Understanding means seeing that the same thing said in different ways is the same thing.

” - Ludwig Wittgenstein Lesson 9:

SCIENCE 2: Physics for Engineers ELASTICITY

Specific Objectives:
Define elasticity, stress and strain.
Differentiate stress and strain. Elasticity
Distinguish between elasticity of material and its ultimate strength. Elasticity
Explain the important effects of stress and strain on the size and shape of solid objects. Stress and Strain
Enumerate the different moduli of elasticity. Modulus of Elasticity
Explain how spring balance operates Applications/Problem Solving
Calculate problems involving stress and strain.

The three states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas. Solids have bonds between neighboring atoms and molecules that are strong and tend
to have definite shapes and that they retain unless acted on by external forces whereas, fluids - liquids and gasses flow and take on the shape of the
container. When opposing external forces are applied, the atomic and molecular bonds may be stretched, compressed, bent or changed in other
ways. When forces are removed, however, the bonds between atoms often return to their original orientation a nd length, and the solid returns to its
original shape. When this happens, then solid is elastic.
Not all solids have this elastic property. Clay, when deformed by a force, remains deformed and permanently altered which is another
from of flow. Such elastic deformations of solids are compression of the bone, stretching of the blood vessel, and shearing of the continental plate as it moves on
the earth’s surface.

ELASTICITY
Is that property virtues of which a body tends to return to its original size and shape after deformation and when the
deforming forces have been removed.
A body that is slightly deformed by an applied force will return to its original shape when the force is removed.
All solid materials are elastic to some edge.
E.g. spring, rubber bands, steel - deformation may not be noticeable but its there.
THREE STATES OF MATTER - solid, liquid and gas
Liquid and Gas - exhibit flow therefore they are called fluids
Solid - has a definite molecular shape unless acted upon by external forces
Forces applied on solid - stretching, compressing, bending
When forces are removed and the bonds return to their original shape, the object is said to be ELASTIC, e.g. rubber.
When the bonds do not return to its original shape, object is INELASTIC, e.g. clay
ELASTIC MATERIALS
1. Rubber-
2. Rods in tall buildings - tall buildings must sway in a strong wind. If they were not Elongation α Force
flexible, they might break. Concrete is brittle therefore rods are placed inside
them to provide flexibility.
3. Steel - used in automobile suspensions, clock springs
4. Glass - why is glass elastic?
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. The cause of the deformation
Hooke’s Law - elongation is directly proportional to force
2. Measurement of deformation, X
3. Proportionality constant that relates the deformation and its cause in an equation.
TABLE 7.1- THREE BASIC DEFORMATIONS AND FORCES CAUSING THEM
DEFORMATIONS FORCES EXAMPLES

caused by tension or
CHANGE IN LENGTH F F
compression
A B
in the orientation of the surfaces
ANGULAR CHANGE of solid caused by shearing
force

caused by uniform change in

VOLUME CHANGE pressure on the entire surface of
the surface of a solid.

STRESS AND STRAIN

Stress - characterizes the strength of the forces causing the stretch, squeeze or twist, usually on a force per unit area.
It is measured by the force applied per unit area which produces or tends to produce deformation in a body.

Where: SI Unit: Stress = Pascal (Pa)

Stress = Force =F F = force in Newton (N) Conversion: 1psi =6,891 Pa
Area A A = area of surface on which 1Pa = 1N/ m2 1 Pa =1.451 x104 psi
force acts in square meter (m2) English Unit: pounds per square inch (psi)
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 Understanding means seeing that the same thing said in different ways is the same thing.” - Ludwig Wittgenstein Lesson 9:

SCIENCE 2: Physics for Engineers ELASTICITY

Strain - describes the resulting deformation; dimensionless - no unit

It is the fractional deformation resulting from a stress. It is measured by the ratio of the change in some dimension of the
body to the total value of the dimension in which the change occurred.

Strain = ∆l Where: pulling - tension

l ∆l = change in length pushing - compression l =
initial length

Proportional Limit - is the maximum for which stress or strain are proportional, that is, for which Hooke’s Law is
valid.
Elastic Limit - is the smallest value of the stress required to produce permanent strain in Stress α Strain
the body; it is the stress beyond which irreversible deformation occurs. The breaking stress The harder you pull, the
or ultimate strength is the stress at which the materials break. more the object stretches,
the the more you squeeze,
Hooke’s Law (after Robert Hooke) - within the elastic limit of any body of the stress to the more it compresses.
strain produced is a constant. This constant is called the Modulus of Elasticity of the
materials of the body.
States that the linear strain produced on a body is proportional to the corresponding linear stress, thus Stress α Strain

Modulus of Elasticity = stress required to produce unit strain = stress

(Elastic Modulus) strain Proportionality
Constant
TENSILE STRESS - tensile force per unit area
F┴ F┴
where:
F F F
F F┴ = force acts in a
direction perpendicular
to the cross section.
A
Tension in a bar
Units:
Tensile stress = F┴ Where: SI unit of stress = 1Pa or Pascal = 1N/ m2
A F┴ = force in Newton (N) English system = 1psi or lb/in2= 6891 Pa
A = cross sectional area = 1Pa =1.451 x 104 psi
square meter (m2) (Pounds per square inch)
FOR COMPRESSIVE STRESS
Compressive stress and strain are defined the same way as tensile stress and tensile strain: for many materials, Young’s
Modulus has the same value for both tensile and compressive stress and strain.
F┴ F┴
F F F F

TENSILE STRAIN - fractional change of length (stretch) of a body under a tensile stress.
li
= ∆l Where:
Tensile strain = l - l i
li li ∆l = change in length
∆l l = final length
F F l i = original/ initial length
Amount of stretch per
unit length
l
Sample Problem:
A human biceps may exert a force of the order 600N on the bones to which it is attained. If the muscle has a cross sectional
area at its center of 50 cm 2 = 0.005 m2, and the tendon attaching its lower end to the bones below the elbow joint has a cross
section of 0.5cm2 = 5.0 x10-5 m2, find the tensile stress in each of these cross section.

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 Understanding means seeing that the same thing said in different ways is the same thing.” - Ludwig Wittgenstein Lesson 9:

SCIENCE 2: Physics for Engineers ELASTICITY

ELASTIC MODULUS / MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

THREE GENERAL TYPES OF ELASTIC MODULI:

1. Length Elasticity: Young’s Modulus (Y)- change in length Note: some references use symbol E for Young’s
modulus.
2. Angular Elasticity: Shear Modulus (S)- change in shape Note: some references use symbol G for Shear modulus.
3. Volume Elasticity: Bulk Modulus (B) - change in volume

TABLE 7.2- MODULI OF ELASTICITY FOR SOME SUBSTANCES

YOUNG’S MODULUS SHEAR MODULUS
MATERIAL
(dynes/ cm2 x 1011) (dynes/ cm2 x 1011) (
ALUMINUM 6.9 2.4
BRASS 9.0 3.5
COPPER 12.7 4.2
CAST IRON 10.0
WROUGHT IRON 20.0
LEAD 1.6 0.54
NICKEL 21.4 7.5
PLATINUM 16.6 6.4
STEEL 20.0 8.1
TUNGSTEN 35.5 14.8

Length Elasticity: Young’s Modulus (Y)

Y = tensile stress = compressive stress Y = F┴/A = F┴ l i A material with large value of Y is
Tensile strain compressive strain ∆l/ l i ∆l A unstretchable because a large
stress is required for a large strain.
Poisson’s Ratio (į) - is a dimensionless constant; the value is negative because the object gets narrower.

∆w = - δ ∆l Negative ratio of the fractional change of width ∆w/

wi of a Where:
wi li bar under tension or compression and the fractional Y = Young’s Modulus
change of length ∆ l/ l i. F┴ = force
As you stretch a rubber band it gets thinner as well as longer , therefore there is a change in width
A = cross sectional area l
and length. i = initial length

The Force constant K, is the ratio of force, F to the elongation or compression, x for a given
∆l = change in length
specific specimen of materials or a specific spring F = Kx. The reciprocal of the force constant ∆w = change in width
called compliance. wi = initial width
-į = dimensionless
Initial Width constant; negative
wi = d = r x 2 A = π r2
Where:
Change in Width
d = diameter A =area r = radius
∆w = - δ x ∆l x wi
π = 3.1416
li

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 Understanding means seeing that the same thing said in different ways is the same thing.” - Ludwig Wittgenstein Lesson 9:

SCIENCE 2: Physics for Engineers ELASTICITY

Sample Problem:
1. A string 4 mm in diameter has original length 2 m. The string is pulled by a force of 200 N. If the final length of the spring
is 2.02 m, determine: (a) stress (b) strain (c) Young’s modulus
Given:
Diameter (d) = 4 mm = 0.004 m
Radius (r) = 2 mm = 0.002 m
Area (A) = π r2 = (3.14)(0.002 m)2
Area (A) = 0.00001256 m2 = 12.56 x 10-6 m2 Units:
Force (F) = 200 N N = Pa cgs: dyne/cm 2

Original length of spring (l0) = 2 m

m2
The change in length (Δl) = 2.02 - 2 = 0.02 m
Find: (a) The stress (b) The strain c) Young’s modulus
Solution:
(a) The stress (b) The Strain (c) Young’s modulus

Exercises
1. A small elevator of mass 550kg from a steel cable 3.0m long. The wires making up the cable have a total cross sectional
area of 0.20 cm2 and with this load the cable stretches 0.40 cm beyond its no-load length. Determine the stress, strain,
the value of Young’s modulus, and change in width for the steel in the cable, assume that the cable behaves like a solid
rod with the same cross sectional area. (δ steel = 0.19)

2. A string has a diameter of 1 cm and the original length of 2 m. The string is pulled by a force of 200 N. Determine the
change in length of the string! Young’s modulus of the string = 5 x 109 N/m2.

3. A concrete has a height of 5 meters and has unit area of 3 m3 supports a mass of 30,000 kg. Determine (a) The stress
(b) The strain (c) The change in height! Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 10 m/s2. Young’s modulus of concrete = 20 x
109 N/m2

Angular Elasticity: Shear Modulus (S) Note: some references use symbol G for Shear modulus.
Is also called Modulus of Rigidity or the Torsion Modulus.
It is applicable to solid materials only; liquid and gasses do not have Shear Modulus or Young’s Modulus. It is
about 1/3 of the value of Young’s Modulus.
Shear Stress - is the force per unit area F/A for a force applied parallel to the surface
Shear Strain - is the angle Θ Where:
Shear Modulus - is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. S = shear stress; F = force
A = cross sectional area of the upper
surface of the block across which
the F is spread.
Θ = angle/ shear strain
Shear stress = F Shear strain = X = tan Θ Shear Modulus X = displacement of the upper surface
A L S=F/A with respect to the lower surface
Θ L = distance between 2 surface

Tension Compression
Shearing

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 Understanding means seeing that the same thing said in different ways is the same thing.” - Ludwig Wittgenstein Lesson 9:

SCIENCE 2: Physics for Engineers ELASTICITY

Notations Used in Shear Modulus Formula

 G is shear modulus in N.m-2
 F is the force acting on the body
 l is the initial length
 ∆x is the change in length
 A is the area

Sample Problem:
1. Compute the Shear modulus, if the stress experienced by a body is 5×10 4Nm2 and strain is 4×10-2.
Given
Stress = 5×104 Nm2
Strain = 4×10-2
Solution:
Shear Modulus (G) =Shear stress/Shear strain
Shear Modulus (G) = (5×104)/ (4×10-2)
Shear Modulus (G) = 1.25×106Nm2

2. A block of gelatin is 60 mm by 60 mm by 20 mm when unstressed. A force of .245 N is applied tangentially to the upper
surface causing a 5 mm displacement relative to the lower surface. The block is placed such that 60X60 comes on the
lower and upper surface. Find the shearing stress, shearing strain and shear modulus
Given Solution:
Volume = 60 mm by 60 mm by 20 mm
Force = .245 N
Displacement = 5 mm
Area = 60mm X 60mm

Exercises:
1. Suppose there is a brass plate 1.0 m and 0.5cm thick. How large a force F must be exerted on each of its edges if the
displacement x, is 0.02cm? The shear stress modulus of brass is 0.36 x 1011Pa.
2. A Nickel Cube which measures 15cm on the edge is fixed at its lower face. A force of 1.44 x 10 9dynes is applies parallel to
its upper surface and to an upper edge. Calculate shearing stress, strain, and the lateral displacement of the upper face
with respect to lower face (L).

3. A femur, which is the principal bone of the thigh, has a minimum diameter in an adult male of about 2.8 cm. Corresponding
to a cross-sectional area of 6 x 10 - 4 m2. At what compressive load would it break if the ultimate strength of the bone is 170 x
106N/m2 (maximum stress)?

Volume Elasticity: Bulk Modulus (B) and Compressibility

Bulk Modulus B - is the ratio of the volume stress to the volume strain that is negative.
B = - ∆P It is the negative ratio of pressure change ∆P (bulk stress) to the F
∆V/ V i fractional volume change ∆V/ V i .
A
Volume Stress - it affects the volume of the body.
Volume Strain - resulting volume of the body; dimensionless - no unit
Where:
Vol. stress = F Vol. strain = ∆V B = Bulk Modulus
A Vi ∆P = change in pressure
∆V = change in volume V i
= initial volume
P = F┴ B = F┴ / A = - P
A ∆V/ V i ∆V/ V i F┴ = force
A = cross sectional area

called volume stress since it an increase in pressure always Conversion:

affects the volume of the causes a decrease in volume, 1atmosphere (atm) = 1.013 x 105 Pa
rectangular block (1 Pa = 1N/m2) thus Bulk Modulus is negative =14.7 lb/in3

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 Understanding means seeing that the same thing said in different ways is the same thing.” - Ludwig Wittgenstein Lesson 9:

SCIENCE 2: Physics for Engineers ELASTICITY

Means very large stresses are needed to produce a fractional change in volume.

Compressibility (K) - is the reciprocal of the Bulk Modulus: K = 1/B

Material with small bulk modulus and large compressibility are easily compress;
Those with larger bulk modulus and smaller
compressibility compress less with the same
pressure increase.

Fractional decrease in volume, ∆V/ V i , per unit

increase in ∆P pressure; unit: Pa - 1 or atm - 1
Sample Problem:
1. What is the bulk modulus of a body that experienced
a change of pressure of 5x104N/m2 and a its volume goes from 4 cm3 to 3.9 cm3?
- The bulk modulus is calculated using the formula,
B = ΔP /(ΔV/V)
B = (5x104 N/m2)/((4 cm3 - 3.9 cm3)/4 cm3) = 0.125 x104 N/m2 B
= 1.25 x104 N/m2

2. A sphere of radius 10 mm is stretched from its original volume to a half, using a force of 100 N. What is the bulk modulus
of the system?
Answer: The bulk modulus is found from the equation:
B = ΔP /(ΔV/V)
The volume is calculated using V = 4/3 π (r) 3, where r is 10 mm, then V is
A = 4/3 π (10 mm)3 = 4/3 π (0.01 m)3 = 4.2x10(-6) m3
substituting the value of volume in
ΔV = Vf - Vi = 4.2x10 (-6) m3 - 1.1x10(-6) m3 = 1.1*10(-6) m3
Dividing by V, the fractional volume is,
ΔV/V = 1.1x10(-6) m3 / 4.2x10(-6) m3 = 0.26.
To find the pressure we use the formula, ΔP=F/A,
where A is the area of the sphere A = 4 π r2 = 4 π (0.01 m)2 = 1.26x10(-3) m2
Then ΔP = 100 N/1.26x10(-3) m2 = 79300 N/m2.
Finally, the bulk modulus is,
B = (79300 N/m2) / (0.26) = 305000 N/m2

Compressibility is a measure of the relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a response to a pressure (or mean stress) change.
3. The fractional change in the volume of oil is 1 percent when a pressure of 2 x 107 N/m2 is applied. Find the bulk modulus and its
compressibility?
Solution: P=2×107N/m2
VΔV = −0.01 [Pressure is applied from outside ∴ Volume is decreased]
B =(VΔV)−P
B = −0.01−2×107 = 2×109 N/m2
C =1/ B=5×10−10m2/N

Exercises:
s

1. A hydraulic press contains 0.25m 3 (250L) of oil. Find the decrease in volume of the oil when it is subjected to a
pressure increase ∆P = 1.6 x 107 Pa. the bulk modulus of the oil is B =5.0 x 10 9 Pa and its compressibility is K
=1/B = 20 x 10 -6atm- 1.
2. What is the bulk modulus of a body that experienced a change of pressure of 5*10 4 N/m2 and a its volume
goes from 4 cm3 to 3.9 cm3?
3. A copper solid cube of 60 mm side is subjected to a compressible pressure of 2.5×107 Pa. If the bulk modulus of
copper is 1.25×1011 pascal, find the change in the volume of cube.

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