wheeling diode *
the Emitter is negative with respect to the Gate AND

voltage is applied at the Gate as control signal.
An IGBT will only remain conductive as long as all these conditions

are satisfied (e.g. gate signal removed IGBT shuts off).
Gate
+15 V ON G
- 15 V OFF E
Emitter Never disconnect the input to an IGBT !
* required to allow switching Due to the input impedance the device can
operations for inverters with intermittently fire and will; if this occurs the IGBT
complex load (ohmic/reactive) and possibly others along with it will be destroyed.
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IGCT
An
An IGCT
IGCT isis aa device
device with
with essentially
essentially the
the same
same properties
properties as
as the
the GTO,
GTO,
but featuring lower losses and withstanding higher voltage gradients.
but featuring lower losses and withstanding higher voltage gradients.
An I G C T (Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor) is an improved GTO (Gate Turn-Off Thyristor)

where a very high gate current of extremely short duration is used to block the SCR very fast.
IGCTs are used in Medium Voltage VFDs

an individual IGCT can conduct current up to 3000 A and tolerate a voltage of up to 5 kV
IGCTs exist as symmetric (S-IGCT, blocking both polarities) or asymmetric (A-IGCT, requiring an antiparallel diode)
a switching frequency of up to some kHz is possible, but due to switching losses 500Hz are a standard maximum
IGCTs tolerate high dv/dt values and require no snubber circuit, but they require a series inductance to limit di/dt
An IGCT will conduct current if

the Anode is positive with respect to the Gate AND
anode the Cathode is negative with respect to the Gate AND
current is applied at the Gate as control signal.
An IGCT will remain conductive as

gate long as the first two conditions are
A cathode satisfied.
It can be turned off by a reverse gate
current which has to be larger than
the anode current).
An IGCT always come with a driver
circuit as a complete package.
Very low impedance between driver
and gate circuit must be assured.

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Replacement of Power Devices
Components of the converter power section as listed below can be diagnosed quite easily. Said components are both
built in individually and are part of the power cells.
Additional suggestions to diagnose power cells are listed on the next page.
Component Fault appearance Probable causes Replacement
Resistor charred, blown up, discolored, loose connections, too much of the defective resistor
burnt, resistance value not current, over-voltage, (with same value, same wattage)
matching inscription wrong wattage
Capacitor liquid leaking, burst vent hole, loose connections, overheating, of the defective capacitor and
blown up, can is swelled, charging over-voltage, too old of all capacitors in series or parallel
behavior unlike comparable caps to the defective one
Inductor, charred, discolored, fuse blown, loose connections, overheating of the defective inductor or transformer
Transformer over-loaded wires or cables (cooling failure), wrong fusing
Semiconductor typically shorted, blown fuses over-current, over-voltage, Diodes, SCRs:

loose connections, overheating of the defective component only
current rise di/dt too fast, IGBTs:
erroneous triggering, of the defective IGBT and of all
faults in snubber circuit IGBTs in series or in parallel to the
defective ones
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Diagnosing Power Cells
Shorted semiconductors, burned resistors or faulty capacitors can be identified quite reliably using an analog meter (diode tester
or Ohmmeter); the switching function of an IGBT, however, cannot be tested this way.
For the function test of components as stated above, following criteria have to be applied:
- semiconductor in in conductive direction low Ohm value (… tens to hundreds of Ohms)
- semiconductor in blocking direction high Ohm value (… tens of MOhms)
- capacitor (general) initially low Ohm value; increasing Ohm value while charging up (.. MOhm)
- capacitor parallel to resistor initially low Ohm value; after having charged up: “value of resistor“
- capacitor (capacity) in comparison only; same charging time as some other capacitor of the same type
v_pos
L3
T1
L2
T2
L1
v_neg

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Application of Thermal Joint Compound
Application of Thermal Joint Compound

• Clean the heat sink with alcohol and a cloth free of lint.
• Apply new compound with a
rubber roller in thin layers
intersecting at 90 degrees
covering the entire base-plate
of the module; thickness of
compound: max. 0.1 mm
(has to be transparent).
• Put the the module in place immediately after applying compound.
• Be careful to place the module in its correct position right away; it
must not be relocated after it has been placed in position.
non conductive connections: e.g. type 12 – Wakefield Thermal Comp.
conductive connections: e.g. Penetrox – E Cat #PENE - 8
The thermal compound evens out mechanical roughness, equalizes the

heat transfer and minimizes the effect of hot-spots within the power device.
To the most part the thermal resistance is made

up by the thickness of the thermal compound.
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Fixing Semiconductor Modules
Recommended sequence of tightening the screws

on different types of semiconductor modules:
1 2 1 4
3 2
7 1 3 5 5 1 3
miniature torque spanner

6 4 2 8 4 2 6
Fixing Semiconductor Modules

• Semiconductor modules and resistors on support plates are
extremely sensitive to mechanical stress risk of breaking
the ceramic insulation
• Place the module onto the heat sink in correct position
• Note the sequence of tightening the screws according to
the type of module; initially use a very moderate torque to
fix the module
• Again observing the sequence of tightening the screws
tighten them using the advised torque (refer to the given
table)

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05_Power Electronics page 1 © Siemens Industry 2013 - subject to modification

05_Power Electronics page 2 © Siemens Industry 2013 - subject to modification

current i [ A ] resistor R current i [ A ] resistor R

05_Power Electronics page 3 © Siemens Industry 2013 - subject to modification

Resistors in Meshed Systems

Connection “in series” Connection “in parallel”

in general: Rseries = R1 + R2 + …. + Rn in general: 1 / Rparallel = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + …. + 1 / Rn

05_Power Electronics page 4 © Siemens Industry 2013 - subject to modification

current i voltage v [ V ] current i voltage u [ V ]

05_Power Electronics page 5 © Siemens Industry 2013 - subject to modification

The construction of a film capacitor is very

Dielectric material and mechanical design will

05_Power Electronics page 6 © Siemens Industry 2013 - subject to modification

Polarization Dielectric absorption

05_Power Electronics page 7 © Siemens Industry 2013 - subject to modification

Anode foil for high-voltage

The aluminum oxide layer (Al2O3) is

05_Power Electronics page 8 © Siemens Industry 2013 - subject to modification

Alternatively, the voltage may be applied in 4 steps

05_Power Electronics page 9 © Siemens Industry 2013 - subject to modification

Capacitors in DC- and AC-Circuits

Essentially a capacitor consists of two conductive plates separated from

To save space, these plates are commonly arranged in a coil.

capacitance XC = 1 / ( 2π * f * C ) capacitance, X [ Ω ] / frequency, f [ Hz ] / capacity, C [ F ]

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Capacitors “in Series” and “in Parallel”

Connection “in series” 1 / Cseries = 1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + …. + 1 / Cn

Connection “in parallel” Cparallel = C1 + C2 + …. + Cn

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Circuits with Resistors and Capacitors

resistor in series to capacitors to limit

resistors in parallel to caps to

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current i [ A ] inductor L current i [ A ] inductor L

Properties of inductors in circuits are different for DC and for AC.

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Inductors in DC- and AC-Circuits / Application

reactance XL = 2π * f * L reactance, X [ Ω ] / frequency, f [ Hz ] / inductivity, L [ H ]

Inductors to limit the current peaks

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Inductor to limit the continuous charging /

Inductors to limit transient currents

Inductor to limit transient currents in VFD-

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Phase Angle between Voltage and Current in R-, C-, L-Circuits

Resistor Inductor Capacitor Power factor

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Application of Diodes in VFDs (Power Section)

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SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)

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Bipolar Transistor, Field Effect Transistor

the Emitter is negative with respect to the Base AND

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An I G B T (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) is a combination of a Field Effect Transistor

Collector An IGBT will conduct current if

the Emitter is negative with respect to the Gate AND

An IGBT will only remain conductive as long as all these conditions

Emitter Never disconnect the input to an IGBT !

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An I G C T (Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor) is an improved GTO (Gate Turn-Off Thyristor)

IGCTs are used in Medium Voltage VFDs