09

Perimeter Inspirations
G ra d e 9 : F i g u r i n g O u t e r S p a c e

SPA R KI NG I N Q U I R Y T H R O U G H
S C I E N C E A N D M AT H
Contents

About Perimeter  4

Introduction: Figuring Outer Space  5

Figuring Outer Space in Your Classroom  5

Bookshelf  6

Web Resources  6

Activity 1: The Evolution of Stars  7

SC I EN CE
Activity 2: How to Find an Exoplanet  13

Activity 3: Take a Tour of the Milky Way  20

Activity 4: The History of the Universe  29

Activity 5: Crab Nebula Expansion  35

MATH

Activity 6: The Search for Exoplanets  43

Answers  51

Appendix A: Stellar Life Cycle Stages  54

Appendix B: Stellar Life Cycle Summary  59

Appendix C: Stellar Data Cards  60

Appendix D: Take a Tour of the Milky Way  66

Appendix E: The History of the Universe  67

Appendix F: Crab Nebula Images  70

Assessment  72

Self-Assessment  73

Glossary  75

Credits  76
Figuring Outer Space
About Perimeter
Perimeter Institute
Perimeter Institute is the world’s largest research
hub devoted to theoretical physics. The independent
Institute was founded in 1999 to foster breakthroughs
in the fundamental understanding of our universe,
from the smallest particles to the entire cosmos.
Research at Perimeter is motivated by the
understanding that fundamental science advances
human knowledge and catalyzes innovation and that
today’s theoretical physics is tomorrow’s technology.
Located in the Region of Waterloo, the not-for-
profit Institute is a unique public–private endeavour,
including the Governments of Ontario and Canada,
that enables cutting-edge research, trains the next
generation of scientific pioneers, and shares the
power of physics through award-winning educational
outreach and public engagement.
4
Perimeter Inspirations
This series of in-class educational resources is designed
to help teachers inspire students by sharing the mystery
and power of science and math through inquiry-based,
Ontario curriculum–linked activities. Activities integrate
21st century skills—communication, collaboration,
creativity, and critical thinking—which equip students
to make meaningful contributions to society as they
learn, grow, and mature.
Perimeter Inspirations is the product of extensive
collaboration between experienced teachers and
Perimeter Institute’s Educational Outreach staff. This
resource has been designed with both the expert and the
novice teacher in mind and has been thoroughly tested in
classrooms. The digital resource features student activity
sheets and a variety of assessment tools in a modifiable
format to suit the particular needs of each student.

Introduction: Figuring Outer Space
People have always been fascinated by space. What is
the universe made of? How big is it? How did it start?
Will it ever end? Our quest to understand began in
ancient times and continues today.
These six hands-on, inquiry-based activities aim
to stimulate discovery in students as they explore
interesting space-related topics, such as planets
beyond the solar system, the life cycle of stars,
supernovas, galaxies, and the evolution of the
universe.
This resource provides classroom activities to help
teachers deliver the Earth and Space Science strand
in Grade 9 Science (both academic and applied)
and supports the teaching of Grade 9 Principles
of Mathematics (academic) and Foundations of
Mathematics (applied). Specific suggestions for
adapting the activities for a wide range of at-risk
students ensure learning is inclusive.
Figuring Outer Space in Your Classroom
Flow of Activities
You may have students engage in the activities that
follow in any order. The activities that are primarily
science-based (Activities 1 through 4) explore the
universe on larger and larger scales as they progress.
The math-based activities (Activities 5 and 6) can be
taught in either order. The supplementary video can
be used to begin the learning or after inquiry has taken
place to reinforce the learning.
Structure of Activities
Each of the module’s activities can be completed in a
single period and includes three parts for students:
1. Student Activity: A sequence of hands-on activities
and related discussion questions
2. Summarize Your Learning: A brief assessment for
learning (formative assessment) designed to help
students cement the content they have just covered
3. Post-Activity Assessment: An assessment of
learning (summative assessment) designed to help
teachers assess students’ learning
Figuring Outer Space
The resource package also includes a short, dynamic
classroom video, closely tied to the lessons. It takes
students on a tour of their home galaxy—the Milky
Way—highlighting a number of its most important
features: its many stars, nebulas, and planets, along with
its overall scale. The video also explores how the Milky
Way has changed over time.
All activities offer an engaging, hands-on experience for
students. Each activity includes background information
for teachers, assessment material, and specific teaching
tips designed to help you deliver memorable lessons
that fuel engagement and rich exploration.
Developed in a year-long project involving high school
teachers and students, physics researchers, Perimeter
Educational Outreach staff, and media professionals, the
module encourages students to ask questions, develop
inquiry skills, and make connections as they expand
their horizons beyond Earth and into outer space.
Promoting Effective Group Work
The six student activities have been designed with
small groups of students in mind. Sharing group
work expectations with students will keep groups
on task and lead to better participation and deeper
learning. Two critical components for effective
group work are
1. Individual accountability: Ensure that each
student has an important, specific role to play
(e.g., experimenter, recorder), so that they are
responsible for their own learning. With this
approach, students who might resist active
participation will feel motivated to fulfill their
roles and offer meaningful contributions.
2. Positive teamwork: By fostering a positive and
supportive classroom environment, students will
encourage and challenge each other in constructive
ways. Guide students to set a clear and meaningful
goal for the group activity, or provide students
with a common goal. Emphasize the significance
of the role that each student plays in achieving the
group’s goal.
5
Figuring Outer Space
Bookshelf
The following high-quality resources may resonate with
students wanting to read books related to astronomy
and space. Perhaps a display of space-related titles could
be showcased at the school library.
Non-fiction
• An Astronaut’s Guide to Life on Earth, by Chris Hadfield
(Random House, 2013)
• Chasing Space: An Astronaut’s Story of Grit, Grace, and
Second Chances, by Leland Melvin (Amistad, 2017)
• Maple Leaf in Space: Canada’s Astronauts, by John
Melady (Dundurn Press, 2011)
• Roberta Bondar: Canada’s First Woman in Space, by
Judy Wearing (Crabtree Publishing, 2011)
• Space Atlas: Mapping the Universe and Beyond, by James
Trefill (National Geographic, 2012)
• Space!: The Universe As You’ve Never Seen It Before
(Dorling Kindersley, 2015)
• Spectacular Women in Space, by Sonia Gueldenpfennig
(Second Story Press, 2004)
• StarTalk: Everything You Need to Know About Space
Travel, Sci-Fi, the Human Race, the Universe, and
Beyond, edited by Neil deGrasse Tyson (National
Geographic Society, 2016)
• The Arctic Sky: Inuit Astronomy, Star Lore, and Legend,
by John MacDonald (Royal Ontario Museum/Nunavut
Research Institute, 1998)
Fiction
• Airborn (Airborn series), by Kenneth Oppel
(HarperCollins, 2005)
• End of Days, by Eric Walters (Doubleday Canada, 2011)
• MiNRS, by Kevin Sylvester (Margaret K. McElderry
Books, 2015)
• Monks in Space, by David Jones (Annick Press, 2008)
• Regenesis, by Eric Walters (Doubleday Canada, 2015)
6
Web Resources
The following websites may help inspire students to
learn about astronomy. They also provide positive role
models and can provide some direction for students
researching Canadians working in space and Canada’s
contributions to astronomy.
Canadian Space Agency
http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/
European Space Agency
https://www.esa.int
European Women in Space
http://www.esa.int/About_Us/Welcome_to_ESA/
ESA_history/50_years_of_humans_in_space/European_
women_in_space
First African American in Space
http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/bluford-gs.html
First Astronaut in Space
http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/whos_who_
level1/gagarin.html
First Canadian Women in Space
http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/missions/sts-042.asp
http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/missions/sts-096.asp
First Woman in Space
http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/whos_who_
level2/tereshkova.html
India’s First Astronaut
http://indianspacestation.com/research/interviews/517-
interview-with-india-s-first-astronaut-rakesh-sharma
NASA: Women in Space
http://history.nasa.gov/women.html
Sky Stories: Indigenous Astronomy
http://www.virtualmuseum.ca/edu/ViewLoitLo.do?meth
od=preview&lang=EN&id=5185
U.S. Astronaut John Bennett Herrington: First Native
American to Walk in Space
http://www.spacetoday.org/Astronauts/NativeAmerican.
html

Activity 1: The Evolution of Stars
Lesson Plan
Introduction
In this activity , students explore the life cycle of stars.
1
In Part 1, students participate in a group activity to
analyze and then sequence a series of images related
to stars in the correct order to show the life cycle of a
star. In Part 2, students sort images of stars according
to important attributes such as mass.
Suggested Time: 60–70 minutes
Purpose
• To understand that stars come in a variety of sizes,
colours, and temperatures
• To develop an understanding of the life cycle of stars
• To understand that the mass of a star determines how
it changes and dies
P R I O R K N OW L E D G E & S K I L L S
• Students should understand that gravity is an
attractive force that acts between objects that
have mass.
• If needed, review group-work skills and
guidelines with your class (see page 5).
Materials
• video about the evolution of stars (optional), for
example, The Life Cycle of Stars (5 minutes; accessible
to all students); or Stars: Crash Course Astronomy #26
(10 minutes; best for academic-level classes)
• Stellar Life Cycle Stages sheets (1 copy per group; see
Appendix A)
• Stellar Life Cycle information sheet (1 copy per group;
see Appendix B)
• Stellar Data Cards (1 copy per group; see Appendix C)
• envelopes for storing cards (optional)
1. This is an adapted version of Perimeter Institute’s existing
activity “How Do You Make a Black Hole?” in Black Holes
(Perimeter Explorations, 04).
Figuring Outer Space
Activity 1
Teacher Instructions
1. Prepare sets of Star Cards and Tester Cards (see
Stellar Data Cards, Appendix C) for each group
of four or five students by cutting along the solid
lines as indicated. You may wish to place these in
envelopes to keep them organized.
2. Show students one of the videos listed in Materials
as a brief introduction to the life cycle of stars.
Alternatively, you may wish to design your own short
introductory lesson and present it to your class.
3. Give students Part 1 of the activity and the Stellar
Life Cycle Stages sheets. When students have
completed Part 1, give them a copy of the Stellar
Life Cycle information sheet to assess their work.
4. Pass out the Star Cards and have students complete
Part 2 of the activity.
5. After students complete the activity, provide them
with the Tester Cards. Have students sort the cards
based on the relationship between the mass of the
star and the death outcome they developed in the
activity.
6. Have students complete the Post-Activity
Assessment.
Teacher Tips
• For best results, use high-quality colour copies of
the stellar images and star cards. To maintain the
longevity of the images, consider printing them on
cardstock and laminating them, or store them in clear,
protective sleeves.
• Note that the card Supernova 1994D is designed to
provide an interesting challenge for students because
the mass of the star is not available. But because
it is a supernova, students should be aware from
their work in Part 1 that the death outcome will be
either a neutron star or a black hole. This makes
the placement of this card uncertain until more
information becomes available.
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 Figuring Outer Space

Extension
Earth to Space Connections
If time permits, introduce students to the fascinating
The first conclusive evidence for black holes came
in Ontario by Tom Bolton in 1972. Have students topic of black holes by showing the Perimeter Institute
Activity 1

research this discovery, beginning with this link:
Canada Under the Stars.
INQUIRY TIP
To provide more open inquiry for Part 2 of this
activity, first ask students to sort the 14 cards
without telling them what property to use. For
example, they may decide to sort according to
colour: yellow or blue. Then, encourage students
to examine the blue star pile more carefully to see
if they can sort this pile even further. After allowing
students to explore different ways of sorting the
cards, prompt those who have not already done so
to sort the cards by death outcome.
video Black Holes (10 minutes) at the end of the activity.
This video, suitable for Grade 9 science, briefly reviews
stellar evolution and then explores the formation of
black holes. It features animation and discussion from
black hole researchers and is accompanied by a multiple
choice assessment. Go to www.perimeterinstitute.ca/
store/ and search for “Black Hole Video Summary” to
download the video and assessment files.
D I F F E R E N T I AT E D S U P P O R T
To Assist: Have students use language learning
software (i.e., audio support) with the Stellar
Life Cycle Stages sheets. In this way, students
can listen to prerecordings of the information on
the sheets.

Teacher Background
How do stars evolve?
Gravity causes
Stars are born within giant gas clouds. These clouds are inward force
made up mostly of hydrogen gas. Gravitational forces
cause the hydrogen gas to clump together, forming
knots of dense hydrogen gas. The knots collapse under
their own gravity, eventually forming stars fuelled
by nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion occurs in the core
of stars when the nuclei of lighter elements such as
Heat and light
hydrogen fuse to form helium, releasing energy in the create
form of heat and light. This release of energy creates outward force
an outward pressure that balances the inward force of
gravity, keeping the star stable for many millions or even
billions of years (see Figure 1).
The rate of nuclear fusion depends on the mass of the
star, with massive stars burning their fuel faster than
lighter stars. Massive stars have high rates of nuclear
fusion, resulting in short lifetimes for these stars—
usually in the tens of millions of years. Average stars,
Figure 1 Gravitational force inward is balanced by the outward
like our Sun, have lower rates of nuclear fusion and pressure caused by the heat and light released during nuclear fusion.
last on the order of billions of years. Finally, low-mass
stars have nuclear fusion rates so low that they can last How do average stars die?
hundreds of billions or perhaps even trillions of years.
Stars change over the course of their lifetime, as shown
Note that the masses of stars are often given as in Figure 2. The key factor that determines how long
multiples of MSUN, which stands for solar mass. It is a a star will live and how it will die is its mass. When an
mass equivalent to the mass of our Sun: 1.99 × 1030 kg. average star, like our Sun, uses up its hydrogen, the
Therefore, our Sun has a mass of 1.0 MSUN, and a star interior of the star begins to collapse. This is because
with a mass twice that of our Sun has a mass of 2.0 MSUN. the outward pressure produced by the heat and light is

8

weaker than the gravitational force inward. The collapse
compresses helium nuclei in the star’s core, causing
them to fuse together and expel vast amounts of energy
outward. As a result, the outer shell of the star expands,
forming a red giant. Next, the star expels its outer
layers, forming a bubble-shaped cloud of gas called a
planetary nebula. The core of the star remains intact at
the centre of the planetary nebula and is called a white
dwarf. It is about the size of Earth. The white dwarf
may continue to shine for tens of billions of years even
though it no longer undergoes nuclear fusion.
How do massive stars die?
Due to stronger gravitational forces, nuclear fusion
continues in massive stars even when no more hydrogen
is present. Helium atoms fuse to produce carbon atoms,
resulting in the continued release of heat and light. Once
the helium has been used up, the process of nuclear
fusion continues, producing even heavier elements in
the core of the star, such as oxygen, silicon, and finally
iron. This process causes the star to swell into a red
supergiant. Because iron cannot be fused into heavier
elements to produce the outward pressure needed to
balance the star against its own gravity, the star rapidly
collapses, producing a huge explosion called a supernova.
Depending on how massive the star was before the
explosion, it will leave behind one of two small remnants
from the original star: a neutron star or a black hole.
Figure 2 The life cycle of stars
Figuring Outer Space
What’s cutting edge about stellar evolution?
Recently, astronomers discovered two massive
Activity 1
black holes that had been orbiting each other
1.3 billion light years from Earth. They had spiralled
into each other, releasing energy in the form of
powerful waves called gravitational waves. These
waves rippled through space and were detected
on Earth. By carefully studying the gravitational
waves, scientists were able to infer important
information about the stars that produced the
black holes, and about the universe itself.
Find Out More ►
To learn more about stellar evolution before facilitating
this activity with your students, you may wish to visit
the following websites:
Stellar Evolution
https://www.aavso.org/stellar-evolution
Stellar Processes and Evolution
http://sci.esa.int/education/36828-stellar-processes-and-
evolution/
9
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Student Activity
Activity 1

The Evolution of Stars

Part 1: What are the stages in the life cycle of stars?

1. Form groups of four or five. Assign each group member a letter: A, B, C, D (and E for groups of five).
2. Randomly pass out the Stellar Life Cycle Stages sheets so that each member of your group has at
least two of the sheets (some may have three). Individually, read your sheets and identify the key
properties of each object. Be prepared to discuss these key properties within your group.
3. Beginning with student A, each group member should show one of their information sheets to the
group and describe the object, focusing on key properties. Rotate through the group until all of the
information sheets have been presented.
4. Then, working collaboratively, analyze the information sheets and determine the correct order of the
life cycle of stars. Hint: The stages do not necessarily form one straight line. When completed, check
your work by visiting the other groups to compare the ordering. Resolve any differences.
5. Ask your teacher for a copy of the Stellar Life Cycle Summary and check your work.

Summarize Your Learning

1. In the space below, draw a diagram to summarize the life cycle of stars. Be sure to sketch and label
the correct order for the stellar evolution of each object from your results in Step 4 above.
Life Cycle of Stars

2. Explain why the stages could not be arranged in a single straight line.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

10
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

3. Answer the following questions with the appropriate term. Review the descriptions on the information
sheets to help you.

Activity 1
(a) Stellar nebulas produce these in various sizes and colours._________________________________________
(b) Stars shine by fusing this element to form helium. __________________________
(c) When average stars like our Sun run out of fuel, they expand to become this._________________________
(d) Average stars like our Sun will end their life as this. ________________________________________________
(e) Massive stars explode as supernovas, leaving behind either of these two objects.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Part 2: How do stars die?

1. Obtain Set 1: Star Cards (set of 14 cards) from your teacher. (Note that MSUN stands for solar mass. It is
a mass equal to the mass of our Sun. Therefore, our Sun has a mass of 1.0 MSUN, and a star with a mass
twice that of our Sun would have a mass of 2.0 MSUN.)
2. Deal out the cards to your group. Working collaboratively, group the cards based on the death outcome
of each star.

Summarize Your Learning

1. Based on how you grouped the cards, what property determines whether a star becomes a white dwarf,
a neutron star, or a black hole?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Ask your teacher for Set 2: Tester Cards (set of 5 cards).

(a) Test the property you identified in question 1 above by placing the tester cards in the appropriate
group. Confirm your understanding by checking results with another group.
(b) Were you unsure about how to place any of the cards? Explain why, if so.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Suppose you are an astronomer in charge of examining stars to determine whether they will produce
a white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole when they die. How will you use the property you identified
in question 1 above to determine the death outcome of a star?
(a) A star will become a white dwarf at the end of its life if ____________________________________________ .
(b) A star will become a neutron star at the end of its life if ____________________________________________ .
(c) A star will become a black hole at the end of its life if____________________________________________ .

11
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Post-Activity Assessment
Activity 1

Answer the following questions to check your understanding of the evolution of stars.
1. Below is a set of data cards for six stars. Use your knowledge from the previous activity to predict the
death outcome for each of these stars: white dwarf (WD), neutron star (NS), or black hole (BH). Write
your prediction on each card.

Star 1 Star 2 Star 3

Object: Star Object: Star Object: Star

Mass: 12.6 MSUN Mass: 2.02 MSUN Mass: 1.42 MSUN
Temperature: 22 000°C Temperature: 9670°C Temperature: 6230°C
Colour: Blue Colour: Blue Colour: Yellow
Death Outcome: ___________ Death Outcome: ___________ Death Outcome: ___________

Star 4 Star 5 Star 6

Object: Star Object: Star Object: Star

Mass: 28 MSUN Mass: 33 MSUN Mass: 20 MSUN
Temperature: 35 000°C Temperature: 28 000°C Temperature: 3230°C
Colour: Blue Colour: Blue Colour: Red
Death Outcome: ___________ Death Outcome: ___________ Death Outcome: ___________

2. Briefly explain how you made your predictions.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

Extension: What are you wondering about?

3. When you think about the life cycle of stars, what do you still wonder about? In the space below, record a
question that you have after completing this activity. For example, scientists have long wondered, “What
is inside a black hole?” Use this question or create your own. Then, either in class or at home, research
online by reading an article you find interesting, watching a video, or both. Then, at the beginning of your
next class, share informally with others what you have learned by answering your question.
My question:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

12

Activity 2: How to Find an Exoplanet
Lesson Plan
Introduction
In this activity, students model the transit method
of detecting exoplanets using simple materials and a
smartphone light meter app. A transit occurs when
an exoplanet crosses between a star and the observer,
blocking some of the star’s light and resulting in a
temporary dip in its observed brightness. Astronomers
then measure and analyze the dip in brightness to
determine the speed and size of the exoplanet. For a
more math-based exoplanet activity, refer to Activity 6:
The Search for Exoplanets.
Suggested Time: 70 minutes
Purpose
• To introduce the idea of exoplanets—planets orbiting
stars other than our Sun
• To model how scientists detect exoplanets using the
transit method
P R I O R K N OW L E D G E & S K I L L S
• Students will need to know the difference
between a planet and a star. They should
understand that planets orbit stars, forming
solar systems.
• If needed, review group-work skills and
guidelines with your class (see page 5).
Materials
• video about exoplanets (optional), for example,
Exoplanets: Crash Course Astronomy #27 (11 minutes);
or How to Find an Exoplanet (2 minutes)
• Android smartphone with front-facing camera
• free Android light meter app with graphical display
such as Physics Toolbox Light Meter2 by Vieyra
Software or Lux Meter3 by Crunchy ByteBox (at
publication, a suitable app with graphical display was
not available for iPhone or iPad)
2. Perimeter Institute did not create this app, nor does it endorse
this app.
3. See note 2 above.
Figuring Outer Space
Activity 2
• several sturdy hardcover books (to prop up
smartphone)
• flashlight
• 2 Styrofoam balls, one large (5 cm diameter) and one
small (2.5 cm diameter)—alternatively, use crumpled-
up pieces of paper or two-dimensional circles to
represent the two planets
• wooden skewer
• mini-whiteboard and whiteboard markers (optional;
see Teacher Tips)
SAFETY ALERT
Wooden skewers are sharp at one end. Remind
students to use caution when working with them.
Teacher Instructions
1. Before introducing the activity, show students a
video about exoplanets to spark interest and provide
background knowledge. Alternatively, you may prefer
to design your own brief lesson about exoplanets and
the transit method and present it to your class.
2. The day before you plan to do the activity, organize
students into groups of two or three. Ensure that at
least one student with an Android smartphone is in
each group. Instruct students to download one of the
free light meter apps listed in the Materials section.
3. Have students test the light meter app. To do this,
students should move a hand across the front-facing
camera so that they can clearly see dips in brightness
(or luminosity) on the graphical display. For instance,
using the Physics Toolbox Light Meter app, students
can zoom in and out on the graph, as well as pause
the data collection, allowing them to examine the
light curve in more detail.
4. On the day of the activity, hand out the student
activity pages and have students carry out the
procedure.
5. Have students present their light curves to you for
evaluation. Compare their light curves with those
13
 Figuring Outer Space
shown in Figure 2 on page 15 or with light curves
found on the Internet, and discuss any discrepancies.
6. Have students complete the Post-Activity Assessment.
Activity 2
Teacher Tips
• Consider providing mini-whiteboards for students to
display and share thinking in their groups.
• As an alternative to smartphones, consider using light
sensor probes that attach to a computer interface
device.
INQUIRY TIP
Students can explore the limitations of the model
by investigating how changing the distance from
their “exoplanet” to the “star” affects the light
curve. The farther the Styrofoam balls are from the
flashlight, the greater the drop in brightness on
their light curve. This is because the smartphone
is close to their model exoplanet–star system.
In real exoplanet systems, the distance between
Earth and the exoplanet is so large that any
differences in distance between the exoplanet and
the parent star have a negligible effect on the light
curve. Discuss the limitations of this model and of
scientific models in general.
Teacher Background
What is an exoplanet and how do scientists
detect one?
In the past, most people thought our solar system was
unique in the universe. But we now know there are
many other systems of planets orbiting a wide variety of
stars. These planets are called exoplanets because they
are external to our solar system. NASA’s Kepler mission,
launched in 2009, detected many of the exoplanets that
we know about today. The mission was designed to
survey stars in our galaxy for Earth-sized planets that
may be able to support life.
Scientists use several methods to detect exoplanets.
By far the most common is the transit method, the
method used in the Kepler mission. Using powerful
telescopes and sensitive cameras, scientists can detect
very small dips (decreases) in the brightness of a star
as an exoplanet transits across the face of the star.
Scientists use brightness data to make a graph showing
the brightness of the light from the star versus time,
like the one shown in Figure 1. This type of graph is
14
Extension
After they complete the activity, give students an
opportunity to apply their learning and analyze real
light-curve data produced by exoplanets. Light-curve
data for seven planets orbiting the star TRAPPIST-1
can be found here: https://www.eso.org/public/
unitedkingdom/images/eso1706h/. Print copies of the
curves and challenge students to sort the planets by size
by comparing the curves. To do this, have students use
a ruler and pencil to accurately measure the depth of
each dip. By comparing the depths of the dip, students
can order the planets according to their size. Students
can check their work and learn more about the planets
by watching the short video A Treasure Trove of Planets
Found. (From largest to smallest, the order is [1c, 1b], 1g, 1f,
1e, [1d, 1h]. Planets in square brackets are similar in size.)
D I F F E R E N T I AT E D S U P P O R T
To Challenge: For a more open-ended inquiry, do
not give students Instructions 6 and 7. Instead,
simply ask them to investigate the effects of planet
size and speed on light curves and write a brief
report that communicates their results.
called a light curve. From the light curve, scientists can
determine properties of the exoplanet, such as its size
and speed, as shown in Figure 2.
Exoplanet
Star
% Brightness
Light curve
Time (s)
Figure 1 A light curve shows the percent brightness of a star’s
light over time as detected from Earth or another observer,
such as a telescope in space. As an exoplanet transits across a
star, it blocks some of the star’s light. The dip in the light curve
therefore corresponds to the exoplanet’s transit across the star.
 Figuring Outer Space

(a) Small Planet (b) Large Planet

Activity 2
100.00 100.00
% Brightness

% Brightness
99.99
99.99

10 20 30 10 20 30
Time (h) Time (h)
Source: Adapted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd.: T. Barclay et al, “A sub-Mercury-sized Exoplanet,” Nature, no. 494, 28 February 2013, 452–454.

(c) Fast-Moving Planet (d) Slow-Moving Planet

100.00 100.00
% Brightness

% Brightness
99.92
99.96
10 20 30 10 20 30
Time (h) Time (h)
Credit: Reprinted by permission of the authors, from Vanderburg et al, “Five Planets Transiting a Ninth Magnitude Star,” https://arxiv.org/pdf/1606.08441.pdf

Figure 2 These graphs show light-curve data from the transits of real exoplanets. Curves (a) and (b) result from a small planet and a large
planet transiting the same star. Curves (c) and (d) result from a fast planet and a slow planet transiting the same star.

The transit method works only when an exoplanet transits
across the face of the star, meaning it moves between the
star and the observer. If an exoplanet orbits in a different
orientation, where dips in brightness are not observed,
then other methods for planetary detection are necessary.
For example, the radial velocity method uses the Doppler
effect to detect subtle shifts in the spectra of stars when an
exoplanet and its parent star orbit about a common centre
of mass. As a result of measuring this shift, scientists infer
that another object must be orbiting the star.
Find Out More ►
To learn more about exploring exoplanets before
facilitating this activity with your students, you may
wish to visit the following websites:
“How Do Astronomers Actually Find Exoplanets?”
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-
do-astronomers-actually-find-exoplanets-180950105/
Exoplanet Exploration: Planets Beyond Our Solar System
https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/

What’s cutting edge about exoplanets? Earth to Space Connections

The rate of exoplanet detections is likely to Have students research the James Webb
increase with the anticipated launch of the James telescope and explore the role of Canadians in
Webb telescope in 2018. This telescope will not developing this technology. Ask, What is the
benefit to having this new technology in space,
only detect exoplanets but will also have the
rather than on Earth? (able to see more detail due
ability to detect and study their atmospheres,
to avoiding distortion due to Earth’s atmosphere)
potentially shedding light on the question, “Is
there life on other planets?” Scientists hope to
detect the chemical fingerprints of water, carbon
dioxide, methane, and ammonia—substances that
were present during Earth’s early history.

15
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Student Activity
Activity 2

How to Find an Exoplanet

Instructions
1. Form groups of two or three. Ensure that one
person in your group has an Android smartphone.
Your teacher will explain how to download a free
light meter app that has a graphical display.
2. Run the app and identify the light sensor on the
front of your smartphone by waving your hand

% Brightness
across the phone. You should see a dip in the light
curve as you do so. As a test, try producing a light
curve similar to the one in Figure 1.
3. You will be modelling the transit method for
discovering exoplanets using the materials shown
in Figure 2(a). The flashlight represents a star, and
the Styrofoam balls represent exoplanets.
4. Carefully insert the wooden skewer into the large
Styrofoam ball as shown, and then set up the Time (s)
apparatus as shown in Figure 2(b). The distance Figure 1 Sample light curve produced by smartphone app
between the flashlight and the smartphone should
be approximately 50 cm. The distance between the
Styrofoam ball and the flashlight should be approximately 10 cm for each simulation.
5. Aim the flashlight toward the smartphone and adjust the flashlight up or down so that the smartphone
receives most of the light.

(a) (b)
Skewer

Smartphone

Books Styrofoam
ball Flashlight

 
Figure 2(a) Use these materials to model the transit method for finding exoplanets. (b) Set up your model as shown here.

16
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

6. Effect of Planet Size on Light Curve: Using your model, simulate the transit of an exoplanet to
test the effect that planet size has on the light curves produced.

Activity 2
(a) Predict: Sketch the two curves that you think will result from each planet size below. Focus
on showing how the two curves will differ and how they will be the same. Sketch your curves
in the space provided.

Large Exoplanet Small Exoplanet

100 100
% Brightness

% Brightness
Time (s)   Time (s)

(b) Observe: Conduct your simulation, first using the large ball. Move the ball slowly across the face of
the flashlight, keeping the ball about 10 cm from the flashlight. Repeat the simulation several times,
recording your data. Then repeat with the smaller ball. Sketch your results in the space provided.

Large Exoplanet Small Exoplanet

100 100
% Brightness

% Brightness

Time (s)   Time (s)

(c) Explain your observations below. Why did you observe differences between the pairs of light curves?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

17
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

7. Effect of Planet Speed on Light Curve: Using your model, test the effect that planet speed has on the
light curves produced. Record your predictions, observations, and explanation below.
Activity 2

(a) Predict: Sketch the two curves that you think will result from each exoplanet speed—slow and fast.

Slow Exoplanet Fast Exoplanet

100 100
% Brightness

% Brightness
Time (s)   Time (s)

(b) Observe: Conduct your simulation using the large ball. Run the simulation as described in Step 6(b) on
the previous page, using a slow speed and then a fast speed. Sketch your results in the space provided.

Slow Exoplanet Fast Exoplanet

100 100
% Brightness

% Brightness

Time (s)   Time (s)

(c) Explain your observations below. Why did you observe differences between the pairs of light curves?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Summarize Your Learning

1. How well do your models match real exoplanets orbiting around real stars? Bring the light curves
your group produced to your teacher. Your teacher will share with you some light curves produced
by exoplanets for comparison. How accurate were your simulations?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Working individually, summarize what you have learned from the simulations by circling the option
that best completes each of the following sentences.
(a) Exoplanets that are large produce large dips/small dips/no dips in the light curve.
(b) Exoplanets that are small produce large dips/small dips/no dips in the light curve.
(c) Exoplanets that orbit slowly produce narrow dips/wide dips/no dips in the light curve.
(d) Exoplanets that orbit quickly produce narrow dips/wide dips/no dips in the light curve.

18
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Post-Activity Assessment

Activity 2
Answer the following questions to check your understanding of the transit method for detecting exoplanets.
1. The diagram on the right Star
represents an exoplanet that is
transiting across a large star. Exoplanet
Each black circle represents the (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)
position of the exoplanet at a
certain time as it passes across
the star, moving from left to right.
Beginning at (a) and ending at
(i), sketch the light curve that you
expect to be produced by this
transit.
% Brightness 100

99

Time (h)

2. Below are two models of light curves caused by two individual exoplanets, A and B, transiting across a
single star.
A B
% Brightness

% Brightness

100 100

99 99

Time (h) Time (h)

(a) What can you conclude about the size of each exoplanet? Explain your reasoning.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) How do the speeds of the two exoplanets compare? Explain your reasoning.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Extension: What are you wondering about?

3. When you think about exoplanets, what do you still wonder about? In the space below, record a question
that you have after completing this activity. For example, scientists have long wondered, “Could there
be life on any of the exoplanets?” Use this question or create your own. Then, either in class or at home,
research online by reading an article you find interesting, watching a video, or both. Then, at the beginning
of your next class, share informally with others what you learned by answering your question.
My Question:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

19
 Figuring Outer Space

Activity 3: Take a Tour of the Milky Way

Lesson Plan
Activity 3

Introduction 3. Give each student a copy of the activity.

In this activity, students will explore our home galaxy,
the Milky Way. In addition to learning about some of the
Milky Way’s key features, students will discover Earth’s
location within it and find out how they can see part of
the Milky Way in the night sky.
Suggested Time: 70 minutes
Purpose
• To introduce the idea that a galaxy is a group of
millions of stars
• To introduce key features of the Milky Way galaxy
• To communicate our solar system’s location within
the Milky Way
4. Hand out a set of Milky Way Information Cards to
each group and have students complete Part 1.
5. When the class reaches Step 6, show them the image
of the Milky Way in Appendix D. You can either show
them a printed picture or display the image using a
data projector or a document camera.
6. Have students do Part 2.
7. Have students complete the Post-Activity
Assessment.
Teacher Tips
• It is helpful if each group has a large working surface for
making their models. Move desks together if necessary.
A sample Milky Way model is shown in Figure 1.

P R I O R K N OW L E D G E & S K I L L S
• During Part 2, you may wish to show students a
side view of the Milky Way (Figure 3) to help them
If needed, review group-work skills and guidelines
visualize it from a different perspective.
with your class (see page 5).

Materials
• Milky Way Information Cards (1 set per group)
• Image of the Milky Way Galaxy (1 copy per group; see
Appendix D; optional)
• craft materials for students to use to build models
of the Milky Way, such as cotton wool, sticks, string,
paper, cardboard, chenille stems, straws, and small balls
• scissors
• glue (optional) Figure 1 Exemplar Milky Way model

• tape
Teacher Instructions
1. For each group of three students, prepare a set of
Milky Way Information Cards by cutting along the
solid lines to make nine slips of paper.
INQUIRY TIP
Allow students time to examine the materials
available for model construction. Then, encourage
students to make several sketches of potential
models to discuss as a group before agreeing on
one to use to guide construction.

2. Briefly explain to students that they will be making

a model of the Milky Way.

20
 Figuring Outer Space

Extension
D I F F E R E N T I AT E D S U P P O R T
To Assist: To help students learn science terms, If time permits, have students label the key features of
their galaxy model and add a scale to it.

Activity 3
have them use drawing software, create an
Instagram post, or develop a Twitter hashtag that
gives a synonym, phrase, or photo describing or
illustrating a science term from the activity. List key
terms on the board for labelling the galaxy model:
bulge, disk, curved arms, bar, Sun, Earth, black hole.

Teacher Background
What is a galaxy?
A galaxy is a group of millions or billions of stars held
together by the attractive pull of gravity. Scientists
estimate that the universe contains around two trillion
galaxies. They vary greatly in size, ranging from a few
thousand light years wide up to hundreds of thousands
of light years. (One light year is equal to the distance
that light travels in a year, or approximately 9.4 trillion
kilometres.) Galaxies come in different shapes, as well:
spiral, elliptical, and irregular.

What is the Milky Way galaxy like?

Earth lies within our home galaxy, the Milky Way. The
Milky Way is a spiral galaxy of 200 billion stars that is
around 100 000 light years wide. Figure 2 and Figure 3
show the Milky Way from two different perspectives.
The Milky Way’s main features include
• a flat disk of stars that is 100 000 light years wide
• four spiral-shaped “arms” of stars that extend Figure 2 Earth, along with the rest of the solar system, lies within
the Milky Way galaxy. This artistic rendering of the Milky Way
outward from the centre and make up the bulk of viewed face-on clearly shows its spiral shape.
the disk
• a roughly ball-shaped concentration of stars called
the bulge that lies at the centre that is approximately
20 000 light years wide
• a large amount of hydrogen gas that is spread
throughout
• a rectangular bar of stars located near the centre Credit: COBE Project, DIRBE, NASA
• a black hole four million times heavier than the Sun Figure 3 A side view of the Milky Way
situated near the centre

21
 Figuring Outer Space

Can I see the Milky Way at night?

Every single star that you see in the night sky is part
of the Milky Way. At any given moment at night, you
can see a portion of the Milky Way, but never all of
Activity 3

it at once. The amount of detail you can see depends

on how clear the observing conditions are and how
powerful your viewing device is. (You can see more
detail with a telescope than with the unaided eye,
for example.)
Due to Earth’s motion, astronomers have observed
different parts of the Milky Way over time and have
pieced together what the entire galaxy looks like.
This is like taking a series of photographs of your
neighbourhood and piecing them together to make
a complete picture.
At certain times of the year, you can see the Milky
Way’s centre, where the bulge and central black hole
are located. The brightest part of the stripe of stars
shown in Figure 4 is the Milky Way’s centre.

What’s cutting edge about the Milky Way?

Recently, astronomers observing the Milky Way’s
centre discovered the existence of a vast black
hole with a mass equal to four million Suns in its
vicinity. They called it Sagittarius A* (pronounced
“Sagittarius A Star”) and have been studying it
closely ever since. Figure 4 The diagonal stripe in this night sky is part of the Milky
Way’s disk, viewed from side on
Today, astronomers are using a global network
of radio telescopes called the Event Horizon
Telescope (EHT) to try to take a detailed
photograph of the region just beyond the edge
of Sagittarius A*. Such an image would be the
first ever close-up photo of a black hole. It may
revolutionize our understanding of black holes,
gravity, and even the formation of entire galaxies.

Find Out More ►

To learn more about the Milky Way galaxy and other
galaxies before facilitating this activity, you may wish
to visit the following websites:
Hyperphysics: Milky Way Galaxy
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Astro/galax.
html
National Geographic: Galaxies: Cosmic Collections
http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/
universe/galaxies-article/

22
 Figuring Outer Space

Student Activity
Milky Way Information Cards

Activity 3
Cut out cards A through I along the solid lines.

A. The Sun lies halfway between the centre of the Milky Way galaxy and its edge.

Sun
1
2

Centre of galaxy 1 Edge of galaxy

B. The Milky Way galaxy contains roughly 200 billion stars.

200 billion

C. The Milky Way has a roughly ball-shaped concentration of stars (called a bulge) at its centre. Its width is
one fifth the width of the entire galaxy.
Bulge

1
5

Edge of galaxy 1 Edge of galaxy

D. Astronomers have discovered a large black hole at the centre of the Milky Way.

23
 Figuring Outer Space

E. The Milky Way contains a flat pancake-shaped disk of stars. Its centre lines up with the centre of the
Milky Way. The disk extends across the entire galaxy, and most of its stars are located within four
curved “arms” (see picture below) that extend outward from the centre.
Activity 3

F. In addition to stars, the Milky Way also consists of hydrogen gas and dust, which are spread throughout.

G. The Milky Way’s disk has a rectangular “bar” of stars at its centre.

H. The Milky Way is brightest in the centre and gradually gets dimmer toward its edge.

Centre Edge

BRIGHTER DIMMER

I. Neighbouring stars within the Milky Way are actually very far apart. For example, even travelling at the
speed of light, it would take you four years to reach the nearest star to the Sun.

4 light years

Sun Nearest star

24
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Student Activity

Activity 3
Take a Tour of the Milky Way

Science Background
A galaxy is a group of many millions of stars held together by the pull of gravity. The Sun is one of many
stars in your home galaxy, the Milky Way galaxy, a collection of 200 billion stars.

Part 1: What does the Milky Way galaxy look like?

1. Form a group of three.
2. Your teacher will give a set of information cards to your group. Distribute them among group members so
that each person has three cards.
3. Take turns presenting what you have learned to the rest of your group.
4. Use the information on the information cards to make a model of the Milky Way galaxy out of the materials
your teacher provides. Make sure your model represents all of the information.
5. Once your teacher gives you permission, walk around the room and compare other models to yours. In the
table below, list the features of the other models that are the same as and different from your model. Have
one person from your group stay back with your model to answer any questions that other groups have.
Similarities Differences

6. How does your model compare with the image of the Milky Way made by professional astronomers that
your teacher has shown you?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

25
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Summarize Your Learning

Activity 3

Draw a diagram of the Milky Way galaxy. Label its key features.

26
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Part 2: Which part of the Milky Way can I see at night?

Activity 3
1. Figure 1 is a photo of the night sky. The diagonal
stripe that goes from A to B is a part of the Milky
Way galaxy that you can see from Earth. Draw a
line along the stripe in the photo.

2. Draw an “X” on a small scrap of paper. Place it in your

Milky Way model at the spot where Earth is located.

3. Which part of the Milky Way listed below is closest to

Earth? Circle your answer.
   disk  bulge  outer edge

4. To help you understand which part of the Milky Way

you can see in the night sky, Figure 2 shows two
different photos of the same city. Why are they so
different when they are both photos of the same city?
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
5. Use your answer to question 4 and your model to
explain which part of the Milky Way we see in the Figure 1 The Milky Way

night sky from Earth.

________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
6. Use your answer to question 5 to explain which part of
the Milky Way you are seeing in the stripe in Figure 1.
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

Summarize Your Learning

Which part(s) of the Milky Way can you see from Earth?
What perspective do you see them from?
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________ Figure 2 Two different photos of the same city

27
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Post-Activity Assessment
Activity 3

Answer the following questions to check your understanding of concepts relating to the Milky Way.
1. Galaxy M88, like the Milky Way, is a spiral galaxy.
Figure 3 shows Galaxy M88 seen from an angle.
Label all of its key features.
2. Consider the diagonal stripe of stars in Figure 4.
What part of the stripe is brightest? Which part of
the Milky Way do you think this is? Hint: Which
part of the Milky Way has the highest concentration
of stars?
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________ Credit: Adam Block/Mount Lemmon SkyCenter/University of Arizona

Figure 3 Spiral galaxy M88 seen from an angle

_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________

3. All of the pictures you see showing the entire Milky

Way are artists’ renderings, not photographs. Why
can’t scientists photograph the entire Milky Way
galaxy?
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________

Extension: What are you wondering

about?
4. When you think about the Milky Way, what do you
still wonder about? In the space below, record a
question that you have after completing this activity.
Figure 4 The Milky Way
For example, scientists have long wondered, “How
do galaxies form?” Use this question or create your own. Then, either in class or at home, research
online by reading an article you find interesting, watching a video, or both. Then, at the beginning of
your next class, share informally with others what you learned by answering your question.
My Question:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

28

Activity 4: The History of the Universe
Lesson Plan
Introduction
This activity introduces students to current theories
about the evolution of our universe, from the Big Bang
to today. In Part 1, students engage with a series of
descriptions and images of important events in the
evolution of the universe, sorting them according to
their chronology. In Part 2, students use role-playing
to dramatize the evolution of the universe.
Purpose
• To introduce students to important events in the
evolution of the universe
• To develop an understanding of how the universe has
changed over time.
P R I O R K N OW L E D G E & S K I L L S
If needed, review group-work skills and guidelines
with your class (see page 5).
Materials
• video about the history of the universe (optional),
such as A Brief History of the Universe: Crash Course
Astronomy #44 (12 minutes); or A Brief History of
Everything, feat. Neil deGrasse Tyson (8 minutes)
• Universe Timeline Information Cards (1 copy per
group; see Appendix E)
• props for Part 2, such as party hats, costume jewellery,
and flashlights
Teacher Instructions
1. Cut out one set of Universe Timeline Information
Cards for each group of four or five students.
2. You may wish to use one of the videos listed in the
Materials to introduce the topic of the history of the
universe. Alternatively, you may wish to design a
short introductory lesson and present it to your class.
3. Introduce Part 1 of the activity, The Universe
Timeline. Form students into groups of four or five.
Give one set of Universe Timeline Information Cards
to each group, and have students complete Part 1.
Figuring Outer Space
Activity 4
4. Introduce students to Part 2 of the activity, Universe
Timeline Play. Students take on the role of electrons,
quarks, and photons to simulate how the universe
evolved until the early light of the universe began to
travel freely through space. Group sizes may vary but
each should include at least seven or eight students
to enable them to portray the particles involved.
Provide students with props they can use to help
clarify concepts in their play. Consider using the 21st
Century Skills Activity Rubric to assess students’
productions. (Pass the rubric out to students as they
begin the activity if you choose to do this.)
5. Have students complete the Summarize Your
Learning questions for Part 2.
Earth to Space Connections
Scientists used experimental evidence to help form
their understanding of the Big Bang. Have students
describe some of the technologies scientists
used to help determine the Big Bang occurred.
(the spectroscope to measure red-shifting due
to expansion; radio telescope to detect the first
Cosmic Microwave Background—CMB—radiation,
and the Planck satellite to image the CMB)
Teacher Tips
• This activity may be the first introduction to scientific
notation for some students. Consider a brief explanation
of large numbers (1032) and small numbers (10−32) by
writing out the full number on the front board, and
explain the need for scientific notation in science.
• For best results, use high-quality colour copies of
the Universe Timeline Information Cards. Consider
printing them on card stock and laminating them, or
store them in clear, protective sleeves.
• Consider placing the images in a digital presentation
and having the students sort the slides.
• If you give your students black and white photocopies
of the Universe Timeline Information Cards, you may
wish to show your class a colour image of the Early
Light of the Universe card. This will let them clearly
see the colours that represent different temperatures.
29
 Figuring Outer Space

D I F F E R E N T I AT E D S U P P O R T
To Communicate: For Part 2 of this activity,
consider having students use alternative ways
Activity 4
Extension
Challenge students to create a model of the history of
the universe. Provide a 13.8 m long piece of string to

to communicate the knowledge gained from
Part 1. For example, students could construct a
mind map, use online learning materials to make
flashcards, write a poem or story, or develop a
stop-motion animation of the Big Bang.
represent the age of the universe (13.8 billion years), and
have students place the Universe Timeline Information
Cards along the string at appropriate places according to
when the events they describe happened. Have students
state the scale of their model and have them research
key events in the history of our planet and our Sun and
show where they fit along their timeline.

Teacher Background
How did the universe begin?
The Big Bang model describes our current scientific
understanding of the early universe. It says that
13.8 billion years ago the universe began in a tiny volume
of space much smaller than a grain of sand. This tiny
volume was filled with an extremely hot and dense
concentration of energy at temperatures of at least
one hundred million trillion trillion Kelvins, or 1032 K.
For reasons that are not well understood, the universe
underwent a rapid expansion, or inflation. During
inflation, the universe doubled in size 86 times during a
tiny fraction of a second. At this time, the first subatomic
particles, such as electrons and quarks, were produced.
These particles would later combine to form all the
matter we see in the universe today. Figure 1 summarizes
important events in the history of the universe.

Time

The Big Bang Cosmic Microwave First stars appear, Evolution of

Background, 100 million years galaxies Today, 13.8 billion
380 000 years after the Big Bang continues years after the
after the Big Bang a Big Bang

Stars are First galaxies Formation of the solar

forming appear, 1 billion years system, 9 billion years
after the Big Bang after the Big Bang

Figure 1 How today’s universe was formed, according to the Big Bang model

30

How did the universe evolve?
After inflation, the universe continued to expand and
cool, but much more slowly. One microsecond (one
millionth of a second) after the Big Bang, it had cooled
to 10 trillion Kelvins, allowing quarks to combine to
form protons and neutrons. After about 3 minutes, the
universe had expanded and cooled to about 1 billion
Kelvins. This allowed for the protons and neutrons to
form the first hydrogen and helium nuclei. At this point,
the universe was like a dense fog, with light bouncing
off the nuclei in all directions and unable to escape
into space.
It took almost 380 000 years after the Big Bang for the
universe to expand and cool enough for the electrons to
combine with protons and neutrons. This resulted in the
formation of the first simple atoms, such as hydrogen,
helium, and some lithium. Not only did the creation of
these atoms provide the future building blocks for the
formation of stars, it also allowed the early light of the
universe to escape out into space for the first time and
travel freely.
Today, we see evidence of this early light in the
form of very faint microwaves that permeate all
of space and are visible through careful telescopic
observations. This early light is called the Cosmic
Microwave Background radiation or CMB,
represented in Figure 2. The different colours
correspond to regions of space at slightly different
temperatures. Blue represents cooler areas, while red
and orange represent warmer ones.
Credit: ESA and the Planck Collaboration
Figure 2 The Cosmic Microwave Background radiation, 380 000
years after the Big Bang. Red and orange regions have slightly
higher temperatures than blue regions.
Figuring Outer Space
These temperature fluctuations are associated with
slight changes in density. The denser regions (in blue)
acted as “seeds” that, over time, grew into the galaxies
and galaxy clusters we see today.
Activity 4
Further expansion and cooling of the universe allowed
gases to clump together to form the first stars. Crucial
to this process was the presence of a mysterious,
invisible substance called dark matter, whose gravity
attracted gases and facilitated the clumping.
These first stars then formed the first early galaxies. The
subsequent death of these first stars released heavier
elements like carbon, oxygen, and iron into the galaxies,
which allowed the next generation of stars to form out
of more diverse gases and also provided the material for
the formation of planetary systems. It wasn’t until about
9 billion years after the Big Bang that our own solar
system formed.
What’s cutting edge about the expanding
universe?
Although the universe continues to expand to this
day as a result of the Big Bang, recent evidence
indicates that the universe is actually accelerating
in its expansion. Scientists believe that a new
form of energy associated with empty space—
called dark energy—is acting to increase the rate
of expansion. As more space is created by the
expansion of space, more dark energy is produced.
The result is a universe that continues to expand
ever faster, suggesting that one day, far in the
future, the universe will become a cold and dark
place with no new stars or galaxies able to form.
Find Out More ►
To learn more about the Big Bang and the evolution of
the universe before facilitating this activity, you may
wish to visit the following websites:
Our Expanding Universe: Age, History & Other Facts
http://www.space.com/52-the-expanding-universe-from-
the-big-bang-to-today.html
The Universe: Big Bang to Now in 10 Easy Steps
http://www.space.com/13320-big-bang-universe-10-
steps-explainer.html
31
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Student Activity
Activity 4

The History of the Universe

Part 1: The Universe Timeline

1. Form a group of four or five. Assign each person a different letter: A, B, C, D (and E for groups of five).
2. Randomly distribute the ten Information Cards so that each member of your group has at least two of
the cards (some may have three cards). Individually, read your cards and identify the key ideas about
those events in the evolution of the universe. Be prepared to discuss these key ideas within your group.
3. Beginning with person A, take turns showing the picture to the group and explaining the event in your
own words. Do not read directly from the Information Card. Rotate through the group until all of the
Information Cards have been presented.
4. Working collaboratively, analyze the Information Cards and place them in the correct order to make a
universe timeline.
5. To check your understanding, compare your timeline with another group’s. Resolve any differences.

Summarize Your Learning

Examine the information on your universe timeline. In order from earliest to latest, complete Table 1 on the
next page by identifying key events in the evolution of the universe and describing one key characteristic of
each event. As an example, the first entry is completed for you.

Part 2: Universe Timeline Play

1. Dramatize the evolution of the universe. Your teacher will divide the class into appropriate group sizes.
Members of your group are to represent the following particles: quarks, electrons and light particles
(photons). In your group, plan and practise a short play to represent the universe from the Big Bang until
the stage when early light is released into the universe. Be creative! You may wish to …
• use props
• include narration
• add music
2. Present your play to the class.

Summarize Your Learning

1. What part(s) of the evolution of the universe did the plays help clarify and why?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Compare the summary you created in Part 1 with your play. How was each of these formats useful in
understanding how the universe began and how it is evolving? Compare the strengths and weaknesses
of these formats.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

32
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Table 1

Activity 4
Event Time Brief Description of Event
After the Big Bang
The Big Bang 0s A tremendous amount of energy in a very small volume begins to expand.

33
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Post-Activity Assessment
Activity 4

Answer the following questions to check your understanding of the history of the universe.
1. In the space below or on a separate sheet of paper, create an infographic that outlines the universe’s
history from the Big Bang to the formation of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB).

2. In the space below or on a separate sheet of paper, describe the “life” of an electron in the early universe
before the CMB.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

Extension: What are you wondering about?

3. When you think about the history of the universe, what do you still wonder about? In the space below,
record a question that you have after completing this activity. For example, scientists have long
wondered, “Will the universe come to an end?” Use this question or create your own. Then, either in
class or at home, research online by reading an article you find interesting, watching a video, or both.
Then, at the beginning of your next class, share informally with others what you learned by answering
your question.
My Question:
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

34

Activity 5: Crab Nebula Expansion
Lesson Plan
Introduction
In this activity4, students determine the age of a
supernova remnant using the same images and
techniques used by astronomers. Students will examine
two photographs of the Crab Nebula, taken more than
40 years apart, on which the movements of several
knots of gas are tracked. By measuring the change in
position of these knots over this time, and by measuring
the distance that they have moved since the explosion,
students will be able to calculate approximately when
the supernova that created the nebula was observed
here on Earth. This is actually what astronomers did in
the mid-1900s, leading to the realization that a “new
star” seen in 1054 C.E. was the start of the Crab Nebula.
Suggested Time: 50–60 minutes
Purpose
• To use ratio and proportion in a real-world application
• To use mathematics to show how scientists determine
the age of celestial objects
P R I O R K N OW L E D G E & S K I L L S
• Students will need to be able to accurately
measure distances in centimetres with a ruler.
• Students will need to be able to use a scale to
convert distances on a diagram to astronomical
distances in kilometres (Summarize Your Learning).
• If needed, review group-work skills and
guidelines with your class (see page 5).
Materials
• video (optional): Crab Nebula: 50 Years of Expansion
(2 minutes)
• video (optional): The Crab Nebula (3 minutes)
• class set of rulers
4. This activity was inspired by and adapted from a NASA
activity that appeared in Supernovae Educator Guide
(NASA Education and Public Research Group, Sonoma State
University, CA) http://xmm.sonoma.edu/edu/supernova/
snguide5.pdf#page=17.
Figuring Outer Space
Activity 5
• calculators
• images of the Crab Nebula from 1956 and 1999 (see
Appendix F)
Teacher Instructions
1. Before making copies in preparation for the activity,
decide which version of the activity you will do
with your class. There are two versions: Sheet 1 and
Sheet 2. Sheet 1 provides more scaffolding and is
more suitable for applied-level classes; Sheet 2 is
geared more towards academic-level classes. (See
Teacher Tips.)
2. On the day of the activity, introduce the idea of a
supernova remnant nebula, using the information
provided in Teacher Background. You may wish to
show the first video listed in Materials, Crab Nebula:
50 Years of Expansion, to introduce students to the
Crab Nebula.
3. Break the class into groups of two or three and
distribute rulers and student activity sheets.
4. Have students look at the images from 1956 and 1999.
Explain that these two pictures (taken with the same
scale) show the outward movement of 10 knots of
gas. Explain that by measuring the outward distance
of a particular knot in 1956 and then again in 1999,
they will be able to calculate the rate of movement of
each knot (in centimetres per year). They will then
be able to determine the number of years that have
elapsed since the supernova explosion that created
the Crab Nebula.
5. Explain that some of the knots will be hard to
measure and that for an accurate estimate of the age
of the nebula, they will need to be very precise and
accurate in making their measurements.
6. When students have completed the activity and have
determined a year for the supernova that created
the Crab Nebula, you may wish to show the second
video listed in Materials, The Crab Nebula. This video
reveals the year of the supernova as well as some of
its history, a description of the pulsar at its centre,
and tips on how to find it at night with binoculars.
7. Have students complete the Post-Activity Assessment.
35
 Figuring Outer Space

Teacher Tips • Each group member should perform the

measurements and calculations for at least two
• Be sure to print the two different images of the of the knots. This way, all group members will
Crab Nebula (Appendix F) at the same scale and on have a chance to be involved at every step of the
Activity 5

separate pieces of paper. The answers provided on activity.

page 53 are based on the Crab Nebula images being
printed at actual size (100%). Note: If they are printed
at another size, the activity will still work, as long as
the size is the same for both images, but the measured
lengths will be different from those in the Answers
section.
• Two versions of the student activity sheet are
provided. Sheet 1, suitable for applied-level classes,
provides the formulas needed for each of the
calculations and has students draw a line from the
pulsar to each knot when measuring. The advantage
of this is that students will have an actual line to
measure and will have a visual representation of
expansion in each image. The disadvantage is that
it will require accuracy in drawing the lines. Sheet 2
provides less scaffolding and has the students come
up with the calculations on their own, so it is more
suitable for academic-level classes. The Post-Activity
Assessment can be used with both versions.
• Consider making overheads of the images so you can
show how the 1999 image is an expanded version of
the 1956 image by overlaying the images on a data
projector or under a document camera. This will help
students visualize the expansion of the nebula.
• Measuring accurately and precisely is key to getting
good results. As the nebula expands, some of the
knots change shape. It may be easiest for the student
measuring to identify a feature of each knot and
measure to that part of the knot in both images. They
may need an explanation of how to measure to the
nearest half millimetre. Consider demonstrating
under a document camera, if one is available.
• Student accuracy in estimating the year of the
supernova can be improved by using only the
longest measurements so that the percent error
in measurement is decreased. You may wish
to have your students decide which knots to
use in their final estimation of the year of the
supernova.
D I F F E R E N T I AT E D S U P P O R T
To Engage: Consider grouping students so that
each group includes students with a range of
abilities. This will ensure that each group has at
least one student who can assist other group
members if necessary. Other students may prefer
to work independently.
Extension
The Crab Nebula measures about 11 light years
along its longest axis. Have students determine
the scale for the 1999 diagram as 1 cm = ___ light
years by measuring the 1999 nebula’s length.
(Students will need to know that a light year is
the distance that light travels in one year.) Have
students determine the rate of expansion of the
nebula in light years per year using one of their
calculations from Table 1. Given that one light year
is about 9.4 × 1012 km, have students rewrite their
previous calculation in kilometres per year and
then in kilometres per second. (This may require a
discussion about scientific notation.)

INQUIRY TIP
When helping students to determine the
calculations to perform, it may prove useful
to provide analogies that will make sense to
students. For example, “If I travelled 60 km on my
snowmobile and I am travelling at about 20 km/h,
how long have I been travelling? How can you use
your answer to that question to help with these
calculations?”

36
 Figuring Outer Space

Teacher Background
What’s cutting edge about examining the Crab
What is the Crab Nebula and when was it formed? Nebula expansion?

Activity 5
When a massive star has reached the end of its Scientists have used this method to calculate
life, the star may explode in an event known as a the rate of expansion of the Crab Nebula using
supernova. When this occurs, an enormous amount images generated by the Very Large Array (VLA)
of energy is rapidly released, some of which propels observatory. Their calculations indicate that
the outer layers of the star in all directions. The the year of the supernova that created the Crab
clouds of gas released form long filaments and Nebula was 1245 ± 92, which is significantly later
smaller clumps called knots that can be observed for than the actual year of 1054. Your calculations
many years. A series of photographs in time would will likely produce a result in a similar range. This
show these knots moving out from the centre of “inaccuracy” in the mathematics suggests that the
the star as it explodes. What remains at the centre rate of expansion is accelerating, which raises new
of the star is either a black hole or a super-dense questions and new opportunities for research.
pulsar (a spinning neutron star), and it, too, remains
observable many years after the explosion.
The knots and filaments moving rapidly outward are
known as the supernova remnant or nebula. The
Crab Nebula is the highly visible remnant of a famous
supernova that occurred centuries ago. Because it is
relatively bright, it is easily photographed. Over the
years, photographs have shown what appears to be the
slow expansion of this particular nebula as the knots and
filaments of gas move away from the pulsar that remains
at its centre. In reality, the Crab Nebula is expanding
at an incredible rate, but the vast distance between
Earth and the Crab Nebula makes the Crab Nebula’s
expansion appear slow. A view of the Crab Nebula, taken
by the Hubble Space Telescope, is shown in Figure 1.

A new star?
In approximately 1054 C.E., what seemed to be a new star
appeared in the night sky, glowing brightly for over three
weeks. It was reported by Chinese, Japanese, and Arab
astronomers. About 700 years later, English astronomer
John Bevis and later French astronomer Charles Messier
Figure 1 The Crab Nebula
saw a bright cloud of gas in space in the same location as
reported by those earlier astronomers. The Crab Nebula
was given its name in 1844 by another astronomer, William Find Out More ►
Parsons, who made a drawing of it that looked like a crab. To learn more about the Crab Nebula before facilitating
It was not until the mid-1900s that astronomers learned this activity, you may wish to visit the following
that the Crab Nebula was the remnant of the supernova websites:
seen so many centuries earlier. Accurate measurements HUBBLE Space Telescope: Powerful Processes at
of the expansion of the Crab Nebula became possible in Work—The Crab Nebula as Never Seen Before
the mid-1900s with newer, more powerful telescopes. http://www.spacetelescope.org/news/heic1614/
Astronomers used these new telescopes to make
calculations similar to what students will do in this SPACE.com: The Crab Nebula (M1): Facts, Discovery &
activity to estimate the year that the expansion of the Images
Crab Nebula began. http://www.space.com/16989-crab-nebula-m1.html

37
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Student Activity—Sheet 1
Activity 5

Crab Nebula Expansion

Science Background
Your teacher has given you two images of the Crab Nebula. The first was taken on February 11, 1956, and
the second was taken on November 10, 1999. The images are negative images—bright objects appear dark
and dark objects appear bright. The scale of the pictures is the same, so you should notice that the image
from 1999 appears larger than the image from 1956. This is due to the expansion of the nebula that has
taken place over the years. Notice that 10 individual knots in the cloud of gas and the pulsar that lies at the
centre of the explosion are marked.

Measure
1. On the 1956 image, draw a line from the centre of the pulsar to the centre of knot 1. (Knot 1 is labelled with a
pair of vertical dashes and is at the centre of those dashes.) Measure the distance from the pulsar to knot 1.
Record this measurement in column 2 of Table 1. Important: Record your answer in centimetres, accurate
to the nearest half millimetre. For example, record a reading between 3.6 cm and 3.7 cm as 3.65 cm.
2. Repeat Step 1 for knot 1 in the 1999 image. Record this measurement in column 3 of Table 1.
3. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 for knots 2 through 10, each time measuring the pulsar-to-knot distance on the 1956
image and then the corresponding pulsar-to-knot distance on the 1999 image.

Calculate
4. Calculate how far each knot has moved in the images from 1956 to 1999, and record your result in column 4
of Table 1.
Change in position = Distance from pulsar in 1999 − Distance from pulsar in 1956
5. The first image was taken on February 11, 1956, and the second was taken on November 10, 1999.
Calculate the number of years between the two images, accurate to two decimal places.
Time between photos =
 _____ years ____ months
= _________ years
Next, for each knot, calculate the rate at which the nebula is expanding (in centimetres per year), accurate to
five decimal places. Record your result in column 5.
 cm  Change in position (cm) d
Rate of expansion  = or v=
 year  Time between photos (years) t

6. Now that we know how fast each knot is moving in the images, calculate how many years it took each knot
to travel from the pulsar to its place in the 1999 image. Round your answer to the nearest year. Record your
result in column 6.
Distance from pulsar in 1999 (cm) d
Elapsed time from explosion to 1999 (years) = or t=
 cm  v
Rate of expansion  
 year 

7. Based on your calculations, each knot will give an estimated year for the supernova explosion that created the
Crab Nebula. Determine this estimate for each knot and record it in column 7, accurate to the nearest year.
Estimated year of supernova = 1999 − Elapsed time since explosion
8. To come up with a best estimate for the year of the explosion, find the average of the years in column 7.

38
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Table 1

Activity 5
Column 2 3 4 5 6 7
Knot # Distance from Distance from Change in Rate of Elapsed Time Estimated Year
Pulsar in 1956 Pulsar in 1999 Position of Knot Expansion of from Explosion of Supernova
(cm) (cm) (cm) Knot to 1999 (years)
(cm/year)
 1

 2

 3

 4

 5

 6

 7

 8

 9

10

Average

Summarize Your Learning

It is generally believed that the supernova was seen on Earth in 1054 C.E. It was so bright that it was visible
during the day for 23 days afterwards and with the naked eye at night for almost two years afterwards.
1. What reasons could there be for the difference between the date you estimated and the actual date of the
supernova sighting?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. How could we do a better job of estimating?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. The Crab Nebula is so far away that the light from the supernova took about 6500 years to reach Earth.
Approximately what year on Earth did the supernova really take place?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

39
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Student Activity—Sheet 2
Activity 5

Crab Nebula Expansion

Science Background
Your teacher has provided you with two images of the Crab Nebula. The first was taken on February 11, 1956,
and the second was taken on November 10, 1999. The images are negative images—bright objects appear
dark and dark objects appear bright. The scale of the pictures is the same, so you should notice that the
image from 1999 appears larger than the image from 1956. This is due to the expansion of the nebula that has
taken place over the years. Notice that 10 individual knots in the cloud of gas and the pulsar that lies at the
centre of the explosion are marked.

Measure
1. On the 1956 image, measure the distance from the pulsar to knot 1. Record this measurement in column 2 of
Table 1. Important: Record your answer in centimetres, accurate to the nearest half millimetre. For example,
record a reading between 3.6 cm and 3.7 cm as 3.65 cm.
2. Repeat Step 1 for knot 1 in the 1999 image. Record this measurement in column 3 of Table 1.
3. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 for knots 2 through 10, each time measuring the pulsar-to-knot distance on the 1956
image and then the corresponding pulsar-to-knot distance on the 1999 image.

Calculate
4. Calculate how far each knot has moved in the images from 1956 to 1999, and record your result in column 4
of Table 1.
Change in position = Distance from pulsar in 1999 − Distance from pulsar in 1956
5. The first image was taken on February 11, 1956, and the second was taken on November 10, 1999.
Calculate the number of years between the two images, accurate to two decimal places.
Time between photos =
 _____ years ____ months

= _________ years
Next, for each knot, calculate the rate at which the nebula is expanding (in centimetres per year), accurate to
five decimal places. Record your result in column 5.
 cm  Change in position (cm) d
Rate of expansion  = or v=
 year  Time between photos (years) t

6. Now that we know how fast each knot is moving in the images, calculate how many years it took each knot
to travel from the pulsar to its place in the 1999 image. Round your answer to the nearest year. Record your
result in column 6.
7. Based on your calculations, each knot will give an estimated year for the supernova explosion that created
the Crab Nebula. Determine this estimate for each knot and record it in column 7, accurate to the nearest
year.
8. To come up with a best estimate for the year of the explosion, find the average of the years in column 7.

40
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Table 1

Activity 5
Column 2 3 4 5 6 7
Knot # Distance from Distance from Change in Rate of Elapsed Time Estimated Year
Pulsar in 1956 Pulsar in 1999 Position of Knot Expansion of from Explosion of Supernova
(cm) (cm) (cm) Knot to 1999 (years)
(cm/year)
 1

 2

 3

 4

 5

 6

 7

 8

 9

10

Average

Summarize Your Learning

It is generally believed that the supernova was seen on Earth in 1054 C.E. It was so bright that it was visible
during the day for 23 days afterwards and with the naked eye at night for almost two years afterwards.
1. What reasons could there be for the difference between the date you estimated and the actual date of the
supernova sighting?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. How could we do a better job of estimating?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. The Crab Nebula is so far away that the light from the supernova took about 6500 years to reach Earth.
Approximately what year on Earth did the supernova really take place?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

41
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Post-Activity Assessment
Activity 5

Answer the following questions to check your understanding of concepts and skills related to calculating the
age of the Crab Nebula, including measurement, ratio and proportion, and elapsed time.
1. Two images of a distant nebula show that a knot of gas has moved by 2.4 cm in 6.4 years. On the images,
20 cm represents a distance of 150 million (150 000 000) km. How fast was the knot actually moving in

(a) kilometres per year?  _______________

(b) kilometres per hour?  _______________

2. Moreton waves are types of shock waves seen on the Sun. (They look like rings in the images below.)
They are caused by violent solar events, such as solar flares, and travel at high speeds and across vast
distances. A solar flare on July 9, 1996, caused a Moreton wave to travel across the Sun’s surface, as
shown below. Each picture is equivalent to 200 million metres on a side. The difference in time between
the images is 1 hour.

100 100

50 50
Million metres

Million metres

0 0

–50 –50

–100 –100
–100 –50 0 50 100 –100 –50 0 50 100
Million metres     Million metres
Credit: ESA/NASA

What was the speed of the wave in

(a) metres per hour?  _______________

(b) kilometres per hour?  _______________

(c) kilometres per second?  _______________

42

Activity 6: The Search for Exoplanets
Lesson Plan
Introduction
In this activity, students will mathematically model the dip
in light received from a star when an exoplanet transits—
crosses in front of the star. They will then graph the data
they produce and see the characteristic U-shaped graph
that scientists look for that indicates the possible presence
of an exoplanet. For a more qualitative exoplanet activity,
refer to Activity 2: How to Find an Exoplanet.
Suggested Time: 50–60 minutes
Purpose
• To explore the mathematics behind the characteristic
exoplanet detection light-difference graph
• To substitute into and evaluate algebraic expressions
involving exponents
• To manipulate expressions arising from applications
of percent and proportion to a real-world situation
• To construct a table of values and graph using a curve
of best fit
P R I O R K N OW L E D G E & S K I L L S
• Students will need to know how to calculate the
area of a circle, how to calculate percents, and
how to graph from a table of values.
• When graphing, they will need to know how to
scale the axes appropriately.
• If needed, review group-work skills and
guidelines with your class (see page 5).
Materials
• foolscap (if using Sheet 2)
• class set of compasses and rulers (if using Sheet 2)
• calculators
Teacher Instructions
1. Before making copies of student activity sheets in
preparation for the activity, decide which version
of the activity you will use with your class. There
are two versions: Sheet 1 and Sheet 2. Sheet 1
provides more scaffolding and is more suitable for
Figuring Outer Space
Activity 6
applied-level classes; Sheet 2 is geared more toward
academic-level classes. (See Teacher Tips.)
2. On the day of the activity, and using the information
provided in Teacher Background, discuss exoplanets
and the transit method for detecting them.
Alternatively, use one of the videos listed in the
Materials of Activity 2: How to Find an Exoplanet or
in Find Out More on the next page.
3. Break the class into groups of two or three. Distribute
student activity sheets (Sheet 1 or Sheet 2).
4. Circulate among the groups as they work through the
activity, troubleshooting where necessary.
5. Have students complete the Post-Activity Assessment.
SAFETY ALERT
Compasses are sharp—if you are having students
construct their own diagrams, remind them to be
careful when transporting and using them.
Teacher Tips
• As noted, two versions of the student activity sheet
are provided. Sheet 1, suitable for applied-level
classes, provides the line and circle drawing that
simulates the exoplanet transit. Sheet 2 has students
draw the diagram themselves, and is more suitable for
academic-level classes.
• If you show a video before the activity, cover any
graphs the video displays so that students don’t
know what their graph should look like.
• In the Summarize Your Learning section, some
students may need help figuring out how to enter
values into their calculators.
INQUIRY TIP
To simplify the calculations, we are assuming that
the exoplanet in positions 2 and 6 is “half on, half
off” the star. (This is a reasonable approximation
for a real transit, because the star is so much
larger than the planet.)
43
 Figuring Outer Space

D I F F E R E N T I AT E D S U P P O R T
To Assist: In the Calculate section of the activity,
there is an opportunity for teacher–student
Activity 6
Extension
At the end of the activity, show the NASA video linked
in Find Out More below. Have students predict what

conversations that will allow at-risk students and the graphs for different planet sizes might look like and
ELL students to explain their thinking orally. what the graph for multiple planets might look like.

Teacher Background
What is an exoplanet?
An exoplanet is a planet that orbits any star except our
Sun. Since they are outside our solar system and are
small and dark in relation to the stars that they orbit,
exoplanets are difficult to see and their presence must
be detected using indirect methods. Some exoplanets
orbit their stars so closely that the surface temperature
of the exoplanet is blisteringly hot, while the orbits
of other exoplanets are so large that their surface
temperatures are inhospitably cold.
Figure 1 An exoplanet transiting a star
Why do we want to find exoplanets?
We are looking for exoplanets so that we can test our
current theories of how planets form and what the
universe is made up of, but also to look for indications What’s cutting edge about the transit method?
of life outside our solar system. In searching for
Due to recent technological advances, photometry
exoplanets that can support life, scientists are looking
is the most effective and sensitive method of
for a so-called Goldilocks exoplanet—one in the
finding exoplanets. Because there is a direct
habitable zone, where temperatures are neither too
relationship between the light dip and the size
hot nor too cold to support life and where liquid
ratio of the two objects, this method allows
water may be present. By finding such exoplanets, we
astronomers to accurately estimate the size of the
can focus our search for signs of extraterrestrial life in
exoplanet when the size of the star is known.
in the vast universe.

How do we find exoplanets?

Find Out More ►
There are several methods of finding exoplanets, but
we will be concentrating on the transit method in To learn more about exoplanets before facilitating this
this activity. The transit method involves scientists activity, you may wish to visit the following websites:
observing an area of the sky many light years away for NASA’s 5 Ways to Find a Planet—Searching for
prolonged periods of time and looking for dips in the Shadows: Transit
light received from the stars there. They then check to https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/interactable/11/
see if the dip in light received repeats regularly. What
the dip in light received suggests is that a celestial Sara Seager’s Perimeter Institute talk on exoplanets
body has crossed between the observer and the star, https://www.perimeterinstitute.ca/videos/exoplanets-
and what the regular repetition of this phenomenon and-search-habitable-worlds-0
suggests is that the body is orbiting the star, like the
exoplanet shown in Figure 1. Due to recent advances
in telescopes and instruments, the transit method has
detected and confirmed the existence of thousands of
exoplanets.

44
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Student Activity—Sheet 1

Activity 6
The Search for Exoplanets

Science Background
An exoplanet is a planet that orbits a star in the way that Earth orbits the Sun. When scientists look for exoplanets,
they set their telescopes on a small piece of sky for a very long time and look for small changes in the amount of light
that is received from stars that they are tracking. When an exoplanet moves across the face of the star, the light that
the telescope receives dims slightly. (When an exoplanet crosses in front of a star, we say that it has transited the star.)
In this activity, you will simulate an exoplanet transiting a star. By performing some calculations, you will be able to
graph the data and see the characteristic dip in light intensity that helps scientists find exoplanets.

Label
1. Examine Figure 1. This diagram represents an exoplanet moving across the star. Label the larger circle
“star.” Label each of the smaller circles with the numbers 0 through 8, in order from left to right.

Figure 1 The larger circle represents a star. The smaller circles represent the movement of an
exoplanet as it transits a star.

Calculate
2. Suppose that the radius of the star is 6 cm and the radius of the exoplanet is 3 cm. Calculate the area of the
star and the area of the exoplanet. Be sure to include the correct units.
Area of star: _______________  Area of exoplanet: _______________  Units: _______________
3. In position 0, what percent of the star’s light is blocked by the exoplanet? _______________
In position 0, what percent of the star’s light is being received by the telescope? _______________
What other position(s) will result in the same amount of light being received by the telescope?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. In position 4, what percent of the star’s light is blocked by the exoplanet? _______________
In position 4, what percent of the star’s light is being received by the telescope? _______________
What other position(s) will result in the same amount of light being received by the telescope?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

45
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

5. In position 2, assume that exactly half of the exoplanet is blocking the star.
Activity 6

(a) Given this assumption, in position 2, what percent of the star’s light is blocked by the exoplanet?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) In position 2, what percent of the star’s light is being received by the telescope?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
(c) What other position(s) will result in the same amount of light being received by the telescope?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Summarize Your Learning

1. Fill in the table of values. In the first column, write the position number for the exoplanet (0 through 8) and
in the second column, write the percent of the star’s light that is received by a viewing telescope. Give the
table a title and label the columns appropriately.
2. Graph the data from your table of values. Label both sets of axes and give the graph a title.

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30
  

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8

46
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

3. In this activity, the radius of the exoplanet is half the radius of the star. (The area of the exoplanet is
one-quarter the area of the star.) Typically, however, an exoplanet is tiny compared to its star.

Activity 6
(a) If the exoplanet is much smaller than the star, how will the amount of light blocked be different
than in our activity?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) How will the percent of light received by a viewing telescope be different?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
(c) How would your graph be different if the exoplanet were tiny compared to the star?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Post-Activity Assessment
Answer the following questions to check your understanding of modelling the transit method two-dimensionally.
1. Exoplanets are very small compared with the size of the star that they orbit. If the radius of the star is known
and the percent light drop is known, the radius of the exoplanet can be calculated.

% drop × R 2
To calculate the radius of the exoplanet, scientists use the formula r = where R is the radius
100
of the star and r is the radius of the exoplanet. In our activity, R = 6 cm. If an exoplanet transits the star and
the percent drop of light received is 1%, calculate r, the radius of the exoplanet in centimetres.

2. Recall that in our activity, the star had a radius of 6 cm.

(a) If the percent drop of light received is 0.5%, calculate the radius of the exoplanet in centimetres.

(b) If 1 cm represents 100 000 km, what is the real radius of the exoplanet?

3. The star Kepler-452 has a radius of about 386 000 km. When its exoplanet, Kepler-452b, transits the star,
the percent drop in light intensity is 0.06%. Calculate the radius of exoplanet Kepler-452b in kilometres.

47
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Student Activity—Sheet 2
Activity 6

The Search for Exoplanets

Science Background
An exoplanet is a planet that orbits a star in the way that Earth orbits the Sun. When scientists look for
exoplanets, they set their telescopes on a small piece of sky for a very long time and look for small changes
in the amount of light that is received from stars that they are tracking. When an exoplanet moves across the
face of the star, the light that the telescope receives dims slightly. When an exoplanet crosses in front of a
star, we say that it has transited the star.
In this activity, you will simulate an exoplanet transiting a star. By performing some calculations, you will be
able to graph the data and see the characteristic dip in light intensity that helps scientists find exoplanets.

Draw
1. On the large piece of paper your teacher provides, draw a line segment that is 30 cm long with the line
centred across the length of the paper. At the midpoint of the line segment, construct a circle of radius
6 cm. This is the “star.”
2. At the centre of the star, construct a circle of radius 3 cm. This is the “exoplanet” in the middle position,
which we will call position 4.
3. Every 3 cm along the line on each side of the centre of the star, construct a circle of radius 3 cm so that
there are four circles on each side of the circle at position 4. These circles represent eight more positions
for the exoplanet. Label all nine smaller circles with the position numbers 0 to 8.

Calculate
4. Knowing the radius of the larger circle and the radius of the smaller circles, calculate the area of the star
and the area of the exoplanet, each accurate to 1 decimal place.

Area of star: _______________ Area of exoplanet: _______________ Units: _______________

5. In position 0, what percent of the star’s light is blocked by the exoplanet?________________________________

In position 0, what percent of the star’s light is being received by the telescope?__________________________

What other position(s) will result in the same percent of light being received by the telescope?______________

6. In position 4, what percent of the star’s light is received by the telescope?________________________________

What other position(s) will have the same percent of light being received by the telescope?_________________

7. In position 2, let us assume that the exoplanet is half over the star and half not.

In position 2, what percent of the star’s light is being received by the telescope?__________________________

What other position(s) will result in the same amount of light being received by the telescope?______________

Summarize Your Learning

1. Fill in the table of values on the next page. In the first column, write the position number for the exoplanet
(0 through 8) and in the second column, write the percent of the star’s light that is received by a viewing
telescope. Give the table a title and label the columns appropriately.

48
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

2. Graph the data from your table of values. Label both sets of axes and give the graph a title.

Activity 6
100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30
  

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8

3. In this activity, the radius of the exoplanet is half the radius of the star. (The area of the exoplanet is
one-quarter the area of the star.) Typically, however, an exoplanet is tiny compared to its star.
(a) If the exoplanet is much smaller than the star, how will the amount of light blocked be different
than in our activity?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) How will the percent of light received by a viewing telescope be different?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
(c) How would your graph be different if the exoplanet were tiny compared to the star?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

49
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Post-Activity Assessment
Activity 6

Answer the following questions to check your understanding of modelling the transit method two-dimensionally.
1. Exoplanets are very small compared with the star that they orbit. If the radius of the star is known and
the percent light drop is known, the radius of the exoplanet can be calculated.
r2
To calculate the radius of the exoplanet, scientists use the formula % drop = — × 100 where R is the
R2
radius of the star and r is the radius of the exoplanet.
In our activity, the star has a radius of 6 cm. If an exoplanet transits the star and the percent drop in light
intensity is 1%, what is the radius of the exoplanet in centimetres?

2. Recall that in the activity, the star has a radius of 6 cm.

(a) If the percent drop in light intensity is 0.5%, calculate the radius of the exoplanet in centimetres.

(b) If 1 cm represents 100 000 km, what is the real radius of the exoplanet?

3. The star Kepler-452 has a radius of about 386 000 km. When its exoplanet, Kepler-452b, transits the star,
the percent drop in light intensity is 0.06%. Calculate the radius of exoplanet Kepler-452b in kilometres.

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 Figuring Outer Space

Answers

Answers
Activity 1: The Evolution of Stars 7. (a) Student predictions will vary, but should show a difference
in the two curves.
Part 1 (b) Sample results:
Slow Exoplanet Fast Exoplanet
Summarize Your Learning
100 100
1. Refer to Appendix B.

% Brightness

% Brightness
2. The cycle is split because average stars and massive stars have
different death outcomes.
3. (a) stars; (b) hydrogen; (c) red giant; (d) white dwarf;
(e) neutron star or black hole Time (s) Time (s)

Part 2 (c) Sample answer: A faster exoplanet spends less time

transiting the star than a slower exoplanet. The brightness of
Summarize Your Learning the star will therefore be reduced for less time for the faster
1. mass of star exoplanet, resulting in a narrower dip in brightness.
2. (a) Students should place the Tester Cards within white dwarf,
Summarize Your Learning
neutron star, or black hole groups based on their mass as
follows: 1. Answers will vary. Students should see a good match between
• white dwarf: Arcturus, Vega the real data and the data they produced in their simulations.
• neutron star: Antares, Betelgeuse, Supernova 1994D? Specifically, they should have observed that the larger model
• black hole: Supernova 1994D? exoplanet produced a larger dip in the light curve than the
(b) Students will likely note that a mass was not available for smaller exoplanet, and that the slower transit produced a wider
Supernova 1994D. Because the star is a supernova, students dip in the light curve than the faster transit.
should realize that the death outcome will be either a neutron 2. (a) large dips; (b) small dips; (c) wide dips; (d) narrow dips
star or a black hole, but that further information is needed to
determine which. Post-Activity Assessment
3. (a) its mass is between 1 MSUN and 9.5 MSUN 1. Sample sketch:
(b) its mass is between 12.6 MSUN and 24 MSUN (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)
(c) its mass is between 28 MSUN and 40 MSUN
% Brightness

Post-Activity Assessment 100

1. Star 1 = NS; Star 2 = WD; Star 3 = WD; Star 4 = BH;
99
Star 5 = BH; Star 6 = NS (WD = White Dwarf, NS = Neutron
Star, BH = Black Hole)
2. Based on their summary in Part 2, students know that white Time (h)
dwarfs result from stars with a mass range from 1 MSUN to 2. (a) The size of each exoplanet is the same because the dip in
9.5 MSUN, neutron stars from 12.6 MS to 24 MS, and black holes brightness is identical for A and B.
from 28 MSUN to 40 MSUN.
(b) Exoplanet B moves faster than Exoplanet A because the
time period for the dip in the light curve is shorter for B than
Activity 2: How to Find an Exoplanet for A.
6. (a) Student predictions will vary, but should show a difference
in the two curves. Activity 3: Take a Tour of the Milky Way
(b) Sample results:
Large Exoplanet Small Exoplanet
Part 1
100 100 5. Answers will vary. Students can compare features such as
size, scale, use of colour, materials used, and method of
% Brightness

% Brightness

construction.
6. Answers will vary. Students may discuss how the disk, arms,
bulge, bar, and black hole are depicted in the professional
Time (s) Time (s) illustration and in their own models.
(c) Sample answer: A larger exoplanet covers a larger area
of the star than a smaller exoplanet, and therefore the larger
planet’s transit blocks more light and results in a deeper dip in
brightness.

51
 Figuring Outer Space

Summarize Your Learning Post-Activity Assessment

Students’ diagrams should show the spiral shape of the galaxy 1.
with disk, bulge, arms, bar, black hole, and location of our solar
system correctly labelled, for example:
Answers

Black Disk
hole

Spiral
arms Bulge

2. central bulge
Part 2 3. We can’t photograph the entire Milky Way because we live
1. Students should draw the stripe as shown below. inside the Milky Way and can’t get outside of it.

Activity 4: The History of the Universe

Part 1
Summarize Your Learning
Answers may vary; sample answer:
Event Time Brief Description of Event
After the Big Bang
The Big Bang 0s A tremendous amount of
energy in a very small volume
began to expand.
Inflation Less than a second Inflation caused the universe
to expand very rapidly.
Forming Protons 1 second Quarks were produced,
and Neutrons which smashed together to
form protons and neutrons.
A “Soup” of 3 minutes Protons and neutrons
Charged Particles combined to form the first
hydrogen and helium nuclei.
Forming the First 380 000 years Electrons slowed down
Atoms enough to be “captured” by
2. Students should place the “X” next to the Sun and halfway out nuclei, producing the first
from their model’s centre. hydrogen and helium atoms.
Early Light of the 380 000 years The early light of the universe
3. disk Universe escaped into space.
4. The images are different because they were taken from First Stars are Born 100 million years The first stars formed in giant
different perspectives. One was taken from inside the city gas clouds called nebulas.
while the other was taken from above. Formation of Early 100 to 250 million Stars combined to form the
Galaxies; Formation years first galaxies of the universe.
5. We see the disk from the side, so it looks like a straight line
of Planets*
from Earth.
Formation of 100 to 250 million Exploding stars produced
6. The stripe in the photo is roughly a straight line and is part of Planets years* heavy elements that seeded
the Milky Way’s disk viewed from the side. the formation of planets.
Galaxy Clusters 1 billion years Galaxies gravitationally
Summarize Your Learning attracted each other, forming
galaxy clusters.
Disk (and sometimes the bulge); we see the disk from the side
* Students will need to infer this time interval since it is not on the card. The
formation of early planets likely occurred at the same time as the formation of
early galaxies.

Part 2
Summarize Your Learning
1. Answers will vary; students should support their answers with
examples from their plays
2. Answers will vary; students’ answers should include strengths
and weaknesses for each format

52
 Figuring Outer Space

Post-Activity Assessment Activity 6: The Search for Exoplanets

1. Students’ infographics will vary but should show clearly and
creatively the key events in the formation of the universe up to Sheet 1: Calculate
the formation of the CMB. 2. 113.1; 28.27; cm2

Answers
2. Answers will vary; sample answer: Fast-moving electrons were 3. 0%; 100%; 1, 7, 8
created individually in the very early universe and then, 3 4. 25%; 75%; 3, 5
minutes after the Big Bang, continued to move freely, and then
5. 12.5%; 87.5%; 6
380 000 years after the Big Bang, combined with protons and
neutrons to form the first atoms. Sheet 2: Calculate
4. 113.1; 28.27; cm2
Activity 5: Crab Nebula Expansion 5. 0%; 100%; 1, 7, 8
6. 25%; 75%; 3, 5
Table 1
7. 12.5%; 87.5%; 6
Knot # Distance Distance Change in Rate of Elapsed Estimated
from from Position of Expansion Time from Year of
Pulsar in Pulsar in Knot of Knot Explosion to Supernova Sheets 1 & 2
1956 (cm) 1999 (cm) (cm) (cm/year) 1999 (years)

 1 6.25 6.50 0.25 0.005 71 1138  861

Summarize Your Learning
 2 4.45 4.60 0.15 0.003 43 1341  658 1. Sample table:
 3 2.50 2.60 0.10 0.002 29 1135  864 Exoplanet Position % Brightness
 4 4.60 4.80 0.20 0.004 57 1050  949 0 100.0
1 100.0
 5 3.35 3.55 0.20 0.004 57  777 1222
2 87.5
 6 1.60 1.75 0.15 0.003 43  510 1489
3 75.0
 7 4.00 4.25 0.25 0.005 71  744 1255
4 75.0
 8 4.20 4.35 0.15 0.003 43 1268  731 5 75.0
 9 6.65 6.95 0.30 0.006 86 1013  986 6 87.5
10 4.85 5.15 0.30 0.006 86  751 1248 7 100.0
Average 1026 8 100.0

Sheets 1 & 2 2. Students’ graphs should accurately represent the data on their
table. The y-axis should be labelled “% Brightness” or similar.
Summarize Your Learning The x-axis should be labelled “Exoplanet position.” The title
1. Answers will vary; sample answer: Measurement error. Using should be “Percent Brightness vs. Exoplanet Position” or
measurements that may have small errors in calculations similar.
increases the uncertainty. Individual knots are difficult to
Post-Activity Assessment
accurately locate in both images. Image scale could be slightly
different in the pictures. The expansion may not be occurring 1. 0.6 cm
at a linear rate. 2. (a) about 0.42 cm; (b) about 4200 km
2. Answers will vary; sample answer: Use clear, sharp images, the 3. about 9500 km
larger the better. The greater the number of years between
images, the greater the accuracy. Use a more accurate
measuring device. Track the movement of more knots of gas.
3. about 5446 B.C.E.

Post-Activity Assessment
1. (a) about 2.8 million km/year; (b) about 321 km/h
2. Answers may vary according to measurement accuracy.
(a) 21 000 000 m/h; (b) 21 000 km/h; (c) 5.8 m/s

53
 Figuring Outer Space

Appendix A: Stellar Life Cycle Stages

Appendices

STELLAR NEBULA
A STELLAR NEBULA is
the birthplace of stars.
These giant gas clouds in
space are mostly hydrogen
gas. Gravity clumps the
hydrogen atoms together.
Once enough gas has been
collected, the gravitational
force becomes so strong
that hydrogen atoms fuse
into helium through nuclear
fusion, releasing energy in
the process. A star is born.
Stars come in various sizes
and colours, depending
on the initial amount of
hydrogen gas collected.

Credit: NASA, ESA, the Hubble

Heritage Team (STScI/AURA),
A. Nota (ESA/STScI), and the
Westerlund 2 Science Team

AVERAGE STAR
An AVERAGE STAR, such as
the Sun, is in a constant tug-
of-war between forces that
allow it to remain stable. The
energy released by nuclear
fusion creates an outward
force. However, gravity
counteracts this outward
force by applying its own
inward force, keeping
everything in balance.

Credit: NASA/Kepler Mission/Dana

Berry

54
 Figuring Outer Space

Appendices
RED GIANT
As an average star begins
to run out of fuel, it will
expand to become a RED
GIANT. The pressure inside
causes the star to swell
to enormous proportions,
typically hundreds of times
larger than the original star.
When the Sun becomes
a red giant in about 5 to 6
billion years, it will expand
enough to approximately
reach Earth’s orbit.

Credit: NASA/KASC

PLANETARY
NEBULA
Later in its lifetime, a red
giant becomes unstable and
disintegrates. The internal
nuclear pressure will blow
off much of the outside
layers of the star into space.
Gravity will still confine a
solid core, left over in the
centre. The gas that has
been blown off is called a
PLANETARY NEBULA.

Credit: C.R. O’Dell, (Vanderbilt) et al.

ESA, NOAO, NASA

55
Appendices Figuring Outer Space

WHITE DWARF
The leftover core of a red
giant is called a WHITE
DWARF. White dwarfs have
a mass close to the mass of
the Sun, but packed into the
volume of Earth, therefore
making them very dense.
After a lifetime of fusing
hydrogen to make heavier
elements, white dwarfs are
mostly composed of carbon
and oxygen. A white dwarf
will continue to produce light
for many billions of years as
it cools.

Credit: NASA, ESA, and G. Bacon

(STScI)

MASSIVE STAR
MASSIVE STARS can form
from a stellar nebula and
are much larger than the
Sun. Compared to average
stars, massive stars burn
their hydrogen fuel much
more quickly, making them
hotter and bluish in colour,
and giving them shorter
lifespans.

Credit: NASA’s Goddard Space

Flight Center/S. Wiessinger

56
 Figuring Outer Space

Appendices
RED SUPERGIANT
When a massive star
begins to run out of fuel, it
will grow to an enormous
volume and become a
RED SUPERGIANT. Red
supergiants are some of
the largest stars known.
Because of their initial
masses, they are able to
build up and store heavier
elements in their cores, such
as magnesium, titanium, and
iron.

Credit: NASA/SDO

SUPERNOVA
After the red supergiant
stage of a massive star,
the star will end its life in
a violent explosion called
a SUPERNOVA (shown in
the lower right corner of the
image). Layers of heavier
elements stacked upon
each other at the core of the
star collapse due to gravity
since they are no longer
supported by outward
nuclear pressure. As the
elements fall down onto
each other, they rebound
out from the core, producing
an enormous explosion of
matter, light, and energy.

Credit: High-Z Supernova Search

Team, HST, NASA

57
Appendices Figuring Outer Space

NEUTRON STAR
A NEUTRON STAR is a what
remains after a massive star
has become a supernova.
Gravity is so incredibly
strong that it makes the
electrons combine with the
protons in each atom to
create neutrons. Neutron
stars spin incredibly quickly,
have enormous magnetic
fields, and are some of
the densest objects in the
universe. The radius of
a typical neutron star is
only 10 km. A smartphone
with the same density as
a neutron star would have
a mass of approximately
10 billion tonnes!

Credit: ESA/ATG medialab

BLACK HOLE
If a red supergiant is
massive enough following
the supernova explosion,
what remains will become
gravitationally crushed,
warping space and time to
the point where nothing,
not even light, can escape
its gravity. The leftover
matter will collapse into
a singularity with infinite
density, leaving a void
in space. This is called a
BLACK HOLE.

Credit: NASA/ESA and G. Bacon

(STScI)

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 Figuring Outer Space

Appendix B: Stellar Life Cycle Summary

Appendices
Activity 1

59
 Figuring Outer Space

Appendix C: Stellar Data Cards

Appendices

Activity 1 (Set 1: Star Cards)

SIRIUS A CANIS MAJOR SUN SOLAR SYSTEM

Sirius A Sun

Credit: NASA, ESA, and G. Bacon Credit: NASA/SDO

(STScI)

Name: Sirius A Name: Sun

Object: Star O bject: Star
Mass: 2.02 MSUN Mass: 1.0 MSUN
Temperature: 9670°C T emperature: 5500°C
Colour: Blue Colour: Yellow
Death Outcome: White Dwarf Death Outcome: White Dwarf

THETA ORIONIS C ORION ALNITAK ORION

Credit: NASA/ESA and L. Ricci Credit: Digitized Sky Survey,

(ESO) ESA/ESO/NASA FITS Liberator

Name: Theta Orionis Name: Alnitak

C O bject: Star
Object: Star Mass: 33 MSUN
Mass: 40 MSUN Theta Orionis C T emperature: 28 000°C Alnitak
Temperature: 40 000°C Colour: Blue
Colour: Blue Death Outcome: Black Hole
Death Outcome: Black Hole

60

ALNILAM
Credit: Digitized Sky Survey,
ESA/ESO/NASA FITS Liberator
Name: Alnilam
Object: Star
Mass: 24 MSUN
Temperature: 27 000°C
Colour: Blue
Death Outcome: Neutron Star
RIGEL
Credit: Rogelio Bernal Andreo/
Creative Commons
Name: Rigel
Object: Star
Mass: 21 MSUN
Temperature: 11 800°C
Colour: Blue
Death Outcome: Neutron Star
Figuring Outer Space
Appendices
ORION MINTAKA ORION
Credit: Digitized Sky Survey,
ESA/ESO/NASA FITS Liberator
Name: Mintaka
O bject: Star
Mass: 20 MSUN
T emperature: 29 000°C Mintaka
Alnilam
Colour: Blue
Death Outcome: Neutron Star
ORION ADHARA CANIS MAJOR
Credit: David Darling
Name: Adhara Adhara
O bject: Star
Mass: 12.6 MSUN
T emperature: 22 000°C
Rigel Colour: Blue
Death Outcome: Neutron Star
61
Appendices Figuring Outer Space

SHAULA SCORPIUS THUSIA LUPUS

Shaula

Credit: Akira Fujii/Creative Credit: NASA and ESA

Commons

Thusia
Name: Shaula Name: Thusia
Object: Star O bject: Star
Mass: 10.4 MSUN Mass: 9.5 MSUN
Temperature: 24 700°C T emperature: 21 000°C
Colour: Blue Colour: Blue
Death Outcome: Neutron Star Death Outcome: White Dwarf

PROCYON CANIS MINOR POLARIS URSA MINOR

Procyon
ORION
Betelgeuse

Credit: Akira Fujii/Creative Credit: NASA, ESA, G. Bacon Polaris

Sirius
Commons (STScI)
CANIS MAJOR
Name: Procyon Name: Polaris
Object: Star O bject: Star
Mass: 1.42 MSUN Mass: 4.5 MSUN
Temperature: 6260°C T emperature: 5745°C
Colour: Yellow Colour: Yellow
Death Outcome: White Dwarf Death Outcome: White Dwarf

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 Figuring Outer Space

Appendices
BELLATRIX ORION MEISSA ORION

Meissa

Credit: Rogelio Bernal Andreo/ Credit: Rogelio Bernal Andreo/

Creative Commons Bellatrix Creative Commons

Name: Bellatrix Name: Meissa

Object: Star O bject: Star
Mass: 8.4 MSUN Mass: 28 MSUN
Temperature: 22 000°C T emperature: 35 000°C
Colour: Blue Colour: Blue
Death Outcome: White Dwarf Death Outcome: Black Hole

63
 Figuring Outer Space

Appendix C: Stellar Data Cards

Appendices

Activity 1 (Set 2: Tester Cards)

BETELGEUSE ORION VEGA CYGNUS

Betelgeuse
Lyra

Credit: Rogelio Bernal Andreo/ Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ Vega

Creative Commons University of Arizona

Name: Betelgeuse Name: Vega

Object: Red O bject: Star
Supergiant Mass: 2.1 MSUN
Mass: 20 MSUN T emperature: 9330°C
Temperature: 3230°C Colour: Yellow
Colour: Red Death Outcome: ?
Death Outcome: ?

ARCTURUS BOOTES ANTARES SCORPIUS

Antares

Credit: DSS2/MAST/STScI/NASA Credit: Akira Fujii/Creative

Commons

Name: Arcturus Name: Antares

Arcturus
Object: Red Giant O bject: Red
Mass: 1.08 MSUN Supergiant
Temperature: 4000°C Mass: 12.4 MSUN
Colour: Orange T emperature: 3100°C
Death Outcome: ? Colour: Yellow
Death Outcome: ?

64
 Figuring Outer Space

Appendices
SUPERNOVA 1994D VIRGO
Supernova 1994D

Credit: NASA, ESA, The Hubble

Key Project Team, and The High-Z
Supernova Search Team

Name: Supernova
1994D
Object: Supernova
Mass: N/A
Temperature: N/A
Colour: N/A
Death Outcome: ?

65
 Figuring Outer Space

Appendix D: Take a Tour of the Milky Way

Appendices

Activity 3

The Milky Way Galaxy

Credit: Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech

66

Appendix E: The History of the Universe
Activity 4
Universe Timeline Information Cards
THE BIG BANG
The Big Bang is a widely used model within the
scientific community that describes the beginning of
the universe. The model states that approximately
13.8 billion years ago the universe began as a
tremendous amount of energy packed into a very
small volume of space. This tiny volume was also
extremely hot. The tiny volume then began to expand
in size, marking the beginning of the universe.
Figuring Outer Space
Appendices
INFLATION
For reasons not well understood, the universe
doubled in size many times, during a timespan less
than a second after the Big Bang. This event is
known as inflation. Although it was still extremely
hot, the universe began to cool as it expanded.
67
 Figuring Outer Space

FORMING PROTONS AND NEUTRONS A “SOUP” OF CHARGED PARTICLES

As the universe expanded and cooled during About 3 minutes after inflation, the universe still
Appendices

inflation, energy was converted into matter. This continued to expand but at a slower rate. As the
resulted in the production of very fast-moving universe further expanded, collisions between
particles, such as electrons and quarks, along with protons and neutrons produced mostly hydrogen
particles of light called photons. About 1 second and helium nuclei. It was still too hot for fast-
after the Big Bang, quarks smashed together to moving electrons to combine with the nuclei to
produce the first protons and neutrons of the early produce simple atoms. The photons (particles of
universe. light) produced by the Big Bang bounced off these
charged particles, keeping the light trapped within
the “soup” of charged particles, as shown by the
dashed lines.
= Quark

e = Electron N = Neutron
P = Proton = Photon

e e
e
P e
e e e
P e
e e e
P
Neutron Pe P PN e
e e P
e e
e
NP P e P e
NP e e e

P PN Pe
e
P
e e e e
e e
e e e
e
P
e e e e
P e
P
e e e
Pe e e
e
P P e
e

P
e
e e e e
P e e P e

P
e e e
P P
Collision e N
e e
P e e
e
e
P
e e e e
e e
N N e e
e e
PN
e
P e
Pe
e
e e e e
P P
e e
P e e
e
NP e
e

Pe e
e
e e e e e e e e
P e e e P e

Proton

FORMING THE FIRST ATOMS EARLY LIGHT OF THE UNIVERSE

About 380 000 years after the Big Bang, the
universe became cool enough that electrons could
combine with hydrogen and helium nuclei to form
simple atoms. The formation of these atoms then
allowed photons—particles of light—to finally
escape into space.
e = Electron
P = Proton
This is an image of light from the early universe,
known as the Cosmic Microwave Background
radiation (CMB), released about 380 000 years
after the Big Bang. The different colours indicate
the very small differences in temperature of the
early universe. The blue (darker) areas are regions
of space that are cool. The orange and red areas
(lighter) are warmer in comparison. The cooler areas
N = Neutron allowed atoms to clump together, forming the first
= Photon stars, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies.

e
P e
e e
e e e
P e P P
e
e
P
e
e
e P
e
P e
P
e
e e e
N N
e
e e P e
e
e
e
e
P
e e e

e P e
P e
e P
e N N e P
e e
P e
P
P P e
e

Credit: ESA and the Planck Collaboration

68

FIRST STARS ARE BORN
As the universe continued to expand and become
much cooler, gravity began to exert forces on the
hydrogen and helium atoms, causing them to clump
together. These clumps formed even larger clumps,
resulting in giant gas clouds called nebulas (see image).
The nebulas acted as “stellar nurseries,” where
the first stars of the universe were born, about
100 million years after the Big Bang.
FORMATION OF PLANETS
When the first stars exploded in supernovas in the
early galaxies, they expelled elements heavier than
hydrogen and helium into space, such as oxygen,
magnesium, and iron. These elements formed the
foundations of future planets and asteroids that
resulted in our own solar system, as well as the
planets orbiting other stars that we see today.
Figuring Outer Space
FORMATION OF EARLY GALAXIES
The gravitational attraction of the giant gas clouds
Appendices
continued to attract more gas, producing more
and more stars. These stars then formed the first
galaxies of the universe. Early galaxies developed
between 100 million and 250 million years after
the Big Bang. They contained millions of stars of
different colours and temperatures.
GALAXY CLUSTERS
About 1 billion years after the Big Bang, galaxies
began to form due to gravitational attraction. Some
groups formed very large clusters of thousands of
galaxies, like those shown in this image. Almost
every object you see in this image is a galaxy
containing millions or billions of stars.
Credit: ESA/Hubble
69
 Figuring Outer Space

Appendix F: Crab Nebula Images

Appendices

1956

Credit: © 1990-2002, Malin/Pasachoff/Caltech, photograph from Hale 5-metre plates by David Malin

70
 Figuring Outer Space

Appendices
1999

Credit: ESO

71
Figuring Outer Space
Assessment
Assessing 21st Century Skills
The following rubric highlights the key 21st-century skills to evaluate as students complete an activity. It is not
essential to evaluate all the skills at once. Rather, at certain points during an activity, you may choose to evaluate
one or more of the skills. You may evaluate a small sampling of students for one activity and other groupings of
students for subsequent activities.
21st Century Skills Activity Rubric5
Level 1
Collaboration - rarely provides
suggestions and ideas to
the group
- rarely listens to and
values the suggestions or
ideas of others
- rarely assumes shared
responsibility for the
completion of the activity
Critical Thinking - demonstrates limited
ability to reflect, analyze,
and evaluate during
completion of the activity
Communication - demonstrates
limited ability in
expressing thinking and
understanding using
various means: verbal,
written, pictorially
Creativity - demonstrates limited
self-direction and
exploratory learning using
the materials and physical
environment provided
- final product is not very
innovative, useful, or
satisfying to others
5. Adapted in part from Partnership for 21st Century Learning: Resources for Educators; http://www.p21.org/our-work/resources/for-
educators
72
Level 2
- sometimes provides
suggestions and ideas to
the group
- sometimes listens to and
values the suggestions or
ideas of others
- sometimes assumes
shared responsibility for
the completion of the
activity
- demonstrates some
ability to reflect, analyze,
and evaluate during
completion of the activity
- demonstrates some
ability in expressing
thinking and
understanding using
various means: verbal,
written, pictorially
- demonstrates some
self-direction and
exploratory learning using
the materials and physical
environment provided
- final product is
somewhat innovative,
useful, or satisfying to
others
Level 3
- usually provides
suggestions and ideas to
the group
- usually listens to and
values the suggestions or
ideas of others
- usually assumes shared
responsibility for the
completion of the activity
- demonstrates good
ability to reflect, analyze,
and evaluate during
completion of the activity
- demonstrates good
ability in expressing
thinking and
understanding using
various means: verbal,
written, pictorially
- demonstrates good
self-direction and
exploratory learning using
the materials and physical
environment provided
- final product is rather
innovative, useful, or
satisfying to others
Level 4
- always provides
suggestions and ideas to
the group
- always listens to and
values the suggestions or
ideas of others
- always assumes shared
responsibility for the
completion of the activity
- demonstrates advanced
ability to reflect, analyze,
and evaluate during
completion of the activity
- demonstrates
advanced ability in
expressing thinking and
understanding using
various means: verbal,
written, pictorially
- demonstrates advanced
self-direction and
exploratory learning using
the materials and physical
environment provided
- final product is very
innovative, useful, or
satisfying to others
 Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Self-Assessment
Scientific Investigation Skills

After completing an activity, read the following statements. For each statement, if applicable, write the rating
that best represents your contribution.
Rating Scale
1. Rarely  2. Sometimes  3. Usually  4. Often

Initiating and Planning

___ I formulated questions and hypotheses and then planned experiments to help answer them.
___ I made predictions. I tested predictions by determining relationships between variables in my activity.

Performing and Recording

___ I made observations.
___ I gathered, organized, and recorded information from my activity.

Analyzing and Interpreting

___ I analyzed the data or information from the activity.
___ I identified patterns and relationships to draw conclusions.

Communication
___ I was able to communicate with others my ideas, procedures, results, and conclusions.
___ I communicated verbally, in writing, and with labelled diagrams.

73
Figuring Outer Space

Name: __________________________________________ Date: ____________________________________________

Self-Assessment
Scientific Knowledge and Skills

After completing an activity, read the following statements. For each statement, if applicable, write the rating
that best represents your contribution.
Rating Scale
1. Limited  2. Some  3. Considerable  4. High Degree/Thorough

Knowledge and Understanding

___ I gained knowledge of information and definitions of new terms from the activity. I understand the
concepts and the process of science learned in the activity.

Thinking and Investigation

___ I identified the problem being investigated and asked questions to help study the problem.
___ I gathered, recorded, and analyzed data and was able to draw conclusions from the data.

Communication
___ I expressed myself verbally, in writing, and with labelled diagrams.
___ While communicating, I used scientific information and definitions learned from completing the activity.

Application
___ I applied my knowledge and understanding to familiar problems presented in the activity.
___ I transferred knowledge to unfamiliar situations presented in the activity.

74

Glossary
Average star: a star of intermediate mass
Big Bang: a scientific model that says that the universe
began 13.8 billion years ago as an incredibly small,
densely packed region of space
Black hole: a region of space in which gravity is so
intense that matter and light can never escape from it
Cosmic Microwave Background radiation: early
light of the universe that still exists today as very faint
microwaves present throughout all of space
Exoplanet: a planet that orbits a star other than our Sun
Galaxy: a group of millions or billions of stars, along
with gas and cosmic dust
Inflation: the rapid expansion of space shortly after the
Big Bang
Knot: a tight clump of gas that is part of the material
ejected from the outer layers of a massive star during a
supernova explosion at the end of the star’s life cycle
Light curve: a graphical display of the temporary dip in
brightness of a star caused by an exoplanet crossing in
front of its star
Light year: the distance light travels in 1 year, or
approximately 9.4 trillion kilometres
Massive star: a high mass star (with a mass greater
then 8 MSUN); hotter and has a shorter lifespan than
an average star
Nebula: a giant gas cloud in space made mostly of
hydrogen gas; plural nebulas or nebulae. See also
planetary nebula, stellar nebula, and supernova remnant.
Neutron star: a city-sized star that is made up of
densely packed neutrons, so tightly packed that just a
single teaspoon of neutron star weighs 10 billion tonnes
Nuclear fusion: a process that occurs in the core of
stars when lighter elements, such as hydrogen, fuse to
form helium, resulting in the release of energy in the
form of heat and light
Figuring Outer Space
Planet: an object that orbits our Sun that has enough
mass for its gravity to have formed it into a sphere; a
planet must be large enough to have cleared all of the
debris from its orbit—if it has not, it is known as a dwarf
planet (e.g., Pluto)
Planetary nebula: a cloud of gas in outer space that is
created when an average star dies in an explosion that
expels its outer layers into nearby space
Pulsar: a rapidly spinning neutron star
Red giant: the life cycle stage of an average star when
it begins to run out of fuel and swells to enormous
proportions, typically hundreds of times the size of
the original star
Red supergiant: the life cycle stage of a massive star
when it begins to run out of fuel and swells to an
enormous volume; heavier elements are formed in
its core
Spiral galaxy: a galaxy that contains spiral-shaped
patterns (called arms) of stars that extend outward
from its centre
Star: an object that is made up of mostly hydrogen gas
that produces heat and light through nuclear fusion
Stellar nebula: a cloud of gas in outer space that will
clump together over time to give birth to new stars
Supernova: when a massive star undergoes a
tremendous explosion that ends the life of the star,
leaving behind either a neutron star or a black hole;
plural supernovas or supernovae
Supernova remnant: a type of nebula; the knots and
filaments of gas that expand outward from the pulsar
after a star goes supernova
Transit: the movement of a planet across a star from
the perspective of an observer
Transit method: a method of exoplanet detection when
a scientist observes an exoplanet crossing the face of a
star, causing a temporary dip in brightness
White dwarf: the smoldering remnant of an average
star at the end of its life
75
Figuring Outer Space

Credits
Lead Authors and Educational Consultants Advisory Panel
Glenn Wagner (Science) Kevin Donkers
Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics Preston High School
Waterloo, Ontario Waterloo Region District School Board

Peter Gardiner (Math) Dave Fish

Galt Collegiate Institute Sir John A. Macdonald Secondary School
Waterloo Region District School Board Waterloo Region District School Board

Dr. Kelly Foyle

Lead Author and Science Advisor Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics
Dr. Damian Pope Waterloo, Ontario
Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics Lisa Lim-Cole, Consultant
Waterloo, Ontario Durham District School Board
Whitby, Ontario
Science Advisor Angela Robinson
Dr. Kelly Foyle Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics
Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics Waterloo, Ontario
Waterloo, Ontario
Marie Strickland
Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics
Project Manager and Field-Test Coordinator Waterloo, Ontario
Jill Bryant
David Vrolyk
Kingston, Ontario
Sir John A. Macdonald Secondary School
Waterloo Region District School Board
Developmental Editor
Tonia Williams
Sara Goodchild Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics
Toronto, Ontario Waterloo, Ontario

Copy Editor FNMI Reviewer

Julia Cochrane Dr. Gregory Wilson
Wolfville, Nova Scotia Six Nations Polytechnic
Brantford, Ontario
Designer
Tom W. Dart Differentiated Support Reviewer
Toronto, Ontario Vareia Boxill
Technovation Academy of Science and Techology
Toronto, Ontario
Associate Producer
Dr. Damian Pope
Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics Safety Reviewer
Waterloo, Ontario James Palcik
Flinn Scientific Canada Inc.
Hamilton, Ontario
Executive Producer
Greg Dick
Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics International Reviewers
Waterloo, Ontario Stuart Farmer
Robert Gordon College
Aberdeen, Scotland

Karen Jo Matsler
Physics Teacher Resource Agent Program
University of Texas at Arlington
Arlington, Texas, USA

76
Grade 9 Reviewers and Field Testers Connie Lam
Billeejean Abbey John Polanyi Collegiate Institute
Bill Crothers Secondary School Toronto District School Board
York Region District School Board Bill Lee
Melanie Austin Seneca College, King Campus
Elmira District Secondary School King City, Ontario
Waterloo Region District School Board Lori MacLeod
Dr. Miroslawa Bilaniuk Erindale Secondary School
St. Pius X High School Peel District School Board
Ottawa Catholic School Board Alison MacPherson
Daniel Blanchard Middlefield Collegiate Institute
Middlefield Collegiate Institute York Region District School Board
York Region District School Board Katie Nelson
Biljana Cavic David Suzuki Secondary School
The Linden School Peel District School Board
Toronto, Ontario Alasdair Paterson
Sean Clark White Oaks Secondary School
Sacred Heart Catholic High School Halton District School Board
Ottawa Catholic School Board Nathalie Rudner
Simon Comeau Vaughan Secondary School
Gloucester High School York Region District School Board
Ottawa-Carleton District School Board Matthew Saunders
Rick De Benedetti Kingston Collegiate and Vocational Institute
Streetsville Secondary School Limestone District School Board
Peel District School Board David Stocks
Jacqueline Decker, Math Curriculum Consultant Kingston Collegiate and Vocational Institute
Limestone District School Board Limestone District School Board
Kingston, Ontario Heather Theijsmeijer, Numeracy Coordinator (7–12)
Harminder Deol Rainbow District School Board
Northern Collegiate Institute and Vocational School Sudbury, Ontario
Lambton Kent District School Board Ada Tsui
Robin Dexter Middlefield Collegiate Institute
Beaver Brae Secondary School York Region District School Board
Keewatin Patricia District School Board Sonya VandenDool
Nathanael Eddy Martingrove Collegiate Institute
Lampman School Toronto District School Board
South East Cornerstone Public School Division #209 Robert Vesna
Saskatchewan Langstaff Secondary School
Anna Farquhar York Region District School Board
Michaëlle Jean Public School Alexandra Vorobej
Durham District School Board Glengarry District High School
Emil Gadjanski Upper Canada District School Board
Westdale Secondary School Andrew Wachner
Hamilton-Wentworth District School Board Centennial Secondary School
Alexis Howell Hastings and Prince Edward District School Board
Castlebrooke Secondary School Katherine Woodward
Peel District School Board Ashbury College
Daniel Kaiser Ottawa, Ontario
Redeemer Christian High School Victoria Wraight
Ottawa, Ontario Thomas A. Stewart Secondary School
Kawartha Pine Ridge District School Board
Copyright
Published by Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, 31 Caroline
Street North, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, N2L 2Y5. Copyright © 2017 by
Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics.
PERIMETER INSTITUTE is a trade-mark of Perimeter Institute, and is
used under licence.
All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright
herein, except for any reproducible pages included in this work, may be
reproduced, transcribed, or used in any form or by any means—graphic,
electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web
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written permission of Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics.
Photo Credits
Front cover left (chalkboard notes) Glenn Wagner; middle (woman
with telescope) Adobe Stock; right (Crab Nebula) Adam Block/Mount
Lemmon SkyCenter/University of Arizona; 3 top (Hubble’s Bright Shining
Lizard Star) ESA/Hubble and NASA; middle top (“Iceball” planet) NASA/
JPL-Caltech; 4, 20 Perimeter Institute; 21 COBE Project, DIRBE, NASA;
22, 27 Adobe Stock; 28 top Adam Block/Mount Lemmon SkyCenter/
University of Arizona; middle Adobe Stock; 37 NASA, ESA, J. Hester,
A. Loll (ASU); 42 ESA/NASA; 52 Adobe Stock; 67 right Adobe Stock;
69 top Adobe Stock; bottom right ESA/Hubble; 70 © 1990-2002, Malin/
Pasachoff/Caltech, photograph from Hale 5-metre plates by David Malin;
71 ESO

For permission to use material from this eModule or product, submit a Illustration Credits
request online to Perimeter Institute. 3 middle (Milky Way) courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech; middle bottom
(hypothetical planet around the binary star system of Kepler-35A and B)
The information and activities presented in this eModule have been NASA/JPL-Caltech; bottom (exoplanet transiting a star) NASA; 8 Allan
carefully edited and reviewed for accuracy and are intended for their Moon; 9 iStock, Adobe Stock, NASA, and Gabriela Secara; 14 Allan Moon;
instructional value. However, the Publisher makes no representation or 15 top adapted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd.: T. Barclay
warranties of any kind, nor are any representations implied with respect to et al, “A sub-Mercury-sized Exoplanet,” Nature, no. 494, 28 February 2013,
the material set forth herein, and the Publisher takes no responsibility with 452–454; middle reprinted by permission of the authors, from Vanderburg
respect to such material. The Publisher shall not be liable for any general, et al, “Five Planets Transiting a Ninth Magnitude Star,” https://arxiv.org/
special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, pdf/1606.08441.pdf; 16, 19 Allan Moon; 21 courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech;
from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material. 23, 24 Allan Moon; 30 iStock, Adobe Stock, NASA, and Gabriela Secara;
31 ESA and the Planck Collaboration; 44 NASA; 45 Allan Moon; 51 Allan
Moon; 52 top left Perimeter Institute; 54 top NASA, ESA, the Hubble
Acknowledgements Heritage Team (STScl-AURA), A. Nota (ESA/STScl), and the Westerlund
Perimeter Institute is grateful to the following teachers who contributed to 2 Science Team; bottom NASA/Kepler Mission/Dana Berry; 55 top NASA/
the Brainstorming Session, December 16, 2016, at Perimeter Institute: KASC; bottom C.R. O’Dell, (Vanderbilt) et al. ESA, NOAO, NASA;
Karla Arkell David Page Peter Gardiner 56 top NASA, ESA, and G. Bacon (STScl); bottom NASA’s Goddard Space
Flight Center/S. Wiessinger; 57 top NASA/SDO; bottom High-Z Supernova
Dave Fish Kevin Donkers Amanda Rees Search Team, HST, NASA; 58 top ESA/ATG medialab; bottom NASA/ESA
and G. Bacon (STScl); 59 iStock, Adobe Stock, NASA, and Gabriela Secara;
Perimeter Institute is grateful to the following teachers and board
60 top left NASA, ESA, and G. Bacon; top right NASA/SDO; bottom left
consultants who attended the Grade 9 Workshop, March 13, 2017, at
NASA/ESA and L. Ricci (ESO); bottom right Digitized Sky Survey, ESA/
Perimeter Institute:
ESO/NASA FITS Liberator; 61 top left Digitized Sky Survey, ESA/ESO/
James Ball Alexis Howell Claire Snelling NASA FITS Liberator; top right Digitized Sky Survey, ESA/ESO/NASA
Rick De Benedetti Bill Lee Angela Swartz FITS Liberator; bottom left Rogello Bernal Andreo/Creative Commons;
bottom right David Darling; 62 top left Akira Fujii/Creative Commons;
Danica Donald Dr. Siow-Wang Lee Sridevi top right NASA and ESA; bottom left Akira Fujii/Creative Commons;
Tripuranthakam bottom right NASA, ESA, G. Bacon (STScl); 63 left Rogello Bernal Andreo/
Kevin Donkers Colin McLaughlin
Sonya VandenDool Creative Commons; right Rogello Bernal Andreo/Creative Commons;
Alanna Drake Esther Mezo 64 top left Rogello Bernal Andreo/Creative Commons; top right NASA/
Brandon Zoras JPL-Caltech-University of Arizona; bottom left DSS2/MAST/STScl/NASA;
Thomas Eagan Olga Michalopoulos
bottom right Akira Fujii/Creative Commons; 65 NASA, ESA, The Hubble
David Gordon Alasdair Paterson
Key Project Team, and The High-Z Supernova Search Team; 66 courtesy
NASA/JPL-Caltech; 67 left Allan Moon; 68 top & bottom left Allan Moon;
bottom right ESA and the Planck Collaboration; 69 bottom left Adobe
Perimeter Institute gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Tenille Stock
Bonoguore with the introduction.
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